Voss, B. L., R. Von Wandruszka, A. Fink, T. Summer, S. E. Harman, A. Shapovalov, M. S. Kane, M. De...

Stone Drugs and Calamine Lotion:Chemical Analysis of Residue inNineteenth-Century Glass Bottles,Market Street Chinatown, San Jose,California

Barbara L. VossDepartment of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305([email protected])

Ray von WandruszkaDepartment of Chemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844([email protected])

Alicia FinkDepartment of Chemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844([email protected])

Tara SummerDepartment of Chemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844([email protected])

S. Elizabeth HarmanDepartment of Chemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844([email protected])

Anton ShapovalovDepartment of Chemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844([email protected])

Megan S. KaneDepartment of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305([email protected])

Marguerite De LoneyDepartment of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305([email protected])

Nathan AceboDepartment of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305([email protected])

California Archaeology, Volume 7, Number 1, June 2015, pp. 93–118. 93Copyright © 2015 Society for California Archaeology. All rights reserved

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Abstract Chemical residue analysis was used in this study to identify thecontents of 10 glass medicinal bottles and vials in the nineteenth-centuryMarket Street Chinatown collection from San Jose, California. Analyses werecarried out using both classical techniques and modern instrumental methods.Chemical changes in the analytes, brought about by prolonged environmentalexposure, introduced an unavoidable degree of uncertainty into all chemicalidentifications. Seven bottles yielded residues most likely representing mineral-based “stone drugs” used to treat a variety of ailments in traditional Chinesemedicine. Three bottles contained calamine lotion, a zinc-based topical prep-aration used in both China and North America. These discoveries highlight therole of mineral-based medicines in treating diseases, ameliorating symptoms,and promoting health in nineteenth-century San Jose, California. The studyfindings also indicate that the location of bottle manufacture and bottle formalone do not provide sufficient information to determine whether a nineteenth-century medicinal bottle contained allopathic, homeopathic, or traditionalChinese medicine.

Resumen Se realizaron el análisis de residuos químicos para identificar elcontenido de 10 botellas medicinales y viales de vidrio en la colección del barriochino “Market Street Chinatown” de San José, California del siglo XIX. Se lle-varon a cabo los análisis usando técnicas clásicas, así como métodos instru-mentales modernos. Los cambios químicos en los analitos, resultados de suprolongada exposición al medio ambiente, introdujeron un inevitable grado deincertidumbre en todas las identificaciones químicas. Siete botellas conteníanresiduos probablemente derivados de drogas de base mineral, “drogas depiedra,” comúnmente utilizadas en la medicina tradicional china para tratar unagran variedad de enfermedades. Tres botellas contenían loción de calamina, unapreparación tópica a base de zinc utilizada tanto en China como en Nortea-mérica. Estos descubrimientos destacan el rol de las medicinas de base mineralen el tratamiento de enfermedades, el mejoramiento de síntomas y la promociónde la salud en San José, California durante el siglo XIX. Los hallazgos del estudiotambién indican que los datos sobre la ubicación de las fábricas de las botellas ysobre la forma de las mismas, por si solos, no son suficientes para determinar silas botellas medicinales del siglo XIX contenían la medicina china alopática,homeopática o tradicional.

94 Barbara L. Voss et al.

石石药药与与炉炉甘甘油油对十九世纪“市场街”中国城圣何塞, 加州, 中玻璃药瓶的化

学残留分析

在加州圣何塞出土的十九世纪“市场街”中国城的遗物中有十只玻璃药瓶。

为了确定其中的药物成分我们使用了化学残留分析的方法。这些分析既运

用了传统技术, 也使用了现代仪器分析方法。由于长时间的环境暴露, 被分

析物质中会产生一定的化学变化, 从而为化学成分的确认过程带来不可避

免的不可控因素。据分析, 七只药瓶中的残留极有可能来源于一种矿物基

质的“石药”。传统中医曾用此治疗多种疾病。另外三只药瓶中含有炉甘油,一种曾在中国与北美地区使用的含锌局部制剂。这些发现显示, 在十九世

纪加州的圣何塞地区, 矿物基质的药物曾被用于治疗疾病, 缓解症状以及促

进健康。这一研究成果同时也说明, 仅仅以药瓶的制造地点与形状为依据,尚不足以决定十九世纪的药瓶中是否包含对抗疗法, 顺势疗法或者传统中

医的要素。

Glass bottles are commonly recovered at historical archaeology sites, includ-ing those associated with overseas Chinese communities. Typically, bottle con-tents are inferred from bottle form, bottle size, place of manufacture, and (whenpresent) marks and labels. However, these are not always reliable indicators, aspaper labels are rarely preserved in archaeological deposits, bottles of the sameform can be used as containers for many kinds of substances, and bottles arefrequently reused to store substances other than their original contents.

As demonstrated by prior studies (e.g., Spinner et al. 2011; Staniforth 2007;Warner et al. 2014), chemical residue analysis provides one direct line of evi-dence for identifying the former contents of archaeologically recovered glassbottles. This study presents the results of such an analysis of 10 medicinebottles in the Market Street Chinatown collection, and suggests that thebottles once contained mineral-based medicines. Most of these were likely“stone drugs,” powders and pellets prepared from ground minerals used in tra-ditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to promote health and treat a variety of ail-ments. These findings provide an important window into the health andwell-being among Chinese immigrants and Chinese Americans in nineteenth-century California. This study also demonstrates that a bottle’s country ofmanufacture is not a reliable indicator of the bottle contents.

