Using sex pheromone traps in the decision-making process for pesticide application against fallarmyryorm {Spodoptera Ji"ugiperda [Smithl [Lepidoptera: Noctuidae]) larvae in maize

Ivan Cluzo*, N4aria de Lourdcs Clorr0a Figucircclo', Rafael Braga da SilvirL', lvauu Fcrnatr,lcs da Silva",Clristiane de Souza Pau1a" antl John E. Foster"

"Lnrbrapa A4ilko e Sttrgo, Caixa Po.rtol 151,35.701-970, Setc Lrrgorrs, Minu Gt'rais Srat,', Bro:il;''Prngrrr,,,n de ?|s-grttcluaptio ant

EtoLogia c llecursos N(1turois, Lrtiyarsitlade Iicdernl de S0o Carlo.s (UI;'SCar), Dcpartoftto'tto dc Ec'ologia t'Iliologia Evolutit'tt,C'aixaPostal676,l3..565-905'StioCarhs'SdoPaulo,State,Brazil''.Unil'crsitl'o/'Nchraskrl-Littt'ollt'DcpartmIrrsctt Ct'nctit's Laborutctry, Lirtt'oln, NE 68583-0816, tiSA

\Ret'eired l4 Ottoht,r 2()l{); [inol rer.sion rectivt:d 2l Dacantbcr 20]l)

The *rll tnly\\'onll. Spodoptcra./rugipertla (Sniith) (Leprcloptera: Noctuidae), is a major pest ol-maize ancl f recprentlyclenlrnds control rrea.sures. Tl-re tin-ring of rnsecticide aplrliclttion is a key Iactor it.t deterr.ttining its eliie iencl , so ar.t

experiment rvas designed to investigirl.e this. Applcation ol'insecl.icide rvas basetl on three criteria: (i) lhe number o1'

trap-caught moths in a Delta-type trap u,ilh a commercial sex pheromone lLrre placecl in tire center ol'the tafget. area,soou aliel plirnt emergence: (ii) the percentage o1'plants exhibiring pinhole-t-vpe dalrage (1091, or l0%) and (iii) thepercentage oi'plauts erhibrting shot irole-t1,pe clamage (109i, or 209i,) con-rparecl to a sl'leck plot without any oontrolmeasures. We lbr.rnd that. the nunber clllrirp-caught moths rvas, conparetl t.o the other methocls, the besl nteans ofdeciding on insecticiclc rtpplication in nririzc to contlr)i tlrc fall arnrywolnr. L)sing phelontone trilps, we obraincd the

bcst pcrfblrnance of thc insectrcirie Spinosarl. causing >900/u lalval moltality. Without insectrciclc;rppilcation. nraizeyield reduction drLer to lall armj-\/ornr larva damage was 391/o.

Kc'vwords: chemlcal conlrol; lir11 arm1,-worrnl integrated pest managerrlenl; pheromoue trapping {\el<l; Zcu ntoys

Ittterno/ iortnl,lournal tt-f Pt:.tl M anagemertl

Vol.58, No. l, J:rnuary*Nlarc'h 20t:.83-90

l lntroduction

Tlic lirli armyworm (fAW), Spodoptera fiugiperda{Smilh) (Lepidoplcra: Noctuidae). is indiger.rous to thetropical regions of 1he western herrisphere, fionrArgentina to the tiSA. and is a major pest of tnaize

in Brazil {Cruz 1995). Estimates sLlggcst that ovcr 400

million dollars o{'maizc produclion arc iosl itnnuallythrough crop damage (Cruz et al. 1999). FAW is

considered to be a geueralist l'eeder, exploiting a veryu,idc llost rangc of plants in sevcral families (Yu ct al.

2003; Rojas ct ai. 2004; Wyckhr,rys and O'Neil 200(i). InBrazil. the insect is aiso an importarit pest ol co1toll.

