Using DASTT-C tool for identifying the mental images about teaching among student teachers of...

Maintaining Strategic Agility: Managing change and assuring quality

in education for teaching

International Yearbook on Teacher Education

Opening Ceremony Presentations, Plenary Sessions Keynotes,

Concurrent Sessions Abstracts and Papers

54th

World Assembly of The International Council on Education for Teaching

December 14-17, 2009 Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman

ISBN 978-0-9827113-0-9

2009 ICET International Yearbook

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON EDUCATION FOR TEACHING

The International Council on Education for Teaching (ICET) is an international association of policy and decision-makers in education, government and business dedicated to global development through education. ICET provides programs and services that give its members access to a worldwide resource base of organizations, programs, specialized consultative services, and research and training opportunities at the university level. It is a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), and participates in NGO meetings and other UNESCO-sponsored conferences around the world. ICET is a NGO in consultative status (Roster) with the Economic and Social Council. Founded in 1953, ICET was part of a major cooperative effort by the world’s education community to provide quality education for its citizens. For 56 years since then, ICET has continued to emphasize international cooperation in educational development to improve the quality of teacher education and to expand global educational opportunities. Scholars, administrators, and practitioners from universities, colleges, departments, and institutes of education, as well as members of government ministries, the teaching profession, and business leaders interested in educational development are invited to participate in ICET and share their ideas, research, and experiences with professionals from around the world. ICET is governed by a Board of Directors and is provided with professional counsel by a Board of Trustees. Directors and Trustees are representative of the geographical, social, cultural, and professional diversity of the world. ICET activities are administered by an executive office located at National-Louis University in Wheeling, Illinois, USA, which facilitates the cooperative projects of its members. ICET conducts an annual World Assembly as a forum for the worldwide educational community on matters related to national development and teacher education, and publishes a volume of proceedings: the International Yearbook on Teacher Education.

Contact Information: ICET @ National-Louis University,

1000 Capitol Drive, Wheeling, IL 60090, USA www.icet-online.org [email protected] Telephone and Fax: (847) 947-5881

Copyright © ICET 2010 ISBN 978-0-9827113-0-9 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. The responsibility for facts and opinions expressed in this publication rests solely with the authors; their opinions and interpretations of facts do not necessarily reflect those of ICET or the sponsors of the 2009 World Assembly.

mailto:[email protected]


© 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching i

Contents

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 1

Message of Welcome ........................................................................................................................... 2

Welcome to Sultan Qaboos University .................................................................................................. 3

World Assembly Theme & Topics ...................................................................................................... 4

Keynote Speaker: Tony Townsend

Thinking and acting both locally and globally:

Changing perspectives of the role of teacher education ..................................................... 5

Papers The following papers are those which were presented in Parallel Sessions at ICET‟s 54

th World Assembly,

and which are available for publication in the 2009 International Yearbook.

The number indicates the reference number used in the conference programme.

Papers presented in Symposiums are grouped together in the following section.

3. Majed Abu-Jaber & Moh'd Walid Batsh

Quality assurance and accreditation in Jordanian higher education institutions ....................... 23

5. Mohamed Ismail Abu-Rahmah & Salma Hamed Al-Humaidi

Fostering motivation of student teachers through self-assessment ......................................... 59

6. Mohamed Ismail Abu-Rahmah

Qualities of the good language teacher

as perceived by prospective teachers of English in the Arab World ....................................... 77

8. Femi Sunday Akinwumi

Management of teacher education in Nigeria: Issues, problems and prospects ..................... 103

9. Salim Al Ghanboosi

Developing educational leadership skills of schools‘ administrators at Sultanate of Oman .. 113

10. Harith Al Hinai, Harun-Al-Rashid Yusuf & Colette van Leeuwen

Classroom management: Its vital role in student-centred teaching and learning outcomes ... 123

14. Thuwayba Al-Barwani & Aly Amer

Online reading strategies of Omani EFL university students ................................................. 131

15. Thuwayba Al-Barwani & Mohamed El-Okda

Sustainable capacity building in a CCM-oriented EFL methods course at SQU .................... 139

20. Saleh Al-Busaidi

Learner autonomy in the curriculum ....................................................................................... 149

21. Said Aldhafri, Ali Kazem, Abdulqawi Alzubiadi,

Yousif Yousif, Muna Al-Bahrani & Hussain Alkharusi

Developmental aspects for Omani adolescents (12-18 years):

Piloting instruments and initial findings ................................................................................. 165

24. Suleiman Al-Ghatami & Suleiman Al-Husseini

Teachers‘ conception of educational research in Sultanate of Oman ..................................... 177


ii © 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching

32. Hussain Alkharusi

Teachers‘ classroom assessment skills as a function of gender, teaching area,

teaching level, teaching experience, and inservice assessment training ................................. 193

38. Mohammed Al-Nofli

Reflections on Social Studies in the Basic Education Reform in Oman ................................. 203

42. Mohamed Aly Nassra

A proposal for a program for Baccalaureate of Art Education

to face future needs and challenges ......................................................................................... 213

43. Hala Al-Yamani

Drama as a good medium in developing the understanding of teachers

to the progressive education in Palestine ................................................................................ 219

44. Abdulqawi Alzubaidi, Ali Mahdi Kazem, Humaira Alsuleimani, Rashid Almehrizy,

Suad Sulaman, Saeed Aldhafry, Hussain AlKharusi, Abdulhameed Hasan,

Skreen Al-Mashhadani, Mahmood Ibrahim, Muna Al-Bahrani, Hilal Al-Nabhany,

Fawzia Al-Jamali, Sana Al-Bulushi, Omayma Al-Busaidi, Taghreed Aal-Sa’eed,

Khawla Al-Mamari & Manal Al-Fazari

Psychometric properties of GATES

for identification of superior and talented students in Oman .................................................. 239

45. Abdullah Ambusaidi & Suleiman Al-Balushi

Using DASTT-C tool for identifying the mental images about teaching

among student teachers of science at SQU ............................................................................... 243

46. Talal Amer & Ali Mouswi

Ethical standards for the use of computers and the Internet

by faculty members in the Arab World .................................................................................. 249

47. S. Ananda

Future perspective of Management Education: Strategic issues and imperatives ................. 289

48. Muayyed An-Nasralla

The advisability of using English-Arabic code switching

as a teaching strategy in EFL university classroom: A case study ......................................... 299

49. Muayyed An-Nasralla

The impact of globalization on translation

with special reference to English- to- Arabic and Arabic- to- English translation ................. 329

50. Mohammed Ali Ashour

The perception of principals and teachers at the public secondary schools

at Irbid Governorate to apply Senge‘s Disciplines in the learning organization .................... 345

51. Muna Ayid Alawadi

Proposal for upgrading the quality of outputs of Art Education Department, SQU,

through application of a model of field co-living ................................................................... 361

52. Bahareh Azizi Nejad & Mir Mohammad Abbaszadeh

Study of the relationship between the usage of Information Technology

and students‘ satisfaction in the colleges and faculties of Urmia University of Iran .............. 369

53. Aisha Ba’Abood, Shadia Al Belushi, Suaad Al Busaidi & Victoria Tuzlukova

Generating interest and motivation for continuing professional development ....................... 389


© 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching iii

56. Charity Mbolela Bwalya & Betty Mzumara

The impact of token reinforcers on the learning of speech

in the severely mentally retarded pupils ................................................................................. 399

57. Cléia de Freitas Capanema, Jacira da Silva Câmara & Gabriela Sousa Rego Pimentel

Implications of leadership on the school curricular dynamics

as perceived by the administrative staff and the faculty ......................................................... 423

59. Kamal Dawani & Abbas Al-Shareefi

The use of transformational decision making in secondary schools

as perceived by school principals in Jordan ............................................................................ 429

61. Mohamed El-Okda

Assessing reflection in EFL student teachers‘ e-portfolios ..................................................... 437

67. Jahara Hayudini

An introduction to simulation in Nursing Education .............................................................. 445

68. Annette Hilton & Christina Gitsaki

Integrating educational technologies into instruction in Chemistry: Technological

Pedagogy Content Knowledge development and implications for teacher education ............ 451

70. Gary Hoban & Clifford Tyler

Using an electronic portfolio to improve field work in educational administration ............... 461

71. Jan Horck

Assuring quality teaching when addressing students in a diversified classroom .................... 469

75. Fakhri Khader

Strategies and roadmap for effective higher education reform in Jordan ............................... 485

76. Hashem Kilani

How could physical educators contribute to the Omani society? ........................................... 517

77. Craig Kissock & Paula Richardson

It is time to internationalize teacher education ....................................................................... 525

78. Natalia Kissock

Designing effective programs for late-entrant low-literacy students ...................................... 535

83. Marita Mahoney, Ruth Sandlin & Iris Riggs

Workplace conditions of first and second year K-12 teachers

in a new teacher induction program: Differences in number of challenges,

type of school, and academic performance ............................................................................. 543

85. Keshav Mandadi

Empowering students: A key to successful teaching ............................................................. 561

89. Marcos Masetto, Martha Prata-Linhares, Elize Keller Franco,

Cecília Gaeta, Cristina Zukowsky-Tavares & Thiago Schulze

The cooperative curriculum in Engineering:

Curricular innovation and professors development ................................................................ 573

90. Viju Mathew

Technological advantage and teaching needs: Learner centered education ............................ 581


iv © 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching

95. Maria Alfredo Moreira, Aishath Abdhulla, Zeema Abdhulla,

Zeenaz Adnan, Ahmed Faheem, Aishath Shibana, Aminath Warda & Moosa

Supervision of instruction in the Republic of the Maldives:

Striving towards more learner-centred teaching ....................................................................... 591

96. Hala Ali Moursy

Effect of different teaching styles on the performance of female undergraduate students

in the 100-meter hurdles (In Arabic) ...................................................................................... 603

98. Katya Narozhnaya, Stephen Koziol & David Imig

Towards a new professional doctorate in education: A position paper ................................. 631

99. Sonia Martins de Almeida Nogueira, Karina Barra Gomes

& Mirian Paura Sabrosa Zippin Grinspun

National educational policies in Brazil:

The 2009 federal program to foster public school teachers‘ qualification .............................. 649

102. James O’Meara & James Sillitoe

Recontextualizing standards to sustain international research in the knowledge society ....... 657

108. Maria Pimenta

Cheating on exams: Reflecting about teachers‘ education and ethics ................................... 665

109. Bayode Popoola & Taiwo Adepoju

Managing teacher shortage in secondary schools in Southwestern Nigeria ........................... 675

110. David Porcaro

Collaborative knowledge building in an Omani preservice course ........................................ 685

113. Umesh Ramnarain

Shifting students towards greater autonomy in scientific investigation:

Developing a model of teacher support .................................................................................. 691

118. S. Sergio AbdusSalâm Scatolini Apostolo

The ―glocal‖ dimension of teacher training programmes:

The challenges of training teachers of Islamic Religious Education in Belgium ................... 711

120. James Scully

Teachers, students and eLearning: From stereotypes to autonomy ........................................ 745

121. Boon Ping See, Asmuni Azizan & Say Fooi Foo

Selected determinants of career maturity of undergraduates

in private universities in Malaysia .......................................................................................... 753

122. Iqtidar Ali Shah & Neeta Baporikar

Quality issues in higher education: A case of Oman .............................................................. 761

125. Angela Shaw, Ally Dunhill & Derek Colquhoun

Why would anyone want to do Educational Studies? ............................................................ 775

126. Aseel Shawareb & Yousef Bakr

Quality assurance driving teaching and learning at Petra University ..................................... 783

129. Victoria Tuzlukova & Christine Eltayeb

Moodle-based virtual courses in Oman: Current running and future outlooks ...................... 791

130. Shirley Van Nuland

The charter in the classroom: A study in the design of a learning tool ................................... 801


© 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching v

131. Niranjana Vanalli

Professional standards of Communication Teachers in knowledge society ........................... 827

133. Phongthara Vichitvejpaisal, Suphak Piboon & Somkid Promjui

Diagnostic and feedback-providing system for self-directed learning of medical students,

Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand ..................................... 837

137. Deborah Wooldridge, Gloysis Mayers, Sandra Poirier & Sharo Shafiae

Educators as 21st Century learners: The community partnership imperative ........................ 845

138. Deborah Wooldridge, Nancy Sonlietner & Gloysis Mayers

Service learning and the 21st Century educator ...................................................................... 849

Symposium The following presentation is that which was presented in the Symposiums at ICET‟s 54

th World Assembly,

and which is available for publication in the 2009 International Yearbook.

The number indicates the reference number used in the conference programme.

Symposium:

Migration and education:

Teacher recruitment and recognition of qualifications

143 & 144. Roli Degazon-Johnson, Kimberly Ochs, Akemi Yonemura & James Keevy ............. 851

Indices Reference Numbers refer to the Reference Numbers of the papers,

which were used in the World Assembly conference programme.

Index of Authors & Reference Numbers ............................................................................................. 889

Index of Titles ...................................................................................................................................... 895

Index by Topic ..................................................................................................................................... 899


© 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching 1

Acknowledgements

The President, Board of Directors, and members of ICET wish to extend our profound

appreciation to Sultan Qaboos University Muscat, Oman for hosting the 54th

ICET World

Assembly. We are particularly grateful for the leadership and vision of Dean Thuwayba Al

Barwani, Dean of the Sultan Qaboos University and Dr. Mohammed E. Osman for their

leadership of the host planning committee. The organization and recruitment of outstanding

plenary speakers as well as the securing of the venue and all of the arrangements was a time

consuming task. The world assembly would not have happened without the support H.E. Dr.

Rawya Bint Saud Al Busaidi, Minister of Higher Education and her staff, the Ministry of

Education, and the Omani Research Council. The world assembly was also supported by a

group of sponsors for numerous events and materials during the assembly. ICET extends its

appreciation to all of the sponsors for their willingness to support teacher education

internationally.

ICET is also indebted to a large group of faculty members and students from Sultan

Quaboos University who volunteered their time over a number of months prior to and during the

assembly. Ms. Debbi Hjelle, Administrative Assistant at the ICET Secretariat, was indispensable

in the organization, management and publicity for the conference. The tireless effort of this

group insured the success of the conference.

National-Louis University continues to provide financial support for the ICET Secretariat

including the President and staff, the office space, and supportive services. ICET is appreciative

of all the effort that is provided to insure that the organization remains functionally viable.

ICET sincerely expresses its thanks to all of our keynote and concurrent session speakers.

Their insights which are shared in this CD ROM enriched the World Assembly and were the

catalyst for many sustained discussions. As is usually the case at ICET World Assemblies, many

valuable professional bonds were established in our sessions. We are all looking forward to

continuing discussions with our colleagues from around the world at the 55th

World Assembly to

be held in July 2011 in Glasgow, Scotland.

Darrell Bloom

President


2 © 2009 International Council on Education for Teaching

Message of Welcome

On behalf of the Board of Directors of the International Council on Education for

Teaching (ICET), we welcome you to our 54th

World Assembly in Muscat, Oman.

The theme of the 2009 World Assembly, Maintaining Strategic Agility: Managing

change and assuring quality in education for teaching addresses two of the major issues

confronting teacher education programs throughout the world. Teacher education programs must

respond to changing needs in society. At the same time expectations continue to grow for more

accountability for increased quality. Pre-service and in-service teachers and leaders can also

provide valuable insight to support this process. Strategic agility will be needed to develop

meaningful policies, based on research findings, which will have an impact upon practice.

Each of the following subtopics provides an area for thoughtful consideration:

Teacher education and societal partnership

Standards for professionalism in the knowledge society

Educational reform: Needs and future challenges

Emerging technologies in teacher training

Teaching education for student-centered environments

Developing leadership for learning organizations.

The plenary, concurrent and round table session papers are prepared by a group of well-

informed scholars who will share their insight on these important issues.

The Sultan Qaboos University is the gracious host of our world assembly along with the

Ministry of Higher Education , the Ministry of Education, and the Research Council,. We are

indebted to them for their wonderful support and to the other sponsors of the World Assembly.

Dr. Thuwayba Al Barwani, Dean of the College of Education and member of the ICET Board of

Directors, has provided the leadership to develop this world assembly. She has worked tirelessly

with her local planning group to bring this conference to fruition. Dr. Mohamed Osman, Sultan

Qaboos University, and Debbi Hjelle, ICET Administrative Assistant at National-Louis

University, deserve particular appreciation for their endless attention to the details of the

conference.

ICET encourages all of the participants at this assembly to work collaboratively on the

important agenda of this 54th

World Assembly and to participate in ICET‘s various projects. We

need your perspectives in the discussions, meetings and activities throughout the conference.

Also, find some time to experience a bit of Muscat and the surrounding areas. Muscat is a unique

city with lots of things to see and experience.

Dr. Darrell Bloom

President

Dr. Chang Kai-Ming

Chairman of the Board of Directors



Welcome to Sultan Qaboos University

The 54th World Assembly held in Muscat, this year of 2009, is an important international

forum for the exchange of information, sharing best practices, discussing and debating on issues

of importance to education and development.

This event will certainly bring together distinguished scholars who will contribute to the

cooperation between higher education institutions worldwide and will enhance the development

of a global network of expertise, research and innovation in education.

I welcome all the speakers, researchers and participants to our University, and I wish

them a pleasant stay in Muscat.

It is an honour for the university to host this event.

Wishing you a successful conference.

Thuwayba Al Barwani

Dean, College of Education

Sultan Qaboos University

Muscat



Theme & Topics: Maintaining Strategic Agility:

Managing change and assuring quality


THEME —

Maintaining Strategic Agility:

Managing change and assuring quality


Topic #1:

Teacher education and societal partnership

Topic #2:

Standards for professionalism in the knowledge society

Topic #3:

Educational reform: Needs and future challenges

Topic #4:

Emerging technologies in teacher training

Topic #5:

Teaching education for student-centered environments

Topic #6:

Developing leadership for Learning Organizations


Keynote Speaker

Thinking and acting both locally and globally:

Changing perspectives of

the role of teacher education

Tony Townsend Chair of Public Service, Educational Leadership and Management

Department of Educational Studies

University of Glasgow

If you fail to honor your people,

They will fail to honor you;

It is said of a good leader that

When the work is done, the aim fulfilled,

The people will say, “We did this ourselves.

Lao Tzu

The paper will argue that over the course of history, education has had four major shifts in focus,

with each shift bringing new understandings of what education means. This commenced by very

localised education which has been characterised as thinking and acting individually, where only

those that could afford it were given any kind of education and this has progressed through

thinking locally, nationally and internationally, but still acting locally. The evidence suggests that

these changes have brought as much improvement in terms of student achievement as is likely to

occur and that it is time for a new way of approaching education, which is identified as thinking

and acting both locally and globally. This shift has policy implications, for education systems, for

schools, for what happens in classrooms, and for both teacher and school leader development and

education. The paper will provide a tentative look at how these issues might impact on student

learning. It will consider policy, curriculum, pedagogy and assessment changes, as well how

leadership can be utilised to improve outcomes in schools. It will argue that modern school leaders

need to understand both the ‗what‘ and the ‗how‘ of leadership (Townsend and Bogotch, 2008) to

be completely successful and that this has implications for both teacher and school leader

development in the future.

Introduction

Peter Drucker (1993, p. 1) argued:

Every few hundred years in western history there occurs a sharp transformation. We cross... a

divide. Within a few short decades society rearranges itself, its world view; its basic values; its

social and political structure; its arts; its key institutions. Fifty years later, there appears a new

world...we are currently living through such a transformation.



It could be argued that Drucker is talking about a principle similar to that of the S-curve,

first discussed by Everett Rogers (1962) to describe the diffusion of innovations, where the S-

curve described the number of people accepting an innovation over a period of time. New

products or innovations were first accepted by a few ‗early adopters‘, followed by the ‗early

majority‘, the ‗late majority‘ and then the ‗laggards‘. Cumulatively, when graphed, the

proportions of the population that have accepted the innovation over time form an S-curve. The

underlying theory was later developed by a number of people (for instance, see Handy, 1994) to

look at how change, particularly in technology, progresses over time, and is a useful model for

looking at how education has progressed over the course of history.

If we take a longer view of change in human learning we could argue that, since

education first commenced, it has followed the S-Curve process. If we take a step backwards we

can look at the progress made in education over the course of history. Then we can not only see

the giant strides that have been taken in that time, but we can also see some trends that might

help us to chart the way forward. For instance, it is possible to look at the progress of education

in various ways. First, we might consider the focus of education at various times. This provides

us with an understanding of the purpose of education and who was involved in its development

and delivery. Second, education not only changed in terms of its focus, but also in terms of its

scope. The scope of education provides us with an understanding of how far education reached in

terms of its effectiveness and delivery.

I would argue that we have had four S-curves in education‘s history and that we are now

on the verge of a fifth. The first, where the dominant drivers were individuals, lasted for more

than five thousand years, the second saw the birth of local schools, and lasted for around eighty

years, the third saw the intervention of national governments and lasted around twenty years and

we are in about the 8th

or 9th

year of the fourth S-curve, where accountability systems and the

market have become the dominant drivers of education. I will also argue that we are approaching

the time where we need a new way of thinking about education, one that considers social justice

issues at a global level.

If we look at education a thousand years ago, the focus was firmly on the individual as it

had been since the dawn of time. Whatever formal education that existed was for the aristocracy,

as a means of maintaining their position of power and privilege. Those who had the good fortune

to be involved in education were being trained to be ‗good‘ individuals with the hope and

understanding that they would be leaders within a community of uneducated peasants. It could

be argued that this was a society where some were ‗born to rule.‘ Beare (1998: 4-5) describes

this as the ‗pre-industrial metaphor‘ for education. In terms of the scope of education, we could

argue that, by the start of the second millennium, the education of the time had lasted for five or

more thousand years, few people received any education at all and only a handful received what

today might be considered to be an effective education. These conditions lasted until well into

the 1870s. So the S-curve at this time was elongated over more than a couple of thousand years.

Education became more accepted over time, but was never really institutionalized beyond small

individual groups based on religion or power. It could be argued that at this point in history,

when it came to education, we were thinking and acting individually.

In the 1850s, community pressure was being exerted in many countries to provide a

systematic education. Beare (1998: 5-6) calls this ‗the industrial metaphor‘ where ‗the factory-

production metaphor [was] applied to schooling‘. By the 1880s many developed countries

Townsend: Thinking and acting both locally and globally


around the world had created systems of education where the schools within a particular region

were overseen by a local department or ministry.

So by 1900, the focus of education had changed from the development of the individual

to the development of local communities. Individuals were grouped into classrooms and

classrooms were connected to form schools. Groups of schools served communities and became

school systems. This phenomenon manifested itself in different ways, with state or provincial

systems in some countries, school districts in other countries and local education authorities in

others. The task of education was more than the development of individuals and was designed to

consider and support whole communities, where people were placed in their rightful place in the

community on the basis of the level of education they had obtained. The second S-curve had

begun. Now we started thinking and acting locally. By the start of the 20th century, most people

received some education, but only some received what today might be called an effective

education. However, this focus and scope of education lasted for the best part of the twentieth

century.

In the early part of the 1980s, there was an emerging global economy, and technological

development that changed the face of communication and knowledge exchange. Things changed

quite dramatically in terms of the world balance of power. Western countries that had previously

dominated the world economy and had been able to generate vast amounts of money by trading

commodities such as food, wool and mineral resources to the underdeveloped countries in the

East were now finding that these countries were able to use those commodities to manufacture

products far cheaper than could the West, where hourly rates were up to twenty or thirty times

higher. Countries such as the USA, the UK and Australia were now finding themselves spending

more money importing goods than had been made using their exported commodities. Underlying

this change in the world economic balance was the development and use of new technology that

demanded a strong basic education for all people working in these industries. The new activity of

measuring academic achievement internationally found that, in many instances, students in the

high tech countries of the East were out-performing those in the West where factories and farms

were still being utilized for those whose education was not sufficient.

Around this time, the focus of education shifted again, from the local to the national, as

various countries in the West distributed reports, such as A Nation at Risk (National Commission

on Excellence in Education, 1983) in the United States that linked the quality of education that

students received to global economic supremacy, so the focus of education moved towards one

that saw education as fulfilling national goals rather than providing for either the individual

student or local communities. New terms echoed around the world; national goals, national

curriculum, national standards and national testing, and became the watchwords for a new look

education. Curricula were streamlined so that most time was spent on those areas that supported

the national economic goals. Literacy, numeracy, vocational education and technology became

the buzz-words of the decade and subjects not closely linked to the economy went into decline.

Beare (1998: 9-13) described this as the ‗post-industrial metaphor‘ where ‗enterprise‘ became

‗the favoured way of explaining how education operates‘. Self-managing schools were

developed in a number of countries, such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, and

Hong Kong and each school became a unit of work that was as successful as the work of the

people in it. In order to improve national standing internationally, local schools became the focus

of change. The third S-curve had begun. We were now thinking nationally and acting locally.

The scope of education also shifted. Governments and education systems argued that all

students needed to succeed, but the evidence from national testing programs indicated that we



were still falling short of that goal. However, as we approached the end of the 1990s we were

able say that all people received a number of years of publicly supported education and that most

of these students received a fairly effective education.

If we look at the dominant trends in our societies in the first decade of the third

millennium, technology, the global economy, rapid international communication and the

environment, among others, then these trends are international or global in nature. Now,

economic problems in the USA create problems for people in other parts of the world, the

polluted skies of Eastern Europe have created an ozone hole over Australia, environmental

decisions of the large industrialized countries threaten to flood whole countries in the South

Pacific, and conflicts in Europe and Africa become headline news in other countries.

On the education front, the international focus on student achievement, through student

achievement tests such as TIMMS or PISA, allowed us to find out what was happening in other

parts of the world. If we are to add to Beare‘s (1998) previous metaphors for education, we

might suggest that we have moved through the pre-industrial, post-industrial and enterprise

metaphors and the most recent S-curve might be considered the ‗market‘ metaphor, where the

idea of enterprise has been taken to its logical extent. Now the expectation is that if schools

compete with each other for students and that parents are given choice as to which school to send

their child to, that achievement levels will rise. This has led to a new understanding of

accountability, based on choice and the market rather than cooperative achievement for

everyone. The fourth S-curve led to a focus on accountability, for schools, for teachers, for

school leaders and for the universities that educated them.

The new accountability ‗game‘

The data that is available to politicians and the public is now monumental. It is now

possible, with the judicious use of the internet, to compare country with country, state with state

within a particular country, districts or regions within a particular state, individual schools with

other schools in a single district and eventually individual classrooms with other classrooms in a

single school. Unfortunately, although we can establish differences between students based on

various social class and ethnic background data in these studies, the comparisons don‘t really

take into account the circumstances students in different countries experience at school and the

communities in which they live.

Recent international studies have compared and reported the performance of ‗my‘

country with ‗other‘ countries. These have included the Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Study - TIMMS (1995, 1999, 2003) - see http://nces.ed.gov/timss/index.asp and also the

more recent Program for International Student Achievement – PISA (2000, 2003, 2006),

conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) - see

http://www.pisa.oecd.org/. By 2009 87% of the world‘s economy will be covered by PISA testing.

PISA allows a comparison of some of the mean scores for reading, mathematics and science

literacy for the data collected in 2006 (see table 1 below). The scores enable a comparison to be

made between ourselves and the best performing countries in the study for the data provided.

The table shows that a number of countries are above the OECD average for all three areas, and

some perform much better than others.

http://nces.ed.gov/timss/index.asp

http://www.pisa.oecd.org/



Table 1: PISA (2006) Mean Scores for Reading, Mathematics and Science Literacy

Reading Mathematics Science Korea 556 Taipei 549 Finland 563

Finland 547 Finland 548 Hong Kong 542

Hong Kong 536 Hong Kong 547 Canada 534

Canada 527 Korea 547 Taipei 532

Japan 522 Netherlands 531 Estonia 531

New Zealand 521 Switzerland 530 Japan 531

Ireland 517 Canada 527 New Zealand 530

Australia 513 Macao 527 Australia 527

Liechtenstein 510 Liechtenstein 536 Netherlands 525

Poland 508 Japan 523 Liechtenstein 522

Sweden 507 New Zealand 522 Korea 522

USA (2003) 504 USA 489 USA 474

OECD Average 492 OECD Average 498 OECD Average 500

The PISA study not only provides a detailed analysis of science performance and student

attitudes in 2006 (it was reading in 2000 and Mathematics in 2003), but also categorised students

for all three areas into different levels, from level one being virtually unable to perform, to level

five (or six) where students were able to manipulate knowledge at a high level of proficiency.

Table 2 shows the percentages of students that are performing at the various levels of reading

literacy in 2006. Similar tables could also be developed for Science and Mathematics.

Table 2: Percentages of students at various levels of reading literacy (PISA, 2006)

Mean below

level 1

%

level 1

%

level 2

%

level 3

%

level 4

%

level 5

Korea 556 1 4 13 27 33 24

Finland 547 1 4 16 31 32 17

Hong Kong 536 1 6 17 32 32 13

Canada 527 3 8 18 30 27 15

New Zealand 521 5 10 19 26 25 16

Ireland 517 3 9 21 30 25 12

Australia 513 4 10 21 30 25 11

Liechtenstein 510 5 9 20 31 24 10

UK 495 7 12 23 29 21 9

USA (2003) 495 7 13 23 28 21 9

OECD Average 492 7 13 23 28 21 9

Because of a problem in printing the tests, the USA was unable to be given a score for its

reading literacy in 2006, so the 2003 score has been used. Table 2 indicates that whereas the top

countries have 40% or more of their students performing at the top two levels in reading, that the

USA has only 30% doing so. Also, whereas the top nations have only around 6% of their

students performing at the bottom two levels, USA has 20%, or more than three times as many.

Since there are in excess of 65 million students in the USA, this means there are approximately

13 million students who are incapable of doing anything more than the simplest tasks in reading.

It is also clear that the United Kingdom is facing similar issues for its students. The same issues

also exist for both Science and Mathematics in the USA and the UK where they both performed

significantly more poorly than the top nations.



The use of these international comparisons has identified the need to maintain and

improve the effectiveness and efficiency of what happens in schools for governments around the

world. The fourth S-curve came from this challenge. Countries around the world were looking at

what others were doing to try and change what they were doing in order to improve student

achievement. Hong Kong took this to a new level, where they not only found out what others

were doing but employed people from countries that they thought were doing it best to help them

set up similar systems in their own country. This is the perfect example of what we might call

thinking globally and acting locally. One of the outcomes of this form of development has been

the international acceptance of the self-managing school as a mechanism for school improvement

and the increasing use of a market approach to schooling as a mechanism for adjustment.

There is some evidence that student achievement is hard to shift, even after all of the

reforms that have occurred in recent times. The National Assessment of Educational Progress

(NAEP) Reading test scores have been virtually unchanged despite over forty years of

educational reform efforts. There is some evidence that the gap between the socially advantaged

and the socially disadvantaged has closed somewhat, but this has been confined to the

elementary years of school. By the time students reach high school the level of performance is

the same as it was in the 1970s. Despite all of the resources and reform efforts that have occurred

since the 1980s after the Nation at Risk report, overall achievement is much the same as it has

always been. It could be argued that we have not succeeded in our aspiration to ensure quality

education for all. So if we look at the history of the S-curve in education, the following trends

emerge.

Period Focus of delivery Those effectively educated Dominant Paradigm

1000-1870 AD Individual Few People Thinking and acting individually

1870-1980 AD Local Some people Thinking and acting locally

1980-2000 AD National Many People Thinking nationally and acting locally

2000-2010 AD Global Most People Thinking globally and acting locally

The first trend is that how we think about education has changed quite substantially over

the last thousand years, but that most of those changes have come in the last 150 years, as

indicated in the table above. Over the course of education‘s history, the focus of education

changed from individual goals through local and national goals to international goals and the

scope of education has moved from few people with any education at all to most people having a

pretty effective education. We can ask ourselves, what challenges lie ahead? This challenge was

been characterised (Townsend, 1998: 248) as:

We have conquered the challenge of moving from a quality education system for a few people to

having a quality education system for most people. Our challenge now is to move from having a

quality education system for most people to having a quality education system for all people.

During this history we have moved from a time where we had individual teachers

working with one or more students, through the development of classrooms, schools and school

systems, to a time where national authorities have taken an interest in local school systems and

where global comparisons have directed some of the policies promoted by those systems.

We have moved through what Beare called the Pre-Industrial, the Industrial and the Post-

Industrial metaphors of education and we are currently in what I call the Accountability

metaphor of education, where the market and choice programs have been put in place as a means

of bludgeoning schools into conformity. What we see is that, like Future Shock (Toffler, 1971)



argued, the times between the changes in S-curves have shrunk quite rapidly. If we look at the

first S-curve lasting four or more thousand years, the second lasted a little over a hundred, the

third just twenty and the fourth probably around ten. This means that we probably are on the

edge of a fifth S-curve that will take us to a new way of thinking about education. Peter Drucker

argued (1993: 209) that No other institution faces challenges as radical as those that will

transform the school. This is likely to still be the case in the future as it could be argued that

radical change has not yet taken place. Classrooms and schools are still more alike what they

were a hundred years ago than they are different. So where might this lead?

Despite the rapid changes that have occurred in education over the past decade, the focus

and scope of education must change once again. As far back as 1981 Minzey argued that

previous educational reform had been similar to rearranging the toys in the toy box, when what

we really needed was a whole new box. We now need to move to a new S-curve, where we close

in on universal quality education, where every single student has a successful school experience.