Historical Context

San Jose, California, was a core population center for Chinese immigration tothe United States from the 1860s onward. In 1866, three Chinese businessmen,

Stone Drugs and Calamine Lotion 95

known in the historic record as Ah Toy, Ah Charlie, and Ah Lee, leased land atthe corner of Market Street and San Fernando Street, on “Block 1” in downtownSan Jose (Figure 1). Block 1 soon became known as the Market Street China-town as more Chinese entrepreneurs constructed stores and tenements on adja-cent parcels, and it quickly became a dense urban neighborhood, combiningresidences, commercial activity, entertainment, light manufacturing, and

Figure 1. Locations of historic Chinatowns in San Jose. Developed from Yu (2001:xii). Cartography

by 360 Geographics.


religious worship within a compact space. At its peak, the Market Street China-town housed more than a thousand Chinese immigrants, including merchantsand their families and adult male laborers. It was also the cultural and economicheadquarters for more than two thousand additional Chinese, also predomi-nantly adult men, who worked in agriculture, industry, mining, and domesticservice throughout Santa Clara County and surrounding regions (Laffey 1993,1994; Yu 2001).

On May 4, 1887, during the height of the anti-Chinese movement, theMarket Street Chinatown was destroyed by an arson fire. San Jose Chinese resi-dents relocated to two other sites, the Heinlenville Chinatown and the WoolenMills Chinatown. The remnants remained buried under downtown San Joseuntil the discovery of archaeological deposits during redevelopment construc-tion in the 1980s. Between 1985 and 1988, Archaeological Resource Service(ARS), a cultural resource management firm, identified and excavated 63 archae-ological features, nearly all of which were pits originally used for waste disposal(Roop 1988; Roop and Flynn 1993). At the time of excavation, the collection washailed as the most significant assemblage of overseas Chinese artifacts in theUnited States (Gordon 1985). Unfortunately, after only minimal analysis, thecollection was transferred to a municipal warehouse where it was inaccessibleto researchers and the public.

In 2002, the Market Street Chinatown Archaeology Project was formed as apartnership among Stanford University, Chinese Historical and Cultural Project,History San José, and Environmental Science Associates in order to analyze,curate, and interpret this remarkable collection (Voss 2004, 2005; Voss et al.2013). The glass bottles containing residues were rediscovered during routinecollections management. Extensive review of the original field records andother associated documentation for each archaeological feature provides thefoundation for contextual interpretation of these artifacts (Kane 2011).

Medicine Bottles in the Market Street Chinatown Collection

Among many other services, the Market Street Chinatown was a place whereboth Chinese and non-Chinese residents of Santa Clara County soughtmedical care. The Wells Fargo & Co.’s 1882 “Directory of Principal ChineseBusiness Firms” lists three drug stores (Man Ning Tong, Quen Tai, and SooMow) and two doctors (Cog Fye and Lum Po Tai) in the Market Street China-town (Wells Fargo & Co.’s Express 1882). In 1885–1886, San Jose newspapersreported the trial of another Chinese herbalist, Lee Wah, for practicing medicinewithout a license. Several white patients testified in Lee Wah’s defense,


recounting that he successfully cured diseases that white doctors could not treat(Evening Herald 1886).

Some of the medicines used by the residents of the Market Street China-town are represented in the glass assemblage associated with the site. The col-lection contains over 55 file-sized boxes of glass artifacts. Cataloguing theseartifacts is still underway; as of October 2014, approximately 58 percent ofthe glass assemblage has been catalogued, representing a minimum of 856glass bottles. Of these, 148 are classified as medicine bottles; however, asanalysis is still underway, the total number of medicine bottles in the collectionis yet unknown.

For this chemical residue study, all catalogued and uncatalogued glass bottleswere inspected for signs of residue representing the bottles’ contents prior todisposal. Residue is most likely to be present in complete or nearly completebottles, especially those that retain their original closure (cork, foil, orstopper). Smaller bottles and those with constricted necks are also more likelyto contain extant residues. The 10 medicine bottles discussed in this articleall shared these attributes. The chemical residue study also included analysisof residues from wood fragments (von Wandruszka and Shapovalov 2013)and five other bottles, including an amber beer/ale bottle containing vegetableoil, a colorless bottle containing a cosmetic, and three bottles yielding negativeresults (von Wandruszka et al. 2014).

The 10 medicine bottles represent a variety of forms typically associatedwith traditional Chinese medicine, North American allopathic pharmaceuticals,and North American homeopathic tinctures (Table 1, Figure 2). TraditionalChinese medicine is a philosophy of health that promotes wellness and treatsdisease through a range of medicines and techniques used to balance flows ofenergy (qi) in the body. Allopathic medicine, also commonly known asWestern medicine, treats disease through medicines, surgeries, and otherpractices that produce effects that are different than the symptoms of thedisease. Homeopathic medicine is a theory of medicine developed in lateeighteenth-century Europe on the principle that “like cures like,” so homeopathytreatments use tinctures containing highly diluted solutions of materials thatwould, in larger concentrations, cause symptoms similar to those observed inthe patient.

None of the 10 bottles exhibit embossed labels or manufacturers’ marks. Inthis way, all 10 of the bottles analyzed for this study are typical of generic medi-cine bottles manufactured by glass companies for wholesale purchase by drugcompanies, pharmacists, and doctors. Five artifacts are glass medicinal vialscommonly manufactured in China, and used in TCM into the present day


Table 1. Glass Medicinal Bottles and Vials Analyzed for Chemical Residue.