Inf'estation lei'els by lawae o1'FAIV can cause a 15

739lo recluction in nraizc yiclcl (Ciruz and Turpin 1982,

1983; CrLrz e t al. 1996, 1999: lh'uska ancl Gouicl 1997;

FigLreiledo et al. 2006). Synthetic pesticicles are used to

contlcri the pest. However, the incolrect nse ofchcmical pcsticicles by resource-poor rural -qrowersrnay res,,rit in toxic exposLlrc of larin 'uvorkers (N{cClon-

nell and Hruska 1993; Hunt et al. 1999) as well as

significant environntental damage (Tinoco-O-iangulen

and Halpcrin t998).Or.ving to thc clevclopmenl of pest populations with

varying degrees of resistance, FAW h;rs becomeincreasingly economicalll, inrpoltant (Pacheco-Coi,ar-rtibias l99l). Altcrnativcs lor tnatraging this pcst arc

Taylor & FrancisTaylor&FianclrCroup

currentlv being expirxed, including the use ol biologi-cal control agents (Rezende et al. 1995; Cluz et al.

1991 ,2002: Irigr-reii'edo ct al. 1999; Cisucros et al. 2002:Mendez el al. 2002; \4olina-Ochoa et al. 2003), cnlturaltechniqLres (Cruz et al. 1996, 1999; Furias-Rivera et al.

2003). host-plant resistance (Yu et al. 200-1), geneticallyrnoclillecl crops ('Fernandes ct al. 2003) ancl phcro-mones (Malo ct al. 2001; Ilatisla-Pereira ct al. 2006).

In Brirzil, lxost control measures against 'S.

lrugipardu. rvhen atfupted, involve the spra-ving ofchemical insccticiclcs, usually u,ithout considcratioli ofthe environmcntal consequcrlces (Crllz 1995). Costaet al. (2005) firund that irr order to achieve ellectivecontrol of S. fi'ugipt:rdu in naiz,e and sorghr"rni, twoapplications of pesticicies should bc maclc. Thc firstapplicatior.r shouicl takc placc l9 d aller plant erner'-

gence (DAE). rvhen the plarrts are at the vegetalive

stage V4 (1bur leaves conrpletely expanded), and thesccond application at 47 DAE, rvithout lcgard to pest

density. Albuqr,rerquc ct al. (2006), applying theinsecticide tiametoxam*lanrbda-cyhalolhrin as a fb-liar treatnrent at 8 d aller plant elnergence, achieved

86'',1, pcst coutrol, 7 cl al'tet' spra,vin-u. ;\pplication oflufcnuron at l2 DAE. r.vhen thc lcavcs wcre scrapecl

ar.rd perlorated by FAW iarvae reported itt thc saure

evaluatiort period. provicied 7,591 pest coutrol. Toll-quelski ct al. (2007) rcportecl ovcr 80()ir FAW larval

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mortalily lionr spinostrd ir.r two applications, the f'rrs1 atl5 DAE applied to rnaize. and tlre second 7 daltcrwards.

A scquenlial sampling pian. baserl on 'I'aylor's

porver larv, also has been proposed to infbrr-n decisior.r-making about FAW control in nTaize (Farias et al.2001). Accolcling to Farias et ai. (2001), a minimum of15 samples shor-rld be taken before any clecision shor,rldbe made. The proposed melhod inv<;lves destroying thepiant in order to observe the larvae located in the inaizelcaf rvhorl. No consideration i,vas -givcn to clltcicncvand cost.