Interestingly enough, to have this universal focus, every person on the globe must have

the skills and attitudes necessary to take us to the next level of development. To really embrace

this perspective, we must again focus on the individual, which is where education was when it

started. The wheel has come a full circle, with the difference this time being that the scope now

must be all people embraced by this form of education rather than just the few that was the case a

thousand years ago. If we are to add to Beare‘s metaphors one more time, we might argue that

the next S-curve will lead to a justice metaphor for education, where governments and societies

accept that it is their responsibility to educate their populations to a high level and where we

approach the human dream of a highly educated global population. Here, the recognition is that

for true education to occur, we cannot have education for the few who are rich and privileged

(pre-industrial), we cannot see schools as factories (post-industrial) or businesses (enterprise),

and we cannot expect the market to solve our problems, but must see education as a community

experience, where people work together for the betterment of themselves, each other, the local

community and the planet as a whole. To do this the focus must become universal. All people

must succeed. We are moving to a time of ‗glocalization‘, which is ‗the intersection of local and

global concerns‘ and where ‗every local action has a global component‘ (Hill 2006, as cited in

Merriam, Courtenay and Cervero, 2006, p. 271). We have to move beyond thinking globally and

acting locally to thinking and acting both locally and globally. This suggests that we have to do

things in a different way, we have to move beyond accountability, which is simply a counting

and sorting process, and seems to mostly have been designed to enable politicians to report

things to communities in slick sound bites and with little or no analysis, and towards

responsibility, where we need to respond to the needs and circumstances of the young people we

serve and have an internal motivation to improve schools, not because it makes us look better,

but because it is the right thing to do for the young people we interact with. Under these

circumstances communities, and governments, accept that it is both their legal and moral

responsibility to ensure that all people within their communities are given the educational

provision required to enable them to achieve their full potential as global citizens.

If the S-curves from the start of education‘s history are progressively described then the

progress of education over time can be documented in the following way. The next S-curve starts

to become clear.



Thinking and Acting Individually

Thinking and Acting Locally

Thinking Nationally and Acting Locally

Thinking Globally and Acting Locally

Thinking and Acting Globally and Locally

2000 BC- 1890s

1870s-1990s

1970s-2000s

1980s-2010

There are a number of implications for this shift from thinking globally and acting locally

to thinking and acting both locally and globally. These implications occur at all levels of

education endeavour, from the policy level, to the practice level and the training level. The

policies need to guide a new way of thinking about and structuring education, both leadership

and classroom practices need to change which leads to the need for both curriculum and

pedagogical changes. In turn, this will lead to the need for new ways of educating both teachers

and school leaders. If we start with the big picture, the table below suggests some tentative

changes at both the policy level and the way in which schools are run.

Thinking Globally Acting Locally

Thinking and Acting both

Locally and Globally

For Education Policy

Recognition that the world has

changed quite substantially since

the development of schools.

World‘s best practice needs to be

conducted if education systems

are to keep up with these

changes.

Education systems use what they

have learned from other systems,

adapting what they have learned

to the local circumstances.

International comparative data

are used to drive local school

improvement.

There is a reassessment of the purpose

and delivery of education in a rapidly

changing world. There is recognition that

education need not be a competitive

process, but instead world‘s best practice

should be freely shared for the benefit of

all. The available technology is utilised to

ensure that the available knowledge and

skill is translated into practice.

For the School Level

Recognition that the level of

success of an individual school

is a complex mixture of the

characteristics of the students,

families and local community on

the one hand and the skills,

values and development of the

teachers and school leaders.

Self-managing systems of

education provide opportunities

for the individual schools and

their communities to respond in

unique ways to the directives

and guidelines laid down by the

system. Schools compete for

students.

Recognition that not all school

communities are able to operate at the

level required for universal student

success. Systems establish mechanisms

where highly capable schools and

individuals provide support to those less

capable as a means of improving the

system as a whole.



To establish this way of thinking we need to consider what I have called the Core-Plus

Curriculum (Townsend, 1994, pp 119-123) which ensures that both:

The CORE areas, those areas identified by the state as being so important that every child should

learn and know them, AND The PLUS areas, those areas identified by the school community as

being important to their children, are given the time, attention and resources necessary for those

skills, attitudes and knowledge to be planned for, learned and evaluated.

At the system level, this leads to an understanding that for us to be successful, we need to

support all schools to be successful and, clearly, the market model does not subscribe to this

understanding unless we adopt a new model of ‗market‘ based on interest rather than financial

ability to purchase ‗quality‘. An analogy might be the move from a market where we have a

Rolls Royce level of education competing against the Volkswagen beetle, where the buyer

purchases based on financial ability and prestige to a ‗market‘ model where we have General

Motors, Ford and Toyota mid-level cars, where the buyer will spend the same amount of money,

but purchase their car of choice based on the variety of extras that they wish to have for the price.

All buyers get a similar quality, but the specific content that they receive will be based on their

particular preference for that aspect. At the school level, rather than hoarding best practice and

using it to compete for more, or better students, schools would share best practice to ensure that

communities would receive the quality of education that they need. Rather than have government

policies that suggest that if you don‘t like the school you are in, go to another school, they will

accept their legal and moral responsibility to deliver a quality education to every child. Under

these conditions, parental choice is acceptable, when the best choice for any parent becomes to

send their child to their local school.

As well as changes at the policy level, there also needs to be changes in what happens in

the classroom, if we are to achieve our aim of universal success for all students. However, if

young people‘s learning is the end goal, we need to reconsider what this means in a rapidly

changing, globalized world. As far back as Wang, M.C., Haertel, G.D. and Walberg, H.J.

(1993/1994, Educational Leadership, pp 74-79) analyzed 179 chapters, conducted 91 research

syntheses, interviewed 61 educational researchers, considered 11,000 findings related to student

learning. Twenty eight specific characteristics of a learning oriented school are grouped into 6

categories. The top five characteristics are listed in order of their importance to student learning:

1. Classroom Management

2. Metacognitive processes

3. Cognitive processes

4. Home Environment/Parental Support

5. Student/Teacher social interactions

What we see here is that the greatest determinants of student learning are the student and

what happens in the classroom. It is what the student brings to the table, together with what the

teacher brings to the table that makes the difference to student learning. These results were more

recently confirmed by Hattie (2007) whose meta-analysis confirmed that around 50% of the

variation in student achievement can be tracked back to the student (items 2, 3 and 4 above) and

around 30% of the variation comes from what teachers do (items 1 and 5), with the most

important single factor being the quality and consistency of feedback given by the teacher to the

student. For Hattie, it is ‗It is what teachers know, do, and care about which is very powerful in



this learning equation‘. If we look at the top five elements above that contribute to student

learning, it becomes obvious that it is what happens in the classroom, the home and the

community that is critical to an individual student reaching his or her potential. The student‘s

ability to learn, the way in which the classroom is organised and managed and the relationships

between student, teacher and parent are the keys to learning. The past decade has seen massive

changes at the state and school levels by various restructuring activities, but few that have tried

to change what happens in classrooms.

Yet as Ashenden (1994: 13) argues:

The greatest single weakness in these reforms is that they stop at the classroom door. The

classroom is the student‘s workplace. It is, in essence, a 19th-century workplace - much more

humane and interesting but recognisably the same place. It is an inefficient and inequitable

producer of the old basics and simply incompatible with the new.

If we are concerned about helping students to learn then, there are three major issues for

educators. The first is having an appropriate curriculum for a rapidly changing world, the second

is the pedagogy we use to engage every student in this curriculum and to enable them to build a

positive relationship to learning, so that they can become a lifelong learner, and the third is the

way in which we assess the level of success. The table below provides some indicators of where

we are now and where we might want to be.




For Curriculum

Recognition that in the

international market, students

need to have high levels of

education in order to be

successfully employed. All

students should complete a full

school program.

Strong focus on those elements

of curriculum associated with

preparing them for further

education, including the basic

skills and a set of socially

acceptable values.

Recognition that not all students will go

on to university and that other skills are

necessary for those that will not. As well

as the academic program, schools will

cater for those who wish to go into the

world of work or other types of activity.

For Pedagogy

Classroom effectiveness is more

important than school

effectiveness when it comes to

student achievement. Better

qualified and more committed

teachers lead to higher levels of

student achievement.

Strong focus on teaching to the

test, especially for students who

are struggling. Most teacher

professional development

focuses on basic skills and

‗proven techniques‘ of imparting

them.

Recognition that a recipe approach to

teaching will not lead to success for all

students. Teachers are given the skills to

build strong relationships with students

and making the curriculum relevant

through a variety of different teaching

techniques.

For Assessment

Recognition that being

internationally competitive

involves understanding how well

students are learning in

comparison to others, both

locally and globally.


of the curriculum that are easily

measured and are likely to be

part of an international testing

program. This has led to a higher

value being given to some

subjects than to others.

Recognition that to be a fully functioning

human being takes more than a particular

score on a standardized test. As well as

‗valuing what we measure‘ steps are take

to ensure that we learn to measure other

human skills that are equally valued.



We wonder why many young people fail to see the relevance of what they are taught,

why they become difficult to teach, and why they drop out. The truth of the matter is that

students are not any more or less involved with the curriculum than their parents were. The

curriculum of today is perhaps no more or less relevant than it was when their parents went to

school, but in their parents‘ time people were able to get jobs that didn‘t require high

qualifications, jobs in banks, in factories, on the land. Now those jobs are limited or nonexistent

and the jobs that are available to those who drop out have very limited economic earning

potential. Perhaps it is time for us to refocus our attention as to what the curriculum is intended

to do.

The curriculum in the Oman is similar to perhaps 90 percent of subject areas in the

curriculum in USA, China, South Africa, Australia, the United Kingdom, or Fiji. Not only is it

similar now, but it always has been. It would seem to me that perhaps we should consider having

a curriculum that, for at least 50 percent of the time, focuses on what makes us human, that is,

the human skills that are common to people no matter where they live. This could be considered

the global curriculum, because it would be equally relevant to students, no matter where they

lived. Perhaps 20 percent of the time the curriculum should focus on what makes us Omani, or

Australian, or Chinese, our history, our geography, our political systems, which wouldn‘t change

much over time. Thirty percent of the time focuses on the specific content that is important to us

at the time, the content knowledge that helps us to become employable, that prepares us for

university, and so on. This content would change as times change, with the introduction of

computer studies being the perfect example. By thinking and acting locally and globally,

countries could work together to determine what will happen for the human skills part of the

curriculum, countries could help states or districts determine what happens nationally, and local

communities could be involved in the development of the more immediate knowledge. The

duplication of effort that we have in education at the moment would be removed and the

resources saved could be directed to where learning actually occurs, in classrooms and for

students. We might have to review the content curriculum on a regular basis, the national

curriculum perhaps once in a while, and the global curriculum hardly ever. Currently, and in the

past, schools have taught content, and hoped that the human skills have been developed. What I

am proposing here is that we focus on the development of human skills and we use the content to

frame this discussion.

In our book Global Classrooms: Strategies for Engaging Students in Third Millennium

Schools (Townsend & Otero, 1999), George Otero and I discuss the starting point for such a

global curriculum. We argue that an education charter for the third millennium should be based

upon four pillars:

Education for survival (once the whole curriculum, now the building block for everything

else);

Understanding our place in the world (how my own particular talents can be developed and

used);

Understanding community (how I and others are connected); and

Understanding our personal responsibility (understanding that being a member of the world

community carries responsibilities as well as rights).

These four pillars join to create a new set of critical learning elements, a set of third

millennium skills and attitudes. The rationale is the argument that to improve student



achievement in standardized tests, we have to spend less time focusing on the tests and more

time focusing on increasing learning capability in the student.

In some respects it is building a positive relationship to learning that is most important;

after all, students will spend less than 3 percent of their lifetimes in school. It might also be

argued that under the current system of accountability, with structured curriculum based on

specific standards and the continuous testing of student knowledge of that curriculum, building a

positive relationship to learning is the thing we spend the least time on. We now know a great

deal about learning and how teachers might need to behave to engage students. We also know

that students will learn much better if they have their parents and the community actively

supporting them and the schools in which they learn.

Increasing student engagement also involves changing our focus from curriculum to

people. This refocusing means moving from the current situation, in which many students are

isolated learners, learning the facts until the exam is over and then forgetting them forever, to

becoming global self-regulated learners (Otero, Chambers-Otero, & Sparks, 2000), where instead

of needing teachers, the students need someone able to help them construct their learning

environment. The rationale for this is that I can only be successful as a teacher if my students

learn. If my students are not learning then what can I say about myself as a teacher?

Research (Townsend, 2002) has shown that there is a strong relationship between the

concepts that students have of school, of teacher, of self, of learning, and of future, and their

performance in school. The underlying assumptions revolve around the use of either habitual or

intelligent behaviour. Habitual behaviour occurs when a person picks up the ―vibes‖ that he

senses in the environment, then habitually responds in the same way that he has previously. It is

a simple matter of stimulus-response without thought. Brain research tells us that if we respond

to a particular stimulus in a particular way, there is a greater tendency to do the same thing the

next time that stimulus appears. We become habitually responsive. The emotional response to

the stimulus depends on how we see ourselves and the world outside, and this can become

predominantly positive (optimist) or predominantly negative (pessimist). An optimistic student

can deal with or withstand the infrequent negative things that happen, but a pessimistic student

sees things as just one more issue sent to trouble them.

However, with intelligent behaviour there has been a thoughtful response to the

environment. In this instance, the student has been taught to reinterpret, or determine, the

environment and the subsequent perceptions, emotions, and actions, by asking appropriate

questions that support and strengthen them, even in situations that might initially be interpreted

as threatening. Clinch (2001) argues that to make every student a strong, positive learner we

need to develop five positive concepts, learning, teacher, self, school, and future. If we can train

teachers to develop these concepts, then we have a good chance of increasing student

achievement. Of these, learning and future are most critical, since future is our hope for

ourselves and those around us and learning is the way in which we achieve our desired future.

As Hill argued (1998, p. 6), ―one of the more powerful conclusions arising from recent

research is that much of the variation between schools is, in fact, due to variation among

classes.‖ So if we are to move toward a more effective school system, it happens by promoting

more effective schools. If we are to support the development of more effective schools, it will be

through the promotion of more effective classrooms. If we are to adopt the curriculum and

pedagogical arguments above, we also need to come up with a new form of measuring the

progress of our students. Perhaps the starting point of this exercise could be to ask ourselves the

question, apart from the academic outcomes, what skills, values, and attitudes do we want every



student to have by the time they leave this school? Each school community could come up with

their own list, which could be added to those created by both education systems and even

nations. Many of these are in existence in policy papers already, but few if any of them have

been acted on. The other steps involved would include asking ourselves what behaviours are

demonstrated by people who are skilled in this activity and what activities could be included in

the curriculum that would enable students to demonstrate these behaviours. The final issue would

be how we might assess the success levels of students and how we might report this to both

parents and authorities. In this way we could move towards the proposal made by Ainscow

(2005) that: ―We need to move from valuing what we measure to measuring what we value.‖

If we accept the premise that to improve student achievement, changes must be made in

curriculum, engagement and relationships, and measuring success, then perhaps the greatest task

in the future is to manage the changes that are necessary in the hearts and minds of teachers,

since it is here that true improvement in student learning lies. Thus we have implications for how

teachers must adapt to promote positive learning for all students.




For Teachers

Recognition that teachers are the

most important factor in student

learning, apart from the student

themselves. An effective school

has more effective classrooms

and teachers than a school that is

less effective.

Teachers face more and more

pressure to achieve student

outcomes. Strong focus on

improving the quality of

teaching through competency

approaches. Teachers are

expected to have specific

measurable skills and to focus on

those elements of the curriculum

that are likely to boost student

outcomes.

Recognition that a student that does not

enjoy being at school and is afraid or

unhappy in the classroom will not

perform well and that in times of rapid

changes teachers need skills for the future

rather than those learned in the past.

Teachers need to establish the capabilities

required to have strong positive

relationships and teach in ways that will

build student confidence in themselves to

be successful learners.

This would mean that we need to consider new strategies for working with teachers in the

field, to ensure that building relationships and focusing on a broader range of outcomes occurs in

classroom. At the moment, the curriculum is almost entirely focused on those students who are

likely to end up going on to higher education. However, in many societies there are increasing

numbers of young people who are in Scotland, at least, called NEETS (which stands for ‗Not in

Employment, Education or Training‘.) If we are to make sure that all students in schools, both

currently and in the future are given an optimum chance of finding their way in adult society,

then current teachers need to adjust what they do. In turn, the new ways of looking at teachers

has implications for teacher education as well as for those currently in the field.






For Teacher Preparation

Recognition that teachers will

teach in classrooms that will

contain students from all over

the world, or alternatively may

be trained in one country and

end up teaching in another

country for most of their career.

Teachers will be teaching for a

future in which rapid and

complex change continues.

Multiculturalism is taught in

teacher education programmes,

but the strong focus on having

all students reach the identified

state or national standards means

that most of the time is spent on

the basic skills. Teacher

education programmes are

largely competency based

approaches to teacher

development.

Recognition that it is all students need to

be literate and numerate, but that will

only happen if teachers can form strong

relationships between students, teacher

and the curriculum and each other.

Teacher education programmes should

encourage all students to have an

international teaching experience and

focus on expanding teacher capabilities

for an unknown future.

Much of teacher education today is competency based, but we need to recognize the

difference between competence and capability. We must move individual teachers past

competence and into a position of capability. Cairns (1998: 1) argued „Modern Teachers need to

be developed as capable which is seen as moving „beyond‟ initial competencies. The Capable

Teacher is what we should be seeking to develop, encourage and honor as the hallmark of our

profession.‟ Whereas competence is something that we have already learned (yesterday) that we

can demonstrate (today), it says nothing about what we are able to do tomorrow, because

competence is very much based on individual skills and says nothing about our mindset.

However, capability includes both our skill today and a mindset that supports future learning.

The model for developing capable teachers is a combination of three intertwined elements:

Ability (describes both competence and capacity)

Values (the ideals that govern the use of ability)

Self-efficacy (the way people judge their capability to carry out actions effectively)

The challenge becomes clear. To improve teachers‘ abilities we need to focus our

attention on their professional development, particularly in the areas identified above; to improve

teachers‘ values we need to focus on developing and passing on a notion of values and teacher

professionalism; and to improve teachers‘ self-efficacy we need to provide teachers with the

ability to believe in themselves. Just as we need to change the beliefs and understandings of

students if we want them to improve their level of learning, school leaders need to change the

beliefs and understandings of teachers to manage this process. Essentially for every student to

improve their level of achievement, then every teacher must believe that every student has the

capability to learn and must have the understanding of how best to promote that. It is one or the

other of these two factors that seems to be missing for many teachers and is currently curtailing

changes in student achievement. The leadership imperative of the future is to move towards a

universal set of beliefs and understandings on the part of teachers that will lead to positive

outcomes and relationships for every student.



School Leadership

Finally, if we are to be successful in our attempt to achieve universal student success,

then we also need to rethink the way in which school leaders do their business and work with

those around them to ensure high levels of student attainment. The table below provides some

tentative first thoughts on these issues.




For Educational Leadership

International recognition that the

role of the school leader is

becoming increasingly important

in establishing the conditions of

high levels of student learning.

Leaders now have to respond to

rapidly changing economic,

social and environmental

conditions.


of management that promote

instructional leadership,

including the need to understand

the law, finance, policy, data

analysis and personnel

development.

Recognition that an outstanding leader

relies upon the people that he works with

and that managing the school can only be

successful if team leadership and

relationship skills are also developed.

Leaders think and act strategically to

develop appropriate actions that support

school, student and staff development

As a consequence of these changes, we also need to rethink how school leaders are

trained in the future. Leadership preparation has come under some recent attacks, especially in

the United States and it is now necessary for universities involved in the development of

aspiring, new and seasoned school leaders to rethink the necessary approaches for them to be at

the forefront of school developments.




For Leadership Preparation

Recognition that the job of

school leader is now too

complex and difficult for a

single person to achieve. There

are now a number of

international research activities

comparing school leadership in

various countries. Changing

technology and demographic

conditions make the task of

school leadership increasingly

complex.

Formal educational leadership

preparation programs focus on

developing school leaders that

are capable of operating within

the school system that trains

them. Training is mostly

associated with preparing formal

school leaders that manage their

schools and the operations

within them.

School leadership programs offer

opportunities for a range of leadership

development activity from junior staff to

senior leaders in an effort to both spread

the responsibility for leading the school

and to establish a succession planning

model in schools. School leaders are

trained to think strategically about how

best to ensure universal student success.

These issues point to a more complex approach to school leadership than just ―managing‖

schools. Bogotch and Townsend (2008, p. 1) argue that true leadership is artistry and they

characterise this as the place where the ―what‖ and the ―how‖ of school leadership come

together.

The ―what‖ in this instance is the knowledge required to do the job well. It is ―knowing‖ about

curriculum, about management, about human relations and about the various factors, both inside

and outside the school, that are required to keep those within the school, students, teachers and

others, safe and productive. However, it is only when this ―knowing‖ is joined by the ―how‖ that

school leadership is successful. The ―how‖ in this instance is the set of processes used by the



school leader to communicate, implement, evaluate and relate the knowledge base to those with

whom the leader interacts, together with the attitudes and values that are shared between both

leader and followers. We would argue that the practice of educational leadership is artistry, when

these two factors come together in a way that promotes both simultaneously.

Making teachers flexible, adaptable and professional becomes a challenge for both

teacher educators and school leaders. To do this we need to provide what Southworth (2000)

calls the nutrients for a productive teacher culture:

being valued

being encouraged

being noticed

being trusted

being listened to

being respected

The success or otherwise of the task ahead of us will depend on our ability to build a

school environment where the nutrients are maximised every day. We can start by promising to

ourselves that in the next week I will value at least one teacher, I will encourage at least one

teacher, and so on. But we also need to have teachers understand that they must be involved in

the activity too. They too, should value, encourage, notice, trust, listen to, and respect the people

they work with . . . other teachers, parents, students, and school administrators. If this can

happen, the future of education will be made more positive than it is now. The building of

relationships will become the leader‘s role in the school of tomorrow. In order to do this we need

to know how people feel.

The way in which school leaders go about their task will be critical to the way in which

schools develop in the future. There are three dimensions to human relationships, the way in

which we interact, the content of the interaction, and the circumstances in which the interaction

occurs (see Figure 1).

FIGURE 1 Leader behaviours and teacher responses



The interaction can occur by one person either asking the other one something, or

alternatively telling them something. The interaction can be about individual facts or pieces of

information or it can be about the broader processes or concepts we use as human beings, and it

can be either in a supportive atmosphere or an oppositional atmosphere. The situation is usually

instigated in educational circumstances by the person in a powerful position. It might be the

principal working with a teacher or it might be a teacher working with a student. Depending on

the circumstances of the initial action, the reaction by the other person will follow.

Table 3 provides a tentative breakdown of the types of interactions that can be initiated

and the responses that are likely to emerge from that interaction. It is likely that school leaders

will spend some of their time in each of these different situations over the course of a school

week (and so will teachers with their students). So, for instance, if the principal tells a teacher

what to do in a confrontational way and the task is something very specific, then all the teacher

gets to do is memorize the task and the principal is made happy. There may be times when this is

appropriate, where for instance the teacher has failed to comply with a very specific

departmental regulation. From another perspective, if the principal asks the teacher questions

about ways in which processes or concepts are associated with the teaching task and provides the

teacher with support and feedback to assist them, then the likely outcome will be a better

understanding by teachers of how to do their jobs.

Management Leadership approach Content focus Teacher response

Leader asking Leader supporting Focus on concepts/processes Understanding

Leader asking Leader supporting Focus on facts/tasks Knowledge

Leader asking Leader managing Focus on concepts/processes Self-doubt

Leader asking Leader managing Focus on facts/tasks Guilt

Leader telling Leader supporting Focus on concepts/processes Self-Belief

Leader telling Leader supporting Focus on facts/tasks Clarity

Leader telling Leader managing Focus on concepts/processes Unquestioned belief

Leader telling Leader managing Focus on facts/tasks Memorisation

Table 3 Leader Behaviour and Teacher Response.

Over time, if the majority of successive interactions by the principal uses one or the other

of these methods, then the brain research tells us that the likely response from teachers will

become habitual. In the long term, when a person is consistently told what to do, where the

knowledge base is very limited or specific and the environment of the interaction is negative or

confrontational, the likely outcome is, at the worst, insubordination of some kind, and at the best,

defiant compliance. Alternatively, if a leader spends a lot of time asking questions about issues

related to changing processes or developing peoples‘ concepts of what is possible, in a

supportive environment, the longer-term outcome will be cooperative learning and positive

progress in their school.

If we are to move to the next level of performance in education, where all people

involved in the activity become learners, then we will have to start thinking and acting in a

different way. We need to recognise that education is essentially a human activity and to do it

successfully we need to develop those crucial human skills that have helped mankind, over the

centuries, to progress to higher levels. When we think of what we have accomplished over the

centuries in human development, we have to ask ourselves the question: Why haven‘t we

achieved universal human success in education? Edison made the comment when asked about

his conquering of the electric bulb: It was not that I failed 99 times, it was just that I found 99



ways of not making it work. His perspective was one that we need to adopt. We have learned so

many ways in which some people can be successful, and we need to keep searching for that one

way in which everyone can be.

References

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International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement, Barcelona, Spain, January, 2005)

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Beare, H. (1998) ‗Enterprise: The new Metaphor for Schooling in a Post-Industrial Society‘ in Townsend, T. The

Primary School in Changing Times: The Australian Experience, London and New York: Routledge.

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Questions for School Leaders and Educational Researchers, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam and Taiwan, p 3-

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th Annual

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Southworth, G. (2000) ‗Leading and Improved Pedagogy: International Perspectives‘. A keynote paper presented at

the PDN School Leaders Conference, Surfers Paradise, July. Retrieved November 7 2005 from

http://www.pdn.asn.au/confs/2000/2000.htm

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Primary School in Changing Times: The Australian Experience, London and New York: Routledge.

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http://www.pdn.asn.au/confs/2000/2000.htm


Reference # 3

Topic # 2

Quality assurance and accreditation

in Jordanian higher education institutions Majed Abu-Jaber [email protected]

Moh‘d Walid Batsh [email protected]

Higher Education Accreditation Commission, Jordan

Quality assurance in higher education, aims to maintain and raise the quality of education. The

aim of the quality assurance and accreditation in higher education is to guarantee the improvement

of standards and quality in higher education. It enables the institution to get the necessary input,

refine the processes and raise the standards of its output, in order to meet the previously defined

goals and the needs of students, employers and financiers.

This paper discusses issues of accreditation and quality assurance with Jordan‘s higher

education institutions, focusing primarily on the need for accreditation and quality assurance in

Jordanian higher education, the historical development of accreditation and quality assurance

practices, the establishment of the Higher Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC),

standards and procedures of quality assurance carried out by HEAC, principles underlying

Jordan‘s system of accreditation and quality assurance, quality assurance and improvement plans,

the weaknesses and strengths with the current accreditation and quality. The paper concludes with

some recommendations for improving quality assurance in Jordanian higher education institutions.

Introduction

Comprehensive quality in higher education is considered to be one of the pillars in the

development of education. It is closely connected to the elements of the educational processes

(students, teaching staff, programs, teaching methods, labs computers, etc.). Quality in higher

education is important especially in this era, given that our world is witnessing the opening of

new, undiscovered pathway leading to various channels of knowledge that affect our lives in one

way or another. The changing structure and delivery of higher education includes new types of

educational institutions and the use of distance learning. These new realities and the growing

demand for increased accountability and transparency to government, consumers and the general

public, require new solutions related to the performance of higher education (Daly, 1994).

The accreditation process, while responding to institutional and programmatic interests,

can play a major role by changing the accreditation standards and placing a strong emphasis on

performance outcomes, especially student learning outcomes-- since the latter may not be

equipped to respond to the demands of this new environment. Fortunately, there has been

significant progress and some success in improving accreditation. The new emphasis on

measuring student learning prompted efforts by accreditation agencies to rewrite their standards

for review and to include new standards on learning results. Accreditation criteria have been

redesigned to focus on an outcome-based model, rather than on inputs (e.g., program curricula,

faculty, and facilities).

Accreditation is considered the cornerstone to achieving quality assurance. Stakeholders

have a range of expectations pertaining to quality outcomes in higher education. Educational

institutions are setting policies and practices aimed at enhancing and assuring the quality of their

core business – teaching and learning (Fiona & Alex, 2002).




The purpose of this paper is to trace and examine the development of the quality

assurance and accreditation system implemented by Jordan Higher Education Accreditation

Commission (HEAC). It also studies the vital role the HEAC plays in an era of globalization,

with the purpose of ensuring that the quality of education in Jordanian higher education

institutions meets the standards. This paper points out the weaknesses and the strengths with the

current quality assurance and accreditation procedures in Jordan.

A Background

Jordan has made significant progress with its higher education institutions, a fact that is

reflected in the sharp increase of public and private higher education institutions over the last

four decades. This progress has been serving the needs of ambitious young individuals aspiring

to advance in the highly saturated job market by gaining a competitive edge at home as well as

abroad. Consequently, quality and excellence in such institutions are paramount. Accreditation is

the focal point, as it lays the foundation for quality and excellence. The concern for quality

assurance and accreditation in higher education in Jordan began with the establishment of the

first university fifty years ago. This concern has continued to grow due to the increased number

of higher education institutions. In fact, there are at present 10 public universities, 21 private

universities, and 54 community colleges. This increase was a response to an increase in student

enrolment. In fact, the number of students in Jordanian universities has grown from (34,000) in

1990 to nearly (244,794) in 2009 (HEAC, 2009). The expansion of the higher education system

is also reflected in the large number of undergraduate and graduate programs. There is now 1142

specializations in the undergraduate and graduate programs (791) are offered by public

universities, and (351) by private universities. A recent and projected downturn in enrolments

has led to a marked imbalance between supply and demand for higher education sector and has

increased the need for a more effective means of assuring academic standards as well as effective

institutional management and governance.

It‘s a shared view among stakeholders in Jordan that the uncontrolled expansion of higher

education institutions especially, at the private sector, has affected the quality of education and

compromised the credibility of the system. There was a national consensus in the early nineties

to establish a national quality assurance to guarantee a minimum level of quality for the existing

undergraduate and graduate programs. Thus, and as a guarantee for a minimum standard of

quality and excellence, legislation was promulgated in 1998 to establish the Accreditation

Council (AC). Its primary focus was private universities. The reason behind why public

universities were not subject to accreditation was a matter of concern, particularly as their

enrollment continued to exceed capacity levels and issues of quality became major.

Public and private pressure heightened the demand on universities and concerned public

officials to achieve international standards toward Jordan becoming a regional/global center for

higher education delivery. To that end, in June of 2007, the (AC) was dissolved, and the Higher

Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC) was established in 2007 following law #20.

To ensure that HEAC is financially and administratively an independent entity, a

modified law was issued August 2nd,

2009. HEAC‘s Council consists of a president, a vice-

president, two full-time, and three part-time members, all of whom are of high academic and

administrative qualifications. In addition, HEAC has 47 full staff members to carry out its duties.

HEAC‘s Vision is to bring Jordanian higher education institutions up to international

competitiveness, whereas it‘s Mission is to elevate Jordanian higher education institutions‘

Abu Jaber & Batsh: Quality assurance and accreditation in Jordan


performance and reinforcing their competitive capabilities to reach national, regional and

international levels, as well as guaranteeing the implementation of accreditation and quality

criteria to ensure the achievement of their objectives. Its‘ aims are raising the status of higher

education in the Kingdom through:

Assuring its quality.

Motivating higher education institutions to interact with national and international

universities and scientific research centers as well as international accreditation and quality

control commissions.

Developing higher education through incorporating internationally comparable standards.

HEAC helps provide public assurance that the quality and standards of higher education

are being safeguarded and enhanced, by conducting academic reviews of higher education

processes. In addition, it encourages higher education institutions to build their own manpower

to ensure and control their inputs, processes and learning outcomes.

The scope of HEAC‘s jurisdiction encompasses:

Mandate over private and public universities, including all and any foreign higher education

institutions affiliated with Jordanian universities.

Responsibility for the National Testing Center, which designs and conducts, standardized

tests in all fields.

The advancement of sound means and methods to ensure that higher education institutions

are in full compliance with all its regulations.

Importance of the study

The importance of the study is as follows:

To evaluate HEAC experience in implementing accreditation and quality assurance standards

used on Jordanian higher education institutions. This will help HEAC make the necessary

decisions and take the required actions and steps to reform, modify, and develop its procedures

and standards.

To expose HEAC‘s experience of accreditation and quality assurance system, procedures, and

standards in order to help other Arab and regional countries.

To diagnose the weak and strong points of accreditation and quality assurance system,

procedures, and standards.

To help other countries benefit from Jordan‘s experience in the area of accreditation and quality

assurance in the higher education institutions.

Statement of the Problem

This study aimed at tracing, reviewing and examining the development of the quality

assurance and accreditation system implemented by Jordan Higher Education Accreditation

Commission (HEAC). It also aimed at recommending a future quality assurance and



accreditation system that meets the standards for quality assurance in the world higher education

institutions. In specific, this study tried to answer the following questions:

1. What quality assurance and accreditation practices are currently being used in Jordan Higher

education institutions?

2. What are the major difficulties, strengths and weaknesses of the various quality assurance

practices?

3. What are the recommendations that should be taken into account in order to develop the

quality assurance practices in Jordan higher education institutions?

Methodology

The qualitative research methodology is implemented to collect the data needed. In

specific, case studies are examined in order to meet the purpose of this paper. This method is

selected as an empirical method of inquiry to investigate the Jordanian quality assurance within

its real-life context, and allows for multiple sources of evidence to be used.

Data Sources and Collection

Multiple sources of evidence are used in order to get the needed data. The researchers

have collected the data from the available documents of accreditation and quality assurance

practices at HEAC and from Jordanian higher education institutions. Open interviews with the

people in charge of accreditation and quality assurance in Jordanian institutions were conducted,

as well as focus group interviews with the staff of HEAC who are implementing the

accreditation and quality assurance standards.

In order to respond rapidly to the country‘s needs, HEAC has developed its own

standards of quality assurance. It has set these procedures and strategies in a manner which

allows them to be applied to Jordanian institutions. In 2009, HEAC issued a guiding manual for

these standards and procedures, and distributed it to all Jordanian higher education institutions.

HEAC is taking the lead at a national level due to the procedures it is performing to

obtain quality assurance in higher education.

HEAC‘s monitors its accreditation criteria and standards on higher education institutions

by implementing the following processes:

1. Institutional (General) Accreditation: A series of auditing and evaluative steps focusing on

the institution as a whole, including its infrastructure, human resources both the academic as

well as the administrative levels. It relates to the achievement of the institutional mission and

objectives. It focuses on faculty members and teaching staff, area of the land and the

functional space, classrooms, library, admission and registration.