Cat. No. Bottle TypeBottleColor

BottleDimensions(H×W×D) Feature Type

FeatureLocation Results Interpretation Possible Uses

85-31/18B-1

TCM glassmedicinal vialType 2a(1)

Aqua 46.0 18.7 14.1 Wood-linedtrash pit

Stores Cinnabar Stone drug Antibacterial, clearhead, mental calm

85-31/20-220



Stores Ophicalcite Stone drug Control bleeding

85-31/27-11

Utility bottle—round (12 flukes)

Aqua 125.0 43.7 43.7 Water ditch orstorm drain

Stores Zinc carbonatesand oxides

Calaminelotion

Treat skin afflictions

85-31/34-15

cf. homeopathyvial

Colorless 44.7 13.4 13.4 Unlined trashpit

Stores Magnetite Stone drug Calm tremors,improve hearing/vision, asthma

86-36/5-692

TCM glassmedicinal vialType 2c


Mixed use Zinc carbonatesand oxides

Calaminelotion


86-36/5-693



Mixed use Zinc carbonatesand oxides

Calaminelotion


86-36/5-694



Mixed use Minium Stone drug Treat ringworm andulcerations

Continued

StoneDrugs

andCalam

ineLotion

99

Table 1. Glass Medicinal Bottles and Vials Analyzed for Chemical Residue. (continued)

Cat. No. Bottle TypeBottleColor

BottleDimensions(H×W×D) Feature Type

FeatureLocation Results Interpretation Possible Uses

86-36/11-2

Utility bottle—round (12 flukes)


Mixed use Charcoal, iron,magnesium,copper

Stone drug Adsorbent, poisonantidote, ulcers,heart health

86-36/17-86

Utility bottle—square(chamfered)

Colorless 96.5 36.1 36.1 Wood-linedtrash pit

Mixed use Ferrous carbonate Stone drug Blood tonic

88-91/26-317

Utility bottle—round


Commercial Iron, copper, andcalciumcompounds

Stone drug Unknown

Note: The term “mixed use” under Feature Location column includes tenement housing, laundries, sheds, and pork-roasting pit ovens. Measurements are in mm.

100Barbara

L.Voss

etal.

(Figures 3 and 4). Four are Type 2a (hollow, blown body with rectangular crosssection). Three of these are in size category 2a(1), while the fourth is alarger bottle in size category 2a(2). The fifth TCM glass medicinal vial is Type2c (hollow, blown body with octagonal cross section) (Greenwood 1996:111–112).

The other five bottles are likely of North American manufacture. Four aretypical of utility bottles that were manufactured in a range of sizes andshapes during the mid-nineteenth century. Utility bottles were most commonlyused to package medicinal products by patent medicine producers, pharmacists,and allopathic doctors (Linsey 2014). These four are all hand-blown bottlesmade using a two-part mold with a hand-tooled finish. Three of the finisheshave prescription lips and one has a patent lip. Three have round cross-sections(two with 12-part flukes) and one has a square cross-section with straight cham-fered corners (Jones and Sullivan 1989). The fifth North American bottle

Figure 2. Market Street Chinatown collection of medicine bottles studied through chemical residue

analysis. The top row depicts traditional Chinese medicine glass vials (left to right): Cat. Nos. 85-31/

18B-1, 85-31/20-220, 86-36/5-692, 86-36/5/693, and 86-36/5-694. The bottom row depicts North

American glass medicine bottles, most of which are typically associated with allopathic medicines;

the second bottle from the left resembles those used for homeopathic tinctures (left to right): Cat.

Nos. 85-31/27-11, 85-31/34-15, 86-36/11-2, 88-91/26-317, 86-36/17-86. Photograph courtesy of

the Market Street Chinatown Archaeology Project.


compares favorably to examples of nineteenth-century homeopathy vials(Linsey 2014). The specimen has an irregular body, suggesting some defor-mation during shaping of the bottle finish.

The 10 medicine bottles were recovered in eight different archaeological fea-tures (Figure 5). Features 86-36/5, 86-36/11, and 86-36/17 were trash pitslocated in the northern half of the block, in a semi-open mixed-use area thatincluded pork-roasting ovens, laundries, sheds, and tenement housing. Features85-31/18, 85-31/20, and 85-31/34 were trash pits located in the southern halfof the block, in another semi-open mixed-use area at the rear of several stores.Feature 88-91/26, another trash pit, was located on the western edge of theMarket Street Chinatown at the rear of several commercial buildings. Feature

Figure 3. Box used for

transport and sale of

pre-packaged tra-

ditional Chinese

medicine manufac-

tured in China. The

box label displays the

manufacturer and

contents. Private col-

lection of Phillip

P. Choy. Photograph

by Barbara L. Voss.


85-31/27 was also located on the western edge and was described by excavatorsas a water ditch or storm drain (Kane 2011:Appendix D).

Results of Chemical Analyses of Bottle Residues

Chemical analyses were carried out by both classical techniques and moderninstrumental methods. Chemical changes in the analytes, brought about by pro-longed environmental exposure, introduced an unavoidable degree of uncer-tainty into all chemical identifications. All of the identified medicines aremineral-based. The prevalence of mineral-based residue in the medicinebottles is likely due in part to preservation biases, as medicines made with awater or alcohol base would have been more likely to evaporate or be absorbedinto surrounding soils, and medicines composed primarily from plant andanimal sources would be more likely to decompose. The detected residues rep-resent two categories of medicines: TCM “stone drugs” and calamine lotion.