Pheronrones have been used fbr insect rnoniloring,mass-trapping and mating disruption of a greatdiversity of insect pests. The fernale-prociuccci scxplrcrorncrne of S. .frugiperrlz is comrnercially availablein several counlries, inclr-rding Brazil. Pheromones havebeen a uselul tool tbr n.ronitoring rnale popr-rlations(i\4itchell ct al. 198-5, 1989; Aclarns et al. 1989; Pairet al. 1989; Lopcz el al. 1990; Gross an<l Carpenterl99l;Weber and Ferro 1991; IVIalo et al. 2004; Batista-Pereila et al. 2006). Monitoring rvith pheromone trapsis uscful becar:sc pcst prcssurc varics fl'om ftirm to lalmancl ovcr l.imc. Kno'uvlcclgc of i.vhcn and r.vherc aciultpests are active ancl abundant provides a sensiliveearly-warning system to enable field sarnpling ancliorcontrol rneasurcs to bc initiatr.-cl at thc appropriatctirne. I(norving rvhcthcr or nol pests arc presenl allo'"vstlre gro'"ver to avoid unnecessary pesticide :rpplicationsor time-consnrning sanrpling. and gives advance warn-ing to protcct crops rvhen moth llights are first detected(Cruz ct al. 2010b).

Traps catch oniy adult male moths br-rt the planldarnage is inflicted by larvae. Therelbre" lve cannotsimply count noth numbcrs in the traps anci ignorcother factors such as tcmperature anci crop groivtl-rstage, and even natural control. Trap captr-ires arepositively'correlated with wind speed and temperature,ancl negativell, correlatecl with relativc humiclity (Rojasot at. 2004). Using pherornonc traps to nronitor F'AWadulls is the best means of'deciding on the number ol'pesticide applications necessary to control the pest inrnaizc (Cluz et al. 2010a).

A study rl1'the biology' of the l-AW (Cruz 1995)

suggests that lrorl egg milss deposition to approxi-rnately 10 d aller the FAW iarvae ernelge will be

betwecn the third and thc lburth instars ancl still vclysusccptible to the chcmical insccticicic, and alscr

susceptible to the action of dillerent species of'naturalenemies. bnt beibre signilicant piant dan.rage isinflicte cl.

'fhc first application of one pesticicle shor,rld not be

n.rade irnmediately; rather, only l0 cJ af'ter the captLu'e

of tlre three or more moths in the trap (Cruz 2008). If a

sccond or third application is neccssary, the pcsticidc'srcsiduill period of action shoLrl(l be consrdeled. Forexample, for a {trur-day residr-ial period the secondpesticide application should be at least l4 d alter the

flrst one. In adclition to efl'ectiveness, the choice of t.he

insecticide to be used ir.r an integrated pest managementprogram should plcscnt littlc or no harm to noll-targetorganisms, sLrch as tl-rc pcst's nal.urirl cncmies anclpoliini'rtors.

The aim of our study was to examine theefl-ectivcncss of a chcnrical insecticidc applied to maizcplanl to L:ontrol Fz\W larvae, based on three decrsrontools.

2. N{atcrials and mcthods

The experiment was carried out irt the Embrapa Cclrnand Sorghum Research Center, in Sete Lagoas, MinasGerais State, Brazil. Plots of the rnaize hybricl BRS1030 wcre laid out in a randomizecl block clesign, rvithseven treatments antl six replications. Each plot com-prised l0 rows" l0 m long and were irrigated as needed.Plots within each block were separatecl fromone another by 10 maize rows" l0 m long. Bctrvcenblocks, the separatit'rn rvas made by 14 maize ror,vs.

l0 rn long.The ciccision as to whcn a stanc]arcl chemical

insecticiclc shoulcl be applied was baseci on threedillerent criteria: (i) the number of captr-rred :rdultinsects in pheromone traps, (ii) the percentage of'plantsshorvin-e pinholc-typc clamagc, and (iii) the numbcr ofplanls shorvir.rg shot hole-type damage. Morc specili-cally, the treatnrents were:

(1) Insccticicle application at l0 d altcr the capturccrf flrree S..frugiperda adult rnoths in apheromone trap (FTi).

(2) Ttvo it.rsecticide applications: the first one :ls

itrTl ancl thc seconcl application (FT?) aftcr thccaplurc of three S. .frugipnrda adults, initiatingthe counting in the trap on the ftrurth darv alterthe first insecticicie application

(3) Insecticidc application at 10{'l' of plants withpinhole-typc darnage.

(4) Insecticide application aI 20oA of'plants withpinhole-t1,'pe damage.