2. Program (Special) Accreditation: A series of auditing and evaluative procedures focused on a

degree - granting program within an institution of higher education, which is discipline -

related preparing professionals for special occupations. It relates to professional expectations

and requirements for entry and practice in a field. It focuses on program objectives, teaching

plan, faculty members and staff, textbooks, journals, dictionaries & encyclopedias,



laboratories & workshops (if applicable), tools & instructional materials, general

requirements/administration and students.

Accreditation is a series of auditing and evaluative procedures and criteria aiming at

guaranteeing minimum quality requirements in higher education and proposing implementation

steps to ensure elevating the teaching and learning process and outcomes to enhance competing

in domestic and international job market. They consist of the minimum quality requirement for

the educational process. Accreditation Criteria have been developed on the principles of

continuous quality improvement and focus on the educational process as a whole. The principles

of this approach rest on an underlying philosophy of quality which has implications for processes

which need to be in place within the institution.

Quality Assurance (QA)

The rapid development in the number of higher education institutions, particularly in the

Private sector seemed to affect the quality of education and raised the need for establishing a

national quality assurance system that is based on systematic management and assessment

procedures that are adopted to monitor performance and to ensure or to improve the achievement

of specified quality. Quality assurance of higher education institutions in Jordan has been based

on HEAC‘s enabling laws. It is a process of recognizing educational institutions for

performance, integrity and quality that entitles them to the confidence of the educational

community and the public. HEAC quality assurance system focuses on three stages.

First stage: Self- study evaluation

Require the institutions to examine their own goals, procedures, achievements, etc. …It

assesses every aspect of the institution, including faculty members, staff, students, administration

and the governing board. It allows institutions to systematically analyze their systems for

variance (objectives <-> outcome), make decisions based on fact, consciously define their

organization‘s internal and external stakeholders and actively seek input from both. It is a

learning system that leads to continuous improvement of quality.

HEAC expects that each Jordanian institution is responsible for ensuring integrity in all

its procedures dealing with its constituencies, and relationships with other institutions in general,

and HEAC in particular when providing it with information, data etc. … It also expects full

cooperation from the institution during all aspects of the evaluation process. HEAC looks at the

self-evaluation study as the most significant part of the quality assurance process. In addition, it

expects the institutions to assess students‘ achievements regarding the programs and services

offered to fulfill its educational objectives.

The aim of the self-evaluation study required by HEAC in order to obtain the quality

assurance certificate is to understand, evaluate, and improve not merely to defend what already

exists. The self-evaluation study is viewed by HEAC as an ongoing process to:



Examining and analyzing the institutions‘ resources and their effectiveness in fulfilling its

mission.

Demonstrate that students‘ achievements are commensurate with the certificates and degree

awarded.

Apprise the relation of all institution‘s activities to its purpose.

Provide a sound basis of institutional planning and improvement.

Second stage: Peer – Reviews

A review that is done by fellow experts from relevant academic fields. It involves

investigating the information the institution in question has provided to HEAC. The number of

reviewers depends on the characteristics of the concerned institutions and the scope of its

programs and services.

Third stage: The decision of the Commission

It may include:

Accreditation

Postponement until corrective action is completed

Accreditation not granted

A percentage score is given based on the findings.

The score is used by HEAC to determine whether or not the institution is to receive financial

or recognition rewards.

This is followed by commendations for accomplishments and recommendations for

improvements from HEAC‘s Council.

Since the status of the accreditation and quality assurance is reviewed periodically,

institutions are encouraged to have continuous evaluations and implement improvements. The

quality assurance process implemented by HEAC is intended to:

1. Foster excellence in higher education institutions through the development of criteria and

guidelines for assessing educational effectiveness.

2. Encourage institutional improvements through continuous self-evaluation.

3. Ensure the educational community, the general public, other agencies and organizations that

the concerned institution has clear defined and appropriate educational objectives, has

established conditions under which their achievement can reasonably be expected, appears in

fact to be substantially accomplishing them, organized, have competent staff, and supported

that it can be expected to continue to do so.

4. Provide advices and assistance to establish and develop institutions.

5. From the point view of HEAC, the effectiveness of the self-regulatory of quality assurance

depends on Jordanian institution‘s acceptance of certain responsibilities, including

involvement in and commitment to the quality assurance process. Jordanian institutions are

expected to conduct an analytical self-evaluation study at the interval specified by HEAC

(from 1- 2 years), and at the end of the self-evaluation study, accept peer assessment

concerning the institutions‘ strengths and weaknesses in regard to HEACs criteria and

standards.



In doing the self- evaluation study, the institution should pay attention to the twelve

criteria set by HEAC. They are as follows:

First Criterion: Vision, Mission, & Objectives

Second Criterion: Educational Programs and their Effectiveness

Third criterion: Students

Fourth Criterion: Faculty Members

Fifth Criterion: Scholarships, Grants, Scientific Research, and Creativity

Sixth Criterion: Library and Information Resources

Seventh Criterion: Governance & Administration

Eight Criterion: Financial Resources

Ninth Criterion: Physical Resources

Tenth Criterion: Institutional Integrity

Eleventh Criterion: Community Interaction

Twelfth Criterion: Quality Assurance Management (QAM)

In order to implement the above QA criteria, a rubric is applied. In building the rubrics

three criteria were considered:

1- Design 2- Implementation 3- Effectiveness

In responding to HEAC‘s requirements, institutions need to set some policies,

regulations, and processes to assure and enhance the quality of their educational programs. And

to develop a fully integrated quality assurance system based on a set of the institution prescribed

vision, mission, objectives, and principles for a quality assurance framework aimed at enhancing

and assuring the quality of educational programs. This system should focus on:

Studying the status quo of the university environment including faculties, departments,

programs, students, etc… The management structure of the faculty must be identified (heads,

deans, associate deans, academic and research & development, etc.) and their roles and

responsibilities must be set. In addition, each program must be managed by a Program Team

(PT) under the leadership of a Program Leader (PL). The PT consists of the staff responsible

for the day-to-day management and facilitation.

Describing the tasks, roles, and responsibilities of teams and individuals.

Identifying the opportunities and challenges that the changes presented from a faculty

perspective.

Describing the strategies used to achieve the goals and conclude with an analysis of the

successful factors.

Commitment from the faculty and all employees to ensuring success.

A Program Quality Assurance (PQA) must be designed to ensure the quality system for

all educational programs offered by the institution nationally and internationally. It should be

framed by a set of guiding principles which include a list of criteria against which program

quality is determined and a process for program accreditation. These guiding principles should

include a holistic review of programs as well as a thoughtful and critical approach to the review



itself, taking into account the changes in the environment that have impact on them. In addition,

a commitment to meeting the requirements of HEAC, an alignment between initial accreditation,

ongoing program improvement and reaccreditation, regular reporting against specified criteria

and external validation. Such criteria should be developed by various groups working closely

with consultants and experts on quality assurance. These should include:

The need for the program.

Educational design including graduate capabilities and alignment between objectives.

Equity including access to programs and support.

Management including processes and documentation.

Resources including staff capabilities and specialized facilities.

Evaluation and maintenance including ongoing review of programs.

Stakeholder requirements including the needs of professional accrediting bodies to support

the quality assurance aspects.

Strategies and Actions

To achieve a successful development and change of the PQA, a series of steps must be

taken by the institution:

Step 1. Establishing a sense of awareness and urgency

Step 2. Forming a powerful guiding coalition

Step 3. Creating a vision, and a mission

Step 4. Communicating the vision

Step 5. Empowering others to act on the vision

Step 6. Planning for and creating short-term wins

Step 7. Consolidating improvements and producing change

Step 8. Institutionalizing new approaches

The strategy and outcomes must be communicated internally, to all levels within the

Faculty and externally, and to relevant central committees and units within the institution.

Results

1. The findings for question 1, ―what quality assurance and accreditation practices are currently

being used in Jordan Higher education institutions?‖, are included in the background of the

study.

2. Findings for question 2, ―what are the major difficulties, strengths and weaknesses of the

various quality assurance practices?‖ After the researchers have completed a review of the

documents of accreditation and quality assurance practices at HEAC, and the open interviews

with the key persons in charge of accreditation and quality assurance in Jordanian

universities, and the focus group interviews with the staff of HEAC who are implementing

the accreditation and quality assurance standards, they came to the following strengths and

weaknesses of the accreditation and quality assurance practices:



A. The strengths of the Jordanian quality assurance and accreditation system and

practices are summarized as follows:

The establishment of a self-evaluation culture: The accreditation and quality assurance

processes have contributed to the build-up of a self-evaluation culture at the higher education

institutions. A number of Jordanian institutions have developed their own internal quality

assurance systems as a result of HEAC‘s regulations, standards and procedures.

The methodological model of quality assurance and accreditation applied by HEAC is in

principle appropriate to control the quality of the Jordanian higher education institutions, and

this model is in compliance with the world standards and practices of accreditation and

quality assurance.

The Jordanian model comprises most items and characteristics of European, American, and

Australian models. It includes self-evaluation, external review by external experts etc. …

It is a comprehensive model that deals with all higher education institutions such as public

and private universities, and community colleges.

B. The major difficulties and weaknesses of Jordan accreditation and quality assurance

system include the followings:

The limited staff capacity at HEAC, consequently, the technical and support staff are still not

adequate.

Lack of quality assurance culture within the institution leading to a small back- up of

initiatives on this area.

The reliance on national experts: There is a difficulty of finding a sufficient number of

experts who are qualified and available to serve as peer reviewers. The use of experts peer

reviewers creates a positive learning effect and contributes to creating a culture of quality.

Lack of human resources to carry out the process of improvement (weak human capacity).

The lack of appropriate trained personnel in institutions of higher education who are involved

in the accreditation and quality assurance processes especially in collecting data, information

and self- analysis needed for effective self-studies. People do not know where to start,

because they considered that this can be solved by a training course.

Lack of material resources (limited funding): The lack of resources is perceived as posing a

serious threat to the successful outcome of the self-assessment in Jordan universities.

Lack of commitment from the institution administrators as well as faculty members.

Difficulty in implementing improvement actions, and lack of staff commitment.

People in charge of quality assurance offices in institutions are not competent in quality

assurance issues. Or they do not have the power or the authority to make decisions.

In answering the third question, what are the recommendations that should be taken into

account in order to develop the quality assurance practices in Jordan higher education

institutions? Institutions should:

Identify improvement actions and implement such actions, in order to improve the quality of

the service.

Gain increased knowledge of the quality philosophy, and spread the quality assurance culture

among all staff and employees.



Encourage staff involvement in service improvement and staff awareness of the importance

of quality assurance.

Enhance employees‘, general public, and stakeholders‘ awareness of the importance of

quality.

References

Daly, W. T. (1994). ―Teaching and scholarship: Adapting American higher education to hard times.‖ Journal of

Higher Education, 65, 45-57

Elton, L. (1992). Quality enhancement and academic professionalism. The New Academic, 1, 3-5.

Fiona W. & Alex R. (2002). Using quality assurance to drive a teaching and learning agenda: Taking a risk, meeting

the challenge.

Higher Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC). (2009). A guide to accreditation and quality assurance

criteria in institutions of higher education. Amman, Jordan: Jordan University Press.

Hope, A. (2001). Building capacity for quality. INQAAHE, Conference on quality, standards and recognition.

Manila, B. (2009). Quality assurance in Philippine higher education; Lessons Learned.(Opinion/Editorial).Retrieved

August 23, 2009 from HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-76827606.html

Obnami, M. (2001). New development of quality assurance of Japanese universities: The growing importance of the

role of JUAA. INQAAHE, Conference on quality, standards and recognition.

Schray, V. (2005). Assuring quality in higher education: Recommendations for improving accreditation. A National

Dialogue. Fourteenth in a series of issue papers released at the request of Chairman Charles Miller to inform

the work of the commission. The Secretary of Education‘s Commission on the Future of Higher Education.

USA.

Yang, Rui. (2009). Global perspectives on quality in higher education. (Globalization and education: The quest for

quality education in Hong Kong) (Book Review).‖ Australian Journal of Education. Australian Council for

Educational Research. 2003. Retrieved August 30, 2009 from HighBeam Research:

http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-110731330.html.

http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-76827606.html



Reference # 5

Topic # 1

Fostering motivation of student teachers through self-assessment Mohamed Ismail Abu-Rahmah [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Salma Hamed Al-Humaidi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of some self-assessment techniques on the

motivation and involvement of student teachers of English at SQU. Seven self- assessment

techniques were applied to an intact group of 48 student teachers of English in the College of

Education in 2008. For measuring the effect of these techniques, two other self-assessment tools

were used: (1) the teacher-designed feedback form, and (2) the chain-notes technique. It was found

that the self-assessment techniques helped improve and foster the motivation of the student

teachers and raised the extent of involvement and participation in the classroom.

Introduction

The term self-assessment has been defined and assigned many pedagogical benefits by a

large number of specialists, e.g., Richards and Schmidt (1985), Dickinson (1987), El Jawhari

(1988), Oscarson (1989), Butler & Winne (1995), Harris (1997), Black & William (1998),

Gardner (1999), Carr (2002), Toppings (2003), Harlen & Winter (2004), Harvey (2004), Purtić

and Sad (2006), Aeginitou et al (2007), Carless (2007), Finch 2008, and Tan (2008).

In their Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, Richards

and Schmidt (1985:475), for example, define self-assessment (or self-evaluation) as ―checking

one‘s own performance on a language learning task after it has been completed or checking

one‘s own success in using a language… [It] is an example of a metacognitive strategy in

language learning‖. Dickinson (1987) considers learning how to assess oneself as an important

educational objective because: (1) it develops autonomy, (2) it leads towards evaluation which

is important in its own right, (3) it is a kind of training which is beneficial to learning, (4) it is a

necessary part of self-determination, and (5) it is one way of alleviating the assessment burden

on the teacher. El Jawhari (1988) defines self-assessment in language learning as the ability to

test and evaluate one‘s own performance and see how effective the procedure is, then decide

whether to go on to the next task or exercise or not while practicing the four language skills.

Oscarson (1989, as cited by Finch, 2008) provides a strong rationale of self-assessment

procedures in language learning. This includes: (1) promotion of learning, (2) raised level of

awareness, (3) improved goal orientation, (4) expansion of range of assessment, (5) shared

assessment burden, and (6) beneficial post-course effects. Butler & Winne (1995) claim that self-

assessment is a key to learning (added emphasis).

In the light of the definitions above and according to Richards and Schmidt (1985: 23),

self-assessment is considered a type of alternative assessment which, as shown in Figure (1)

below, incorporates ―various types of assessment procedures that are seen as alternatives or

complements to traditional standardized testing…Procedures used in alternative assessment

include self-assessment, peer assessment, portfolios, learner diaries or journals, student–teacher

conferences, interviews, and observation‖.



Figure (1): The relationship between self-assessment and other forms of assessment Source: Adapted from Richards and Schmidt (1985: 23)

As shown in Figure (1) above, self assessment is considered an important type of

alternative assessment. It can be argued that it is the most important type because it is connected

with the reflective approach commonly adopted in training and professional development of

individuals. In addition, as will be shown in the empirical studies reviewed below, it has positive

effects on many pedagogical variables such as achievement, learner autonomy, self-efficacy,

motivation, etc.

Holec (1987, as cited in Gardner, 1999) makes a connection between self-assessment and

autonomy, defining autonomy as the ability to take charge of one‘s learning. Based on this

definition, self-assessment has become a tool which supports those with that ability. Autonomous

learners decide what to learn, when to learn and how to learn. Self assessors decide what to

assess, when to assess it and how to assess it. Autonomous learners take responsibility for their

learning and this includes taking responsibility for monitoring their progress. Harris (1997:15)

considers self-assessment as a practical tool for making students more active, assisting them to

learn how to communicate in another language, activating autonomous language learning, and

enabling them to perceive and monitor their progress and relate learning to individual needs.

Students, he argued, are often passive in their approach to learning, and may become

demotivated

if they cannot see any clear progress. Self-assessment

produces learners who are more

motivated, active, focused, and better placed to assess their own progress and it, to use Harris‘

exact words, ―encourages the student to become part of the whole process of language learning and to be aware of individual progress‖. Black and William (1998) indicate that self-assessment

is not an interesting option or luxury, it is essential for learning. Topping (2003) argues that self-

assessment is an active participation in learners‘ learning and is a continuous longitudinal

process.

In line with Dickinson (1987), Holec (1987), and Harris (1997), Harvey (2004) defines

self-assessment as a process of self-reflection in which the quality of one‘s own performance is

critically reviewed. However, he expands it to incorporate not only the individual, but also the

institution or sub-institutional unit being reviewed and the preparation of a report document

which reflects that assessment. In a case as such, self-assessment is used interchangeably with

self-evaluation and self-study in the context of higher education.

Classroom Assessment

Traditional Assessment Alternative Assessment

Peer-Assessment

Observations

Learner Diaries/

Journals

Self- Assessment

Interviews

Student-Teacher

Interaction

Abu-Rahmah & Al-Humaidi: Fostering motivation of student teachers


Another simple definition of self-assessment is given by Purtić and Sad (2006) in the

form of four questions: Where am I and what do I know? Where do I want to go? How can I get

there? What else do I need to know? They argue that if we think of learning as a never-ending

process, then our students should be aware of that by involving them, making them more

responsible for the results of their work, and motivating them. This can be done, if students

practice self-assessment and make it a habit.

Aeginitou et al (2007) sum up the benefits of self-assessment in six points. These are: (1)

monitoring of learning and progress, (2) setting goals for the future, (3) encouraging

responsibility for learning, (4) promoting critical thinking, (5) constructing and reconstructing

knowledge, and (6) bridging the gap between high and low achievers. Very recently, Tan (2008)

considers self-assessment as a practice and as a goal in higher education and argues that it has

the potential to enhance and further students‘ lifelong learning.

In a presentation given at Hong Kong University, Carless (2007, citing Butler & Winne,

1995 and Black & William, 1998) defines self-assessment and numerates its pedagogical

benefits which include helping students to learn better, monitoring their progress as they learn,

adapting their learning strategies, and making them less dependent on the teacher and more

prepared for lifelong learning. In addition to these benefits, Gardner (1999) lists some other

benefits of self-assessment such developing individualization in learning, breeding confidence,

and enhancing learners‘ motivation. What is important about Gardener‘s list is that it includes a

benefit to do with institutions, not students. It is called ―accreditation‖. He argued that self-

assessment (or what is called self-study when used in that sense) is a tool towards accreditation,

which can be of benefit to institutions. It provides the evidence for the appropriate use of

resources, e.g. funds, equipment and teachers‘ time.

Studies on Self-assessment

In this section some studies from the related literature are reviewed in order to throw light

on the empirical effectiveness of self-assessment. These studies include Black & William (1998),

Gardner (1999), Wei and Chen (2004), Coronado-Aliegro (2006), Zavistanavičienė et al (2006),

Kavaliauskienė (2007), and Martin (2008).

Black & William (1998) attempted to have a link between self- and peer-assessment, and

formative assessment. The attempt achieved some success with pupils from age 5 upward. The

researchers argued that the link of self-assessment to formative assessment is inevitable and that

the main problem of self-assessment is not a problem of reliability and trustworthiness, but the

lack of a sufficiently clear picture of the targets. Gardner (1999) conducted a workshop whose

goals were to look at the benefits and problems of self-assessment for learners, identify the ways

in which teachers can help learners understand and implement self-assessment, and produce one

or more templates for self-assessment which participants could take away with them. These goals

were achieved because of the ideas and enthusiasm of the participants. Wei and Chen (2004)

conducted a study in which they described how Chinese learners of English at the intermediate

level were supported and guided to effectively assess their own compositions. Coronado-Aliegro

(2006) attempted to investigate the influence of a continuous self-assessment component on the

self-efficacy of undergraduate students studying Spanish as a foreign language. The results

showed that the Spanish undergraduate students‘ self-efficacy seemed to be heightened

significantly more with continuous self-assessment than without it. Zavistanaviciene et al (2006)



adopted self-assessment as an alternative method at the Centre of Foreign Languages, Kaunas

University of Technology (KTU). Results indicated that self-assessment in foreign language

learning is rewarding, meaningful and affective when perceived individually. The researchers

concluded that self-assessment is a practical tool in the university classroom.

In an ESP context at a university in Lithuania, Kavaliauskiene (2007) conducted a survey

on the usefulness of different assignments and learners‘ written reflections. The results

demonstrated that self-assessment was beneficial for learners‘ linguistic development. The study

concluded that reflective practice might help teachers improve the quality of teaching and that

training learners to reflect on learning outcomes is beneficial from the perspective of lifelong

learning. In another study on self-assessment, Martin (2008) argued that one challenge facing

teachers in many language classrooms was helping students move from a traditional testing

culture to self-assessment culture. He hypothesized that self-assessment could enhance students‘

development of language skills and provide them confidence and learning ownership. The

participants of the study were students in university English classes in Taiwan. Martin attempted

to help them plan their learning, develop self-assessment and encourage learner autonomy. The

results of the study showed that the students had mixed reactions to self-assessment. It was

concluded that the students could be aware of the value of self-assessment and its role in the

learning process, if their teachers supported and provided them with the right self-assessment

tool.

So far, we have reviewed some studies adopting self-assessment as an independent

variable with the purpose of measuring its effect on other dependent variables such as formative

assessment, evaluation of students‘ written work, problems and solutions of adopting self-

assessment, self-efficacy, motivation, learner autonomy, linguistic development, development of

language skills, and confidence. In all these studies, it was concluded that self-assessment had

significantly positive effects on the dependant variables, and hence on improving the

teaching/learning process.

Context of the problem

The students in the English major at the College of Education (Sultan Qaboos University)

study a four-credit hour course on methods of teaching English, along with the other pedagogical

courses. The course is divided into a two-hour theoretical part called Methods of Teaching

English 2, and another two-hour practical part called Microteaching 2. The theoretical part

includes topics such as teaching structures, teaching writing, teaching speaking, teaching English

to young learners, etc. While teaching this theoretical part, it was observed that the students were

often passive and did not have the desire to be involved in the class. They were not used to

participation or discussion because lecturing was the dominating mode of instruction in many of

their other courses. Accordingly, it was hypothesized that a motivational variable could be added

to the course through the injection of some self-assessment techniques.



Method

Research design and subjects

This study is a qualitative study which was applied in Fall 2008 to 48 students of English

attending the ELT Methods 2 Course at the College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University.

Thus, the students constituted an intact sample.

Tools of the study

In order to employ self-assessment in the classroom, we needed to develop/adapt some

tools or techniques for helping students practice self-assessment. Thus, nine self-assessment

techniques were adapted from Angelo and Cross (1993). These techniques include:

1. Goal Matching and Ranking 2. Project Prospectus

3. Last Minute Paper 4. Directed Paraphrasing

5. Application Cards 6. Muddiest Point

7. One-Sentence Summary 8. Chain-Notes Technique

9. Teacher-Designed Feedback Form

The nine techniques above are referred to as classroom assessment techniques (CATs).

These techniques are chosen because while adopting and carrying out the various tasks in these

techniques, students are required to employ self-assessment. In the current study, the first seven

techniques are called Self-Assessment CATs. They are used for injecting a motivational and

involvement variable while teaching the various topics of the course, whereas the eighth and

ninth techniques are called Evaluation CATs. They are used at the end of the course for

evaluating the effectiveness of the other self-assessment CATs. Both the Self-Assessment CATs

and the Evaluation CATs are described in detail in the treatment section below.

Treatment, analysis and discussion

The treatment in this investigation incorporates teaching the various parts of the course

using the lecture technique with the injection of the seven self-assessment CATs mentioned

above. In this section, the CATs are described, and the data obtained from applying them are

analyzed and discussed.

CAT (1): Goal matching & ranking

This CAT was applied twice: (1) at the whole course level, and (2) at the lecture level. At

the whole course level, the goal matching and ranking CAT was used once. At the very

beginning of the course (Lecture 1) and before distributing the course description of ELT

Methods 2, the students were formed into eight groups. Then, each student was given a sheet of

paper on which two questions were written: (1) What are your goals for attending this course?

(2) How can you rank them according to their priority and importance? The groups of students

were asked to answer and discuss these two questions in 15 minutes. Then, the instructor drew a

table on the board and wrote the goals dictated by the groups in it. Surprisingly, as shown in



Appendix (1), 19 different goals appeared in the table. These goals were ranked according the

number of ticks in front of each item. As a result of some discussions with the students, it was

found that some of the goals were included in Methods 1 course, but, unfortunately, were not

covered. So, it was suggested that they should be given some focus in Microteaching and the

term papers of students. The remaining goals are to a large extent similar to the ones identified in

the course description except for one goal to do with (content-based instruction). This is

probably due to the pragmatic and practical thread found in the goals identified by the students

and the fact that in the Omani schools, content-based instruction is not practiced.

What was described previously took place at the whole course level. That is, the goals

were identified once at the beginning of Methods 2 course. It is worth mentioning here that the

same CAT was applied at the session/lecture level as well. At the very beginning of one of the

lectures which was specified for teaching structures, a sheet of paper included two questions:

What do you expect me to teach you about structures? How can you rank what you suggest

according to their priority and importance? The same procedures described above were

conducted and ended up, unexpectedly, with a very long list including 29 goals (sub-items) about

teaching structures (See Appendix 2). The list is very inclusive and refers to many dimensions

about grammar such as approaches to teaching grammar, using L1 to explain grammar, grammar

tasks and activities, measuring performance in grammar, grammar sequence, using games for

teaching grammar, the necessity of teaching the grammar found in the textbooks, grammar and

CALL, etc. The list also includes a large number of points about grammar given by the

respondents in question form such as:

1. Should we teach grammar?

2. Do we teach grammar deductively or inductively?

3. What is the sequence of teaching a grammar lesson?

4. What should be done if the grammatical item is not clear despite our explanation?

5. Can we integrate grammar teaching into teaching language skills?

6. What should be done with teachers‘ grammatical mistakes while teaching?

7. Should we use L1 while explaining grammar?

8. Should we start with teaching simple grammar and then move to difficult items?

9. How can we evaluate students‘ performance in grammar?

10. How can we improve students‘ weakness at grammar?

Looking critically at the students‘ responses would indicate that the students were aware

of the current approaches which do not advocate direct teaching of grammar including a very

extreme approach represented in the question: Should we teach grammar? Accordingly, it can be

concluded that the goal matching and ranking CAT was very beneficial because it helped

students to be involved in the classroom discussion and interaction, diagnose their problems, and

identify their real needs, and hence guided the instructors to work towards satisfying those needs.

CAT (2): Project Prospectus

The students formed groups and the members of each group sat down and tried to build a

map/skeleton for their term paper. The skeleton should include students‘ names, title, major

question(s) they hope to answer, type of the project (field work/ library work), work calendar

(how will they spread the work out? when will they do it?), list of major sections, help/ (what do



they need in order to do an excellent job?), and their biggest concern(s) or question(s) about the

term paper. Building this project prospectus helped the students to conduct their term papers

efficiently and skillfully.

CAT (3): Last Minute Paper

The class was stopped two or three minutes early and asked to respond briefly to two

questions: (1) what is the most significant point you have understood in the lecture? (2) What is

the point you still having questions about? The instructor collects the sheets, goes through them

and writes some feedback comments. Then, the sheets were given back to students to have a look

and be ready for discussion the following session. The application of this CAT resulted in many

pedagogical benefits: (1) provided a quick and extremely written feedback about students‘

learning, (2) enabled the instructor to quickly check how well students were learning, (3) helped

decide whether any mid-course corrections were needed, (4) encouraged students to raise

questions, (5) improved skill at paying attention and concentration, and (7) helped student

teachers to learn facts, concepts, principles and theories in the course. Due to all these benefits,

the last minute CAT was used more than once. While responding to the first question found in

this CAT: What is the most significant point you have understood in the lecture? The students

mentioned many important points to do with their professional development. While responding

to the second question of this CAT (What is the point you still having questions about?) students

mentioned some problematic points they encountered throughout the course. Both the instructor

and the students involved in a discussion that ended up with suggestions for tackling such

problematic pints.

CAT (4): The Muddiest Point

In this self-assessment CAT, the students were asked to jot down a quick response to one

question: What was the muddiest point in the lecture? For answering this question the students

provided many difficult or muddy points. They, for example, mentioned that there was not just

one single muddy point; it was the whole Total Physical Response (TPR) approach. While

discussing these points during the following lecture, a large number of students, especially the

males indicated that they were not satisfied with the principles or techniques of the Total

Physical Response as they would not be teachers of young learners. Another muddy point was

the applicability of Desuggestopedia in the Omani schools. Some students were entirely against

that approach, others thought that it could be employed only in high standard private schools,

and still others thought that it could be employed in private language centers. However, the hot

debate ended up with a midway approach. It was just making use of some of its applicable

techniques and principles and not rejecting it entirely. The other muddy points mentioned by

students were discussed, clarified and became no longer muddy. Thus, the muddiest point CAT

provided feedback information about the least clear or most confusing point(s) in the lecture. The

instructor uses that feedback to guide teaching decisions and identify the topics to emphasize and

how much time to spend on each.



CAT (5): The Application Cards

In order to apply this self-assessment CAT, the instructor, after explaining the topic to do

with teaching English to young learners (TEYL), handed out a slip of paper to each group of

students and asked them to write just one application point for what they have covered in the

lecture. After seven minutes, the slips of paper were collected. The students mentioned many

pedagogical points that can be applied and/or made use of while teaching English to young

learners. These include: (1) patience and tolerance while teaching young learners, (2) making

classes bright and cheerful, (3) learning by doing, (4) singing and using games, (5) applying TPR

in the first cycle of Basic Ed. Schools, (6) using rhyme for teaching the alphabet, months of the

year, and numbers, (7) using songs for teaching prepositions, (8) using simple crosswords for

teaching spelling and new vocabulary items, and (9) short tasks for young learners as they have

a short attention and concentration span; if there is a longer task, it should be divided into sub-

tasks. All these application points, however, indicate that the students can assess themselves

critically and can perceive the usefulness of what they have covered, thus bridging the gap

between theory and practice. They also indicate that students can think about possible

applications of the methodological techniques they covered and show them the relevance of what

they are learning. In addition, the use of this cat t helps the instructor to know in a flash how

well students understand the possible applications of what they have learned.

CAT (6): Directed Paraphrasing

This CAT was applied while teaching one of the methodological approaches in the course

called Desuggestopedia. The instructor distributed a sheet of paper to each group. The sheet

included: (1) the rubric of the CAT which required students to summarize and paraphrase (in

their own words) the definition and main principles of the term Desuggestopedia, using simple

and general words as the paraphrase would be directed to a colleague who had not studied any

educational courses, (2) a text about the Desuggestopedia as a methodological approach, and (3)

a space in which students wrote their directed paraphrasing. After finishing the paraphrasing

process, each group was given the opportunity to read out what they have paraphrased. It was

found that the paraphrases include nearly the most important ideas in the original text in a

simple and clear language without the use of very specialized terms. This might probably mean

that the directed paraphrasing CAT is useful and has the potential to help students to sum up or

restate important concepts and principles in the course using their own words. This may also

improve their writing skills.

CAT (7): One-Sentence Summary

One-sentence summary was the 7th

self-assessment CAT used in this study. Due to time

constraints, this CAT was applied only once while teaching a topic called ―Eclecticism‖ which

calls for adopting a multi-dimensional approach for teaching English, not sticking to using one

method. Nearly, towards the end of the lecture, the groups were given a piece of paper and

asked to summarize what they had covered in the lecture into a single informative,

grammatically correct, and long summary sentence. They were prompted to do this through

answering the question (who does what to whom, when, where, how, and why?). The following

are two examples from students‘ responses.



Example One

“The teacher applies techniques from different methods while teaching students in

the classroom in order to make sure that the lesson is understood.”

Example Two

“During one of the afternoon classes, the teacher helps students of grade 5 how to

write a descriptive paragraph about flowers in Oman by taking them to the school

garden and showing them different kinds of flowers in order to make learning funny

and enjoyable.”

If we looked deeply at the two examples above, we would observe that the students were

able to condense and summarize the essence of the eclectic approach in two sentences. The first

is to do with using techniques from different methodological approaches in the classroom in

order to help students learn the language. The second sentence refers to a very important

technique adopted by the teacher. That is, taking students to the field (school garden) to see for

themselves the different flowers in the garden, and to write a descriptive paragraph. Another

important point that can be observed is the ability to produce long informative sentences by

students. This refers to the linguistic and pedagogical effectiveness of the one sentence summary

CAT.

Effectiveness of the self-assessment CATs

In order to measure the effect of the seven self-assessment CATs applied and described

previously on the motivation and involvement of the students participated in the study, two other

self-assessment CATs were used. They were: (1) the chain-notes technique, and (2) the teacher-

designed feedback form. These two techniques are also suggested by Angelo and Cross (1993:

322 & 330). The rational behind suggesting the use of these self-assessment CATs was that the

other standardized forms are too general and it takes months to prepare them, whereas the chain-

notes CAT and the teacher-designed feedback CAT are short, simple, and easy to develop and

apply. They elicit limited, focused responses to very course-specific questions posed by the

instructor. In addition, faculty can quickly and easily analyze data obtained and make

adjustments in their teaching.

Evaluation CAT (1): Chain-notes

In one of the classes towards the end of the course, this evaluation CAT was applied. The

class was allocated for three students‘ presentations entitled: the applicability of

dessuggestopedia to the Omani context, using the eclectic approach to teach some tasks from the

textbook, and teaching English to young learners. Two questions were written on a large

envelope and it was given to students to pass around. The first question was what exactly were

you doing during the minute before this envelope reached you? The second question was what

are you paying attention to? (In other words, what are you learning right now?) . The following

are some of the students‘ responses.