Figure 4. When unpacked, the box shown in Figure 3 reveals an instruction sheet and two glass

medicine vials containing red pellets. The pellets are most likely cinnabar, similar to the mineral

detected in Market Street Chinatown glass medicine vial 85-31/18B-1. Private collection of Phillip

P. Choy. Photograph by Barbara L. Voss.


Stone Drugs

It was, and still is, common practice in traditional Chinese medicine to use min-erals as drugs; these are known as “stone drugs” (Yu et al. 1995). Many of theminerals used in stone drugs, including those detected in the Market Street Chi-natown bottles, contained toxic elements such as arsenic and mercury. When

Figure 5. Locations of archaeological features excavated by Archaeological Resource Service (ARS)

at the Market Street Chinatown site during 1985, 1986, and 1988. The labels ARS 85-31, ARS

86-36, and ARS 88-91 refer to ARS project numbers. Features are numbered sequentially within

each project area (e.g., Feature 86-36/5). The features containing glass bottles subjected to residue

analysis are circled. Cartography by 360 Geographics.


these are used only in small quantities or in forms that are only sparinglysoluble, however, their toxicity is reduced. Thus, it is possible for these toxinsto be used to treat ailments, such as intestinal distress caused by infectionsor parasites, without causing acute harm to the patient.

Cinnabar Stone Drug (Zhu Sha). Bottle 85-31/18B-1 is an aqua TCM glass med-icinal vial, Type 2a(1). The outside surface of the vial showed the beginnings of apatina. The sample was a red powder, aggregated in loose clumps in the glassvial. The sample was found to be insoluble in water, but slightly soluble inHCl/HF, indicating the presence of silicates. The sample dissolved completelyin 3:1 HCl:HNO3 (aqua regia). Its infrared spectrum indicated that no organiccarbon was present. After heating in a muffle furnace at 800° C for sevenhours, only 8.4 percent of the material remained. When placed in a flame, itdid not burn, but appeared to evaporate. When the sample was heated moregently (to about 400° C) it turned black, and became red again upon cooling.The sample was spot tested for arsenic and was tested for Fe, Ca, Pb, Mn,and Mg by atomic absorption spectrometry. It did not contain As, but Fe, Ca,and trace quantities of Mg were found. A dithiazine spot test for mercury(Feigl and Vinzenz 1972) provided a positive result.

The evidence left no doubt that the red material in the vial is mostly cinna-bar, the mineral form of mercuric sulfide, HgS. Upon heating above 500°C, cin-nabar decomposes into mercury and sulfur (as SO2). This accounts for the 91.6percent weight loss in the muffle furnace and the virtual disappearance of thesample in a flame (both products escape as gases). HgS is not soluble inwater, HCl, or HNO3, but it does dissolve in aqua regia, as was observed withthe unknown. The reversible red-to-black color change upon heating typicallyoccurs with mercury compounds, including HgS and HgO. The latter,however, is soluble in dilute HCl, and the red material was not. The mercuryspot test confirmed the presence of this element.

So it is clear that the redmaterial in the medicinal vial was 91.6 percent (w/w)cinnabar, or zhu sha, one of the many stone drugs that are used in TCM. Theremainder consisted of mineral impurities, including silicates of iron, calcium,and a little magnesium. Mercuric sulfide (as cinnabar) is listed as an antibacterialagent, and is sold to this day as a medicine to “clear away heat and tranquilizethe mind” (Acupuncture Today 2014a). It is mined in the Hunan, Sichuan,Yunnan, and Guizhou provinces in China, rinsed clean with water, groundinto a powder, dried in the sun, and bottled for use. It is taken internallywith water in dosages up to 1 g. Its low solubility (even in stomach acid)would prevent it from being a deadly poison to the patient, while the small


quantity that does dissolve may be effective against infections. It can also beapplied topically.

Minium (Red Lead Oxide—Qian Dan). Bottle 86-36/05-694 is an aqua TCM glassmedicinal vial, Type 2a(1), approximately 3 mL capacity, without a stopper. Theoutside surface is highly patinated. Little sample material was left in the vial—only 0.97 mg of a fine orange-red powder was recovered. The appearance of thematerial in the vial predisposed the analysts to identify it as hematite (mineralferric oxide, Fe2O3). Atomic absorption measurements, however, showed thatthe red material contained only a trace (�0.5 percent) of iron, obviating theassumption. The material dissolved, with sonication, in 1:1 HCl, indicating thatit was not a silicate. Too little material was available for high temperaturefurnace treatment, but when exposed to a flame, a grain of it underwent somemorphological changes but stayed largely intact. This observation indicated thatit was not an organic compound or a mercury mineral.

An HCl solution of the sample produced a UV-Vis spectrum with a sharppeak at 270 nm indicating the presence of lead (Pb2+) (Goodkin et al. 1975).Subsequent atomic absorption measurements were positive for this element,indicating that the material was a lead compound. The infrared spectrum ofthe solid sample showed a major peak at 1,394 cm–1. This is the typical bandfor nitrate and is a strong absorption that even shows for minor constituents.

The red color of the sample strongly suggested that it was lead tetroxide(“red lead,” Pb3O4), although it is conceivable that it was the red alpha-formof lead dioxide (PbO). The sample was too small to make this distinction.Pb3O4 exists as the mineral minium, which is mined in the Henan, Guangdong,and Fujian provinces for use in TCM. It is widely available to this day and is usedfor the treatment of ringworm and ulcerations, although the practice is limitedbecause of its toxicity. The present sample, however, contained nitrate, which israre in natural minerals but is used in the synthesis of lead oxide. The presenceof a nitrate remnant suggests that the material may have been manufacturedrather than obtained from a mineral.