(5) lnsecticiclc application itt l\t\t of plants rvithshot holc-typc clamage.

(6) Insecticide application at 2Doh of lrlants wilhshot hole-type damagc.

(7) Check plot

A commercial lure, produced by Clhemtica Inter-national (Bio Spodopteraisr) and placed insicle a Delta-typc trap, rvas placecl in tlic ccntt'r of thc p1ot, soona11cr plant elnergence. It

"vas fastenecl by a wooden

stem;rt an initial height of'I m above the soil surlace.As the plants grelv. the trap was lilted qrwards. so thatit was airvays abovc the plants.

The ilrseclicidc "l'racer" (Spinosad) i,vas irpplied as

an aqueous suspension at 50 mL per hectare, using a

backpack-mannal spraver at 40 p.s.i. (2.8 kgicm2) and

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a reglrlar flat firn noz,z,le (C.ruz and Santos 1984).Sprayin-e was carried out in the morning, between08:00 and 10:00 h. This insccticide is rviclely used inBrazil, being legally registercd fcrr managing inscclpests of several crops clf economic irnportarrce. such as

beans, citrus, cofi'ee, com, cotton, potato, sorghum,soybeans ancl tomato. The cornmercial procluct com-prises molccules 'spinosyns' - which have l.ri_ch

insecticidal activity. especially against I-epicloplera(Crouse et al. 2001). but lolv toxicitl, to mamrnais(llrct ct ai. 1997; Sparks ct ai. 1998; Yano et al. 2002;Williams e t al. 2001). Stuclics in srveelcorn have sholvnspinosacl to be verv effeclive againsl the Hur"opeancorn-borer, while conserving its natural enemy com-plex (lVlusscr and Shelton 2003).

Evalr-rations o1'lhe number of insects caplr-rred inthe tr'aps as well as the percentage ol' plants witlrpinhole- t'rr shot hole-type damage were macie daily. Toclctermine the infbstation levcl bascd on type of darnagciu each corrcspondirlg plot, two rows of maize wcrechosen irt rilndom. The percentage of inl'ested plantswas deternrined visually in these rorvs. and sprayingrvas initiatcd rvhen the optirnum point rvas rcached.Infestation was cletermincd 1or all lreatments beforeeach insecticide application: in each experimental plot,the number of insect pest larvae per plant in a sampleof l0 plants rvas countecl. Plants wcre cut at thc baseand bror-rght 1o the laboratclry where catcrpillars r.vere

counted and labelled lrccorcling to the fleicj plot fromwhich tl.re,v or-iginated. The average nnrnber ol col-lcctcd catcrpillars per plant rvas cornputecl ancl thus thcpercentage of infestccl plants. Live ciitcrpillars werernaintained individLrali;r in laboralory conditions. in-side plastic cnps containing an artificial diet. in order toobscrvc an,v parasitoid that miglit cnrer-qc. Twcnty-lburhours ilfiel spla-ving, the nLrmbers of cleacl ancl livcinsects per plant and inf'estation level were evah-rated by

Intentcttional ,Iournal of Pest tr[anagentent 85

a similar procedure. At harvest, grain yield numbersrvere recorded.

2.1. Statistical anulyses

Data fiom the experinient were analyzed by one-wayanalysis of variancc (ANOV;\) using tlic computerprogram SISVAI{ (Ferrcira 2000). Trealrnenl mcanswere compared using the Scott-I(not.t test (P--0.05)(Scott and Knott 1974). Belbre running the ANOVA,tcsts wcrc conducted to cietcrntine whcthcr thc data sctmct the nccessary asstunptions. 'I'he Ilr-rrr,-Fostcr Q-testrvas used to test equality of'variance. For testing thenonnality of the ciata, the W-test of Shapiro and Wilkrvas usecl following thc clcscliptiou of both tcsts foundin Anclerson and Mclean (1974). 'I'ransfcrrmalions

wele used 1o normalize the data as suggested by Ostleancl Mensing (1975). Regression analyses rvere. appliedto cleternine insccticiclc efficicr.rcy and grain

"vield inreialion to inscclicide application time.