1. ―I was listening to Abeer taking about the definition of Desuggestopedia. I have learned this

definition.‖

2. ―I was listening to the preparation and use of posters. I have known the possibility of

applying Desuggestopedia to the Omani context.‖

3. ―Actually, I was thinking of what to write on the envelope, so I began to focus on the

presentation of my colleague in order to be able to write something. I am learning now that

teacher should be eclectic in terms of the methodological approaches they are adopting.‖

4. ―I was listening to the introduction of the instructor about the chain-notes CAT. I have

learned a useful technique for helping students to concentrate and get involved in the class.‖

5. ―I was writing some notes about the drawbacks of the eclectic strategy in my agenda. I have

learned to be very careful when I adopt the eclectic strategy.‖

6. ―I was listening to a part to do with teaching numbers to young learners. I have learned using

the rhyming technique for teaching numbers to young learners.‖

7. ―I was listening to the instructor commenting on the characteristics of young learners. I

learned how to deal with young learners as they are different from adults.‖

8. ―At the moment I am listening to a technique for teaching vocabulary to young learners. I

have learned that when we introduce a vocabulary item to young learners, we have to join the

article with it, e.g. a horse, an apple, an egg, etc.‖

9. ―I was listening to the presentation of the colleagues, but I did not like the theoretical part

because the instructor covered it in a previous lecture. When they reached the application of

Desuggestopedia to the Omani context I began to pay attention. Now I have learned the

possibility of applying some techniques of this humanistic approach.‖

10. ― I was listening and paying attention to the title of the second presentation: teaching English

to young learners, and asked myself if I was going to teach young learners. Indeed, it would

be a hard job. I have learned some activities for teaching English to young learners such as

the use of songs, games, TPR, draw & color, etc.‖

The students‘ responses displayed in Exhibit (7) above refer to a high level of

involvement and awareness. They also refer to a large extent of informative theoretical and

practical improvement. Response (3), for example, indicates that the student was not paying

attention, but when the envelope approached, s/he began to concentrate in order to write a note in

the envelope. Response (4) also indicates that the student ―was listening to the introduction of the

instructor about the chain-notes CAT‖ and that s/he ―had learned a useful technique for helping

students to concentrate and get involved in the class‖.

Evaluation CAT (2): Teacher-designed feedback form

The second evaluation CAT applied in this investigation was the teacher-designed

feedback. As shown in Appendix (2), it has a closed-ended part including items to do with the

clarity, interest level, and usefulness of the self-assessment CATs used throughout in the study.

These items are found on a 4-point scale. It also has three open-ended questions. Two questions

are about positive and difficult (or negative) things done by the instructor, and the third is about

what students suggest in order to improve learning in the course. This simple teacher-designed

feedback format was administered to 48 students during one of the classes towards the end of the

course. Forty three forms were returned and analyzed descriptively as shown in Table (2) below.



Table (2)

*Descriptive statistics of the 7 self-assessment CATs

The CATS applied throughout Clarity Interest Usefulness

the course Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

1. Directed paraphrasing 3.63 .489 3.49 .631 3.63 .578

2. The muddiest point 3.60 .583 3.35 .613 3.51 .668

3. The application cards 3.47 .702 3.23 .684 3.51 .631

4. One-sentence summary 3.47 .702 3.45 .593 3.51 .668

5. Project prospectus 3.47 .592 3.21 514 3.44 .502

6. Goal matching and ranking 3.28 .549 3.28 .630 3.37 .655

7. The last minute paper 3.14 .608 3.12 .586 3.37 .536

*Number of students 43.

Table (2) above includes the means and standard deviations of the students‘ responses on

the three dimensions of the teacher-designed format. As shown in Appendix (2) the teacher-

designed format has a 4-point scale including three intervals. The continuous values of the

descriptors on this scale are calculated as follows:

1. From 1.00 to less than 1.75 means totally unclear, totally boring and useless.

2. From 1.75 to less than 2.50 means somewhat unclear, boring and not very useful.

3. From 2.50 to less 3.25 means mostly clear, interesting and useful.

4. From 3.25 to 4.00 means very clear, very interesting and very useful.

As shown in Table (2) and according to the values above all the means are between 3.12

and 3.63. This means that the respondents perceive the self-assessment CATs as very clear, very

interesting and very useful or mostly clear, interesting, and useful. There are, however, slight

differences between the perceptions of the respondents towards the seven self-assessment CATs.

The directed paraphrasing CAT, though is challenging as shown in Exhibit (5), is given the

highest means for clarity and usefulness (3.63), whereas, the last minute paper is given the least

means for clarity (3.14) and interest (3.12). This might be due to the high degree of clarity of the

objectives and applications of the directed paraphrasing CAT. It might also be due to the fact

that the directed paraphrasing CAT is a self-study strategy that is used frequently by students,

whereas the instructor uses the last minute paper for checking purposes. Another finding is

displayed in Table (3) below.

Table (3)

Means & standard deviations of the total items on the three dimensions of the teacher-designed format

No. Mean SD

Usefulness of the CATs 43 24.35 2.34

Clarity of the CATs 43 23.98 2.42

Interest level of the CATs 43 23.05 1.88



As shown in Table (3) above, the respondents give the highest mean to the usefulness

dimension (24.35), and the least mean to the interest dimension (23.05). However, the

differences between the three means seem to be slight and statistically insignificant. This might

be due to the pragmatic views of the respondents; they highly perceive the usefulness, clarity,

and interest of the 7 self-assessment CATs.

The second part in the teacher-designed format, as shown in Appendix (2), incorporates

three open-ended questions. The first requests students to mention one or two things that their

instructor did that really helped them learn Methods of Teaching English 2. The respondents

gave useful comments to do with the efficiency of the self-assessment CATs used throughout the

course. These are some examples: ―Using the project prospectus helped me to do the project‖;

―The muddiest point CAT was helpful; it made the instructor revise the points I did not

understand in the course‖; ―Summarizing parts of the course into one sentence is a very

challenging task. .. When I went home I tried it with my roommate‖; ― Distributing a paper at the

beginning of the course and asking us about our needs‖; ―All the CATs we have used are useful‖.

The respondents also mentioned many good points to do with the instructor‘s behavior in the

class such as: ―simplifying the ideas in the course and linking it to the Omani context‖; ―He

always refers to the practical part of the course and the real classroom, which makes things

clearer for us‖; ―Telling real stories from the field‖; ―When students are presenting you asked the

others to take notes, then you choose one student randomly to sum up what has been presented‖,

etc.

The second open-ended question on the teacher-designed format, (see Appendix 2),

requests students to give one or two examples of specific things their instructor did that made it

difficult for them to learn Methods of Teaching English 2. In response to this question, the

students mentioned these significant points:

1. ―Much learning material.‖

2. ―No revision of what we covered in the previous lecture.‖

3. ―The very long time of the lecture. I could not concentrate.‖

4. ―Steps for applying Desuggestopedia are difficult.‖

5. ―It is better to cover a less number of topics.‖

6. ―He talks too much about every point. We need short direct explanation without many

details.‖

7. ―A lot of theories [methodological approaches] to be covered.‖

8. ―Giving more than one topic in the same lecture.‖

As shown from the points above, the students have the ability to self-assess the content of

the course they are covering and the teaching strategies of their instructor. They, for example,

think that in ELT quality is much better than quantity, and hence suggest reducing the content of

the course especially the procedures required for applying dessuggestopedia and the number of

the methodological approaches covered. The students also draw the attention of the instructor to

critical points that might hinder their learning such as beginning the class without revising the

previous lecture, using much theory in teaching, giving detailed explanation.

The third open-ended question on the teacher-designed format requests students to

suggest one or two specific, practical changes their instructor could make in order to help them

improve learning in the course. The students provide a long list including the following:



1. ―We need more time to interact and talk.‖

2. ―Using the muddiest point every lecture. It is very helpful.‖

3. ―Reduce the content a little bit‖

4. ―Giving the students examples just about the different aspects of language they are going to

teach in the future.‖

5. ―Giving students more time for presentation without interruption on the part of the

instructor.‖

6. ―The instructor of the theoretical part should teach the practical part (i.e. Microteaching) in

order to observe the application of what they cover in the theoretical part.‖

7. ―Reducing the topics and learning materials covered‖

8. ―Instead of having presentations and research projects, it is better to have one task only.‖

9. ―Students‘ presentation should not be about topics covered by the instructor in the class.‖

In order to foster the motivation of Student teachers, increase their degree of involvement

in the class, and hence improve the content and instructional procedures of ELT Methods 2, the

points on the list above should be taken into account on the part of the instructor.

Summary and conclusion

The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate the effect of using some self-

assessment techniques on the motivation and involvement of Student teachers at Sultan Qaboos

University. Thus, we reviewed the various definitions of the concept ―self-assessment‖ and the

studies that were conducted in order to investigate its effect on other ELT variables such as

language skills, linguistic competence, self-efficacy, and learner autonomy. As a result, it was

hypothesized that self-assessment can foster the motivation and increase the degree of class

involvement of Student teachers at Sultan Qaboos University. In order to verify this hypothesis,

seven self-assessment CATs were adapted and injected while teaching the ELT Methods 2

course to a group of 48 students. The self-assessment CATs used were: (1) goal matching and

ranking, (2) project prospectus, (3) last minute paper, (4) directed paraphrasing, (5) application

cards, (6) the muddiest point, and (7) the one-sentence summary. In order to measure the

effectiveness of the seven CATs, the students‘ product while carrying out the various tasks in

the course was analyzed. In addition, two other evaluation CATs were applied (the chain-notes

and the teacher-designed format). It was found that self-assessment helped improve and foster

the motivation of the students and raised the extent of involvement and participation in the

classroom, and that the students perceived it as useful and interesting. However, in this study an

important variable has not been investigated. It is the effect of self-assessment on the

achievement of student teachers. This might be the target of an experimental, further study.

Biodata of Dr. Mohamed Ismail Abu-Rahmah

After receiving a PhD in UK in 1997, Dr. Abu-Rahmah was appointed as an assistant

professor of TEFL at Suez Canal University, Egypt. He was granted two scholarships by

Fulbright Commission to receive training in Michigan State University (1990) and University of

Southern California (1999). In 2004, he attended a training program about service learning in



Maryland State University. In 2007, he was promoted to the associate professor rank. He

published 10 research papers, and two CDs. He is interested in classroom assessment techniques

(CATs), methodological approaches, teacher education, task-based language teaching (TBLT),

learner-centered teaching, teaching English to young learners and pedagogical grammar.

Currently, he is an assistant professor of ELT at Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman.

Biodata of Dr. Salma Hamed Al-Humaidi

Dr. Salma did her PhD in the United States in 2002. She is interested in assessment

(traditional and alternative), methods of teaching, practicum, and materials development. She has

published 3 research papers in TEFL. Currently, she is an assistant professor of TEFL at Sultan

Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman.

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Appendix (1)

Goals of ELT Methods 2 as identified by students

Goals* F % Rank

1. How to teach grammar 9 100 1

2. How to teach writing 9 100 1

3. How to teach listening 9 100 1

4. Classroom management 8 89 2

5. Evaluation and testing 7 78 3

6. Lesson planning 6 67 4

7. Teaching speaking 6 67 4

8. Teaching students how to use dictionaries 6 67 4

9. How to adopt continuous assessment 5 56 5

10. Problems of teaching practice 5 56 5

11. Recent approaches in language teaching 5 56 5

12. Relationship between productive and receptive skills 4 44 6

13. How to deal with individual differences 4 44 6

14. Teaching English to Basic Ed, Students 4 44 6

15. Visual aids 3 33 7

16. How to be a good teacher 3 33 7

17. Stating goals 3 33 7

18. Teaching spelling 3 33 7

19. Dealing with school administration 2 22 8

*These are the exact words of the participants without any change.

http://www.espworld.info/Articles_15/ESP_REFLECTIONS_ON_LEARNING.htm

http://www.ccu.edu.tw/fllcccu/2008EIA/zh/C32.pdf

http://www.britishcouncil.org/serbia-elt-newsletter-july-2006-elt_flash-_self-assessment_nada_purtic.doc

http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/07294360701658708

http://www.ceeol.com/



Appendix (2)

Goals of teaching grammar as identified by students

Goals* Freq. % Rank

1. Do we teach grammar deductively or inductively? 9 100 1

2. Effective techniques for teaching grammar 9 100 1

3. What is the sequence of teaching a grammar lesson? 9 100 1

4. Should we teach grammar? 8 89 2

5. Connecting teaching L2 grammar with L1 grammar 8 89 2

6. Teaching grammar found in the EFL Omani textbooks 7 78 3

7. How to plan a grammar task/lesson 7 78 3

8. What should be done if the grammatical item is not clear

despite our explanation? 7 78 3

9. Motivating students to learn grammar 7 78 3

10. Teaching grammar through language 6 67 4

11. Explaining structures with reference to Arabic grammar 6 67 4

12. Strategies for teaching grammar 6 67 4

13. Can we integrate grammar teaching into teaching

language skills? 5 56 5

14. Let us help Ss to read before teaching them grammar 4 44 6

15. What should be done with teachers‘ grammatical

mistakes while teaching? 4 44 6

16. Should we use L1 while explaining grammar? 3 33 7

17. Using technology for teaching grammar 3 33 7

18. How to use games and songs for teaching grammar 2 22 8

19. Different aspects of teaching grammar 2 22 8

20. Teaching grammar gradually 2 22 8

21. Problems of teaching grammar 2 22 8

22. Should we start with teaching simple grammar and then

move to difficult items? 2 22 8

23. How to evaluate students‘ performance in grammar? 2 22 8

24. The relationship between grammar mastery and

effective use of language 1 11 9

25. How to improve students‘ weakness at grammar 1 11 10

26. The appropriate materials for teaching grammar 1 11 10

27. Appropriate activities for teaching grammar 1 11 10

28. Motivating students to learn grammar 1 11 10

29. Teaching grammar through fun 1 11 10

* These items are written as given by students without any change in structure or wording



Appendix (3) Teacher-designed feedback format

Dear students

The following are the self-assessment CATs you used/applied throughout this course. Please, read the

items whish refer to those techniques and circle the responses you most agree with. (Please, don‘t write

your name.)

I. On the scale below, please rate

the clarity of the following CATs.

4

Very clear

3

Mostly

Clear

2

Somewhat

unclear

1

Totally

unclear

1. Goal matching and ranking 4 3 2 1

2. One-sentence summary 4 3 2 1

3. The last minute paper 4 3 2 1

4. Project prospectus 4 3 2 1

5. Directed paraphrasing 4 3 2 1

6. The muddiest point 4 3 2 1

7. The application cards 4 3 2 1

II. Overall, how interesting did you

find these CATS?

4

Very

interesting

3

interesting

2

Boring

1

Totally

boring








III. Overall, how useful are these

CATS?

4

Very

useful

3

Useful

2

Not very

useful

1

Useless








IV. Give one or two things that your instructor did that really helped you learn Methods of

Teaching English 2.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

…

V. Give one or two examples of specific things your instructor did that made it difficult for you

to learn Methods of Teaching English 2.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

VI. Suggest one or two specific, practical changes your instructor could make that would help

you improve your learning in this course (Methods of Teaching English 2)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thanks for cooperation

The researchers


Reference # 6

Topic # 1

Qualities of the good language teacher

as perceived by prospective teachers of English in the Arab World Mohamed Ismail Abu-Rahmah [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This study aimed to identify the qualities of the good language teacher as perceived by student

teachers in the Arab World. In fall 2007, a questionnaire including 69 qualities was administered

to 273 prospective teachers of English in Egypt, Oman and Saudi Arabia. It was found that (1)

there were statistically significant differences in the perception of the qualities between the male

subjects and the female subjects, (2) both the Saudi and Egyptian student teachers have similar

qualities for the knowledge, and personality dimensions, whereas they have different views as to

the teaching skills dimension, (3) there was a difference in the perception of the Saudi students

and the Omani students, whereas the Egyptian students and the Omani students have the same

qualities, and (4) the views of the females are different from the views of the males. Accordingly,

it was recommended that an ethnographic study is needed to investigate qualitatively what makes

a good language teacher.

Introduction

Identifying the qualities of a good language teacher is very important, not only to be

remembered by students, but also to inform teacher selection processes, to guide the design and

delivery of quality professional development programs, and to improve the teaching process

itself.

In the related literature, a large number of studies were carried out in order to answer the

question: what makes a good teacher? These studies were concerned with providing theoretical

frameworks incorporating the dimensions of effective teaching and teacher effectiveness (e.g.

Freeman 1989; Gordon 1992; Kelly 2000; Edge 2002; Gabrielatos 2002; Carter 2005; Norris et

al. 2005). In addition, many educational institutions and associations identified the qualities of a

good language teacher in terms of some graduation and accountability standards, i.e. what

teachers should know and can do (e.g. Willson 1994; Iowa Dept. of Education 2001; No Child

Left Behind Legistlation 2001; Stronge 2002; New Zeeland Model 2003/4; Rice 2003; Her

Majesty Inspector of Schools 2004; Cambridge University 1994; Augustana College 2005; The

Evangelical Church of America 2006). Still other studies were concerned with identifying the

qualities of a good teacher as perceived by students who were participating in the teaching

process (e.g. Constantinides 1996; UNESCO 1996; Bress 2000; Edington 2001; Probst 2003).

The following sections tackle respectively the qualities of the good language teacher as identified

by some theoretical frameworks, some educational institutes and associations, and finally by the

students themselves.

Qualities as identified in theoretical frameworks

According to Freeman‘s KAS or ASK model (1989), effective teaching includes three

constituents. As shown in Figure (1) below, these constituents are: (1) awareness of attitude,

which is considered ‗…a stance toward self, activity, and others that links interpersonal

dynamics with external performance and behaviors‘, (2) skills which refer to ‗…the how of



teaching and include method, technique, activity, materials, and tools‘, and (3) knowledge which

refers to ‗the what of teaching and includes subject matter, knowledge of students, socio-cultural

and institutional context‘ (Freeman 1989).

Figure 1: The KAS Model Source: Freeman (1989)

The three dimensions in Freeman‘s model above can form the bases for identifying the

qualities of the good language teacher. Three significant points can be made about this model.

The first is that the attitude dimension is added to the traditional model, which addresses only

skills and knowledge. The second point is that the teacher should be aware of the attitude they

have. The third point is that the attitude dimension replaces the personal traits dimension in the

other models. This may probably be due to the significance of the attitude dimension. A

according to Freeman (ibid.), ‗...if teachers‘ attitudes are positive and those teachers are aware,

then development in knowledge and skills can follow‘. Bailey (2006:46) also stresses this point

and indicates that the teacher ―... should strive to maintain and project positive attitudes and to

promote conditions that foster positive attitudes‖.

Another model that may be called the learning/teaching model is provided by Gordon

(1992). In this model, Gordon provides a manifesto for connecting the qualities of a good teacher

with the ability of helping students how to learn. She does this by reflecting on her own learning

strategies. In this respect, she states (1992:4 & 6):

I will show children what I do to learn, I will demonstrate my learning because learners need to

see how it is done…Everything that happens in a classroom has an impact on everything else that

happens. I always keep in mind the factors that help me learn best Then, when I am teaching, I can

ask myself, is this classroom activity going to help children learn? How would it help me learn? If

I cannot justify the activity by saying how it will help, then why am I doing it?

One of the most concise definitions of the ―good‖ teacher is given by Kelley (2000) in an

online article. She states:

Good teachers can motivate students. They do not have to intimidate students to motivate them.

They have patience. Just as importantly, good teachers have not only knowledge of their subject,

but also the ability to impart that knowledge to others. Good teachers make all this seem effortless.

I‘m not sure this trait can be acquired.‖

This brief definition covers many aspects of the term, but gives no notion how to go

about developing these skills, and even suggests that they must be inborn.

Knowledge Skill

Awareness of attitude

Abu-Rahmah: Qualities of the good language teacher


In order to stress the personality factor, Julian Edge (2002), proposed the term “person-

who-teaches”. As shown in the figure below, this model includes two main dimensions:

personality and methodology. The personality dimension includes six attributes. These are: (1)

likes their major, (2) positive attitude towards change, development, quality, co-operation and

team work, (3) perception of learning, teacher/learner roles and professional development, (4)

interpersonal skills, (5) ability to observe, think critically and use experience, and (6) sensitivity

to context. The methodology dimension includes knowledge and skills. The knowledge

dimension includes three components: (1) views on methodology, (2) available materials, and (3)

own views on learning and teaching, whereas the skills dimension includes four skills: (1)

implications of theory, (2) planning and teaching, (3) balancing support and challenge, and (4)

action research.

PERSON who TEACHES

Personality Methodology

(knowledge and skills)

Figure 2: Person-who teaches model Source: Edge (2002)

What is important about Edge‘s model above is that the methodology dimension is used

as an umbrella term incorporating the knowledge dimension and the skills dimension and that the

skill of making use and carrying out action research is considered a significant skill in Edge‘s

model.

In Gabrielatos‘ model (2002), the word language is added to the previous model. The

new model has become person-who-teaches-language. Each word points towards an

indispensable element in a language teacher‘s profile.

PERSON who TEACHES LANGUAGE

Personality Methodology:

knowledge and skills knowledge and skills

Figure 3: Person-who-teaches language model Source: Gabrielatos (2002)

As shown in Figure (3) above, Gabrielatos gives two sub- dimensions to the word

language: knowledge and skills. By knowledge, he means that the language teacher should have

different views/theories on language and should be aware of their own views on language, and

by skills, he means the effective use of the four language skills, the ability to analyze language

and draw conclusions, and sensitivity to learners‘ language level.

What is important about Gabrielatos‘ model, however, is that it incorporates three useful

inventories. The first inventory is entitled how I see language. It includes items that describe the

nature of language, e.g. language is a group of grammatical items and structures; language is



born in context; language is a means of communication, etc. The second inventory is entitled

how I see language learning. It includes items that interpret the why and how of learning, e.g. we

need an incentive in order to put time, effort and money into learning something; some people

need to analyze language in order to understand it; others prefer to be given the parts and try to

put them together, etc. The purpose of the third inventory in the model is to show how the

teacher‘s views on language and language learning can be translated into methodology, e.g.

helping learners investigate and produce language in context (both real and imaginary);

examining language in its natural environment (texts/discourse); helping learners see the link

between the language and its culture, etc. (Gabrielatos 2002).

Carter (2005) states that ‗…naturally, to be a teacher of anything, even scuba diving or

God‘s way of life, it is imperative to have a complete knowledge of the subject or skill that must

be taught‘. However, he stresses the attitudes dimension and says that ‗the attitude category

always wins‘ because ‗attitudes can make us easier to learn from‘. While he was conducting a

workshop, he asked his students to identify the qualities of a good teacher. They identified a long

list of which the three top qualities were to do with attitudes. These were patience, enthusiasm

and encouragement. To him patience means ‗bearing pains or trials calmly without complaint;

manifesting forbearance under provocation or strain; not hasty or impetuous; steadfast despite

opposition, difficulty or adversity … patience requires us as teachers to acknowledge the

smallest of accomplishments because people learn so much more with positive remarks…true

compliments on performance open up the mind to receive criticism to improve, enthusiasm

appears when a person speaks with enthusiasm, and his voice shows it… an excited person

doesn‘t speak in a boring and monotone voice… it inspires the learner to pay attention, and

finally, encouragement means giving hope or promise, to be inspiring… with the patience of

helping people to learn at their own pace, in their own way, and teaching with enthusiasm, [one]

almost automatically becomes an encourager‘ (ibid.).

Another model which was concerned with establishing a framework for identifying the

qualities of the good teacher is provided by Norris et al. (2005). The writers of this model

identified two broad dimensions describing the qualities of the good language teacher. These are:

(1) the personal qualities, and (2) the professional qualities. The personal qualities include: (1)

need to have empathy, (2) understanding and accepting of the learner‘s environment, (3) voice,

which is important for language learning and also for developing the personal connection, (4)

good listener, which indicates that ‗best practice‘ involves being a good listener, (5)

personality/persona to which the qualities described thus far are tied, (6) excellent interpersonal

skills, which are specific skills that expert teachers demonstrate in their practice and which affect

successful learning and teaching experiences, (7) organizational and time management skills,

which include location, time and technology factors that can constrain the success of language

learning, (8) flexibility and a good imagination is required in order to cater for different styles,

to give variety, make use of what can be found around and provide a really great range of tools

and ways to keep learners involved, (9) patience with students, schools and technology, and (10)

passion, which means that teachers should be a little bit passionate about students and have to

show their passion for the language and try to share that with their students.

The second dimension in Norris et al.‘s model is the professional qualities. The qualities

included in this dimension are:

Sound languages pedagogy and good curriculum knowledge; depth of knowledge has an

impact, not only on learning, but also on disposition and attitude.



Imagination and visualization; which are very specific and very important professional

qualities for the success of teaching.

Language competence both in the target language and in the native language; there is a very

clear need for teachers to be competent users of both.

Technical expertise, multimedia and multi modes of delivery make technical expertise a

fundamental part of best practice in teaching languages. There is a need, however, to ensure

that the technology supports, rather than takes over, the teaching.

Ability to support the autonomous learner; there is an obligation to actively address this area

with learners.

Ability to work in a team; the teaching and learning of a language is very dependent on

teamwork.

Accessible and available to students; a quality desired in all teachers.

Qualities as identified by institutions and educational associations

Identifying the qualities of the good language teacher has also been the concern of many

institutions and educational associations. These qualities are used as standards for the effective

practices and qualities of good teachers.

Cambridge University, for example, has its own standards for preparing good language

teachers. In a talk given in Athens in November 1994, Wilson, Cambridge TEFL representative,

stated that the approach adopted in the language teacher education program enables to prepare

good and responsible teachers who have the following qualities:

.1 know their subject .8 can assess their own strengths and weaknesses

.2 can make use of resources

available .9 are enthusiastic about teaching and learning

.3 can plan appropriate lessons .10 can present language in different ways

.4 can respond to other people‘s

comments .11

can provide variety in their lessons

.5 have a good rapport with their

learners .12

can teach/select appropriate materials

.6 can explain their subject .13 want to develop professionally

.7 know about their learners .14 are enthusiastic about teaching and learning

Another set of the qualities that were identified by educational institutes is determined by

the Iowa Department of Education at Stilwell. In 2001, the Department states that the good

teacher believes in and applies the following:

Demonstrates the ability to enhance academic performance and support for and

implementation of the school district‘s student achievement goals.

Demonstrates competence in content knowledge appropriate to the teaching position.

Demonstrates competence in planning and preparing for instruction.

Uses strategies to deliver instruction that meets the multiple learning needs of students.

Uses a variety of methods to monitor student learning.

Demonstrates competence in classroom management.



Engages in professional growth.

Fulfills professional responsibilities established by the school district.

A critical look at the points above may reveal that the Iowa Department of Education

connected the qualities of the good teacher with the ability to work according to a set of

professional standards, which should be applied in the real practices. These, standards, however,

focus on the professional aspect and lack the humanistic one.

The qualities of the good teacher identified in No Child Left Behind Act 0f 2001 are

considered a third example of the qualities identified by governmental and legislative boards and

used as performance criteria or standards. According to the US Department of Education, No

Child Left Behind Act ―…was signed into law on January 8, 2002… It amends and reauthorizes

the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, which includes most federal K-

12 education programs‖. Tremmel (2007) states that No Child is left Behind is a legislation that

came up by the federal government of America in which there is a section entitled What is a

highly qualified teacher?. The answer is provided in two columns: one for ―Elementary School

Teacher‖ and the other for ―Middle or High School Teacher‖. For elementary teachers, the

criteria for qualification are ―Holds a bachelors degree‖ and ―Has demonstrated mastery by

passing a rigorous test in reading, writing, math and other areas of the curriculum‖. A qualified

secondary teacher, according to the document, ―Holds a bachelors degree‖ and has demonstrated

competency in subject area taught by passing a rigorous state test, or through completion of an

academic major, graduate degree, or comparable coursework.‖

According to Tremmel (ibid.), these criteria deserve no better than the label ―entry level

teacher‖, and suggesting that they constitute a ―highly qualified teacher‖ is insulting to the many

truly highly qualified teachers already teaching students every day in schools of America…the

criteria and the way they most likely will be tested don‘t seem to recognize that teaching is a

specialized field in which not only subject matter (factual) knowledge but also pedagogical

knowledge, difficult to demonstrate on a paper and pencil test, are paramount. He adds ―…what

truly makes a ―highly qualified‖ teacher is the unrelenting, continual desire to become a better

thinker, a better reader and writer, a better communicator, and most of all a better person who

can use their knowledge flexibly and with compassion to help students reach these same goals‖.

Despite the fact that the No Child Left Behind Act emphasizes course content over

teaching methods in teacher training, Rice (2003) indicates that ‗… content knowledge is critical,

particularly for secondary school teachers… [However] having subject matter expertise may be a

necessary but not a sufficient condition for good teaching… Quality shows that training in both

the subject area and education methods is essential to maximizing classroom successes‘. Rice

(ibid.) came up with this significant finding after analyzing nearly 80 research studies to explore

what factors in teacher education and experience raise teacher effectiveness and student

achievement, focusing on such areas as teacher certification, work experience, preparation

programs and degrees, coursework, and teacher test scores.

The same two broad dimensions for identifying the qualities of the good language teacher

are stressed by New Zeeland Ministry of Education‘s Model. According to Farquhar (2003), the

New Zeeland Ministry of Education commissioned many studies in order to investigate the

qualities of the good teacher and identify the effect of these qualities on children‘s outcomes.

These studies stressed two dimensions: teacher education (including knowledge and pedagogical

skills) and the teacher‘s personal characteristics. These two dimensions include the following list

of qualities of good teacher:



Good physical health.

Emotional maturity.

Courage to argue for what a child needs.

Integrity and honesty.

Self-awareness and self-evaluation, supported by reflection and

professional peer support.

Respect for children.

Discretion in dealing with children‘s problems and issues.

Intuition.

Professional detachment from children

Humor

Farquhar (Ibid.) refers to the importance of content knowledge saying that effective

teachers use content knowledge confidently to support and extend learning in interactive and

play-based situations. In this respect, he indicates:

1. Teachers draw on content knowledge to extend children‘s thinking and inquiry, and to

support their cultural identity and sense of contribution and belonging.

2. Teachers have confidence in their ability to communicate and demonstrate content

knowledge

3. When teachers do not have the necessary content knowledge they have to access information

resources such as the Internet, the reference books, and specialists

4. When teachers are unsure of the accuracy of their content knowledge on a particular topic

they check their understanding and research further into it.

Stronge‘s model (2002) is a typical example of the qualities identified by the educational

associations. It includes a general profile and a specific profile. The general profile is applied to

the teacher of any content area. It includes six dimensions: (1) the teacher as a person, (2)

classroom management and organization, (3) organizing and orienting for instruction, (4)

implementing instruction, (5) monitoring student progress and potential, and (6) professionalism.

The specific or subject-area profile provides subject-specific qualities for the four content areas

found in all schools. These are English, History and Social Studies, Mathematics and Science.

There is more than one significant point that can be made about Stronge‘s model. First,

he connects the purpose of his model with effective teaching. Second, he requires that the

identified qualities should be translated into teacher responsibilities and teacher behaviours.

Third, he identifies the positive qualities that determine effective teaching in every dimension as

well as the negative qualities or, to use his exact term, ‗the red flags of ineffective teaching‘

(ibid. 77). The fourth and most important point about Stronge‘s model is that he connected the

subject –specific profile of English teachers with the effective teaching of the four language

skills: oral language skills (speaking and listening), reading, and writing.

Another important model for identifying the qualities of good teachers in order to be

used as quality standards was developed by Her Majesty Inspector of Schools in England.

During 2002/03, the qualities of the advanced skills teachers (ASTs) and their effect on teaching,

learning and achievement were surveyed. Visits were made to over 60 schools in 27 Local

Education Areas. Information was gathered from a further 800 advanced skills teachers through a

questionnaire. The findings were issued in the annual report entitled Standards and Quality



2002/03 which was issued by Office for Standards in Education. They indicate that advanced

skills teachers have the following qualities:

1. A very strong effect on the quality of teaching and learning in over three quarters of the

schools inspected.

2. They are almost all skilled practitioners who set themselves high standards and expect high

standards from others.

3. They spend a large proportion of their time advising other teachers about class organization

and teaching methods.

4. They lead good training sessions and are effective in improving teaching and learning by

working alongside and advising individual teachers.

5. Many produce and disseminate high-quality teaching materials.

6. They often provide very good support for newly qualified and trainee teachers.

As seen from the list above, the qualities of the advanced skills teachers are identified in

terms of a set of standards describing what the teachers know and what they should be able to do.

Augustana College also developed a model called the Circle of Courage Model for

describing the curriculum of the Teacher Education Program. According to the College

Handbook (Fall 2005: 4-13), the model attempts to achieve 11 qualities in their future teachers.

These are:

1. Knowledge of subject matter

2. Knowledge of human development and learning: the teacher understands how children learn

and develop, and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and

personal development.

3. Adapting instruction for individual needs: the teacher understands how students differ in their

approaches to learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse

learners.

4. Multiple instructional strategies: the teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional

strategies to encourage students‘ development of critical thinking, problem solving, and

performance skills.

5. Classroom management and motivation skills: the teacher uses an understanding of

individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that

encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

6. Communication skills: the teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, media, and

technological communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and

supportive interaction in the classroom.

7. Instructional planning skills: the teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject

matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.

8. Assessment of student learning: the teacher understands and uses formal and informal

assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social and physical

development of the learner.

9. Professional commitment and responsibility: the teacher is a reflective practitioner who

continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents,

and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities

to grow professionally.



10. A good teacher is one who has the ability to learn as much from the students as they learn

from him or her. In an effort to match instruction to the needs of students, this teacher

spends much time evaluating the implications of his or her teaching decisions in the

classroom. This is the mark of a reflective practitioner. Such self-reflection leads to greater

knowledge about the students, about the subject being taught, and about the act of teaching.

11. Partnerships: the teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies

in the larger community to support students‘ learning and well-being. Effective teachers

engage in a variety of experiences within and beyond the school that promote a spirit of

collaboration, collegiality, and personal growth.

What is significant in Augustana‘s model, however, is that the qualities mentioned above

are blended with four core values: belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity. The

following is an example showing how these qualities are blended when applied to the last

quality, i.e. partnerships.