Ophicalcite (Hua Rui Shi). Bottle 85-31/20-220 is an aqua TCM glass medicinalvial, Type 2a(1), with a volume of approximately 2 mL. The bottle has a partiallybroken neck. The sample consisted of a thin layer of a gray-brown solid adheringto the inside walls of the vial. A total of 20.84 mg of residue was recovered fromthe vial. When exposed to 800°C for eight hours, the sample color changed tored-orange and lost 31 percent of its weight. The sample partially dissolved inconcentrated HCl, producing a slightly yellow solution. It dissolved entirely


in 1:1 HCl:HF. Qualitative atomic absorption analysis indicated the presence ofcalcium and iron. The infrared spectrum showed a strong silicate peak at 1,006cm−1, a carbonate peak at 1,411 cm−1 (this disappeared upon heating), an OHpeak at 3,289 cm−1, and a small peak at C–H peak (organic material) at2,800 cm−1. Quantitative use of the spectra showed the water content of thesample to be approximately 4 percent and the carbonate content 61 percent.

The material consisted primarily of the carbonates of calcium and iron, aswell as a smaller amount of silicates. Some of these minerals were hydratedand some organic impurities were present. The material appeared to be aTCM stone drug, probably ophicalcite. This is a mineral similar to serpentinemarble and contains copious amounts of calcium. Ophicalcite is widely usedin TCM to control internal and external bleeding (Acupuncture Today 2014c).

Magnetite Stone Drug (Ci Shi). Bottle 85-31/34-15 is a small, irregular vial(�2 mL volume) that compares favorably to known examples of nineteenth-century homeopathy vials. A small amount of gray-brown solid adhered tothe inside wall. It was made of colorless glass and had no stopper. A total of2.19 mg of material was recovered from the vial. When heated in a mufflefurnace at 800°C for 6 hours, the color of the sample changed from gray tored-orange and the weight increased slightly. The material was found to dissolvein concentrated HCl, producing a pale yellow solution. Qualitative atomicabsorption spectrometry indicated the presence of iron. When concentratedH2SO4 or HNO3 were added to the sample solution, the yellow color intensified.The infrared spectrum of the solid sample showed a strong peak at 1,011 cm−1,indicating the presence of silicate. Considering that the sample was soluble inHCl, this was probably calcium silicate, which is slightly soluble in the acid.The sample was not naturally magnetized, but was attracted by a magnet.

The sample weight not being reduced by exposure to 800°C indicates thatthe material was inorganic, and probably not a hydrate. The red-orange colorafter burning suggested the presence of iron, as did the atomic absorptionresults. The weight gain upon heating pointed at further oxidation, such asfrom FeO to Fe2O3, which was confirmed by the intensification of the yellowcolor of the dissolved material when sulfuric acid was added. The magneticnature of the material suggested a mixed valence iron structure (Fe2+/Fe3+),such as found in magnetite (Zhang and Satpathi 1991).

The experimental evidence strongly indicated that the unknown materialwas a mixture of ferrous and ferric oxide, with some additional silicate com-ponents. This led to the conclusion that the sample was chiefly ferrosoferricoxide (also known as ferrous ferric oxide), which occurs in nature as magnetite.


This is a traditional Chinese stone drug (Ci Shi), which was (and still is) used asan elixir to calm the spirit; relieve restlessness, palpitations, insomnia, andtremors; improve hearing and vision; and combat chronic asthma. In China, itis mined in the Jiangsu, Shandong, Liaoning, Guangdong, Anhui, and Hebei pro-vinces (Acupuncture Today 2014b; Yin Yang House 2014).

Compounded Charcoal Drug. Bottle 86-36/11-2 is a round, colorless utility bottledecorated with 12 flukes. It measures ca. 10 mL in volume. A somewhat inhomo-geneous blue-black granular solid is contained in the bottle. Although the glass iscolorless, the contents on the inside give it a blue appearance. The bottle isintact, without cracks, and has no embossing. It was approximately half filledwith the solid contents. The unknown material in the bottle had no odor.When placed in a flame, it glowed red and burned with difficulty. Some of thematerial remaining after combustion had a blue color. Upon further heating,the color lightened and the blue disappeared. When placed in a mufflefurnace for 8 hours at 800°C, the sample lost 41.3 percent of its weight andturned a light orange-pink color. The sample dissolved mostly, but not entirely,in aqua regia. It did dissolve in a 3:1 mixture of HCl:HF. The infrared spectrumof the sample showed little evidence of an organic material. A test with nitricacid and potassium chlorate indicated that the sample contained carbon(O’Neil n.d.). A series of quantitative atomic absorption spectroscopy runsshowed that the ash portion of the sample (from muffle furnace) contained29 percent iron, 7.5 percent magnesium, 5.3 percent copper, 5.1 percentsodium, and 4.7 percent calcium. Trace amounts of manganese and potassiumwere also present.

The behavior of the sample indicated that it contained elemental carbon.Since it lost 41.3 percent of its weight under high heat and contained noother components apt to be burned off, it must be concluded that the substancelost was carbon and that the original material contained this percentage of theelement. The remainder of the material in the bottle appeared to be a mineralcomprised of the silicates (soluble in HF) and oxides of iron, magnesium,copper, sodium, and calcium. The blue color observed after initial ignition wasascribed to the formation of cupric carbonate, CuCO3, which is a green toblue amorphous powder. Prolonged strong heating transformed it into brown-ish cupric oxide, CuO. The ash obtained from the muffle furnace contained theoxides and silicates of the metals mentioned, with a reddish color due to the pre-dominant component, ferric oxide (Fe2O3).

The small size of the bottle suggests that the material contained in it waseither sparingly used or comprised a single dose. It was most likely a


compounded medicine, derived from two different sources. One of these (�40percent) was char, more or less pure carbon, which has played an important roleas an adsorbent in medicine through the ages. It would have been included as anadsorbent and purifying agent.