3. Rcsults'I'he numbel of capturecl adult insccts in the pher-ornone traps susgested an earlier requirement l'or thefirst application of insecticide. using the criterion o1'

l0 cl ailcr thc first three-moth capturc in pheromonetraps ('fable i, Figure l). Using lhe pinhole-t1,pedanrage criteriorl :rt 1.he Ievel of 10% or 20oh inf'estedplants. the recir"rilement fbr control occnrred at l7 dancl 2.1 d, rcspectively. Using the samc pcrcentages ofinlcstcd plants, but based on shol hole-type damage.the requirement fbr pest control occurred at 34 d and-l.l d aller thr- first three-nroth ctntllfc in tlte pher-olnonc traps.

Pest infestation before insecticide application var-ied significantl-v among treiilments. tJsing tlre

Table L Ellect of insecticitle upprlication clecision criterion cln pereoentage ol'pilnt inlestution by Spodoptera /rugiperda (Smith)(Lepickrptera: Noctuidae). ellicitcy ol application, ancl yield of maize.

Plant inlestation (%)r Maize yielclr

Spraving ciecisioni Spraying tirne: Belbre spraying Alter s;rraying Mean Larval nortality ('k)3 (kglha)

F'f IF-f 1 + F'f2

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27.5 C35.0 Cl

29.1 Cl

91.t) Br00.0 B9-3.9 Il78.9 Ai] .8 A74.0 A6I.9 A

7577 {:8969 l)

7079 C7062 C6323 B5123 A5_s i5 A

IFT: Phcromonc tfaps ({hrcc mothsi lrap; I anci 2^ firsl ancl sccontl insccticiric applicatron, rcspcctiveiv); PTD = piuholc-tvpc dllmagc;STD = slrt't h,'le-tlpc rl;rnrrrr'e.:Drr' ;rft.r fir:t lhne-ntolh c:lnllrr( irl pltcrt,ntonr' ITllnr.r\4cans {bllorvctl by the sarne capitil letter in t coiumn arc not signiiicanllf iiillerent accorcling to Scot!-Knott tcst (1' < t1.05)lPcrccn1agcplentiIt|csta|ioninthcchcckplotincactrcl,:tirtlltionpcrioriivast]uitcsimiIar|Otl]0corrcsponinsccticiclc *'as to bc applicd.5No significant changc in relation to prcvious u,rlualion.

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pheromone trap cliterion (one application, or firstapplication in thc casc of tr.vo applications), the averagcinfeslation levcl in both plots rvas similar: 11.7% and8.370. respectivelv. It was also lo"ver than the averagelbund in the other plots. rvitlr rn avelrlge of 4i.4')/o ot'

inlcstccl plants (Tablc l). Therc wris no significantdillerencc .tmong thcse treatments.

As expected. there was i.r signi{lcant reduction o['

inf'estation level a{Ier insecticide application; horvever, au

inf-cstatiotr level below 2t\,/o \\as verified only for thoseplots in which the insecticide was applied, base<l onpheromone trap capture. The average inl'estation level inplots where the insecticides were applied, based onpinholc ol shot holc clarnagc. r,uricrl flon ll.7(),' to l5?;('l'ablc l). Ilighcr redr-rction of ir.rfcslation lcvel on F'l'plots could be due lo earlier stage larvire being moresusceptibie to the insecticidc-. Larval ntortality

"vassignificantly highcr on thosc lrf' plots, rvith a minimumol .91o./o rnortality. Using 1he pinholc and shot holedirmage criteria to apply the insecticide" tlre rrortalityrate lvas muLrh iess, varying fiom 6l .gt/;to 78.9i/o.