1. Belonging: Pre-service teachers begin their partnerships with the schools in the local area

and the community and expand these partnerships over four years, which increases their

sense of belonging to the profession of teaching by giving them varied experiences in the

different schools.

2. Mastery: The pre-service teachers should be exposed to teaching professionals and related

experts through conferences, presentations, symposium days, and modeling from skilful

teachers.

3. Independence: Pre-service teachers bring their individual strengths, experiences, and talents

to build partnerships in the profession.

4. Generosity: By conducting projects in the community and area schools, the good teachers

initiate partnerships and collaborative endeavors. It is expected that good teachers contribute

to their placements in meaningful ways.

In line with Stronge‘s model (2002) and Her Majesty Inspector‘s model (2002/3) above,

the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (2006) determines a list of standards for volunteer

English teachers sent to work in Slovakia. The list includes the following:

1. Adaptability: The good teacher needs to adapt to the differences exist in schools. Schedules

may be altered, classes may be canceled, job description may change. S/he will need to be

flexible.

2. Willingness to work hard: The teacher spends about 20 hours in the classroom each week,

but many additional hours are required for planning, preparing assignments, and grading

papers. Thus s/he should be willing to work hard.

3. Eagerness to learn: It is expected that the English teacher learn something of another people,

language, culture, and history. This can be achieved from students, colleagues, travels, and

reading.

4. A love of teenagers: The teacher will have a good time if they like being around teenagers,

with all their energy, potential, and problems.

5. General knowledge: Although a knowledge of the English language and British and

American literature is often helpful, it is good to be a generalist because some English

teachers also teach English and American history and general cultural topics like politics,



health and nutrition, the business world, the environment, and music and the arts. Those with

English degrees are very welcome and teaching skills are helpful.

6. Strong classroom management skills: The teacher can expect students to be bright, capable,

and talented, but they are teenagers and will test the limits of the rules and of teacher‘s

patience. It is very helpful if s/he has had experience in teaching or in other managing of

groups of teenagers.

7. Willingness to share faith: As a volunteer English teacher from the ELCA in Slovakia, s/he

will be expected to participate in the religious life of the community, including morning

prayers, chapel services, and Sunday worship. s/he will also have opportunities to share their

faith with young people, many of whom will welcome honest discussions about religion and

life.

The qualities on the list above are roughly similar to the qualities discussed in the

previous models with the exception of the last one, which is largely connected with the

missionary work of the Evangelical Church.

Qualities as identified by Students

Having reviewed the qualities of a good language teacher as identified in some intuitively

suggested frameworks and as determined by some institutes and educational associations in

terms of graduation and accountability standards, it is time to turn to the learners and see what

they have to say about all these qualities.

In 1996 Constantinides conducted an empirical study in the Center of English Language

Teaching (CELT) in Athens. In this study she asked a number of learners (50 adults and 60

younger learners) to describe a teacher who has remained ‗unforgettable‘ to them, and to say

what they used to (or still) do and what sort of person they were ( or still are). The second

question invited the learners to give new/novice teachers of English some advice so that they,

too, could one day enter their students‘ private halls of fame. The respondents identified 30

qualities for describing the good language teacher.

What is important about Constantinides‘ findings, however, is that ‗…the rankings [of the

responses] show a tendency of younger learners to value certain personal qualities more and

dwell less on subject knowledge and technical perfection, while adult learners value the teacher‘s

subject knowledge and technical know-how to a greater degree‘. Commenting on this finding,

Constantinides indicates that ‗…adults are challenged by teachers who use sophisticated and

motivating techniques, while children, even if bored to tears by the lesson, can be captivated by a

high degree of energy, enthusiasm and a teacher who smiles and is affectionate‘ (ibid.). Another

important finding is the identification of some unwanted qualities that could be traced in the

responses of the students. These are: always in a bad mood; do not inspire respect; are always

negative; are indifferent to teaching; show no love for their subject; do not explain at all; make

students feel anxious; rude to them; and sarcastic.

In 2000 Paul Bress conducted a survey study in which he distributed a simple

questionnaire to 40 adult students of many different nationalities, and 20 experienced teachers.

The respondents were asked just to write down the five things, which, in their opinion, make a

teacher special. Commenting on his findings, Bress (Ibid.: 43) indicates:



1. No students tended to stress the caring nature of the special teacher, while teachers focused

on the ability to give individual attention.

2. Both students and teachers affirmed the importance of the teacher‘s role in enthusing a class,

and of turning the classroom into a rich learning environment;

3. Both referred to the importance of being flexible and of adapting the lesson when necessary.

4. Both considered humor to be important – but not as important as the previous points.

A similar study was conducted by Edington (2001) in one of the classes in Japan, but the

subjects were only students. The students were asked to mention the qualities of the good

language teacher. They identified various qualities forming an inventory including 38 qualities.

These qualities can be categorized into the normal three dimensions: personality, teaching skills,

and knowledge.

The personality dimension incorporates: keeps smiling; has a nice smile; is kind; loves all

the students; makes classes interesting; likes and is liked by students; plays with students; praises

students; respects students; friendly; treats students equally; comes to class on time; can think

about the heart of every student; tries to understand students‘ personalities; always takes care of

students; is funny; is eager [enthusiastic]; likes teaching; and is patient.

The qualities in the teaching skills dimension are: speaks loudly; writes clearly; tells

interesting stories; gives good advice; observes students carefully; listens to students; talks to

students; makes students think for themselves; gives good advice; is good at explaining; is good

at teaching [competent]; has a great deal of experience; is prepared for class; tries to motivate

students; is creative and uses a variety of teaching techniques; and uses the latest technology in

teaching.

The qualities of the knowledge dimension are: has a great deal of knowledge; has a great

deal of experience; we can talk to him/her about everything; and never stops learning.

What is important about Edington‘ s inventory (2001), however, is that the majority of

qualities (20) is given to the personality dimension, whereas 14 belong to the teaching skills

dimension and the least number (4) is given to the knowledge dimension. This indicates the

importance of the personality dimension. Another important point is that the knowledge

dimension includes a very significant and crucial quality to do with the professional development

of the language teacher_ never stops learning.

In another study, which tackled the student perception of qualities of a good language

teacher, Probst (2003) provides a long list including 25 items that describe the best teacher. The

items on the list were identified by his students while they were attending one of the courses. In

line with Edington‘ findings (2001), the majority of items on Probst‘s inventory focus on the

personality dimension, e.g. enthusiasm; punctuality; support and concern for students;

consistency; politeness; firmness and control; does not play favorites; provides personal help;

does not make students lose face; is humble; is fair; has a sense of humor; does not allow

students to call him/her by first name. There are, however, some items that tackle the teaching

skills dimension, e.g. knowing the subject and preparing lessons daily; employ an effective

delivery; uses a variety of learning activities; avoids engaging students in ―busy work‖; is not a

slave to the text and uses it as a road map; and does not allow one or two students to monopolize

or dominate the class.

The last study reviewed in this section is cited from the UNESCO‘s survey which

conducted in 1996. As a result of that survey, UNESCO published a book entitled what makes a

Good Teacher. Over 500 pupils from different countries around the world contributed their



opinions. Chronologically, this study should have been reviewed before the other studies. Due to

the qualitative nature of the findings of the survey, this section will be ended up by some

citations coming from countries representing the different parts of the world, e.g. Indonesia,

Ireland; Morocco, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and USA. The citations provide some of the

responses, which refer to the perceived qualities of a good teacher.

Citation (1): A student from Chad

A good teacher should treat all pupils like his own children. He should answer all questions, even

if they are stupid.

Citation (2): A student from Germany

In brief, a teacher needs self-confidence and knowledge about her subject(s), but the most

important thing is that a teacher has to enjoy what she does! She has to be enthusiastic and she

has to have a true interest in her pupils!

Citation (3): A student from Jakarta, Indonesia

A great teacher interacts with pupils…gives affection to the pupils, makes them understand what

emotion is. S/he smiles to their pupils…teaches not only textbook materials but also the truth that

is happening outside. S/he should have balance between practice and theory. A great teacher

dedicates him/herself to the job. They made a commitment, and then they have to do it.

Citation (4): A student from India

A teacher must have motherly love with their students (Means he should be a mother in the

school). He must have moral character and honesty. He must be well prepared with his subjects.

He must have a good knowledge of his subjects. [He should be] physically and mentally fit for the

job. He should be active and smart in the classroom. While teaching he should use so many

support materials. The support material should be prepared by himself. The pupils should be

joyful in the class.

Citation (5): A student from Ireland

When love and skill work together, expect a masterpiece. It is fundamental that a teacher cares

about humanity in general. Once we love, enjoy and appreciate the individuality of each and every

child in our classroom - everything else falls into place. A good teacher takes cognizance of the

fact that they are role models for children remembering that we teach more by what we do than by

what we say! This is a challenge for the best of us!

Citation (6): A student from Jamaica

To become a good teacher, you not only teach the children but you also have to learn from them.

Citation (7): A student from Morocco

A good teacher answers the needs of the pupils and not only the needs of the chosen program.

Citation (8): A student from Nigeria

One who is child friendly, caring, kind hearted, humble, patient, who has the fear of God, who is

always ready to give a listening ear, who is not jealous… who has a motherly love. I feel there

should be a rule and punishment for teachers who maltreat and call children names… Teachers

are supposed to be children‟s best friends instead they are their worst enemies. In fact, some

children refuse to go to school because of their teachers. Children are not supposed to learn with

fear.

Citation (9): A student from Islamabad, Pakistan

A Teacher must know well about: psychology of children, educational psychology, his duties and

obligations, the parental behavior, and the methods and techniques of teaching/learning. Besides,

he must have up-to-date knowledge of the subjects he is teaching.



Citation (10): A student from Saudi Arabia

A teacher should have 3 essential qualities: (1) background knowledge, (2) professional skills, and

(3) Personal qualities.

Citation (11): A student from USA

To be a good teacher, it is fundamental: to feel like a child, to think like a child, to act like a

child, to reason and react as an understanding adult, remembering that one has once been a child,

and it‟s time to revive that child.

Citation (12): Another student from USA (Texas)

A great teacher can be defined by two simple words. Best friend. Who better to trust than a best

friend? Who better to love and be loved in return than a best friend? Who better to gain

knowledge from, than a best friend?

Finally, who better to remember throughout the days of your life, than a best friend? Let‟s all be

teachers, shall we?

According to the frameworks and inventories identifying the qualities of the good

language teacher presented above, it is clear that there are certain things a good teacher should

know (professional understanding), things a teacher can do (teaching skills) and others that a

good teacher must ‗have‖ (personal qualities). The question is: How far are these frameworks

and inventories applied to the language teachers in the Arab World? Do our prospective teachers

of English perceive these qualities differently due to gender and due to the country in which they

are living? Attempting to answer these questions is the target of the empirical part of the current

study.

Purpose and Questions of the Study

The purpose of this study is double fold. First, it attempts to explore and identify the

qualities of the good language teacher as perceived by student teachers in three countries of the

Arab World. Second, it is an attempt to determine if there is a difference in the perception of

these qualities due to the country or gender. Thus, it attempts to answer the following three

questions:

What are the qualities of the good English language teacher as perceived by student

teachers of English in the Arab World?

Are these qualities perceived differently due to the country of student teachers of

English?

Are these qualities perceived differently due to the gender of student teachers?

Method

Subjects

The subjects of the study consisted of 273 student teachers of English enrolled in three

universities in three Arab countries: Egypt, Oman and Saudi Arabia. These countries were

selected due to more than one reason. The first reason is the availability; one of the writer‘s

colleagues was seconded to the College of Arabic Language and Social Studies at King Saud

University (Kuasim Branch). He helped in the administration of the questionnaire there. The



second reason was that the writer was working as a Visiting Consultant at Sultan Qaboos

University (College of Education).

The selection of these two countries, in addition to Egypt, however, might probably be

relevant because they represent three different segments of the Arab World. Egypt is a big

country and its graduates work in the majority of the Gulf Countries, the Sultanate of Oman is a

promising country and the proficiency English level of the Omani students, is considerably high.

Also, the Omani students, due to the various multi-national commercial companies working in

Oman, need the language for what is called by Gardener (1985:11) and Littlewood (1984:54)

instrumental and integrative purposes. Saudi Arabia is a conservative country in which there is

much focus on Arabic and religious courses. The Saudi subjects may perceive the qualities of the

good language teacher differently. Accordingly, the sample of the study was considered a

purposive sample (See Seliger and Shohamy 1989). Table (1) below provides some statistical

descriptions of the sample.

Table (1)

Sample Description: Country, number, and gender

Country Sex Total

Male Female

Egypt

Suez Canal University

8 64 72

Sultanate of Oman

Sultan Qaboos University

27 88 115

Saudi Arabia

King Saud University

86 ---- 86

Grand Total 121 152 273*

* Some of these cases were missed in the final analysis.

It is worth mentioning here that the levels of the subjects were the sixth and seventh, i.e.

the third and fourth years of the program. This was very necessary and important because the

student teachers of English at these levels go to schools for practicing teaching English and for

observing the regular/practicing class teachers. It was expected that they, at these levels, have

covered a part or two of the methodology course and some other educational courses. This would

enable them to interact properly with the data-gathering tool and would help them to recognize

what makes a good English teacher. As seen in Table (1) above, the sample does not include

Saudi female students due to the regulations of the Saudi educational system, which has a full

segregation between male and female students.

Research Instrument

At the very beginning of the investigation (Fall 2007), an exploratory open-ended

questionnaire including two questions was developed. The two questions were: what do you

think the qualities of a good teacher are? and what do you think the qualities of a bad teacher

are? The questionnaire was applied to a group of 13 Omani prospective teachers of English at

the College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University.

After that, the responses of the prospective teachers were analyzed and used, in addition

to some other items form the reviewed literature, for developing the items of a closed-ended

questionnaire. It was taken into consideration that the items should include equally the three



dimensions representing the qualities of a good language teacher discussed in the theoretical

framework, i.e. knowledge, teaching skills, and personality. The knowledge dimension included

25 items like: know social and cultural background of the learners, and know how to set

objectives, etc. The teaching skills dimension included 25 items like use different methods of

teaching, modify the language input to match learner needs and interests, giving proper

feedback, etc.; and the personality dimension included 25 items like be enthusiastic (i.e. enjoys

teaching), be patient with pupils, and have good sense of humor.

After writing the first version of the questionnaire, which included 75 items, it was given

to a group of three experts in the field in order to establish its judge validity. That is, determining

the appropriateness of the items for measuring a specific dimension. The experts modified some

items, added some and suggested the deletion of others. Thus, the final version of the

questionnaire includes 69 items. Fifteen items represent the knowledge dimension, 27 represent

the teaching skills dimension and 27 represent the personality dimension (See Appendix 1).

The reliability of the scale was established using the internal consistency measure (Alpha

coefficient). The reliability of the knowledge dimension was (0.77), the teaching skills

dimension was (0.86), and the personality dimension was (0.80). The reliability of total items of

the questionnaire, however, was (0.92). These were considered appropriate values of reliability,

which indicated a high degree of internal consistency among the items of the scale.

The internal consistency validity was established by estimating the correlation

coefficients between the three dimensions and the total score of the questionnaire. Table (2)

includes these coefficients.

Table (2)

The correlation coefficient matrix between the three dimensions and the total items of the scale

Dimension Knowledge Teaching skills personality Total items

Knowledge 1.00 - - -

Teaching Skills 0.76* 1.00 - -

Personality 0.59* 0.74* 1.00 -

Total items 0.84* 0.94* 0.89* 1.00

*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

The coefficients in Table (2) above show high internal consistency among the three

dimensions of the questionnaire. These coefficients range from 0.74 (personality & teaching

skills) to 0.94 (teaching skills and total items). The internal consistency for all items within each

dimension was estimated by the corrected item total correlation which ranged from (o.24) to

(o.51) (for knowledge dimension), from (0.23) to (0.54) (teaching skills dimension), and from

(0.20) to (0.53) (personality dimension).

Data analysis and discussion

In order to answer the first question what are the qualities of the good language teacher

as perceived by prospective teachers of English in some Arab countries, the descriptive statistics

for all the three dimensions were estimated as shown in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Table (3) below

includes the descriptive statistics for the knowledge dimension.



Table (3) The frequencies, means, standard deviation of the knowledge items

Knowledge items

Percent Mean St.

Dev. 1 2 3 4

.1 Have high level of English proficiency .7 8.4 45.4 45.8 3.36 .66

.2 Be aware of English language culture 6.6 21.6 44.3 27.5 2.92 .86

.3 Know social and cultural background of

the learners

9.2 23.8 43.2 23.8 2.81 .90

.4 Be aware of current teaching techniques 1.1 12.5 44.7 41.8 3.27 .71

.5 Know how to set objectives 3.7 11.4 41. 44. 3.25 .79

.6 Know how to evaluate their pupils 1.1 7.7 42.5 48.7 3.38 .67

.7 Know how to involve pupils in activities 2.9 10.3 44.7 42.1 3.26 .75

.8 Have a good command of English 2.2 15.4 50.2 32.2 3.12 .74

.9 Know how to motivate learners. 1.1 7.7 42.5 48.7 3.38 .67

.10 Be aware of current trends in ELT. 3.3 22.0 50.5 24.2 2.95 .77

.11 Be aware of target language culture 6.2 28.2 42.9 22.7 2.82 .85

.12 Know how to specify their teaching

objectives

2.2 19.8 48.7 29.3 3.05 .76

.13 Be able to contribute in curriculum

development

2.9 20.1 58.6 18.3 2.92 .70

.14 Have the ability to help other colleagues

to develop professionally.

4.8 16.1 55.3 23.8 2.98 .76

.15 Have perception of professional

development

2.9 16.8 54.9 25.3 3.02 .73

As shown in Table (3) above, the means of six items of the knowledge dimension (items

1, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9) are 3.2 or more. This means that 40 % of the 15 items of the knowledge

dimension are considered either most important or important items. The other nine items of the

knowledge dimension, which represent 60 % of the items, got a mean of 2.8 or more. This means

that they either important or moderately important. None of the items above is considered

unimportant. These results indicate that the respondents in the three countries participated in the

study considered all the items of the knowledge dimension important qualities of the good

language teacher.

Table (4)

Frequencies, means, and standard deviations of the teaching skills items

Teaching Skills Items

Percent Mean

St.

dev. 1 2 3 4 .1 Be creative in teaching .4 3.3 33.7 62.6 3.58 .57

.2 Use different teaching methods .4 4.8 33.0 61.9 3.56 .60

.3 Modify language input to match

learner needs and interests 1.5 13.6 54.9 30.0 3.13 .69

.4 Encourage learner‘s contributions .4 12.8 44.3 42.5 3.28 .69

.5 Giving proper feedback 3.7 11.0 49.8 35.5 3.17 .76

.6 Have classroom management skills .7 14.7 45.8 38.8 3.22 .71

.7 Have organizational and grouping

skills 2.9 16.5 51.6 28.9 3.06 .75

.8 Make use of resources available 2.6 19.4 47.6 30.4 3.05 .77

.9 Able to plan appropriate lessons 2.9 9.9 45.1 42.1 3.26 .75

.10 Can comment on pupils‘ responses 4.0 15.0 43.2 37.7 3.14 .81

.11 Use audiovisual aids/ multimedia 2.6 19.8 42.9 34.8 3.09 .80



Teaching Skills Items

Percent Mean

St.

dev. 1 2 3 4 .12 Can assess the strengths and

weaknesses of learners 2.9 10.6 36.3 50.2 3.33 .78

.13 Take into consideration the needs and

interests of learners in class 1.5 11.0 49.1 38.5 3.24 .70

.14 Can motivate learners in class 2.6 7.7 48.4 41.4 3.28 .71

.15 Can select appropriate supplementary

materials 2.9 17.6 53.1 26.4 3.02 .74

.16 Able to present language in different

ways 2.6 10.6 40.3 46.5 3.30 .76

.17 Speak loudly and writes clearly 1.1 7.7 31.1 60.1 3.50 .68

.18 Vary their method of teaching to suite

all learners .4 10.6 45.8 43.2 3.32 .67

.19 Use different techniques for presenting

language 2.2 8.1 50.2 39.6 3.27 .70

.20 Prepared for class 1.8 4.8 34.8 58.6 3.50 .67

.21 Use teacher‘s voice and his writing is

readable 1.1 5.1 39.6 54.2 3.46 .64

.22 Creative and use a variety of teaching

techniques 1.1 7.7 43.2 48.0 3.38 .67

.23 Use the latest technology in teaching 6.6 18.7 44.3 30.4 2.98 .87

.24 Should develop professionally 2.2 9.2 50.9 37.7 3.24 .70

.25 Be able to reflect upon their teaching 2.6 16.1 60.1 21.2 3.00 .69

.26 Have the skills to develop autonomy

in learners 1.8 15.4 55.3 27.5 3.08 .70

.27 Be able to solve practical problems

using action research 2.9 17.9 55.3 23.8 3.00 .73

As shown in Table (4) above, the means of 16 items of the teaching skills dimension

(items 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 24) are 3.2 or more. This means

that 59 % of the 27 items of the teaching skills dimension have a significant mean of 80 % or

more of the largest score on the scale, which is (4.00 = most important). Ten items got the means

of 3.00 or more. This means that 37 % of the items have a significant mean of 75% or more.

Only one item (3.7 %) got a mean less than 3.00 (moderately important). It is item 23, which

represents the teaching skill of using the latest technology in teaching. This might probably be

due to the attitude of the prospective teachers towards the logistic problems connected with the

use of educational technology in teaching. It might also be due to the fact that subjects of the

study believe that good language teachers can teach effectively without having sophisticated

educational technology. It is worth mentioning here that none of the items above is considered

unimportant. These results indicate that the respondents participated in the study from the three

countries considered all the items of the teaching skills dimension important qualities of the

good language teacher.



Table (5) The frequencies, means, standard deviations of the personality items

As shown in Table (5) above, the means of sixteen items of the personality dimension

(items 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, and 25) are 3.2 or more. This means

that 59.3 % of the 27 items of the personality dimension are considered either most important or

important. The other 11 items of the personality dimension, which represent 40.7 % of the items,

got a mean of 2.8 or more. This mean represents about 70 % of the largest point on the scale

(4.00). It is worth mentioning here that the highest mean (3.58) is given to item 12 treating

students equally. This indicates the importance of the quality of being fair with students. The

least mean (2.82) is given to item seven knowing about learners. This might be due to the

religious beliefs of the respondents who think that knowing about learners might be a kind of

interference in their lives. The second least mean (2.92) is given to item 27 (be willing to

participate in teacher professional growth events such as seminars, workshops, conferences,

etc.). This low mean might be because the student teachers of English who participated in the

Personality items Percent

Mean St.

dev. 1 2 3 4

.1 Tolerant with students 1.5 15.8 35.9 46.9 3.28 .77

.2 Enjoys teaching .7 6.2 29.7 63.4 3.55 .64

.3 Patient with pupils 1.1 7.3 37.7 53.8 3.44 .67

.4 Have good sense of humor 2.6 21.2 42.5 33.7 3.07 .80

.5 Helpful 1.1 9.5 44.7 44.7 3.32 .69

.6 Have a good rapport with pupils 2.2 20.5 49.8 27.5 3.02 .75

.7 Know about their learners 9.5 23.8 41.0 25.6 2.82 .92

.8 Enthusiastic about teaching 2.2 9.5 40.7 47.3 3.48 2.56

.9 Be kind 2.9 17.6 43.2 36.3 3.12 .80

.10 Love all the students 7.7 19.4 38.1 34.8 3.00 .92

.11 Care about all students 1.1 6.6 37.4 54.9 3.46 .66

.12 Treat students equally 1.5 5.1 26.4 67.0 3.58 .65

.13 Eager [enthusiastic], i.e. like teaching 2.6 8.8 52.0 36.6 3.22 .71

.14 Explain in a confident way 1.8 4.4 37.0 56.8 3.48 .67

.15 Manages the classroom properly 1.5 11.0 57.5 30. 3.16 .66

.16 Have positive attitudes towards pupils 1.5 10.3 53.8 34.4 3.21 .67

.17 Create humorous and interesting

atmosphere inside the classroom

1.5 15.4 45.4 37.7 3.19 .744

.18 Have an acceptable appearance 6.6 18.3 50.5 24.5 2.93 .83

.19 Come to class on time 1.1 4.0 36.3 58.6 3.52 .63

.20 Be patient 1.1 7.3 37.7 53.8 3.44 .67

.21 Always take care of students 2.2 10.3 51.3 36.3 3.21 .71

.22 Co-operate with their colleagues 2.2 13.9 49.5 34.4 3.16 .73

.23 Be confident and self-controlled .7 4.4 43.2 51.6 3.45 .61

.24 Establish good relationship with

students

2.9 8.8 42.5 45.8 3.31 .75

.25 Be enthusiastic about teaching. 1.8 10.6 42.5 45.1 3.30 .73

.26 Have a positive attitude towards change and

innovation

1.8 15.0 54.6 28.6 3.09 .70

.27 Be willing to participate in teacher

professional growth events such as

seminars, workshops, conferences, etc

4.0 22.0 51.6 22.3 2.92 .77



study do not pay much concern to the professional qualities of teachers and they focus only on

the teaching roles.

Three significant points can be observed, however. First, despite the fact that these means

seem to be low, they are still considered either important or moderately important. Second, these

two means represent a low percentage (7.00%) compared with the total number of the items,

which got high means. Third, like the knowledge and teaching skills dimensions, none of the

items above is considered unimportant.

As shown above in Tables (3 - 5), the mean of any item on the three dimensions is not

less than 2.8 (i.e. 70 % of the largest score on the scale). This means that the Egyptian, Omani

and Saudi prospective teachers of English who participated in the study considered all the 15

items of the knowledge dimension, the 27 items of the teaching skills dimension, and the 27

items of the personality dimension as important qualities of the good language teacher. These

findings represent the answer of the first question of the study. Having answered the first

question of the study, thereby identifying the qualities of the good language teacher as perceived

by some of the prospective teachers of English in three countries of the Arab World, it seems

pertinent to answer the second question: Are these qualities perceived differently due to the

country of student teachers of English?

In order to answer this question, the statistical model analysis of variance (one way

ANOVA) was applied. The results of analysis are as shown in Table (6) below.

Table (6)

The differences between the scores of the three sub-samples on the three dimensions & the total items

Sum of

Squares

df. Mean

Square

F Sig.

Knowledge Between Groups 389.786 2 194.893 6.183 .002

Within Groups 7470.210 237 31.520

Total 7859.996 239

Teaching Skills Between Groups 1564.403 2 782.201 9.672 .000

Within Groups 19166.997 237 80.873

Total 20731..400 237

Personality Between Groups 903.283 2 451.642 5.056 .007

Within Groups 21172.513 237 89.335

Total 22075.796 239

Total Items Between Groups 7921.105 2 3960.552 8.564 .000

Within Groups 109608.75 237 462.484

Total 117529.85 239

As shown in Table (6) above, the F-value for the knowledge dimension is (6.18). This

value is considered statistically significant at the (0.01) level (df = 2, P≤ 0.01). This indicates that

there are differences in the identification of the qualities on the knowledge dimension due to the

country participated in the study (Saudi Arabia, Egypt & Oman). In order to identify the

direction of the difference, Scheffe test for multi comparisons was applied and its results are

shown in Table (7) below.



Table (7) The results of applying Scheffe test to the knowledge dimension

Country Saudi Arabia Egypt Oman

Saudi Arabia - - -

Egypt 1.7726 - -

Oman 2.9308* 1.1582 -

Significant at 0.05 (P< 0.05)

The data in Table (7) above indicates that there are no statistically significant differences

between the perception of the Egyptian student teachers of English and the perception of the

Saudi students as to the qualities of the knowledge dimension. This means that the prospective

teachers of English in both countries identify the qualities on the knowledge dimension similarly.

This finding might not be surprising due to the similarity of the educational systems in the two

countries. The table also indicates that there are no statistically significant differences between

the perception of the Omani students and the Egyptian students. That is, they might have

different agenda as to the knowledge dimension. The statistically significant differences,

however, are found between the perception of the Omani students and the perception of the

Saudi students for the sake of the Omani students. This means that the Omani student teachers of

English value the qualities of the knowledge dimension more than the Saudi do.

Table (6) also displays the F-value for the teaching skills dimension, which is (9.67). It is

considered statistically significant at the significance level (0.01) with (df = 2, P≤ 0.01). This

indicates that there are differences in the identification of the qualities on the teaching skills

dimension due to the country participated in the study (Saudi Arabia, Egypt & Oman). In order

to identify the direction of the difference, Scheffe test for multi comparisons was applied and its

results are shown in Table (8) below.

Table (8)

Results of applying Scheffe test to the teaching skills dimension


Saudi Arabia - - -

Egypt 4.7887* - -

Oman 5.6466* 0.8586 -


The data in Table (8) above indicates that there are statistically significant differences


Saudi students as to the qualities of the teaching skills dimension. The difference is for the sake

of the Egyptian students. This means that they adopt different teaching strategies and that the

prospective teachers of English in Egypt give more weight to the teaching skills dimension than

the Saudi students do. The table also indicates that there are no statistically significant

differences between the perception of the Omani students and the Egyptian students. This might

mean that they adopt the same teaching skills. Further, Table (8) indicates that there are

statistically significant differences between the perception of the Omani students and the

perception of the Saudi students for the sake of the Omani students. This means that the Omani

student teachers of English value the items of the teaching skills dimension more than the Saudi

students do.



Table (6) above also shows the F-value for the personality dimension (5.06, df = 2, P≤

0.01). This value is considered statistically significant at (0.01. This indicates that there are

statistically significant differences in the identification of the qualities on the personality

dimension due to the country participated in the study (Saudi Arabia, Egypt & Oman). Scheffe

test was used to identify the direction of the differences as shown in Table (9) below.

Table (9)

The results of applying Scheffe test to the personality dimension


Saudi Arabia - - -

Egypt 3.3564 - -

Oman 4.3707* 1.0142 -


The data in Table (9) above indicates that there are no statistically significant differences


Saudi students as to the qualities to do with the personality dimension. This means that the

prospective teachers of English in both countries identify the qualities on this dimension

similarly. The table also indicates that there are no statistically significant differences between

the perception of the Omani students and the Egyptian students. This might mean that they have

the same agenda as to the personality dimension. The statistically significant differences,

however, are found between the perception of the Omani students and the perception of the

Saudi students for the sake of the Omani students. This means that the Omani student teachers of

English value the qualities of the personality dimension more than the Saudi do.

Having identified the differences between the three countries as to the perception of the

three separated dimensions (knowledge, teaching skills, and personality), it is time to combine

these dimensions together and investigate them totally (i.e. the 69 qualities in the questionnaire).

The F-value (8.56) of the total items in Table (6) above is statistically significant (df=2, P≤ 0.01).

This indicates that there are differences in the identification of all the qualities on the scale due to

the country participated in the study (Saudi Arabia, Egypt & Oman). The direction of the

difference is identified using Scheffe test as shown in Table (10) below.

Table (10)

Results of Scheffe test to the total items of the questionnaire


Saudi Arabia - - -

Egypt 9.917* - -

Oman 12.9481* 3.0311 -


The data in Table (10) above indicates that there are statistically significant differences


Saudi students as to the 69 qualities on the scale. The Egyptian students outperformed the Saudi

students. This means that the prospective teachers of English in both countries have different

views as to the qualities of the good language teacher. The table also indicates that there are no

statistically significant differences between the perception of the Omani students and the

Egyptian students. That is, they might have the same views as the qualities of the good language



teacher. Another statistically significant difference is also found between the perception of the

Omani students and the perception of the Saudi students for the sake of the Omani students. This

means that the Omani student teachers of English value the qualities of the good language

teachers more than the Saudi do. According to the findings above, it can be said that there are

differences in the perception of the qualities of the good language teacher due to the country of

the respondents and this answers the second question of the study.

In order to answer the third question (are the qualities of the good language teacher

perceived differently due to the gender of student teachers), the independent sample t-test was

performed as shown in Table (11) below.

Table (11)

T-values between the male and female student teachers on the three dimensions and the scale as a whole

Dimension Sex N Mean Std. Dev. df t-value Sig.

Knowledge Male

Female

115

137

45.417

47.701

5.11

5.98

250 3.223 .001

Teaching Skills Male

Female

115

137

84.930

90.248

8.75

9.03

250 4.722 .000

Personality Male

Female

115

137

85.591

89.978

8.45

9.89

250 3.747 .000

Total Qualities Male

Female

115

137

215.939

227.927

19.88

22.31

250 4.464 .000

As shown in Table (11) above, the first three t-values (3.22, 4.72, 3.75, df= 250, P≤

0.001) indicate that there are statistically significant differences between the perception of the

male and female student teachers of English as to the qualities on the three dimensions

(knowledge, teaching skills, and personality). The mean values in the fourth column indicate that

the female subjects outperformed the male subjects despite the fact that the Saudi sample did not

include females (See Table 1). This might mean that the female student teachers of English

valued and appreciated almost all the qualities mentioned in the questionnaire.

Comparing the performance of the male and female student teachers of English on the

total items of the questionnaire (69) regardless the participated countries indicates that there are

also statically significant differences between them as to the perception of such qualities (t-value

= 4.46, df =250, P≤ 0.001). The difference is also for the sake of the females who outperformed

the males in identifying the qualities of the good language teacher. It is worth mentioning here

that the writer was not able to estimate the difference between the male and female students at

the level of each country separately because there were no female participants in the Saudi

sample and the number of the Egyptian male students was too small (only 8 students).

Summary and conclusion

The purposes of this study were to identify the qualities of the good language teachers as

perceived by student teachers of English in some countries of the Arab World, and to investigate

whether these qualities are perceived differently due to the country and/or gender of the students.

After reviewing three types of the related literature (some theoretical frameworks developed by

specialists, the qualities and accountability standards identified by some educational institutions

and associations, and some studies to do with identifying the qualities of the good language



teacher as perceived by students), a questionnaire including 69 items was developed. The items

of the questionnaire represented three dimensions of qualities: knowledge, teaching skills and

personality. After validating and establishing its reliability, it was administered to 273 student

teachers of English at three Colleges of Education in three countries of the Arab World (Egypt,

Oman and Saudi Arabia). The descriptive statistics of the data gathered confirmed almost all the

qualities in the questionnaire.