Charcoal is used for many medicinal purposes, including as an antidote forpoisons and a treatment of ulcers. Activated charcoal makes the material moreeffective as an absorbent. When compared against an activated carbon control inthe decolorization of a ferroin solution, the present sample showed no evidenceof activation. The most likely reason for this is that it was never activated,although it is also possible that the prolonged exposure suffered by thesample led to deactivation.

The other sample component (�60 percent) was a mineral of uncertainorigin, but was relatively rich in iron, magnesium, and copper. Iron plays arole as a hematinic (blood medicine), copper is believed to help the flow of“chi” (or life energy), and magnesium aids in relaxation and heart health. Theoverall picture that emerges is one of a type of solid elixir.

Ferrous Carbonate. Bottle 86-36/17-86 is a square, colorless utility bottle withchamfered corners. The bottle has no embossment or distinguishing marks, buthas small patches of iridescent residue on the interior and a minimal amount ofa brown, dry substance inside. The unknown material had no odor. When placedin a flame it did not catch fire, even when red hot. When placed in a mufflefurnace for eight hours at 800°C, the sample lost 50.5 percent of its weightand changed from its initial light brown color to red. When placed in HCl,almost all of the material dissolved; it dissolved completely in 3:1 HCl:HF.The infrared spectrum of the sample indicated the presence of carbonate(1,440, 950 cm–1). A series of quantitative atomic absorption readings on theoriginal sample showed that it contained 21.1 percent Fe, 4.3 percent Cu, 3.5percent Ca, and 1.1 percent Zn.

The weight loss in the muffle furnace was due to the decomposition of car-bonate and the loss of carbon dioxide. The 50.5 percent weight loss corre-sponded to a 68.9 percent CO3 (carbonate) content of the material. Togetherwith the metal contents listed above, this amounted to 98.9 percent of thematerial. It was assumed that the remaining 1.1 percent was silicate.

The bottle contained a mixture of carbonates (and a trace of silicate), withiron (probably ferrous) carbonate predominating. It could not be unequivocallydetermined whether these were remnants of a stone drug or soil componentsthat penetrated the bottle when it lay buried (it had no stopper). Ferrous car-bonate is not listed as a stone drug by Yu et al. (1995) but it is presently


advertised for sale as a blood tonic ingredient by Chinese chemical supply com-panies (e.g., Changsha Weichuang Chemical Co. 2014).

Mixed Iron, Copper, and Calcium Mineral. Bottle 88-91/26-317 is a small, color-less round utility bottle, volume approximately 3 mL, with a small amount ofblack solid adhering to the inside walls. The sample was scraped off the insidewalls of the container, yielding 5.33 mg of material. It was found to be insolublein water and partially soluble in concentrated HCl. A strong H2S smell afteraddition of HCl indicated the presence of sulfide. The material that was insolu-ble in HCl dissolved upon addition of HF, indicating that it was a silicate. Thesample was next heated in a muffle furnace for 6 hours at 800°C. It changedto a yellow-gold color and its weight decreased by �40 percent. Infraredspectra of the original and the burned sample were taken. Atomic absorptionanalysis for lead and manganese showed these elements to be absent. A spottest for mercury (Feigl and Vinzenz 1972) showed that it also was notpresent in the sample. Quantitative atomic absorption tests for copper, iron,and calcium demonstrated that there was 1.3 percent, 6.3 percent, 2.3percent by weight of each metal, respectively.

The solubility of the sample excluded the possibility of it containing elemen-tal carbon, despite an original postulate based on its appearance and weight lossin the furnace. This weight loss could not be attributed to the loss of water sinceonly a small O-H appeared in the infrared spectrum. It was therefore postulatedthat the sample contained a significant amount of nitrate, as indicated by aninfrared absorption peak at 1,394 cm−1. Upon heating, nitrates can decompose,leading to weight loss (Pacewska and Keshr 2002). This was borne out by thevirtual disappearance of the 1,394 cm−1 peak in the infrared spectrum of theburned sample.

Artifact 88-91/26-317 contained a mixed mineral material comprised of sul-fides, silicates, and nitrates of iron, copper, and calcium. It is probable that othermetal ions were also present, but these could not be identified because the quan-tity of the sample was insufficient. In view of the appearance of the sample andthe evidence discussed above, it is very likely that this sample should be categor-ized as a TCM “stone drug.”Whether it was compounded or mined in its presentstate could not be established.

Calamine Lotion (Lu Gan Shi Xi Ye)

Evidence of calamine lotion was found in three bottles in the Market StreetChinatown collection. “Calamine” is a somewhat flexible concept, designating


suspensions of carbonates and oxides of various metals, usually includingzinc. Calcining (or “tempering”—i.e., treatment at high temperatures) isoften used to convert metal carbonates to oxides, thereby increasing the rela-tive metal abundance and potency. In some preparations, a reaction betweenthe iron oxide and the zinc oxide causes the pink color that is commonlyassociated with calamine lotion. In other preparations, a pink dye may beadded or the suspension may be left in its natural color. The liquid carrierin calamine lotions can be varied, including water- and oil-based preparations.The liquid component of calamine lotions would typically have evaporated inarchaeological specimens such as the bottles from the Market Street China-town, leaving the minerals behind.

Calamine lotion (lu gan shi xi ye) was (and is) used for the treatment of skinafflictions, such as burns, rashes, and insect bites. In TCM, calamine is used as atreatment for external and internal bleeding, coagulation stimulation, reductionof blood pressure (Yu et al. 1995), and even conjunctivitis (Zhen 1956).