AlthoLrgh thc eflicacy of an insccticiclc- coulci bc

consideretl satisfactory in ciirninaliug 1hc insccl largcl,in sc'rme c.rses. it w.'rs not sufhcient for yield fedurtionto be avoided altogether. IVIaize y'ield varied ll'rrnr 5515

kgihr (chcck plots) to 8969 kglha (ti.vo insccticicleapplications): a signilicant cliffclence ol 3L)ok betrvcenthe two average s. We fbund thal two insecticideapplications. based on trT criteria, to be the besttreatmcnt. Thesc plots proviclccl a significantly bcttcrharvest thar.r all the olher treatmcnts ( fablc 1). A maizcyield above 7 metric lonnes per hectare was oblilinedfiom insecticide-treated plots baseci otr FT ol pinholedarna-sc critcria. Application of insccticidc, usinc thc209/o of infcstecl plants e.rhibiting thc shol hole datnagecriterior.r. clid nr,rt prevenl yieltl reduction. A sinrilar'yield was obtained from check plots.

4, I)iscussion

FAW moths fly to thc- maizc fielcl soon aftcr plantenrergence, as inclicaled by the scx pheromonL- trap(Figure l). At this time, maize seedlillgs are verysusceptible to pest danrage and can be killed by thelarvac (C)nrz 1995). Thc first inscoticiclc trcatrne-nt was

appliecl 10 d after capluring a cumulalivc numbcr ofthree moths ir.r pheronroue traps. tlp tcl this point. thecumnlative number of captured nloths was 20. Out ofthis total, l8 rnoths rvcrc captureci r,vithin the 6-d periocibelore insecticrde application. As the field sex ratio ofFAW is ca. 0.5, and 1lre egg ir.rcubation period is 3 d(Cruz 1995), tlre larval popnlution by the time ofinsecticiclc application could bc cxpcctccl to bc rcla-tivcl_v high, rnainly coilposed of sLrsccptiblc, carl-v-stagc

larvae. Indeed. rve fbund lhat larvtrl mortality exceeded9l 9i' r.vhen insecticitle rvas appliecl during this stage(Tablc l). Insccticicle- applicatiorl bascd on thc 109/o

prnholc darnagc criterion occurred 7 d later 1l.ran theapplication based on trT crileria. At this tin-re, theaccumr"rlated number of captured rnoths 'nvas 24. andlarvae lvere olclcr, r'csulting in a decrcased mortalityratc of 78.t)"/n. ln fact, lhc efliciency ol the insccticidehad a negrrtive and linear correlation with spravingtin.re (Figule 2). Delaying insecticide applicationdccrcasccl the insecticide's cfl'ectivcncss and dicl notsignilicantly recluce thc damage clue to larval feecling.

Consecluently, the relatior.rslrip between time r.vhen aconventional insecticide is applied to control larvae of'

S. Jilt,giperda and rnaizc l,ielcl rvas linear and ne-uative(Figurc 3).

Iv{alo et al. (2001. 2004) tesled commercial lLrres

and lbund that the Chenrtica anrl Trece lules. used withdcltn trrrps. wcrc bcst for monitorintg S. ./i'ttgiperdarnales in Mexico, rvith thc Chcmlica lurc providing thcgreiltest c:lptures nf' nroths. Ibllor.ved by Trec6 andPhelotech inres. However, Malo et al. (200 l) pointed

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'r0 20 30 40 50

Spra;'ing time (days aller l'irst three-nroth capturc in phcromone trap)

Figure 2. Relationship betwcen larval mortality andapplication time crl' a che mical insecticide againstS p o do p t e r a .f rtt g ip e r da (Smith) (Lcpidoptera : Noctuidae) -

10 20 30 40 50

Spraying time (days al1er firsl three-moth capture in phenrmone trap)

Figure 3. Relationsirip lretwecn maize crop yieid and tinringof application of a cliernical insecticidc against Spotloptera.fiugiperda (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae.