The results of applying ANOVA indicated that there were statistically significant

differences between the three groups in the perception of the qualities of the good language

teacher. In order to recognize which group(s) caused the differences, Scheffe test was applied.

The results of the test indicated that the Saudi group and the Omani group caused the statistically

significant difference for the knowledge dimension. For the teaching skills dimension, the Saudi

group with the Omani group and with the Egyptian group caused the statistically significant

differences. As to the personality dimension, the Saudi group with the Omani group caused the

statistically significant differences. The results of Scheffe test also indicated that there were not

any statistically significant differences between the Egyptian group and the Omani group on the

three dimensions.

These results mean that both the Saudi and Egyptian subjects perceived the same

qualities of the good language teacher on the knowledge dimension, and personality dimension,

whereas both groups perceived the teaching skills differently. Further, the difference between the

Saudi subjects and the Omani subjects was clear on the three dimensions, whereas it disappeared

between the Egyptian subjects and the Omani subjects on the three dimensions composing the

qualities of the good language teachers. These results mean that both the Saudi students and the

Omani students perceived the qualities of the good language teacher differently, whereas the

Egyptian students and the Omani students perceived them similarly.

The results of the study also indicated that there were statistically significant differences

in the perception of the qualities between the male subjects and the female subjects in the three

countries. The female subjects caused these differences. This might mean that the female

students participated in the study had different views as to the qualities that describe the good

language teacher.

These findings, however, cannot be generalized to all the prospective teachers of English

in the Arab World for two reasons. First, the subjects of the sample were not selected randomly.

Second, there were not enough male subjects from Egypt and no female subjects at all from

Saudi Arabia. In the light of these findings, two recommendations for further research are given.

These are (1) the replication of this study on a large sample of males and females from different

universities of Arab countries, and (2) the use of instruments that elicit more realistic qualitative

data such as vignette-based elicitation tools and structured or semi-structured interviews. These

further studies may yield a valid and realistic inventory of the qualities of the good language

teacher in the Arab World. The inventory may be used to inform teacher selection processes, to

guide the design and delivery of quality teacher education programs, and to improve the teaching

process itself.



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Appendix (1)

A Questionnaire for Surveying

The qualities of the good language teacher as perceived by Egyptian,

Saudi and Omani prospective teachers of English

Name (Optional)………………………… Male (…) Female (…)

Country: Egypt (…) Saudi Arabia (…….) The Sultanate of Oman (…)

Introduction

Identifying the qualities of a good language teacher is considered an important step for

designing and implementing effective programs for teacher education. The aim of this

questionnaire is to explore the views of the Egyptian, Saudi and Omani prospective teachers of

English as to the qualities of a good language teacher. Thus, it includes 69 items representing

different categories of qualities of a language teacher. You may perceive that some of these items

are most important qualities, others are important, still others are moderately important, whereas

some of them may not be important or necessary.

Please, go through the items of the questionnaire and indicate how important the

following qualities are for a language teacher by circling the relevant number on the scale:

Most important = 4 Important 3=

Moderately Important = 2 Unimportant = 1

The language teacher should 4 3 2 1

Be creative in teaching 4 3 2 1

Have high level of English proficiency 4 3 2 1

Be aware of English language culture 4 3 2 1

Use different methods of teaching 4 3 2 1

Be tolerant with students 4 3 2 1

Be enthusiastic (i.e. enjoys teaching) 4 3 2 1

Modify language input to match learner needs and interests 4 3 2 1

Know social and cultural background of the learners 4 3 2 1

Be aware of current teaching techniques 4 3 2 1

Know how to set objectives 4 3 2 1

Know how to evaluate their pupils 4 3 2 1

Know how to involve pupils in activities 4 3 2 1

Encourage learner‘s contributions 4 3 2 1 Have a good command of English 4 3 2 1

Be patient with pupils 4 3 2 1

Have good sense of humor 4 3 2 1

Know how to motivate learners. 4 3 2 1

Know how to give feedback 4 3 2 1

Have classroom management skills 4 3 2 1

Be aware of current trends in ELT. 4 3 2 1

Be helpful 4 3 2 1

Have organizational and grouping skills 4 3 2 1

Be aware of the culture of the target language 4 3 2 1

Know how to specify their teaching objectives 4 3 2 1

Make use of resources available 4 3 2 1

Be able to plan appropriate lessons 4 3 2 1

Can comment on pupils‘ responses 4 3 2 1



Most important = 4 Important 3=

Moderately Important = 2 Unimportant = 1

The language teacher should 4 3 2 1

Use audiovisual aids/ multimedia in teaching 4 3 2 1

Have a good rapport with pupils 4 3 2 1

Know about their learners 4 3 2 1

Can assess the strengths and weaknesses of the learners 4 3 2 1

Take into consideration the students‘ needs and interests 4 3 2 1

Can motivate their learners 4 3 2 1

Can select appropriate supplementary materials 4 3 2 1

Be enthusiastic about teaching and learning 4 3 2 1

Be able to present language in different ways 4 3 2 1

Be kind 4 3 2 1

Love all the students 4 3 2 1

Speak loudly and writes clearly 4 3 2 1

Care about all students 4 3 2 1

Treat students equally 4 3 2 1

Vary their method of teaching to suite all learners 4 3 2 1

Eager [enthusiastic], i.e. like teaching 4 3 2 1

Use different techniques for presenting language 4 3 2 1

Explain in a good and confident way 4 3 2 1

Be prepared for class 4 3 2 1

Manages the classroom properly 4 3 2 1

Have positive attitudes towards pupils 4 3 2 1

Create humorous & interesting atmosphere in class 4 3 2 1

Have an acceptable appearance 4 3 2 1

Use teacher‘s voice and his writing is readable 4 3 2 1

Come to class on time 4 3 2 1

Be patient 4 3 2 1

Be creative and use a variety of teaching techniques 4 3 2 1

Use the latest technology in teaching 4 3 2 1

Always take care of students 4 3 2 1

Co-operate with their colleagues 4 3 2 1

Be confident and self-controlled 4 3 2 1

Establish good relationship with students 4 3 2 1

Should develop professionally 4 3 2 1

Be enthusiastic about teaching. 4 3 2 1

Have a positive attitude towards change and innovation 4 3 2 1

Be able to reflect upon their teaching 4 3 2 1

Be willing to participate in teacher professional growth events

such as seminars, workshops, conferences, etc

4 3 2 1

Have the skills to develop autonomy in learners 4 3 2 1

Be able to contribute in curriculum development 4 3 2 1

Have the ability to help other colleagues to develop professionally. 4 3 2 1

Be able to solve practical problems through conducting action

research

4 3 2 1

Have perception of professional development 4 3 2 1

Thank you for cooperation

The researcher; Dr. Mohamed Ismail Abu-Rahmah, SQU


Reference # 8

Topic # 1

Management of teacher education in Nigeria: Issues, problems and prospects Femi Sunday Akinwumi [email protected], University of Ibadan, Nigeria

The paper has a cursory look at the management of teacher education in Nigeria. The study

examined the history of teacher education in Nigeria. The study also gave a photographic account

of the processes of qualifying as a teacher. Some salient issues like funding, enrolment; admission

quota and professionalization were discussed. Finally, some innovative strategies at improving

teacher education in Nigeria were also looked into. The study therefore suggested the review in the

curriculum to reflect what the teacher ought to know and how to handle them for the benefit of the

students.

Introduction

An emerging area of concern in national curriculum development efforts concerns the

inculcation of teaching skills and values education. The focus on teacher education derives from

the realisation that the child needs certain experiences and competencies to survive in society.

These include analysis and evaluation of information, their application towards solving identified

problems and demonstration of a correct attitude towards individuals, ideals and materials from

the foregoing, teaching education is thus germane to the growth or development of any child. As

a result, teacher education needed to be accorded maximum support to make it occupy its

deserves position in the economy. However, it is to be noted that, the problem in the teacher

education have been the perennial concerns of organised education throughout the ages and the

entire world over. In Nigeria, the political, economic, social and cultural syndromes of

underdevelopment is not just an economic phenomenon characterized by low per capita income,

or instability of government, it also encompasses vital socio-cultural issues of attitudes values-

such as lack of resources, dysfunctional provisions, ethnic problems, and high birth rate. With

the above problems rearing its ugly heads, education remains the formidable weapon to curb or

minimize these through socialization, acculturation and even enculturation. Thus, the problems

and issues in teacher education become more involved, diffused and complex.

Aims and Objectives of Teacher Education

The summit of the Nine High-Population Developing Countries held at New Delhi, India

in December 1993, re-iterated the relevance of qualitative teacher education to the quest for

improved basic education for all. According to the Federal Ministry of Education report (FME

& YD, 1994)

‗Nearly all issues, whether related to goals, learning achievement, organization of

programmes or performance of the education system, involve an analysis of the role of teachers:

their behaviour, performance, remuneration, incentives, skills and how they are used by the

system. The educational system vide teacher education is therefore seen as performing a

conserving, integrating and modifying function in the society. Even if the school is not always

to be the prime mover in the inevitable changing of society, it is critically important as a

consolidating agent. Teacher is seen as the prime factor in this dynamic role of the school.

Therefore, teacher education should be based on a sound philosophy and on such rationale that



should guarantee the acquisition of necessary knowledge components and professional skills,

which will enable pre-service teachers to both schools ‗educate‘ the pupils (Harris, 1992). The

expectation is very critical, not only on the quality education, but equally to the very survival of

the various disciplines in the curriculum of education. Therefore, the aims and objectives of

Teacher education in Nigeria is anchored on five value objectives to teacher education as

enshrined in the National Policy on Education.

These are:

a. to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of

our educational system.

b. to encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers.

c. to help teachers to fit into the social life of the community and society at large and to enhance

their commitment to national objectives

d. to provide teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate for their

assignment and to make them adaptable to any changing situation not only in the life of their

country but in the wider world.

e. To enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession

f. (op.cit 1981)

However, it is evident from the above that the aims and objectives of teacher education in

Nigeria should not just be the production of teachers in large quantity; rather they must fulfil the

three major thrusts of

a. Possession of certain positive qualities

b. Possession of professional skills and techniques

c. Possession of a body of knowledge and understanding

The above three attributes are interrelated and the one is more often than not enhanced by

the possession of the others.

Teacher Qualifications System in Nigeria

At the time the Nigeria policy on education was introduced, five types of teachers,

distinguished by their qualifications, were expected to operate the Nigerian educational system.

According to the Nigeria educational Research and Council (NERC), 1980), these were:

a. Grade II teachers at pre-primary level with NCE teachers as head;

b. NCE teachers at primary level with graduate teachers as head;

c. NCE and university graduate teachers at junior secondary level;

d. University graduates with professional qualifications in their disciplines at the secondary

level;

e. University graduates and post-graduates at Universities and with professional qualifications

at Colleges of Education, or practical qualifications and industrial exposure and experience t

the technical colleges and polytechnics level.

Akinwumi: Management of teacher education in Nigeria


Until the last decade, primary teacher production in Nigeria was the responsibility of

Teachers Grade Two colleges. However, Nigeria‘s national Policy on Education in Section 9,

sub-section 61, makes an outstanding reference to standards in teacher education as an ultimate

expectation, viz;

It will be the ultimate policy only candidates whose minimum qualification is WASC or its

equivalent will be admitted into our teacher training colleges… this will mean that the NCE will

ultimately become the minimum basic qualification for entry into the teaching profession.

The Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) is a sub-degree but highly qualitative

professional diploma in teacher education obtained after a three-year full-time programme in a

College of Education. It is therefore a higher quality and specialised teacher‘s certificate than

the Teachers‘ Grade Two Certificate which it is expected to replace.

The establishment of the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) in

1989 as a supervisory body for teacher education in Nigeria saw the beginning of consistent and

deliberate thrusts towards actualising the policy on the NCE qualification becoming the

minimum acceptable certificate for entry into the teaching profession in Nigeria. Consequently,

as the number of Grade Two Teachers‘ Colleges fell from 285 in 996 t0 13 in 1989 and less than

120 in 1991, the number of Colleges of Education increased from 44 in 1983 to 61 in 1993.

Similarly, the enrolment in Colleges of Education rose from 34,710 in 1980/81 to 86,830 in

1990/91.

In addition to the expansion of full-time programmes for the production of primary and

junior secondary teachers who will be holders of the NCE, several part-time programmes have

been started either in College of Education as sandwich courses, or by Distance Education

organised by the national Teachers Institute aimed at transforming serving grade Two teachers

into NCE holders. Indeed, between 1990 and 1996, the National Teachers‘ Institute has been

able to up-grade 24,817 serving Grade II teachers to the NCE level.

The National primary Education commission personnel audit in 1996 shows that only

about 39% of all teachers in the primary schools in Nigeria possess the NCE and above.

However, with about 31,563 Grade II teachers enrolled in 1997 in the Distance Learning NCE

programme and another, it is expected that by the year 1998, the proportion of qualified teachers

holding the NCE and above, who are serving in our primary school sector, would be somewhere

around 78% of the total teachers in service.

In spite of this promising enhancement of teacher quality in Nigeria, there are indications

that suggest a faulty implementation of the policy thrust towards the replacement of the Teachers

Grade II Certificate with the NCE as the minimum basic qualification for entry into the teaching

profession in Nigeria. First, the phasing out of the Teachers Grade II Colleges had apparently

taken place rather prematurely. For one thing, the Teachers Grade II Colleges he served as a

veritable source of candidates for the Colleges of Education. Therefore, the loss of this feeder

sources seems to have exacerbated the paucity of candidates seeking entry into the Colleges of

Education ad may have, to a certain extent, compounded the shortfall in the nation‘s supply of

primary school teachers.

The National Policy on Education, in the Section on Teacher Education, provides that all

teachers in educational institutions from pre-primary to tertiary shall be professionally trained as

teachers. In practice, however, teaching has remained an all-comers trade and real

professionalisation is yet to be trained. The situation is more distressing at the tertiary

educational level where the practitioners prefer not to be classified as teachers but as lecturers.



A preponderance of the lecturers in the universities and polytechnics are therefore not

professionally trained to functions as teachers. In the Colleges of Education, professional

qualification in education is an imperative criterion for the recruitment of teacher-educators.

Salient Issues in Teacher Education

Selection of Entrants

By international conventions, one of the major factors that determine standards and

professionalism in teacher education is the selection of entrants into teacher education. The

teaching profession has continued to attract the dregs as students mainly due to poor

remuneration and lack of clearly defined career growth pattern, are reluctant to enrol as teacher

trainees. In Nigeria, the minimum standards for the training of NCE teachers (NCCE 1990)

requires a secondary school certificate or the Teacher Grade Two Certificate or their equivalents,

with 5 passes at a sitting including a minimum of 3 credits obtained in the proposed major

subjects of study, plus success in the examination set by the Joint Admissions and Matriculation

Board (JAMB). However, one serious problem confronting teacher education as regards the

selection of entrants is the absence of any strategy for assessing the personality traits of the

candidates as well as their interest in the teaching profession. It is a mere waste of resources to

recruit and train as teachers people who have no interest in teaching as a career. These issues of

recruitment and retention had been posing great threat to the educational sector. In fact, it is sad

to note that teaching profession is nothing to many but a mere ―stepping stone‖ or a ―parking lot‖

for other professions. In the words of Ukeje (1991), he posited that the recruitment and retention

of competent people in the teaching profession is a perennial problem all over the world. But the

case of Nigeria is particularly serious and fast becoming the last hope of the hopeless that is the

profession for those who have nothing else better to do. Teaching phenomenon has to change in

order to usher in a new social order in Nigeria (op cit). In spite of the low quality of entrant‘s

requirement, enrolment still remains abysmally low.

Table 3 showing the students’ enrolment in Colleges of Education

YEAR MF F %F GRADUATES

1990 20,363 9,386 46.0 19,752

1991 27,397 12,393 45.2 26,575

1992 26,478 12,118 45.8 25,684

1993 24,441 11,586 47.4 23,708

1994 24,229 11,241 46.4 23,502

1995 27,030 12,654 46.8 26,219

1996 28,563 15,503 54.3 27,706

1997 26,079 13,908 53.3 25,297

1998 28,535 16,572 58.1 27,679

1999 29,253 16,131 55.1 37,520

KEY MF = Total male and female enrolment F = Total Female enrolment %F = percentage female enrolment * = Based on Graduation rate of 97%

Source: NCCE Statistical Digest on Colleges of Education in Nigeria, Vols.16.



Though the minimum standard for the NCE programme is five passes in the WASCE

with at least three credit passes at ordinary level, enrolment still remain abysmally low.

Pre-service Programme for Teachers

Braineld (1965) cited by Nkeye (1986) suggested that the teaching profession should

establish the same standards of preparation that would at least be equal to those of the medical

profession. This is so because, in his own words; both serve the public welfare in the modest and

deepest sense of the term, both are concerned with the fullest development of the human being so

that he may carry on his life unhampered by the deficiencies of ignorance and illness. If

anything the teacher serves as a still higher function; he is properly concerned not only to prevent

or correct deficiencies but, even more to stimulate and nourish positive qualities of each person

in his score.

Teacher education programmes must stress both theoretical and practical disciplines of

education. The statutory responsibilities for teacher education are vested in colleges of education

(COE), Institutes of Education, Polytechnics and Nigeria teachers Institute (NIT) (by distance

learning). Teachers are also trained in the University Faculties of Education for B.Ed, B.A. Ed

and M.Ed programmes. Teacher education programmes in all these institutions should centre on

foundation courses. The foundation approach to education draws its substance from established

disciplinary fields and attempts to stimulate broad, comprehensive and synthetic thinking.

Durosaro (2003), Lassa (2000) and Akinsolu (2007) identify four major requirements for a

teacher preparation programme. These are general studies, educational studies, studies related to

the students intended field of teaching and teaching practice.

In Aaron (2003) cited by Akinsolu (2007) revealed that recent report from classroom

research indicates that teacher still needed training in language, skills in teaching initial literacy,

number and basic science concepts in the children‘s mother tongue, more ability to manage

children‘s learning needs during the transition to English as the medium of instruction and more

awareness of the importance of language across the curriculum.

Curriculum Delivery

Conventional teaching procedures are the major mode of curriculum delivery of teacher

education in Nigeria. Effort in providing appropriate solution as regards this requires adequate

proper planning on equipping institutions, their academic staff and non-tutorial personnel for

effective use of ICT for continuous improvement of teacher education. The NCE curriculum is

reviewed in five year cycle. The review should be a continuous process. It should be possible to

begin with first principles of what do we know about learning at all levels of education and

teachers need to know and be able to do to meet the demands of teaching and learning. This

could lead to building a framework for developing a modular approach to initial teacher

preparation and certification. All primary school teachers should be trained as multi grade

teachers, able to teach the core subjects across the curriculum. However, this is not sufficed to

say that there would be no area to specialisation in their subject areas.



Funding

The issue of funding of education generally in Nigeria has been generating a lot of

controversies for years. The problem of under funding of higher education has nearly marred

teacher education in Nigeria. It poses a great threat to the quality of teachers produced for the

society. The effect of the under funding varies from one institution to another. This however

depends on the person at the helm of the affairs of the institution. Of recent, institutions were

now devising method of fund raising in other for them to be able to cope financially with the

situation on their campuses. But this can not but has effect on the total quality of the products of

the institution. The global economic recession is not helping matter. As reported by Lassa

(2000); ―the gloomy economic conditions in Nigeria, particularly the galloping inflation that

steadily reduces the purchase power of the naira, have strong enough influences to stultify many

attempts at setting minimum standards for institutional budgets‖. It is therefore incumbent on

the teacher education institutions to look outward for any alternative avenues where fund can be

generated to meet the demand of its institution. Many of our teacher education institutions are

nothing but a mere commercial venture where the dictates of selling handouts, textbooks,

stationeries and other Jewries is the order of the day.

Facilities

The expectation of any teacher education institution is to have physical structures that are

conducive enough for training teachers. It is expected of such institution to have adequate and

well ventilated classrooms/lecture halls, laboratories for carrying out scientific experiments, a

well flourished and well stocked with latest textbooks, journals, magazines and the likes to help

producing quality teachers. However, the above is far from what is attainable today in our

various Teacher training institutions. What we have on ground are a battered like buildings,

unavailability of good libraries and non-existence of laboratories. It is pathetic to note that

student teachers have to bring from home or improvise if he or she could some of the chemicals

for their experiment. With this situation on ground, it is highly difficult to produce a well sound

teacher. This is to say that the availability of the school facilities in right quantity and quality

cannot but aid the good academic output of the teachers in training. Availability of school

building and their plant facilities contribute to good academic performance as they enhance

effective teaching/learning activities As succinctly being put by Abdul Kadir (1991) ―the issue of

quality of education does not stop on setting minimum academic standards and setting up high

entry admission requirement and high cut off points… but also on improvising the condition

under which the student both in and outside the classroom, are made to learn.

Staffing

The academic staff of teacher education institution plays a vital role in term of quality

and quantity of teachers produced. It is expected that he who will teach or lecture at the teacher

education institution must me professionally qualified and of high moral integrity. This is

because teachers are seen as role models. On no account must teacher educator be not

professionally qualified since no nation can rise above the quality of her teachers. Teacher

educators must have sense of belonging, loyal and dedicated and of course must have a mission

for the institution. The issue of social and economic gain/benefit must be secondary to them.



Although it is perceived that teachers were seen as the most cheated group (Akinwumi, 2000).

That must not be basis for loosing their mission and objectives. Once they deviated from their

missions, it will definitely affect the academic performance of teachers in training and therefore

have a negative effect in their overall output. This however, is not good enough for teacher

education.

Professionalisation

The issue of profesionalisation has remained very fundamental to the quality and peoples

perception of any profession. It is expected that whosoever will practice any profession must

have been well grounded, trained and of course licensed to be able to function well in that

profession. This however, is conspicuously missing in the teacher education sector. Teacher

education in Nigeria is an all comer profession. It has been regarded as a dumping ground or lay

about profession. As being rightly put by Shokan (2007) ―the teaching profession has suffered a

lot of bastardisation. Teaching is regarded as a parking lot for other professions, an all-comers

trade with teachers of multifarious backgrounds, training and qualifications.‘

Strategies/Innovations at improving teacher education

Having considered the issue affecting teacher education in Nigeria, it is expedient to look

at various ways in which government is trying to ameliorate the earlier discussed issues or

problems. It will be unfair to say that government outrightly close their minds and eyes to these

teething problems confronting teacher education.

Some of the steps taken to improve teacher education in Nigeria include:

Entrants‘ strategy

Perhaps the most fundamental problem confronting teaching profession is the lack of

interest on the part of the secondary school leavers ―willingly‖ apply for teaching profession in

any of the teacher education institution. They have being compelled to do so by ―Virtue‖ of their

inadequacies in satisfying the profession of their choice. As a result, the national council of

colleges of education (NCCE) who is in charge of national certificate of education (NCE)

worked out the cost to educate and train an NCE graduate from the first year to graduation. This

was done in order to determine the kind of assistance that can be given to such candidate. Some

of these incentives includes: bursary, scholarship, and free feeding and work and study system).

Also, the NCCE in their desperate attempt to entice teaching profession came up with shared

funding strategy that will enable all the education stakeholders to share the funding of the teacher

institution.

Table 4 below provides more insight to the funding sharing formular

1. Government (State, FG.

2. The Institution.

3. Beneficiary/Parents

A) Share

Percentages of total

cost.

B) shared area of

Expenditure

C) shared percentage

of selected areas of

expenditure

Source: Isyaku, 2002



Quality Assurance

The establishment of NCCE in 1989 introduced some noticeable changes in the

management and planning of teacher education. For instance, there is the ambivalent measure of

removing authority for determining standard for the ministry of education and resting it partly on

NCCE and partly on the individual teacher education. This has ultimately brought the issue of

red tapism confronted in the implementation of good policies to its low ebb.

Training and re-training of teacher educators

Unlike the moribund system of teacher training system which lack sending teacher

educators for training after their qualifying exams and placement. The country has witnessed

radical departure from this with the introduction of Universal Basic Education (UBE) it has

become mandatory on teacher educators to attend training vide seminars, conferences or

workshops at least once a year. Here, teacher educators were now made to learn current trends

in education. For instance, the introduction of multi-grade system, handing of sophisticated

teaching/learning instructional materials, such as slides, projectors among others. This is now

paving a new way for education in the country.

Awards for teachers

Of recent, various state governments and even local government have started awarding

dedicated and hard working teachers. Some of the awards include car gift, building, machines,

foodstuffs, cash gift and host of others. This is to motivate more people to the teaching

profession.

Establishment of pedagogical centres

Presently, teacher education quality in universities is being enhanced by the

establishment of pedagogical centres in different geo-political zones in the country. This is to

enable lecturers who were not trained as professional teachers to acquire teaching skills that will

enable them to be more efficient in the delivery of the course contents. The selected centres will

serve as short time training ground for these set of ―unqualified teachers‖. Aside, opportunities

of enrolling in one year post graduate diploma in education is now open for the affected

lecturers.

Pivotal Teacher Training Programme (PTTP)

The shocking discovery of the teachers‘ short fall of about 279,411 in 1999 at the

inception of UBE made the commission to introduce pivotal training programme. The national

teacher institute NTI one of the teacher education institutions is directly in charge of this

programme. The mode of teaching is a combine system of face to face contact, weekends and

holiday and self instruction course method.



Teacher Registration Council (TRC)

Due to the clarion call by professional teachers to sanitise the teaching profession by

disallowing it from being ―a packing lot‖, and to enhance more dignity, the TRC was introduced.

This is in a bid to professionalise teaching profession.

Recommendations

The introduction of Information Communication Technology) has no doubt brought the

entire world into our hand. Therefore, for Nigeria educational system to respond to this global

challenge, teacher education must embrace best practices and innovations in the field. It is

recommended that teacher education curriculum must be reviewed through the lens of what

teacher should know and be able to do if they are to be effective teachers and students are to

learn well. Again, the teacher registration council should doggedly pursue the issue of

professionalisation of teaching at all levels like what we have in other professions like law,

medicine, engineering etc.

Also, emphasis must be placed on quality assurance. Non-qualified teachers should not

be allowed to come into the teaching profession and those already in the system should be

flushed out from the system. The issue of supervision and inspection must be handled with all

sincerity of purpose.

Conclusion

There is no gain saying the fact that the problems confronting teacher education in

Nigeria are enormous and daunting. However, teacher education preparation is not the worst in

the world but there still exist room for improvement. It is my belief that with adequate and

proper plan, Nigerian educational system can achieve a greater height.

References

Aaron A. (2003) Nigeria Universal Basic Education: issues of teaching and learning. Unpublished report, World

Bank, Abuja.

Abdukadir I. A. (1991) paying for Quality: The prospects in Oluche R. O. (Ed) moving education in Nigeria towards

the year 2000. Nigerian Academy of Education, Optimal Computer Solutions limited pp159-173.

Akinsolu A. O. (2007) Challenges in Planning Education in Nigeria; A paper presented at the fist international

conference Teacher education University of Lagos, Nigeria.

Akinwumi F. S and Ojedele (2007); Training and Retraining of Teachers: a sine-qua-non for Teacher education in

Nigeria. In a paper delivered at the 1st International conference on Teacher Education; University of Lagos,

Nigeria.

Akinwumi F. S. (2000); Impact of Motivation and Supervision on Teacher Productivity in Secondary Schools in

Oyo State. Unpublished Doctoral thesis; department of educational management, University of Ibadan;

Nigeria.

Akinwumi, F. S. (2002): Mode of Supervision and Teacher Productivity, International Journal of Clinical

Psychology and counselling vol. 7 pg2.

Durosaro D. O. (2003) Critical Issue in the management of primary education in Nigeria: a paper presented at

NAEAP Conference University of Ibadan, Nigeria



Federal ministry of Education (2006) Basic and secondary education statistics in Nigeria 2004 and 2006.

Harris K. A (1992); Teachers and classes: A Marxist Analysis, London, Rutledge and Kenyan Publication.

Lassa, P. N. (2000): Teacher Production; A focus on Nigeria; in the state of education in Nigeria, UNESCO Abuja,

Nigeria pp70-83.

Lassa, P. N. (1992) maintaining Quality in Higher Education in Nigeria in Ipaye, B(Ed) Education in Nigeria: part,

present and future Macmillan Nigeria published limited, Lagos Nigeria Pp75-90.

Shokan B (2007) Teacher education Reforms in Nigeria: A vehicle for attaining National and International targets.

A paper presented at the first international conference on Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, university

of Lagos, Nigeria.

Ukeje B. O. (1991); The Education of Teachers for a New Social toder, The Nigeria Teacher, Vol1 No1 NCCE

pp44-61.


Reference # 9

Topic # 6

Developing educational leadership skills of schools’ administrators

at Sultanate of Oman Salim Al Ghanboosi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

At the present time, the development of schools‘ administrators‘ skills is a corner stone of the

quality improvement and schools effectiveness. Additionally, this will empower those leaders in

the field to carry out their responsibilities. This paper aims to examine the extent to which the

schools‘ leadership skills are developed during their preparation for their jobs as schools‘

administrators at Sultanate of Oman. To achieve the aim of paper, a survey will be distributed to

schools‘ administrators. The sample will represent all regions in Oman. The survey will contain a

number of leadership skills expected to be included the training programs that presented by

Ministry of Education. These skills are planning, organizing, problem solving, creativity,

decisiveness, system analysis and design, vision, communication, instructional leadership, group

leadership and team building, climate development, moral responsibilities, and instructional

analysis and supervision.

Al Ghanboosi: Developing educational leadership skills



Reference # 10

Topic # 5

Classroom management:

Its vital role in student-centred teaching and learning outcomes Harith Al Hinai [email protected], Harun-Al-Rashid Yusuf [email protected],

Colette van Leeuwen [email protected]

College of Applied Sciences - Rustaq, Ministry of Higher Education, Oman

This paper will explore some methods related to classroom management and its impact in the

context of a student-centred learning environment. It will examine some of the teaching and

learning methods, such as active learning, cooperative learning and inductive teaching and

learning. The researchers believe that these methods will ensure that student-centred teaching and

learning effectively takes place. The research is based on the hypothesis that, where classroom

management is less than optimal, student-centred teaching and learning will be jeopardized or

rendered totally ineffectual. Questionnaires will provide the mode of enquiry. The data sources

will be analyzed by a statistical program (SPSS). The researchers expect that the hypothesis will

be confirmed and the results will contribute to the enhancement and development of teaching and

learning at the level of the colleges. Furthermore, it is essential for all academic staff members to

be confident in their use of classroom management and student-centred teaching and learning.

Introduction

The focus of the paper is Student-Centered Teaching and Learning (SCTL), and the

provision of initial ideas towards implementing classroom management and SCTL at tertiary-

level colleges. Accordingly, the paper highlights key issues emerging from the literature review

in relation to the three strategies which are used as tools to measure SCTL in classrooms,

namely, Active Teaching and Learning (ATL), Cooperative Learning (CL), and Deductive and

Inductive Teaching and Learning (DITL). In addition, the findings of the research indicate a

considerable number of issues related to classroom management and teaching as well as the

performance of these three strategies in terms of enhancing SCTL in the learning situation.

Further discussion on how these three strategies can be integrated into the academic system of

tertiary-level colleges in the Sultanate of Oman has proved to be a worthwhile subject of

research. The paper proceeds to give an overview of SCTL, covering two major elements. These

are, firstly to integrate new ideas concerning SCTL implementation, and secondly to develop

teaching strategies which emphasize the importance of SCTL.

Overview

SCTL is commonly used by instructors at the different levels of the academic system:

tertiary, high school and intermediate. Indeed, this method can be used effectively at university

level provided that instructors seek to rank their students from the beginning of the course. The

SCTL method is meant to be an effective tool for classroom management on the one hand, and

teaching performance on the other. It has an important function in the measurement of key

variables such as these: oral interaction, ability in reporting and teamwork leadership (Wallace,

M. 2001).




It is important to consider these three key variables when assessing students‘

performance. Students will show their ability clearly when involved in learning activities.

Through their involvement in SCTL activities, students‘ abilities, strengths and weaknesses are

revealed.

SCTL should address the issue of quality assurance in two ways: monitoring teacher

performance and learner interaction.

Critiques of SCTL

The researchers expect that SCTL could be implemented through a series of teaching

strategies which could be used in order to accomplish the targeted goals. It seems good to the

researchers to use these three complementary teaching strategies: ATL, CL and DITL selected

for the purpose of this study.

In language learning and teaching, it is always better to combine deductive and

inductive methods. This is because they are complementary to each other in terms of obtaining

the desired learning outcome. However, each of them may be superior with respect to one

outcome and inferior with respect to another. Learners may prefer one method to another. The

inductive teaching methods include inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based

learning, case-based teaching, and discovery learning.

When teaching grammatical structures inductively, the teacher introduces teaching topic

activities. The aim of the first lesson is to teach students the difference between countable and

uncountable nouns, and when to use a and some with them. The instructor should contextualize

the lesson by putting it into a situation which shows what it means. A mixture of countable and

uncountable nouns, such as ice cream, sandwiches, cola, fruit, bananas, chicken legs, cake, a box

of sweets and other items, should be written on the board. A quick glance at the pronunciation of

these words should precede the main part of the lesson. The instructor asks the students to say:

‗I‘d like a box of sweets and a cake for my party. And I‘d like some ice cream, some cola and

some fruit‘. The instructor then should point out to the students that they can count some nouns

but cannot count other nouns. These are called countable and uncountable nouns. We use a with

singular countable nouns and some with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns. Students

are now asked to read the lesson individually in their textbooks and the instructor asks them to

do a fill-in-gap exercise with a or some. He/She may also ask them to do the fill-in-gap exercises

in pairs or in groups. In this way, the students have participated actively in the classroom. The

instructor may ask the students to read the new lesson at home and prepare some questions on

any part of the lesson they did not understand.