Calamine Lotion Bottle 1. Bottle 85-31/27-11 is the largest artifact examined inthis study. It is an aqua utility bottle with a round body decorated with 12flukes, with a proportionately narrow neck, suggesting the original contentswere liquid. The bottle has a volume of about 100 mL. A white to yellow-brownsolid adheres to the inside walls. It has no cap. A total of 13.86 mg of sample wasrecovered from the bottle. It was insoluble in water and partially soluble in con-centrated HCl, producing a light yellow solution. An odorless gas was released ondissolution. When HF was added to the solution, the remaining solid dissolvedand a gelatinous white precipitate appeared after �10 min. A spot test for car-bonate was positive.

Quantitative flame atomic absorption tests for iron, calcium, and mag-nesium showed there to be 2.8 percent, 11.7 percent, and 6.1 percent byweight of each metal, respectively. A qualitative atomic absorption test for Znshowed it to be present in the sample. Overnight drying of the sample at 85°C resulted in a 10.7 percent weight loss, while it lost 28.2 percent upon pro-longed exposure to 800°C. The infrared spectrum of original material showedthe presence of water, carbonate, and silicate. Upon drying, the water peakwas much reduced, although not completely eliminated, indicating somestrongly held water of crystallization.

The infrared spectrum of the original material showed the O-H stretch ofwater at 3,400 cm–1, a peak at 1,405 cm–1 ascribed to carbonate, and a peakat 1,005 cm–1 ascribed to silicate. Upon drying, the water peak was muchreduced. Treatment at 800°C further reduced the carbonate due to conversion


to CO2. Changes to the silicate peak were also observed, in accordance with pre-vious research (e.g., Guo et al. 2010). The chemical analysis indicated that theunknown material was a variant of calamine lotion.

Calamine Lotion Bottle 2. Bottle 86-36/05-692 is a Type 2c aqua TCM glassmedicinal vial with a narrow neck and no closure. A small amount of yellow/brown solid adhered to the inside walls. The shape of the vial and its largevolume relative to the narrow neck suggested that the material contained init was originally a liquid or free-flowing suspension. The sample was scrapedoff the inside walls of the bottle and 6.54 mg of material was recovered. Itwas found to be insoluble in water and partially soluble in concentrated HCl,which produced a light yellow solution. Bubbles of odorless gas were releasedduring dissolution. When HF was added to dissolve the remaining solid, agel-like precipitate was produced after about 10 min.

These observations led to the following preliminary conclusions: (1) thepartial solubility of the sample indicated multiple components; (2) the yellowcolor suggested the presence of iron; (3) the odorless gas released was postulatedto be CO2 produced from the reaction of carbonate with acid; and (4) the for-mation of gel with fluoride indicated the presence of calcium. Thus, the materialappeared to contain carbonates of calcium and iron.

The sample was heated in a muffle furnace for 18 hours at 800°C. Itremained the same color and the weight decreased by 39.5 percent. This losswas attributed to the calcining of carbonates, as in CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

(similar for FeCO3 and other carbonates) (Feigl and Vinzenz 1972).The infrared spectrum showed a strong peak at 1,407 cm−1, also indicating

carbonate. A spot test for carbonate was performed during which the samplewas added to 0.2 M nitric acid and a piece of paper previously immersed in sol-ution of sodium carbonate and alcoholic phenolphthalein was suspended abovethe reaction mixture and the reaction chamber sealed. The piece of paper,which was previously pink, turned colorless, indicating that carbon dioxidewas being released, which in turn demonstrated the presence of carbonatein the sample. A quantitative atomic absorption test for calcium showedthere to be 6.0 percent by weight of calcium in the sample. Further qualitativeflame atomic absorption tests indicated the presence of zinc, iron, and mag-nesium in the sample.

The composition of the remaining material indicated that it was a mixture ofophicalcite (CaCO3 and MgCO3), ZnCO3, FeCO3, and probably the oxides of therespective metals. Some silicates, as shown by the sample solubility and the


infrared peak at 1,027 cm–1, were also present. These materials are typicallyfound in calamine lotion.

Calamine Lotion Bottle 3. Bottle 86-36/5-693 is a Type 2a(2) aqua TCM glassmedicinal vial with a narrow neck and no closure. The bottle has a volume of�15 mL, is cracked, and has an iridescent patina. A small amount of yellow/brown solid adhered to the inside walls. The sample was scraped off theinside walls of the bottle and 14.76 mg of material was recovered. It was inso-luble in water, partially soluble in concentrated HCl (producing a light yellowsolution), and released bubbles of odorless gas during dissolution. When HFwas added to dissolve the remaining solid, a gel-like precipitate was producedafter about 10 min. Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn were present.

There were some quantitative differences between this sample and sample86-36/5-692 (see Figure 2). Bottle 86-36/5-693 contained much less zinc; 0.3percent versus 1.2 percent in 86-36/5-692. It also contained more magnesium;2.6 percent versus 1.7 percent in 86-36/5-692. This sample was very similar to86-36-5-692 both in appearance and in chemical behavior. The variation in thechemical composition (primarily element ratios) of the contents could be attrib-uted either to inhomogeneity inherent to the raw materials, to differences intro-duced during compounding by a local pharmacist, or as a result of samplevariation as the small amounts of sample remaining in the bottles may not bestatistically representative of the exact bottle contents.