64

httertrutiotwl Jourilal o.[ Pesr Mnrrttgctnent 87

out that the number of'males caLlght was verv low (amearl of 1.37 moths per trap per observatiolt date, or0.37 tnalertraprnight) in comparison, lbr examplc, tol-50 molhs;trilpinight reported by Cr-rti6rrez-Martinezet al. (1989) in the central area of Chiapr"rs State.Mexico, or elsewhere, where FAW sex pher.omonelures havc been evalua.ted (Mitcliell ct al. 1985; Adatnset al. 1989: Gonzalez and Caballero 1990). The reasonfbr the lorv captr-rre of'moths reported b-v IVIalo et al.(200 I) was the low FAW population during the study,oncre the traps caught a niajority of the FAW males(Mitchell et al. 1985; Guti6rrez-Martinez et al. 1989).Another possibilily could be that FAW mi:1les from thestud.v region respond less to the commercial sexpheromone lures comparcd with populations clservhere.As Figure 1 sholvs, the number of rnales caught was alsolow (a to1al of 54 adults captured during 64 consecutivedays, or 0.84 maleitraplnight), but sufiicient to generatea lalval population suiiciently large to cause significantcrop loss. if no conlrol lneasures were used (table 1).

This also takes into considelation the loi.v natru'al enemypopulation in the :rrea (Figure 4). In fact, this lorvpopulation could bc cxpcctcd, oltcc chelnical insecticiclehas becn appliecl in the adiacent area.

The existence of at least two races ol S. frugiperda('maize' and 'rice') in the New World can lead tomisinterpretation about thc potcntial risk of clama-sc toeithel crop. IJoth races conlain the same three major.pherornone components in gland extracts ol lemales,but exliibit difl'erences in both the concentrations andrclativc proportions of thc conipounds (Lopez-Ecl-warcls et al. 1999; Nagoshi and Meagher'2004; Busatoet ai.2004; Virla et aI.2008). Also. both races may becollected in a single trap containing pheromone (Lin-ra

and McNeil 2004; Groot et ai. 2008). Furthermorc. it isclililcull 1o cietcrmine the predominant race by visualnleans. However, in Brazil the rtrce separation can be

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Figurc 4. Distribution ol SpodopterttJiugiperdtt (Snlith) (l"epidoptera: Noctuiciae) adults and Iarval palasitoids originating lron-rIarvac coilectetl in experimental maize held prior to insccticidc application.

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f acilitaterl by the maize or rice cloppir.]g svstem (spatiirland temporal distribution) and the f'eeding habits ofthc pest. For cxamplc, thc insect is a kc-v- pest of rnaize,oonlrar-y tcl the sitr,ration in ricc. wherc thc insect isminor pest. There is no rice production in the arearvhcre the' experiment was conducted, which is isolatedliom thc main rice plociuction area by a ciistance ofrnore lhan 1500 km. l}'azil has aboul 2.8 millionhectares of rice, of rvlriclr aboLrt half is located in thesouth rvith only one grow'ing scJSou l)cr vear, rr,hereas

thc arca uuclcr com is rnore than 13..1 million hcctalcs.gfown over t$'o scasons. 'I'hclelbre. rvc assulnetl lhatthe insects collected in pheronrone tlaps were llre-doniinantly of thc' corn race, and therelbre the dataobtarnecl are valicl 1br this crop. Furthcrmorc, thcplrcrorncrne is speci{ic to the corn sl"rain of S../i'ugiperduantl h:rs provet'l to be efficienl in collecting motlrs(Batista-Pereila et al. 2006). Hence. tl.re tirning o1

application of a chcmicai inscc:ticidc based on FAWcapturcs in pherclmor-rc lraps cau reduce the amollnt olpl:rnt danrage liom the pest and protect the yield inruraize. In othel words, u'hen application of theinsecticide is pcrtbrmec1 earlier, it provicles grcatcrcfficicncy of the conllol than rvhen appliecl latcr in theseason. For exanrple, rvhen FAW inlestalion occnrsshortly atler plant energence, rvhich is common inBrazil (Cluz ct al. 20 ltlb). thc cllicicncv of thcinsecticide and thc r.naize grain yicld will be dilectand inverselv relalecl 1o application time.

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