On the other hand, teaching may be started deductively by asking the students to open a

certain page in their textbooks. The instructor then starts reading the portion on countable and

uncountable nouns, or he/she may ask one of them to read. One of the students may read a

portion and the instructor may then explain the lesson step-by-step. As we can see from this

deductive scenario, it would be difficult for an instructor to ascertain the degree to which

learning has taken place.

Another problem with this method is that the instructor checks the knowledge the

students have acquired on the countable and uncountable nouns only through an examination.

The above scenario emphasizes the need for instructors to adopt a less rigid approach to lesson-

planning and a more learner-friendly attitude to lesson delivery. Implementation of inductive

Al Hinai: Classroom management


approaches to learning such as problem-based learning normally involves active and cooperative

learning strategies, both of which are known to have positive effects on many learning outcomes

SCTL influences students‘ performance by encouraging them to respect their tasks and

accept involvement in them. In other words, its impact implies some knowledge about the way in

which students influence one another. Also, they are encouraged to act as researchers and

thinkers, since they are required to be independent in reporting, identifying and introducing

genuine ideas in relation to their own projects.

Accordingly, SCTL focuses, for example, on instructor expectations and learners‘

intellectual development. One of its objectives is to ensure that tertiary colleges continually

update their teaching techniques by considering the three strategies: ATL, CL and DITL.

Furthermore, it can be said that SCTL could possibly play a part in developmental issues. For

example, the corollary of introducing SCTL will be a demand for faculty members to raise their

awareness with regard to innovative teaching practices.

In brief, SCTL is an approach which promotes college achievement and encourages

instructors to become visionaries in setting up their academic goals. SCTL is considered the best

method for motivating and encouraging students‘ efforts.

Result Analysis

The bar charts present data relating to instructors of the English department of the

College of Applied Sciences, Rustaq. A selected group of instructors agreed to participate in our

survey. Thus, there are three bar charts which reveal certain information obtained from the data

in the questionnaire (see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9). The instructors‘ responses and the items have

been plotted on the charts with regard to the ATL, CL and DITL themes. Please note: in place of

the word ―series‖ on the three charts, kindly read the word ―item‖.

Assessing the factors of the research findings of Chart No. 1

Chart No. 1 includes five items (1 to 5; see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9) of the research findings

which embody the key features of the Active Teaching and Learning (ATL) strategy. All of these

items score teaching activities on a six-frequency scale (0-5).

In line with the ultimate objective of an eventual implementation of the SCTL strategy at

tertiary level, the researchers were led to an intensive study of these five items. Some items

indicate a groundswell of favorable opinion (items 1 & 2; see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9) which is

balanced by other items which indicate a significant awareness of the shortcomings of ATL

(items 3 & 4; see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9).



Chart No. 1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

None of

the time

A Little of

the time

Some of

the time

A good

bit of the

time

Most of

the time

All of the

time

Series1

Series2

Series3

Series4

Series5Ii

Active Teaching and Learning Strategy


Chart No. 2 includes five items (6 to 10, see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9) of the research

findings which embody the key features of the Cooperative Learning (CL) strategy. All of these

items score teaching activities on a six-frequency scale (0-5). Looking at Chart: No. 2, we can

see a significant number of respondents agreeing with item 1 on cooperative learning. Another

significant number of the respondents are those that agree with items 2 and 4 on the scale. On the

other hand, we can see clearly an insignificant number, in comparison to the first one, of the

respondents giving different responses on the same key features of the chart.

Chart No. 2

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

None of

the time

A Little of

the time

Some of

the time

A good

bit of the

time

Most of

the time

All of the

time

Series1

Series2

Series3

Series4

Series5

Cooperative Learning Strategy




Chart No. 3 includes five items (11 to 15; see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9) of the research

findings which embody the key features of the Deductive and Inductive Teaching and Learning

(DITL) strategy. All of these items score teaching activities on a six-frequency scale (0-5). The

majority of items (1, 2, 4 & 5; see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9) receive significantly high ratings, which

would suggest that a judicious combination of inductive and deductive approaches is the

preferred practice. The remaining item (item 3; see Appendix, pp. 8 & 9) has a less significant

frequency, which would suggest that assigning group work on take home-projects has fewer

practitioners.

Chart No. 3

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

None of

the time

A Little of

the time

Some of

the time

A good

bit of the

time

Most of

the time

All of the

time

Series1

Series2

Series3

Series4

Series5

Deductive and Inductive Teaching and Learning Strategy

Enhancing SCTL

In connection with the above section, it seems that there is a need for a classroom

management model to advance the quality of academic outcomes. Accordingly, instructors at

tertiary-level colleges should be aware of the current requirements of quality assurance and

should consider implementing the SCTL method and its teaching strategies (ATL, CL and

DITL), since these methods could fit into the teaching/learning atmosphere of Omani colleges

and universities.

Recommendations

1. Faculty members need to update their knowledge in terms of using adequate teaching

strategies, such as Active Teaching and Learning (ATL), Cooperative Learning (CL) and

Deductive and Inductive Teaching and Learning (DITL).



2. Colleges should provide ongoing training courses and workshops for their faculty members

which would provide support, for example, in dealing with classroom management and

implementing the practice of SCTL (TTA, 2000).

3. In-depth research is required in respect of the three selected themes, namely Active Teaching

and Learning (ATL), Cooperative Learning (CL), and Deductive and Inductive Teaching and

Learning (DITL) in order to fully exploit the extensive range of possibilities which they

offer.

Conclusion

In this paper the researchers addressed some of the concepts related to the enhancement

of classroom management through implementation of the Student-Centered Teaching and

Learning method. It has been found that SCTL could be effective in raising the level of college

outcomes and improving productivity. Another reason for SCTL implementation could be the

age factor: tertiary and high school students belong to the same age range. Consequently,

teaching strategies which are practiced with success at high school level can be adapted to meet

the demands of the teaching/learning context in tertiary-level colleges (Wallace, M. and

Pocklington, K.,2002).

References

Elias, M.,Zins, J., Weissberg, R., Frey, K., Greenberg, M., Haynes, N., Kessler, R., Schwab-Stone, M. and Shriver,

T. (1997) Promoting Social and Emotional Learning, Alexandria, Virginia, Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Southworth, G. (2000) ‗Headship, leadership and school improvement‘, in Southworth, G. and Lincoln, P. (eds.)

Supporting Improving Primary Schools: The Role of Heads and LEAs in Raising Standards. London:

Falmer Press.

Wallace, M. (2001) ‗Sharing leadership of schools through teamwork: a justifiable risk?‘, Educational Management

and Administration, 29, 2, pp. 153-167.

Wallace, M. and Pocklington, K. (2002) Managing Complex Educational Change: Large-scale Reorganisation of

Schools. London: Routledge Falmer.

APPENDIX

A QUESTIONNAIRE OF STUDENT-CENTERED TEACHING AND

LEARNING (SCTL)

Dear Colleagues,

We are doing some research on SCTL. We would appreciate your cooperation in filling

in thisquestionnaire. The information you will provide us with will be confidential and will only

be used for the purpose of this research. Please check against the most relevant activities that fit

your perspective in dealing with classroom management and teaching techniques according to

the assessment scale mentioned below.



Personal Information Assessment Scale

Name

(optional)

No

ne

of

the

tim

e

A L

ittl

e o

f th

e ti

me

So

me

of

the

tim

e

A g

oo

d b

it o

f th

e ti

me

Mo

st o

f th

e ti

me

All

of

the

tim

e

College

Department

Subject

Experience in

years

below

5

above

5

above

10

above

15

Above

20

N Themes/items 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Active Teaching and Learning (ATL)

1. Instructors use five ‗E‘s of active teaching and learning (i.e., Engagement,

Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration, and Evaluation) which constitute an

exemplary pedagogical model.

2. Active teaching and learning method encourages the conversion of

examination success criteria into sets of skills to be mastered.

3. Time management may be a challenge since teachers have to ensure that

the lesson is completed.

4. Some teachers find that this method does not sufficiently take into account

the multi-level factor

5. An active classroom has good ‗team representatives‘ who meet regularly

for consultation meetings with their instructor

Cooperative Learning (CL)

6. Students become more aware about their learning strategies in terms of

specific content, summarization and response

7. Cooperative learning is an alternative to formal lecturing

8. Students learn how to recognize and solve problems

9. Students articulate what they have accomplished and reflect on their

activity and observations

10. Students work in learning and knowledge-building communities, exploiting

each other‘s skills and appropriating each other‘s knowledge

Deductive and Inductive Teaching and Learning (DITL)

11. Explanation of the lesson to students without interruption.

12. Motivation of students by telling them short but funny stories before the

lesson begins.

13. Forming groups of two to three students and distributing assignments to

take home.

14. Combining internet-based materials with classroom teaching and giving

assignments to students.

15. Encouraging and guiding students to learn by themselves.

Researchers: Dr. Harith AlHinai Dr. Harun-Al-Rasheed Yusuf Mrs. Colette van Leeuwen


Reference # 14

Topic # 4

Online reading strategies of Omani EFL university students Thuwayba Al-Barwani [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Aly Amer [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Effective use of reading strategies has been recognized as an important way to increase reading

comprehension. Many EFL/ESL studies have produced lists of paper-reading strategies. In

contrast, few studies have investigated online reading strategies. The purpose of the present study

is to investigate Online Reading Strategies of Omani EFL University freshmen and senior

students. The Survey Of Reading Strategies (SORS) (Sheorey and Mokhtari, 2001) was adapted

for use in this study. Although there were no quantitative differences between the two groups,

there were significant qualitative differences regarding the type of strategies used. Senior students

reported using more global reading strategies than freshmen. Moreover, freshmen reported using

more support strategies than senior students.

Introduction

Reading, for learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), is the most important skill

to master in order to ensure success in learning and to make greater progress in other areas of

language learning. Hence, the effective use of reading strategies has been recognized as an

important way to increase reading comprehension (Huang, Chern, and Lin 2009). As a result,

many EFL/ESL studies have produced lists of paper-reading strategies (e.g., Anderson, 1991;

Cohen, 1998; Sheorey and Mokhtari, 2001). In contrast, few studies have investigated online

reading strategies (Anderson, 2003; Coiro and Dobler, 2007; Huang, Chern, and Lin, 2009) and

the effects of strategy use on different levels of reading comprehension (Brantmeier, 2005).

Research indicates that metacognitive awareness of reading strategies significantly

contributes to L2 reading ability. If students are aware of the array of strategies that they can use,

they can learn to select the appropriate strategies that can help them in obtaining meaning from

the text they are reading (Hassan, 2003). According to Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001, p. 433) ―the

reader‘s metacognitive knowledge about reading includes an awareness of a variety of reading

strategies and that the cognitive enterprise of reading is influenced by this metacognitive awareness

of reading strategies‖.

With increasing globalization and the rise of the WorldWideWeb, online reading has

become a major source of input for L2 readers because it provides them with authentic language

input. Nowadays, computers and the Internet play an increasingly important role in the lives of

EFL/ESL readers. The Internet has entered our classrooms faster than books, television,

computers or any other technology for information and communication (Leu (2002: 311). More

and more EFL/ESL learners are engaged in online learning tasks (e.g., Bikowski & Kessler,

2002; Sutherland-Smith, 2002).

With the increased use of the internet and computers comes the increased need to train

language learners how to read online. Coiro (2003) indicates that electronic texts introduce new

supports as well as new challenges that can have a great impact on an individual‘s ability to

comprehend what he or she reads. Electronic texts are typically nonlinear, interactive, and

inclusive of multiple media forms. Each of these characteristics affords new opportunities while

also presenting a range of challenges that requires new thought processes for making meaning



(Coiro 2003). Thus, it is necessary to equip EFL/ESL learners with online reading strategies.

Acquiring the strategies of reading electronic texts is fundamental for lifelong learning (Amer

2004). Recent research indicates that students who lack the strategies of electronic reading are

easily frustrated when they interact with text resulting from an Internet search because they are

not instantly gratified in their rapid search for immediate answers and may adopt a ―snatch and

grab philosophy‖ not apparent in print text environments (Sutherland-Smith, 2002, 664). They

often make hasty, random choices with little thought and evaluation (Eagleton, 2001, 3).

The purpose of the present study is to investigate Online Reading Strategies of Omani

EFL University Students. The study addresses five research questions:

1. What are the online reading strategies used by EFL freshmen students?

2. Do these strategies vary due to gender and GPA?

3. What are the online reading strategies used by EFL senior students?

4. Do these strategies vary due to gender and GPA?

5. Do the online reading strategies of EFL freshmen differ from the online strategies of senior

students?

Method

Sample

Participants consisted of 123 EFL freshmen and 97 EFL senior students at Sultan Qaboos

University (SQU).

Instrument

The Survey Of Reading Strategies (SORS) (Sheorey and Mokhtari, 2001) was adapted

for use in this research project. The adaptation was named the Online Survey Of Reading

Strategies (OSORS) to distinguish it from the SORS. Each item was modified to include the

phrase ―online‖ each time a reading task was referred to. The adapted (OSORS) consists of 34

items that measure metacognitive reading strategies. The items are subdivided into three

categories: global reading strategies (17 items), problem solving strategies (8 items), and support

strategies (9 items). Global strategies are intentional and carefully planned by learners to monitor

their reading, such as having a purpose in mind, previewing the text, checking how text content

fits its purpose, noting text characteristics like length and organization, and predicting or

guessing the text‘s meaning. Problem-solving strategies are the actions that readers employ while

they are working directly with the text, especially when the text becomes difficult; these

strategies include guessing the meaning from unknown words, adjusting one‘s reading rate,

visualizing the information read, resolving conflicting information, and rereading the text to

improve comprehension. Support strategies are what readers use to aid comprehension, such as

using a dictionary, taking notes, highlighting textual information, or translating from one‘s

mother tongue to the target language.

Cronbach alpha was used to establish the reliability of the OSORS. The overall reliability

of OSORS was .82. The reported reliabilities for each subsection are: Global Reading Strategies,

.76; Problem Solving Strategies, .60; and Support Strategies, .49.

Al-Barwani & Amer: Online reading strategies of Omani EFL university students


Results

Answer to the First Research Question:

What are the online reading strategies used by EFL freshmen students?

Table (1) shows the top 12 and bottom 12 online reading strategies as identified in the

OSORS.

Top Twelve Reading Strategies Bottom Twelve Reading Strategies

6. I think about whether the content of the on-line

text fits my reading purpose (Global)

31. I can distinguish between fact and opinion in

on-line texts (Problem-solving)

14. When on-line text becomes difficult, I pay

closer attention to what I am reading (Global)

1. I have a purpose in mind when I read on line

(Global) 24. I try to guess what the content of the on-line

text is about when I read. (Global)

16. I stop from time to time and think about what

I am reading on-line (Problem-solving)

2. I take notes while reading on-line to help me

understand what I read (Support)

30. I critically evaluate the on-line text before

choosing to use its information (Global)

25. When on-line text becomes difficult, I re-read

it to increase my understanding. (Problem-

solving)

33. When reading on-line, I translate from

English into my native language. (Support)

8. I review the on-line text first by noting its

characteristics like length and organization

(Global)

7. I read slowly and carefully to make sure I

understand what I am reading on-line (Problem-

solving)

9. I try to get back on track when I lose

concentration (Problem-solving)

21. I critically analyze and evaluate the

information presented in the on-line text (Global)

28. When I read on-line, I guess the meaning of

unknown words or phrases (Problem-solving)

26. I ask myself questions I like to have answered

in the on-line text (Support)

18. I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words)

to better understand what I read on-line.

(Support)

4. I take an overall view of the on-line text to see

what it is about before reading it (Global)

34. When reading on-line, I think about

information in both English and my mother

tongue (Support)

13. I use reference materials (e.g. an on-line

dictionary) to help me understand what read on-

line (Support)

3. I think about what I know to help me

understand what I read on-line (Global)

15. I use tables, figures, and pictures in the on-

line text to increase my understanding (Global)

5. When on-line text becomes difficult, I read

aloud to help me understand what I read

(Support)

20. I use typographical features like bold face and

italics to identify key information (Global)

Table (1): Freshmen top 12 and bottom 12 reading strategies

Table (1) shows that five (41%) of the top 12 strategies are global. Remember that there

are 17 global strategies of the 34 strategies on the OSORS. There are also three (25 %) problem-

solving strategies and 4 (34 %) support strategies. The OSORS include eight problem-solving

strategies and nine support strategies. The table also shows that six (50 %) of the bottom 12

strategies are global, three (25 %) are problem-solving strategies and three (25 %) are support

strategies.



Answers of the second questions:

Do the Freshmen‘s strategies vary due to gender and GPA?

Table (2) shows that there are no statistically significant differences between males and

females on the three categories of strategies as well as the total strategies.

Strategy Gender N Mean SD T p

Global M 22 56.95 7.148 .412 .681

F 101 55.94 11.031

Problem

Solving

M 22 28.32 4.455 .186 .853

F 101 28.09 5.378

Support M 22 27.05 3.316 -1.451 .149

F 101 28.82 5.518

Total M 22 112.32 9.756 -.190 .898

F 101 112.85 18.890

Table (2): Freshmen’s gender differences

With reference to GPA, table (3) shows that there are no statistically significant

differences on the three categories of strategies as well as the total strategies.

Strategy GPA N Mean SD T p

Global B 63 56.57 11.642 .773 .442

C 19 54.26 10.551

Problem

Solving

B 63 28.02 5.405 .612 .542

C 19 27.16 5.178

Support B 63 28.43 5.980 .608 .545

C 19 27.53 4.427

Total B 63 113.02 19.729 .804 .424

C 19 108.95 17.881

Table (3): Freshmen’s GPA differences

Answer of question (4):

What are the online reading strategies used by EFL senior students?

Top Twelve Reading Strategies Bottom Twelve Reading Strategies

1. I have a purpose in mind when reading on line (Global) 2. I take notes while reading on-line to help me

understand what I read(Support)

6. I think about whether the content of the on-line text fits

my reading purpose (Global)

26. I ask myself questions I like to have answered in

the on-line text (Support)

29. I scan the on-line text to get a basic idea of whether it

will serve my purposes before deciding to read it (Global)

16. I stop from time to time and think about what I am

reading on-line (Problem-solving)

4. I take an overall view of the on-line text to see what it

is about before reading it (Global)

18. I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to

better understand what I read on-line (Support)

7. I read slowly and carefully to make sure I understand

what I am reading on-line (Problem-solving)

19. I try to picture or visualize information to help

remember what I read on-line (Problem-solving)

24. I try to guess what the content of the on-line text is

about when I read (Global)

27. I check to see if my guesses about the on-line text

are right or wrong (Global)

3. I think about what I know to help me understand what I

read on-line (Global)

21. I critically analyze and evaluate the information

presented in the on-line text (global)



9. I try to get back on track when I lose concentration

(Problem-solving)

33. When reading on-line, I translate from English into

my native language (support)

14. When on-line text becomes difficult, I pay closer

attention to what I am reading (Global)

15. I use tables, figures, and pictures in the on-line text

to increase my understanding (Global)

11. I adjust my reading speed according to what I am

reading on-line (Problem-solving)

20. I use typographical features like bold face and

italics to identify key information (Global)

28. When I read on-line, I guess the meaning of unknown

words or phrases (Problem-solving)

13. I use reference materials (e.g. an on-line dictionary)

to help me understand what read on-line (Support)

12. When reading on-line, I decide what to read

thoroughly and what to ignore (Global)

5. When on-line text becomes difficult, I read aloud to

help me understand what I read (Support)

Table (4): Seniors top 12 and bottom 12 reading strategies

Table (4) shows that eight (67 %) out of the top 12 strategies are global and four (33 %)

are problem-solving. It is noteworthy that seniors‘ top 12 strategies do not include any support

strategies. Besides, the table illustrates the bottom 12 online reading strategies as identified in the

OSORS. The table shows that four (33 %) of the 12 bottom strategies are global, two (17%) are

problem-solving strategies and six (50 %) are support strategies.

Answer to the fourth question: Do the seniors‘ strategies vary due to gender and GPA?

Table (5) shows that there are no statistically significant differences between males and

females on the three categories of strategies as well as the total strategies.

Strategy Gender N Mean SD T p

Global M 41 59.24 7.003 -.267 .790

F 56 59.71 9.549

Problem

Solving

M 41 27.85 4.531 -.074 .941

F 56 27.93 5.190

Support M 41 27.93 4.535 .698 .487

F 56 27.20 5.455

Total M 41 115.02 12.920 .059 .953

F 56 114.84 16.890

Table (5): Seniors’ gender differences

With regard to GPA, table (6) shows that there are no statistically significant differences

on the three categories of strategies as well as the total strategies.

Strategy GPA N Mean SD T p

Global B 58 60.64 8.967 1.685 .095

C 38 57.66 7.649

Problem

Solving

B 58 28.62 4.641 1.888 .062

C 38 26.71 5.151

Support B 58 27.88 5.058 .874 .384

C 38 26.95 5.183

Total B 58 117.14 15.215 1.844 .068

C 38 117.32 15.003

Table (6): Seniors GPA differences



Answer to question 5: Do the online reading strategies of EFL freshmen

differ from the online strategies of senior students?

Table (7) shows that there is a statistically significant difference between freshmen and

seniors on global strategies. It also shows that there are no statistically significant differences on

problem-solving and support strategies as well as the total strategies.

Strategies Group N Mean SD T P

Global

Freshmen 123 56.12 10.42

-2.59

.01 Senior 97 59.52 8.52

Problem

solving

Freshmen 123 28.13 5.20

.338

.735 Senior 97 27.90 4.89

Support

Freshmen 123 28.50 5.22

1.426

.155 Senior 97 27.51 5.07

Total

Freshmen 123 112.76 17.57

.959

.339 Senior 97 114.92 15.26

Table (7): Differences between freshmen and seniors

Discussion

The results of the present study are consistent with the results of the few studies

conducted on online reading strategies (e.g. Anderson, 2003; Huang et al., 2009; Coiro and

Dobler, 2007; Huang et al., 2006). As illustrated in Table (7), the only statistically significant

difference between seniors and freshmen was in global strategies. Besides, seniors used more top

global strategies than freshmen did, i.e. 67% and 41% respectively, as shown in table (4) and

table (1). Table (1) also shows that 50% of the bottom twelve strategies are global strategies.

Hence, we may conclude, as) did, that global strategies are widely used by high proficiency

students (Huang et al., 2009, 11; Harrison, 2004; Singhal, 2004). Low proficiency students, in

contrast, use less global strategies.

Another interesting finding as shown in table (4) is that seniors did not use any support

strategies. The table also illustrates that 50% of the bottom 12 strategies are support strategies. It

is noteworthy that low proficiency students frequently use support strategies (Huang, 1999;

Shen, 2003- cited in Huang et al., 2009).

With reference to gender, results showed no statistically significant differences between

males and females in either group. This result is consistent with recent the literature on gender

and reading strategies which does not show greater strategy utilization for either males or

females, although there have been relatively few studies on the subject (Phakiti, 2003; Poole,

2005; Sheorey and Mokhtari, 2001; Young and Oxford, 1993). Thus, it is possible that with

second language reading strategy use, gender differences are more related to task demands and

contextual motivation than biology, as others have suggested is the case with other issues

surrounding language use and gender (Ehrlich, 1997).

With regard to GPA, results showed no statistically significant differences either among

freshmen or seniors, table (3) and table (6) respectively. This may be explained by the fact that



students‘ GPA in the two groups was either B or C. None of them had A or D. The range

between B and C is too small to reveal significant differences.

Results have important pedagogic implications. Explicit regular instruction should be

incorporated in all reading curricula. Learners generally tend to use a fixed set of reading

strategies that they have long been accustomed to regardless of the text‘s level of difficulty.

Learners should be consciously aware of the different types of metacognitive reading strategies.

More importantly, they should be aware of the reading strategies characteristic of skilled readers.

Future research may investigate EFL readers‘ online behaviours while reading different texts

online for different purposes.

References

Amer, A. (2004). A lifelong approach to Pre-Service Teacher Education and In-Service Professional Development.

Paper Presented at: The Third International Conference: ―Towards Better Education of Prospective Teachers‖,

Sultan Qaboos University, College of Education, 1-3 March 2004.

Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern

Language Journal, 75, 460–472.

Anderson, N. (2003). Scrolling, clicking, and reading English: online reading strategies in a second/foreign

language. The Reading Matrix, 3, 3, 1- 33.

Bikowski, D., and Kessler, G. (2002). Making the most of the discussion boards in the ESL classroom. TESOL

Journal, 11(3), 27-29.

Brantmeier, C. (2005). Effects of reader‘s knowledge, text type, and test type on L1 and L2 reading comprehension.

The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 37–53.

Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman.

Coiro, J. (2003). Reading comprehension on the Internet: Expanding our understanding of reading comprehension to

encompass new literacies. Reading Online

[http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=/electronic/rt/2-03_Column/index.html]

Coiro, J., and Dobler, E. (2007). Exploring the online reading comprehension strategies used by sixth-grade skilled

readers to search for and locate information on the Internet. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(2), 214–257

Eagleton, M. (2001). Factors that influence Internet inquiry strategies: Case studies of middle school students with

and without learning disabilities. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Reading Conference,

San Antonio, TX.

Ehrlich, S. (1997). Gender as social practice: Implications for second language acquisition.

Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 4, 421-446.

Harrison, C. (2004). Understanding reading development. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.

Hassan, F. (2003). Metacognitive strategy awareness and reading comprehension. The English Teacher, XXXII.

www.melta.org.my/ET/2003/2003-16.pdf.

Huang, H., Chern, C. and Lin, C. (2006). EFL learners‘ online reading strategies: A comparison between high and

low EFL proficient readers. English Teaching and Learning, Special Issue (1), 1–22.

Huang, H., Chern, C. and Lin, C. (2009). EFL learners‘ use of online reading strategies and comprehension of texts:

An exploratory study. Computers and Education, 52, 1, 13-26.

Leu, D. J. (2002). The new literacies: Research on reading instruction with the internet. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J.

Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 310–336). Newark, Delaware:

International Reading Association.

Sheorey, R., and Mokhtari, K. (2001).Differences in the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among

native and non-native readers. System, 29, 431-449.

Singhal, M. (2004). Teaching reading to adult second language learners. Mattoon, Illinois: United Graphics Inc.

Sutherland-Smith, W. (2002). Integrating online discussion in an Australian intensive English language course.

TESOL Journal, 11(3), 31-35.

Young, D. J., & Oxford, R. L. (1993). Attending to learner reactions to introductory Spanish textbooks. Hispania,

76, 593-605.

http://www.melta.org.my/ET/2003/2003-16.pdf


Reference # 15

Topic # 5

Sustainable capacity building in a CCM-oriented EFL methods course at SQU Thuwayba Al-Barwani [email protected], Mohamed El-Okda [email protected]

Sultan Qaboos University, College of Education, Oman

The aim of this article is to give a brief account as best practice of a CCM-Oriented EFL Methods

Course at SQU involving the collaboration of an American Team and faculty members of the

English Teaching Unit, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University. A description of

curriculum development processes is outlined. Capacity building involved in those processes is

shown to involve both parties involved. This is represented in a change of the American team

perspective regarding the integration of CCM content and language teaching specific topics.

Attempts to get faculty members involved in the course curriculum development are critically

assessed. Then, the development of a research map is discussed. It is argued that such a research

map is essential for the sustainability of capacity building for both parties concerned.

Introduction

Attempts to create international links with higher education institutions in advanced

countries and to initiate capacity building projects for the College of Education Faculty at SQU

have always been a major concern of the leadership of the College of Education. Since the

beginning of the academic year 2008/2009, contacts have been underway between an American

team whose members have already completed a Child-Centered Classroom Methodologies

Project in some schools of the first Cycle of Omani Basic Education in the Muscat Region. The

American team members were keen on expanding the project to include pre-service teacher

education and EFL teacher educators were also eager to incorporate learner-centered teaching

and learning both as part of the content of an EFL Methods course as well as a method of

delivering that course. The EFL Methods course was seen as a good starting point that is

susceptible to change and improvement.

The call for moving away from teacher led teaching to learner-centered instruction at

SQU is by no means new. Many training courses focusing on learner centered teaching in higher

education have been offered at SQU. Such courses must have alerted many people to the need to

move away from teacher-led teaching at SQU to learner-centered instruction. Many courses

offered at SQU colleges are currently blended courses whose e-learning component displays a

high degree of interactivity and learner-centeredness. That is why it was pointed out from the

very beginning of the CCCM Project that the situation at SQU can never be viewed in terms of

either teacher–led or learner centered instruction. Instead, it was pointed out that the situation at

SQU should be viewed in terms of a continuum with two extreme ends.

However, to the writers‘ best knowledge, at least at the College of Education, there has

been no other courses designed to be learner-centered both online and face to face. Many face to

face sessions continue to have a heavy lecturing component, albeit intermingled with teacher-led

discussions, activities and student teachers‘ content based presentations. When face to face

sessions are teacher led, first hand experience reveals that students‘ participation online will be

minimized. Such complaint has always been raised by almost all instructors who use e-learning

in an interactive way. If a learner is accustomed to be provided with a course book, lecture notes

or a PowerPoint presentation in most courses, s/he will be unwilling to practice autonomous and




collaborative learning online. Therefore, the challenge for people involved in the CCCM Project

was how to design a course that is learner-centered both online and face-to-face. When the

American team and the faculty of the EFL Teaching Unit met for the first time, almost all people

were very enthusiastic to participate in the project. From the EFL teacher educators‘ perspective,

the project was viewed as a capacity building opportunity. To the American party, the project

constituted some sort of expansion of what had been done in the few Ministry of Education

Cycle 1 schools.

A Capacity Building Project

Capacity building is a term that has always been associated with ―foreign‖ aid usually

offered by an International Organization, usually affiliated with the United Nations or a national

organization located in an advanced country to organizations in developing countries. The

initiator will always be the donor. Capacity building projects at the moment cover many domains

of the life in the developing country including business, preserving the environment, and

education. In education, the American Fulbright Commission and the British Council come at the

top of donors especially in the field of English language education. Stephens (2009) provides a

detailed account of the British Council capacity building projects in higher education in many

developing countries that have been implemented during the last twenty-five years and attempts

to identify the different impediments encountered and how project managers were able to get

over them. Enemark (2005, p.1) considers capacity building for higher education in developing

countries a part of the Western World University Portfolio. This was a capacity building project

funded by UNESCO in Mozambique.

―The project was focused on qualitative reforms in the teaching and learning process in selected

faculties at three public universities in Mozambique. The objective was to increase the use of

student centered, project-oriented approaches, integrated with computer use…‖

Enemark further adds

―It is important that such capacity building activities are seen as not only a key driver for societal

development in the recipient countries, but also as a necessity for facilitating the building of

relevant international capacity and institutional innovation in the donor countries. It is a process of

mutual benefit for both recipient and donor countries (italics ours).‖

That capacity building is also beneficial to the members of the American team in the

CCCM Project is manifested in three main aspects of the curriculum design process. This is dealt

with below.

A famous example of these initiatives is that of the Center of Developing Language

Teaching in Egypt (CDELT), affiliated to the Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University.

When it comes to language teaching education, the main concern will normally be curriculum

development, materials production and in-service teacher education. There will also be attempts

to create connections with Colleges of Education where EFL teachers are educated. Very

ambitious attempts were made in Egypt to design Method of Teaching courses as well as

Linguistics courses.

The situation in Oman is not very much different. Native speaker expatriates usually

work hand in hand with national consultants to develop the teaching of English as a foreign

language. This has usually been the case in pre-university stages. Perhaps, the first attempt to

extend this co-operation to higher education is the CCCM Project.

Al-Barwani & El-Okda: Sustainable capacity building


In a presentation prepared for a conference on sustainable development held in Norway

in May, 2006 by the UN Environment Program, capacity building is defined as

building abilities, relationships and values that will enable organizations, groups and individuals to

improve their performance and achieve their development objectives. Capacity building was also

described as initiating and sustaining a process of individual and organizational change that can

equally refer to change within a state, civil society or the private sector, as well as a change in

processes that enhance cooperation between different groups of society. This definition puts

emphasis on three aspects: (a) capacity building as the catalyst and constant fuel for a process of

change, (b) the importance of building institutional capacity, and the (c) involvement of a wide

range of different groups in society.

Focus of the CCCM Project

The chief focus of the CCCM Project at SQU is to transform teacher education from

instructor-led/ centered teaching to learner-centered teaching. Blumberg and Weimer (2008)

note that the call for transforming higher education teaching into learner-centered teaching has

only become an urgent need during the last decade. They point out a number of characteristics of

learner-centered teaching in higher education:

1. A change in the instructor‘s as well as the learner roles: Instructor is no longer viewed as the

source of knowledge, but rather an activity designer and/or manager and a learning

facilitator. Learners are knowledge builders/ explorers. They need to be engaged in

collaborative tasks that aim at encouraging them to use higher-order cognitive processes in

handling the content of the course. Many writers on the use of learner-centered teaching in

higher education insist that tasks in learner-centered courses should be authentic in the sense

that they need to be derived from the professional world in which studying a course will be

required to use the content to solve professional real life problems.

2. Nature of knowledge: In instructor-centered teaching, knowledge is usually viewed as a

product that can be conveyed to the learners. In learner-centered teaching in higher

education, knowledge is viewed as a process. It is something to be constructed by the

knower, i.e. the learner. The instructor can only provide scaffolding for their learners. As

such, knowledge is viewed as a dynamic process rather than a static product. That is why;

part and parcel of the instructor‘s role would be to develop the learners‘ autonomous learning

skills. Therefore, in academic circles, the term ―learning-centered‖ teaching is preferred to

learner-centered teaching.

3. The role of content: Content becomes a means to an end, not an end itself as it is the case in

traditional teaching. It is a means for developing thinking as well as learning skills.

4. Learners are to be involved in the decision making process.

5. On-going assessment does not just aim at assigning grades.

They point out many benefits of learner-centered teaching in higher education based on

previous research. These include higher level of motivation, knowledge of why they learn the

content, awareness of their learning abilities and ways of acquiring knowledge, ability to use

knowledge in solving real life problems, making learning a life-long process and ability to

transfer knowledge to other contexts.