Implications for Interpreting Archaeologically Recovered Nineteenth-Century Bottles

The findings of this study have significant implications for the interpretation ofarchaeologically recovered nineteenth-century bottles in California. Three of thestone drugs were found in TCM glass medicinal vials. These were probably man-ufactured and filled in China and were most likely shipped to the United Statesin packaging such as that shown in the historical example pictured in Figures 3and 4. The contents of these vials were specific minerals known to be widelyused in TCM, including cinnabar, ophicalcite, and minium. These prepackagedmedicines were likely prescribed by Chinese doctors and herbalists to theirpatients, but they may also have been available “over the counter” for directsale to consumers.

Three stone drugs were found in utility bottles manufactured in the UnitedStates primarily for use by medicine manufacturers and compounding pharma-cists. These North American-manufactured bottles contain more complex


compounds involving multiple minerals and, in some cases, organic materialssuch as charcoal. This suggests that Chinese doctors and herbalists were likelypurchasing or reusing generic utility bottles as containers for compoundedmedicines that were mixed to treat individual patients.

One stone drug was found in a bottle that closely resembles historicexamples of nineteenth-century homeopathy vials, also manufactured inNorth America. The vial contained residues with significant amounts of magne-tite. Since homeopathy involves diluting the active substance of a medicine tonear-undetectable concentrations, it is unlikely that the magnetite residue rep-resents a homeopathic drug. It seems more likely that the homeopathy vial waspurchased or reused by a Chinese doctor or herbalist to fill a prescription for apatient.

The other three bottles contained calamine lotion, a preparation used inboth the United States and China during the nineteenth century as well astoday. Small variations among the chemical composition of the bottles’ contentssuggest that calamine lotion was being compounded by local pharmacists orherbalists. However, these variations could also be due to other factors, suchas naturally occurring differences in source materials or sampling bias intro-duced by the small amount of residue available for testing. Like the stonedrugs, calamine lotion was packaged in bottles made in North America and inChina. While prepackaged stone drugs were commonly shipped from China inTCM glass medicinal vials, there are no known examples of calamine lotionbeing imported from China in this way. It is possible that the use of TCM med-icinal vials to hold calamine lotion indicates bottle reuse, perhaps as a way ofdistributing single doses from larger bulk packages of the lotion.

The findings of this study thus indicate that it is not possible to determinewhether a pharmacy bottle found in a nineteenth-century historical site heldallopathic, homeopathic, or TCM based on bottle manufacture and bottleform alone. At the Market Street Chinatown, the evidence indicates thatChinese druggists and doctors were distributing both prepackaged medicinefrom China and locally compounded medicines packaged in North American-manufactured bottles. This finding does not only apply to Chinatown sites.In nineteenth-century California, people of all ethnicities sought medical treat-ment from Chinese doctors and herbalists. Non-Chinese patients would havebrought bottles of medicine home with them to take as prescribed. Theylikely discarded those bottles in their own neighborhoods. Residue analysisis essential to determine the actual contents of archaeologically recoveredbottles.


Health, Illness, and Well-Being in the Market Street Chinatown

The 10 bottles analyzed for this study provide an interesting point of entry intothe ways that residents of the Market Street Chinatown sought to maintainhealth and promote well-being. TCM stone drugs have received little previousarchaeological attention. The seven bottles containing stone drug residueswere found in areas that once had stores, commercial business, laundries, andtenement housing. Each bottle held unique contents, representing a differentmineral or mixture of minerals. There was no noticeable pattern in the distri-bution of particular bottle types or bottle contents. Although the interpretationof these results is limited by the small number of bottles which were suitable forchemical residue analysis, the distribution of stone drug medicinal bottlessuggests that such drugs were used by Market Street Chinatown residentsfrom a wide variety of occupations and backgrounds.

One aim of this chemical residue analysis study was to contribute infor-mation to research questions about whether Market Street Chinatown occu-pants faced particular health challenges through occupational exposure or byliving in a dense, crowded urban environment. The variety of stone drugsdoes not indicate any particular cluster of symptoms or diseases types. Thethree bottles of calamine lotion, which is used externally to treat skin irritations,are also found in two different areas of the Market Street Chinatown. The twosmaller bottles of calamine lotion were recovered from Feature 86-36/5, locatedin a mixed-use area containing laundries and pig roasting pit ovens. Perhapsthese bottles provided single doses of calamine lotion that could be used byworkers as a balm for the burns and rashes associated with the hot laborinvolved in washing clothes and roasting pigs.

The medicines identified in this study are a reminder of the challenges ofmaintaining health in nineteenth-century cities. During a time when antibiotics,aspirin, acetaminophen, steroids, antihistamines, and many other medicinescommonly used today were not available, TCM was an important source ofmedical care used by Chinese and non-Chinese alike. The doctors and herbalistsin the Market Street Chinatown deployed a wide array of medicines and tech-niques to support the health and well-being of their patients as well as tocure illnesses and manage symptoms. The discovery of stone drug residuesand mineral-based skin ointments in glass bottles from the Market Street Chi-natown collection highlights the importance of mineral-based medicines intreating diseases, ameliorating symptoms, and promoting health in nineteenth-century San Jose, California.


Acknowledgments

This research was conducted as part of the Market Street Chinatown Archaeol-ogy Project, a community-based research and education collaboration betweenStanford University, Chinese Historical and Cultural Project, History SanJosé, and Environmental Science Associates. The Market Street ChinatownArchaeology Project is funded in part by Stanford University, History SanJosé, and the City of San José Redevelopment Agency. The authors are gratefulto the editor and peer reviewers of California Archaeology, whose feedback andsuggestions were very helpful in revising this article for publication. Translationof the abstract into Spanish and Chinese was done by Maria Escallon and KerenHe, respectively.

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