Blumberg and Weimer (2008) sum up characteristics of learner-centered teaching in

higher education highlighted in research. These include:

1. Both the instructor and the learner assume new roles. The instructor becomes a facilitator of

learning as well as a task designer; and the learner becomes the knowledge builder.

2. Active learning is encouraged. Learners are engaged in authentic tasks that are usually

derived from the professional world. These tasks require higher order thinking skills.

Learners become responsible for their own learning.

3. Learner characteristics are taken into consideration.

4. Content and resources are viewed as task givens and the focus will be mainly on developing

both learning and thinking skills.

5. Since learning is viewed as a social process, collaboration is encouraged through getting

student work in teams.

All these features are supposed to be reflected in the design of the CCCM-Oriented EFL

Methods 2 course that has been chosen for this project. Student teachers are also to become

aware of the main principles developed for training in-service teachers in Cycle 1 schools so that

they may be able to work in such schools when they graduate from the College of Education. On

the other hand, the English Teaching Unit faculty members wanted the course content focus

specifically on teaching English as a foreign language. The great challenge then was how to

integrate the two types of content.

Content integration and the curriculum development process

Curriculum development involved a number of steps:

1. A set of workshops to make faculty aware of the work done for the Ministry of Education

Cycle 1 schools. Attending those workshops was not confined to the English Teaching Unit

staff members. Many student teachers of English attended them and the invitation was sent to

all faculty of the College of Education.

2. Fact finding, brainstorming sessions were held between the American team and the English

Teaching Unit faculty. Those meetings were extremely important. Most questions raised by

the American team focused on two issues:

a. The language teaching specific content and materials

b. The challenge of integrating this content with the CCCM content.

All instructors of the English Teaching Unit who were willing to participate in the project

readily provided the American team with all documents related to the first issue. The second

issue constituted the greatest challenge and the main topic of a lot of discussions in

subsequent meetings.

The American team believed that the CCCM content should be taught separately in one

of the weekly two-hour sessions of the theoretical face to face component of the course.

Indeed, they submitted a tentative syllabus in which they attempted to pair a CCCM topic

and another Language Teaching specific one. Two main arguments were raised against the

proposal by the English Teaching Unit faculty in feedback meetings. One is that there was no

match in the content of the paired topics except perhaps for one topic. The other was that

having to set aside one hour for each type of content is bound to create a sort of content



overload that may detrimentally affect the delivery of the course by making it lecture based,

rather than task-based since the latter, which is a major feature of learner-centered teaching,

requires more time than the former. Many faculty members pointed out that the most

important thing about learner-centered teaching for this course that student teachers should

observe classes in which the language teaching content is taught in a learner-centered way.

Some of them argued that no more than two weekly sessions should be devoted to CCCM

content. The most important thing for student teachers is to observe its application in learning

the other type of content and to practice its application in the practical component known as

micro-teaching.

Perhaps the most successful attempt to get all people involved was the syllabus design

workshop. Having agreed on content integration rather than content separation, the American

team produced a framework for designing the syllabus of the course that was readily

accepted by the ELT Unit members. They were then divided into pairs and each pair was

entrusted with the responsibility of producing the objectives for each content area. These

were reproduced as PP. slides and modified in the light of the whole group feedback.

3. A second round of group as well as individual interviews focused mainly on faculty

expectations regarding the format of the materials. The American team stated it explicitly

that they were going to produce a teacher guide for the course. This particular issue led to a

lot of heated discussions. Two points of view were held by the faculty members. Some of

them welcomed the idea of having a teacher guide with detailed guidance. Others argued that

this is simply not suitable in higher education and that it might be inconsistent with the

principle of academic freedom. More important still was the argument that such a suggestion

reflected a top down approach to curriculum development (El-Okda, 2005, 2002). Teacher

guides are notoriously known for being teacher proof manuals. During those discussions, it

was pointed out repeatedly the project would be much more effective if instructors were

involved in the actual design of the learning package in terms of a set of activities for

learners to perform both online and in face to face sessions. To exclude teachers from

curriculum development at the level of materials design is to deprive them of an invaluable

opportunity for professional development. The American team were shown samples of

courses online designed by some members of the ELT Unit which reflected most learner-

centered principles. It was also pointed out during the individual interviews that producing a

learner package in terms of generic reflection enhancing tasks is much more important than a

teacher guide. It was also pointed out that tasks included need to be derived from those

associated with the teaching profession in order to be really authentic.

Fullan (1994), Markee (1997) and El-Okda (2005, 2002) highlight the need for teacher

involvement in on-going curriculum development. Regardless of prescriptive guidance of

teacher guides, teachers are notoriously known for reinterpreting curriculum packages which

are developed using a top-down strategy. Indeed, any pre-designed tasks are bound to be

reinterpreted by instructors as well as by learners.

4. All the above mentioned meetings and interviews occurred before the summer vacation 2009.

A third round of meetings was held before the beginning of the Fall semester, 2009. During

those meetings, the head of the American Team briefed the ELT Unit faculty about the

structure of the package that had already been produced. One major issue was raised during

those meetings. It was pointed out that the e-learning component requires some design

modifications. The course menu page contained all the guidance given to the learners

together with a link for each resource (videos as well as readings). It was pointed out that



such design can be discouraging to student teachers. Besides, it was pointed out that

resources and activities need to be integrated. Accordingly, the e-learning component was

redesigned.

Components of the CCCM-Methods 2 course

The final version of package constituted a blended course with two components an e-

learning component and a face-to-face one. Both of them reflect the principles of learner-

centered teaching in higher education.

1. The e-learning component consisted of a number of learning units. A number of exercises

are based on the two types of resources (videos and readings). These included a weekly quiz

that students have to do as a preparation for the face to face session. Each topic unit ends

with a team Wiki that learners have to complete after checking their individual performance

of the resources-based exercises and after attending the face-to-face session.

2. The face-to-face session is also task based. The main task types for each unit are a coming-in

activity, public checking of one team Wiki, two main group work tasks that require learners

to use higher order thinking skills and a final short reflection activity. Instructors are also

advised to give a mini-lecture about a few points of the content. However, almost all

instructors tried to make those mini-lectures activity based.

3. It should also be noted that another major weekly face-to-face session is entirely devoted to

micro-teaching during which student teachers are required to practice teaching language

content using CCCM principles.

CCCM-Project Research Map

According to Stephens (2009), capacity building is not and should not be confined to

training. Indeed, many capacity building projects in higher education initiated by international or

national organizations from advanced countries focus exclusively on developing research

expertise. The CCCM Project at SQU triggered the desire of the ELT Unit faculty members for

expanding it to the research domain. It was felt that capacity building that is confined to

redesigning and implementing a course is bound to come to a halt once the course is completed.

This can never ensure sustainability of capacity building. A tentative research map based on the

CCCM Project was therefore drawn by a faculty member and submitted to the ELT Unit. Several

other proposals for research maps were also submitted. In his tentative research map submitted

to the ELT Unit, El-Okda (2009) asserts that for the CCM project to be viewed as a sustainable

capacity building initiative at the university level, instructors should not only be involved in an

on-going curriculum development process, but also in researching the different aspects of the

project. If they were handed over a ready made package to implement, their role should be to

develop this initial package. This is the main purpose of the proposed research map. It is an

attempt to combine what might be called a top-down, bottom-up strategy to curriculum

development. University faculty members do possess the research expertise required for this

purpose. It is the responsibility of the faculty to do this as part and parcel of any capacity

building project. Another goal of such a research map is to intensify collaboration of the ELT

faculty members in teaching as well as research. Almost all the topics proposed require

collaboration.



El-Okda identified four main aims for this research map:

1. further develop the CCM Project package

2. contribute to English Teaching Unit faculty members‘ research capacity building

3. enhance collaboration among the English Teaching Unit faculty members and members of

other departments

4. disseminate knowledge about the project

The proposed research map consisted of seven research areas encompassing 16 research

topics and three main projects. Traditionally, effectiveness is usually conceptualized in terms of

achievement. There was a general agreement that a quasi-experimental design may not be very

much suitable for such a study simply because almost all instructors were involved in the project.

Furthermore, the effect of any treatment will normally be determined by its very nature. For

example, the effect of co-operative learning may be measured primarily in terms of improvement

in group cohesion. Similarly, learner-centered teaching and learning effects should primarily be

measured in terms of improvement of learner autonomy and student teachers‘ belief change as

well as classroom performance. However, three faculty members have opted for the achievement

issue.

All such issues were discussed in a meeting attended by the head of the American team

and all the ELT Unit headed by the Dean of the College of Education who is always very

enthusiastic about and supportive of any research initiative. A committee was formed to select a

few number of topics to start with this academic year. Seven topics were chosen from that

tentative research map. Another topic investigating the Ministry of Education CCCM Project

was subsequently added.

Interestingly, the American team voluntarily decided to collaborate in researching two of

the selected topics for this academic year. These are the appraisal of the e-learning component

and the investigation of the curriculum development processes. The American team further

decided to organize a one-day conference on the CCCM Project to be held in Muscat in March,

2009. Once again, this is a good example that capacity building will be beneficial for both parties

concerned.

Impediments and aspirations

To end an article of this sort without mentioning some of the difficulties encountered

would be unrealistic. It will make it look like a sort of publicity speech which characterizes many

contributions to conferences focusing on similar capacity building projects. Johnson, et al (2009)

discusses in detail the impediments represented in students‘ resistance, administration resistance

and the individual instructor attempting to change to a learner-centered approach to teaching in

higher education. Important as they are, the question of impediments to adopting a learner-

centered approach to teaching in higher education involves many other things that can be

overcome through capacity building management. A few comments about this issue are in order

here. These can alert capacity building project managers to many important variables.

1. Adopting a top-down strategy to curriculum development: Capacity building requires

collaboration of the two parties concerned throughout the curriculum development process



particularly in higher education. The syllabus design workshop was a good example of such

fruitful collaboration. It might be argued that time constrains might have led to the adoption

of a combination of top-down, bottom-up strategies. Collaboration can be time consuming.

However, the effect of such collaboration in the design of materials and tasks might have had

two major beneficial effects. One is that it could have created a feeling of ―ownership‖ on the

part of the instructors involved. This will normally reduce the possibility of reinterpreting

materials by instructors. Furthermore, if the instructor feels that a task has been designed by

him or her, s/he will exert all efforts to make it a success. The other beneficial effect is it

facilitates the transfer of training to other courses taught by the same instructors. Any

capacity building project will always be a temporary endeavor. All attempts should be made

to guarantee its sustainability even after the foreign aid is discontinued or withdrawn.

2. Prescriptivism and stifling creativity: In higher education in particular, it is undesirable to

give too much prescriptive guidance to instructors even though some of them are novices.

Indeed, the detailed guidance given in the teacher guide including a lesson plan can stifle

instructor‘s creativity. Furthermore, prescriptive guidance related to teaching specific tasks

may not be culturally appropriate. Prescription can do more harm than good to novices. It can

lead to what is called guidance jams, a phenomenon often observed when a teacher tries to

copy all steps in his/ her lesson plan. In attempting to check for the next step, this usually

leads to confusion and in some cases classroom management problems. Two alternatives can

be adopted to avoid the detrimental effects of prescriptivism:

a. Incorporating a collaboration enhancement system in implementing the project whereby

instructors involved have to discuss all issues related to implementation of materials. This

has been adopted by most instructors in this project.

b. Designing exploratory guides or rather educative teacher guides: Such guides will focus

on guidance related to task types and not individual tasks. They also provide instructors

with the rationale for each type of task. They will normally encourage instructor initiative

and task design ability (see El-Okda, 2009).

3. Resource overload: Student teachers who opted voluntarily to enroll in CCCM sections are

willing to depend on themselves and collaborate with each other. However, it has been

reported by all instructors that students in all sections complain about the great number of

resources available to them online. No resource should be added unless it is required for

performing a specific task online. Literature on the instructional design of e-learning courses

frequently dwells upon the need to move away from using the virtual environment as a store

of resources. To get over this problem, instructors often try to give a hand to their students in

this respect.

4. Reluctance to task based action research during the implementation process

A very important research topic included in the research map was introducing a task based

action research component in the implementation process. The aim of this particular topic

was to systematize any attempt by the instructors to modify any task and to use it

subsequently in running the same course in future. Unfortunately, the head of the American

team did not welcome the idea in the first attempt to use the package. That is why this topic

was excluded from the selected research topics in this academic year. However, a diary based

self study in which all instructors are currently involved in might help remedy this situation.

5. Failure to get people from other departments involved in the research project. The research

map included a few topics that could be of interest to other departments. However, faculty



members of those departments have not been approached for this purpose. Perhaps this can

be remedied in selecting a new set of topics for future research on this project.

Despite the impediments, it is hoped that this project will be sustainable. Faculty

members are expected to collaborate in the design of Methods 1 course in a learner-centered

way. They also have to look for ways to involve faculty members from other departments of the

College of Education and to sensitize them to the need to move away from teacher led to learner

centered teaching.

Conclusion

The present article is an attempt to look critically at the CCCM Project as a collaborative

capacity building project with an aim to identifying the factors that can ensure its sustainability.

The project has many advantages. To the writers‘ best knowledge, it represents the first attempt

at the College of Education to transform a course from teacher led teaching to learner-centered

teaching. Hopefully, in future we will be able to prepare teachers who can transform school

teaching in Oman to a more child centered teaching.

References

Blumberg, P and Weimer, M. (2008). Developing learner-centered teaching: A practical guide for faculty. UK:

Wiley, Jossey-Bass.

El-Okda, M. (Sept., 2009). A tentative research map for the CCCM Project. Unpublished manuscript, ELT Unit,

College of Education, SQU.

El-Okda, M. (2005). A Proposed model for EFL teacher involvement in on-going curriculum development. Asian

EFL Journal, 7(4), 33-49.

El-Okda, M. (March, 2002). A proposed top-down, bottom-up model for task-based ELT curriculum development.

Curriculum, Testing and New Technologies in ELT: Proceedings of the Second National ELT Conference (pp.

20-26). Language Centre, SQU.

Enemark, S. (2005). Capacity building for higher education in developing countries – A Part of the western world

university portfolio? Paper presented at Capacity Building in Higher Education and Research on a Global

Scale UNESCO International Workshop, Copenhagen, 17-18 MAY 2005, Retried on 13/ 10/ 2009 from

http://pub.uvm.dk/2006/unescoworkshop/kap04.html#IV

Fullan, M. (1994). Coordinating top-down and bottom-up strategies for educational reform. Retrieved on 7/9/2009

from http://www.michaelfullan.ca/Articles_98-99/09_94.pdf,

Johnson, A., Kimball, R., Melendez, B., Myers, L., Rhea, K., Travis, B. (2009). Breaking with tradition: Preparing

faculty to teach in a student-centered or problem-solving environment. PRIMUS, 19(2): 146–160.

Khemmani, T. (2006). Whole-school learning reform: Effective strategies from Thai schools. Theory into Practice,

45(2), 117–124.

Markee, N. (1997). Managing curricular innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Stephens, D. (ed.) (2009). Higher education and international capacity building: Twenty five years of higher

education links. Bristol Papers in Education: Symposium Books.

http://pub.uvm.dk/2006/unescoworkshop/kap04.html#IV

http://www.michaelfullan.ca/Articles_98-99/09_94.pdf


Reference # 20

Topic # 5

Learner autonomy in the curriculum Saleh Al-Busaidi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Learner autonomy is globally recognized as an important skill for success in higher education.

This presentation explores the issue of learner autonomy in English language teaching and

emphasizes the role of culture in the development of autonomy. It starts by defining the concept of

learner autonomy. It then discusses how culture can affect the development of autonomy. After

that, it describes a set of design principles that can be used to incorporate learner autonomy in

language teaching programs. Finally, it reports on an example in which the idea of learner

autonomy was incorporated.

Introduction

The concept of learner autonomy emerged in the early 1980s. It is commonly defined as

―the ability to take charge of one‘s own learning‖ (Holec, 1981, p. 3). It began as a description of

the learner and was later extended to include the learning situation. It initially aimed at giving

learners lifelong opportunities to learn foreign languages outside the classroom. Since the

conception of the term, the history of learner autonomy has witnessed a number of developments

over the years. Early work on autonomy focused on defining the concept and explaining what

autonomous learners did. Holec‘s definition was seen as being rather broad but researchers have

found it difficult to produce a more precise definition because it is difficult to list all the traits

that characterize autonomous learners. In an attempt to offer a slightly more accurate description

of autonomy, Little (1990, p. 7) has stated what autonomy is not. For Little, autonomy is:

a. not a synonym for self-instruction

b. not a matter of letting learners get on with things as best they can

c. not a teaching method

d. not a single easily described behavior

e. not a steady state.

Little‘s view of autonomy has received acceptance among many scholars as it demystifies

the ambiguities about what autonomy is. It emphasizes that autonomy is a trait of the learner

rather than the learning situation and that autonomy is likely to differ from one learner to the

other and from situation to the other (Benson, 2007). It also acknowledges that development of

learner autonomy requires some form of explicit instruction.

Since mid-1990s, partly influenced by Little‘s work, attention has shifted towards

studying the relationship between autonomy and learner psychology. Different proposals have

been put forward which suggest that there might be different levels and forms of autonomy.

Some of these models will be discussed in the next sections. This paper will attempt to:

a. explore the concept of learner autonomy and its role in language teaching and learning

b. report on the experience of a language programme in integrating learner autonomy in English

language teaching.



Autonomy and Culture

Early work on autonomy has focused on the ―individual‖ character of the concept

(Benson, 2007). The research at that time was more concerned with fulfilling individual learners‘

needs and helping them work on their own outside the classroom environment. However, since

the early 1990s this notion has been challenged. Researchers introduced the ‗social dimension‘ of

autonomy. There is now a common belief and acceptance that autonomy is a social trait that is

influenced by individual and social factors. One of the most prominent works in this regard is

Little (1996, p. 210) who redefined autonomy as ―a capacity to participate fully and critically in

social interactions‖. Holliday (2003) then introduced the notion ‗social autonomy‘ which states

that autonomy is a social construct that grows and develops in the social world outside the

classroom.

Until recently, there was a common belief that autonomy is a western construct that

students from non-western cultures lack and have difficulty learning (see for example Jones,

1995). However, this misconception has started to disappear as a result of cross cultural research.

Autonomy is no longer seen as a universal or neutral attribute but it is culturally bound

(Schmenk, 2005). Culture is defined here as a way of life, thinking or behavior of a certain

nation or ethnic group. Autonomy is said to exit in every community but the cultural attitudes

and behaviors of the group will foster a certain way of thinking and learning that will then

characterize that group and distinguish it from other communities. The development of

autonomy is influenced by the prevailing attitudes and practices the members of that culture have

towards learning and teaching in terms of the learner‘s role and the teacher‘s role. For example,

societies and individuals that value group work over individual work might be less conducive to

autonomy. Similarly, communities that respect authority can be an obstacle to developing

autonomy because such attitudes and practices can diminish the role of the individual learner and

encourage ‗passivity‘ (Pierson, 1996 cited in Palfreyman, 2003, p. 9).

The relevance of autonomy in the Asian culture that values collectivism and respect for

authority has been particularly studied. Ho and Crookall (1995) experimented with simulations

as a means to facilitate and enhance the development of autonomy among Chinese learners of

English. The students worked in teams with other student teams in 27 countries around the

world. Their task was to negotiate with the other country teams the text of an international treaty

on how the world‘s ocean resources should be managed. The students played various roles that

replicate real life situations. Through these simulations, the learners have acquired several

important skills, such as making decisions, working in teams, taking responsibility, resolving

conflicts, and negotiation. They have learned these skills despite the cultural values and norms

that are prevalent in the Chinese culture which demands a certain classroom behavior. The

researchers attribute the success to the learners‘ active participation in the task. They conclude

that: ―… while it is the role of the teachers to engineer situations in which autonomy can be

exercised, it is the learner who must actually do the exercising – perhaps with some initial

reassurance from the teacher‖ (1995, p. 242).

In a more recent study, Gao (2003) investigated changes in Chinese students‘ vocabulary

learning strategy use after arrival for further study in the UK. The study has identified four

learner factors (motivation, learning beliefs, proficiency, prior learning experience) and six

contextual factors (language input, language production opportunities, learning needs, academic

priorities, academic culture, application of technology) that contributed to the changes in strategy

use.

Al-Busaidi: Learner autonomy in the curriculum


Similar positive findings were also reported by Little (2009) who describes the successful

use of the European Language Portfolio in developing autonomy among adult immigrants from

different countries with refugee status in Ireland.

All of these studies demonstrate that learners of whatever culture have the potential to

develop some form of autonomy which can be further developed and nurtured. Learner

autonomy should therefore be seen as an educational goal that is cross-culturally valid (Little,

1991). The research on the social aspect of autonomy has shifted the focus from self-access and

learner training to classroom practices. There is now increasing interest in the impact of

classroom interactions on learner autonomy and learner development but the research on this

area is still in its infancy.

Autonomy and Language Learning

Autonomy has taken various forms in language learning, first through self-access centers,

to distance learning, to computer-assisted language learning (CALL), and most recently virtual

learning environments (VLE). All of these attempts emerged as a way of expanding the

opportunities for language learning and challenging the traditional view that language learning

takes place only in the classroom.

Researchers have tried to explain what comprises autonomy in language learning. Two

assumptions have been put forward. First, autonomy is not an absolute concept (Nunan, 1997;

Thanasoulas, 2000). There are degrees of autonomy. Learners differ in their abilities to function

independently but training can help develop autonomy. Second, autonomy can take different

forms depending on various factors, such as age, learning experience, learning goals and

perceptions about learning. Several models have been proposed which account for the

relationship between autonomy and language learning (see Benson, 1997; Benson, 2000;

Littlewood, 1999; Maraco, 1997; Scharle & Szabo, 2000). For example, Maraco (1997) offers a

three stage model: autonomy of language competence, autonomy of language learning

competence and autonomy of choice and action. Littlewood (1999) distinguishes between

proactive and reactive autonomy. These models show that autonomy is not static but dynamic

and can change over time with training and practice.

However, researchers have not found a clear connection between autonomy training and

development in language proficiency. Benson (2007) argues that autonomy training does not

lead to more gains in language proficiency as there is a host of many learning factors that can

affect acquisition. In addition, the difficulty in measuring gains in autonomy training is due to

the fact that the attributes of autonomy are largely unobservable and that improvements in

autonomy develop over time. There have been a few small scale attempts to assess autonomy.

For example, Sinclair (1999) used a method of questioning to measure students‘ meta-cognitive

awareness about the type of mental processes they go through when approaching a task. The

learners showed some awareness of what they do in response to certain stimuli.

Nonetheless, there seems to be a positive correlation between autonomy and learning

strategies. Learners who develop certain skills and strategies such as critical thinking tend to be

more autonomous (Benson, 2007; Little, 2000). They also tend to have more confidence in their

abilities to accomplish demanding tasks and are more likely to resist difficulties. Given this

association between autonomy and strategy training, many language teaching materials and

teacher training manuals now focus on developing learners‘ language acquisition by reinforcing



certain strategies. However, strategy training alone is not adequate in promoting autonomy;

attention should also be paid to changing learners‘ beliefs and attitudes (Dornyie, 2005). As

Benson (2007) explains, any teaching that attempts to change learners‘ attitudes or ways of

thinking towards learning and not just train them in technical skills is part of long term learner

training but learners must be actively involved in the process.

A similar interaction has been found between autonomy and motivation. Developing

learner autonomy enhances their motivation to learn and vice versa (Dornyei, 2001). However,

research is not conclusive about whether motivation precedes autonomy or autonomy precedes

motivation. Nevertheless, there is a general belief that motivation is important for autonomy to

develop and sustain ability and willingness to take on responsibility for their own learning. As

Littlewood (1996, p. 427), cited in Spratt, et. al. (2002, p. 260), says: ―willingness depends both

on the motivation and the confidence to take responsibility for the choices required.‖ Learners

are generally motivated if they see relevance and value in what they are asked to do but they

should have the belief that they are capable of pursuing their own learning and achieving their

goals. At the same time, it is essential that learners‘ goals, needs and interests are born in mind

when designing autonomous learning programmes and curricula.

Promoting Autonomy in the Language Curriculum

Learner autonomy has become an important part of language education. It is seen as a

way of empowering students and helping them take responsibility for their own learning and

development both inside and outside the classroom environment. Language educators realize

now that autonomous learning is not ―an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely

a personal quality or trait‖ but rather it is developed in certain conditions‖ (Thanasoulas, 2000).

Certain kinds of knowledge, skills and attitudes seem to affect autonomy (Ho & Crookall, 1995).

Educators also seem to agree that learner autonomy does not equal ―unbridled learning‖

(Thanasoulas, 2000, p. 10) and that it develops in a social context where there are deliberate

efforts from learners to learn and there is an active interaction between the learner and others.

Language programmes either integrate autonomy training into other skill courses or in a

separate course. One of the most common course designs is basing the course on projects. In this

model, students engage in a certain project with a clear outcome. The final product varies in

nature. Students might be asked to produce a research paper or carry out an experiment but all

the course activities should be designed in a way that helps the learners achieve the final goal.

Project-based courses have been found to be motivating for students as they teach skills and

language in a meaningful context. The project provides a ―realistic vehicle‖ for practicing the

study skills and language and gives the students a sense of achievement (Jordan, 1997, p. 67). In

addition, the team work provides a motivating experience for students to learn the study skills

and language in a supportive environment.

Several principles for integrating learner autonomy into the curriculum have been

proposed. Little (2001, 2007 & 2009) offers three principles for teachers to create and sustain an

autonomous language learning environment. The first principle is learner involvement. Learners

have to be fully involved in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation stages.

Such involvement develops in learners a sense of ownership and achievement. The second

principle is learner reflection. Learners must be given the opportunity to reflect on the content

and process of their learning experience so that they are aware of their achievements as well as



problems they may encounter. The third principle is concerned with target language use. That is,

all activities should aim at maximizing the communicative and meaningful use of the target

language in different situations and for different purposes, making the language a tool for

achieving certain goals rather than an end in itself.

Cotterall (2000) offers five course design principles that guide the integration and

development of learner autonomy in language programmes, namely learner goals, tasks, the

language learning process, learner strategies, and reflection on learning. Many of these principles

are similar to the ones that Little has offered but they are more specific. For Cotterall, for a

course to foster autonomy, it must allow learners the opportunity to set their learning goals and

identify their skills and resources in relation to the task. It should also make them aware of the

different learning modes and options so that they choose the most appropriate ones that fit their

learning style and situation. In addition, the tasks should be chosen in a way that they resemble

what learners ultimately need the target language for. Finally, similar to what Little has

proposed, reflection is an important part of autonomy training because ―[t]he potential for learner

autonomy increases as an individual‘s learning awareness grows‖ (Cotterall, 2000, p. 112).

These design principles offer guidance for course developers and facilitate their job in

developing effective teaching materials that take into account the various aspects of autonomous

learning and the conditions conducive to learning. However, for learners to become autonomous

there must first be a clear definition of roles and responsibilities both for the learners and

teachers. In the remaining sections of the paper I will describe a course in which these design

principles have been incorporated in an intensive English language programme.

The Course

I will first give some background information about the context and then explain the

course rationale, objectives and content.

The Context

The course is situated in an intensive English language programme at Sultan Qaboos

University (SQU), a state-run university in the Sultanate of Oman. SQU is the only public

university in the country and therefore admission is highly competitive. The medium of

instruction is English in six of the nine colleges at the university but there are certain majors in

the other three colleges that are taught in English, such as mathematics and biology in the college

of education. The vast majority of the students who come to the university have Arabic as their

first language. Although all students have studied English at school for at least nine years, in

reality, some of these students come from educational backgrounds where they may have had

little opportunity to acquire English. When students are admitted into the university, they all sit a

placement test that places them in one of five language levels in an intensive English language

programme, ranging from Level 2 (beginner level) to Level 6 (high intermediate). The first three

levels are general levels, where students from different colleges and majors are grouped together.

At Levels 5 and 6, the students are divided into four programmes according to their majors,

English for commerce, English for English specialists, English for medicine and English for

sciences (for students in the colleges of engineering, science, and agriculture). Each level is

taught for a block of seven or eight weeks. The learners receive a total of 20 hours of instruction



a week as follows, six hours of reading and vocabulary, six hours of writing and language use,

six hours of listening, speaking and two hours of research and presentation skills. The university

plans to convert the intensive programme into a foundation programme that will include in

addition to English, mathematics, computer skills and study skills. This change is mandated by

the national foundation programme standards. The allocation of hours is still being discussed.

This paper focuses on the research and presentation skills course as it exists at present.

Course Rationale

We have learned from our experience over the years that many students come to the

university with limited study skills, and with over-dependence on the teacher for their view of

learning. We therefore need to equip students with the skills and techniques which will enable

them to be more independent, effective and efficient learners. We have also realized that such

training needs to start at a very basic level, by teaching students very basic skills ranging from

how to use A4 paper and organize learning materials in a ring-binder, to more complex ones

such as how to engage in the process of learning by editing drafts and learning from corrections,

and record and learn vocabulary in a systematic way. Students also develop a range of reading

skills and other more macro skills, such as using a dictionary effectively. More demanding study

and research skills, such as making use of the library and note-taking, and academic skills that

the students will need for their college study such as summarizing, can later build on these more

basic practices (Curriculum Development Unit, 2009-2010).

Students require a lot of guidance on how to explore new ways of learning and how to

build up their confidence. They must learn to be responsible for their own, independent learning,

and to work with others in pairs and groups. One way to do this is by study projects. Through

these projects, students experience a variety of study modes, from a basic portfolio of their

course work, to reports based on interviews and surveys, to individually-researched projects on a

topic of their choice, to oral presentations, and to library/internet based work. One of our aims is

to gradually modify the students‘ mental framework so that they view learning as an ongoing

process over which they have a great deal of control, and to develop an attitude of learner

independence. This takes time to develop, but students respond well when given the chance to

work on their own. The appendix gives an overview of the study projects that students do in each

level in the intensive programme. For the sake of this paper, I will focus on the study project at

Level 5 Sciences because it is one of the most established courses. At this level, study and

research skills are taught as part of a separate course called ―Research and Presentation Skills‖.

Table 1 below shows an extract of the Level 5 sciences project that is done as part of the study

skills course.

Project Brief description Material for

input and

guidance

Output

(what students

produce)

Assessment

Presentation based

on own research

using the library /

internet +

folder to show

evidence of

research.

Individual students use

the library / internet to

research a general topic

using various

information sources

and give a presentation.

In-house

study skills

course.

A presentation of 5

minutes using OHP

plus responding to

questions.

50% - preparation

(including

portfolio of

evidence of

research)

50% - presentation

Table 1: An overview of the Level 5 Sciences study project



Course Objectives And Content

The ―Research and Presentation Skills‖ course is a project-based course. Students

develop autonomy through supervised projects. The projects are research type tasks in which

students are asked to find and present information on a topic of their choice. The course aims to

help students achieve the following objectives:

1. Find a book in the library using the online catalogue

2. Use a contents page and an index to locate information in a book

3. Use skimming and scanning skills to locate information in a certain chapter/section

4. Make notes of relevant information for a purpose

5. Cite a source using a given system

6. Make an outline for a presentation

7. Deliver an organized five-minute presentation from own notes

8. Use presentation language

9. Use visual aids effectively

10. Adapt one‘s language to suit the audience

11. Handle questions from the audience

An in-house course book has been developed to teach students the necessary skills they

need for each phase of their project. The book consists of four units: introducing the

presentation, using the library, sources and note taking, planning and delivering your

presentation. The project goes through six main stages:

1. Topic selection

2. Researching

3. Reading and note taking

4. Planning the presentation

5. Delivering the presentation

6. Portfolio submission

The students are given guidance throughout the process but they are required to plan their

own time and show evidence of completion for each phase. They have to schedule meetings with

their teachers during office hours for feedback. I will now explain each of the six stages briefly.

Topic selection

At this initial stage, students choose topics for their projects. However, before the

selection process takes place, the students are introduced to the concept of research and

presentations. They are told about the rationale behind this task, what the expectations are and

what they will gain from doing it. They are also given some useful tips that can help them do

their work more efficiently and effectively, such as keeping deadlines, meeting teachers during

office hours, etc. All of this is done through interactive activities students do in class. After this

brief scene setting introduction, the students start to brainstorm ideas for a topic for their

research. The students are first asked to list a number of topics according to certain criteria, such

as the interest level of the topic, its novelty, importance, and availability of sources. After the



initial brainstorming, the students narrow their choices and select one topic from the list. The

students often choose topics that are contemporary and important, such as global warming, new

technologies and alternative energy sources.

Researching

During this stage of the project, students learn how to search for information using the

library. In the course book, the students learn about the library classification system. They are

given a brief description of the system and how it works so that they can locate books more

easily. There are certain worksheets that are assigned to students to complete to find certain

library materials using call numbers. The purpose of these worksheets is to familiarize the

students with the system and the library resources and give them hands-on experience in using

the library. Given the students‘ language level, the course focuses on training students to use

encyclopedias. The students are instructed to use two to three sources. The reason for limiting

the number of sources is to make the task more manageable for learners and prevent them from

falling into the habit of plagiarizing chunks of texts from different texts.

In addition to the library materials, the students learn to use the online catalogue to search

for and access library materials on the internet. Nowadays, libraries rely more on online

cataloging and archiving of their acquisitions than on the traditional card cataloging for the sake

of ease in access and use. Another important skill students learn in this section of the course is

the different sections of a book, such as the title page, the table of contents, and the index. Again,

there are activities for each skill.

Reading and note taking

In this section, the students are shown how to select texts using certain criteria, such as

the level of difficulty, relevance of the information, and source. This section is particularly

important for students because it trains them to be critical and selective and not accept any

source or information simply on the basis of quantity or source. When searching for information

in the library, the students are often confronted with large quantities of texts and sources. Many

of the students find it extremely difficult to sort the information out, as this is usually the first

time for students to do research in English.

In order to help the students develop the skill of critical thinking, the students are given

different texts to compare and evaluate based on their relevance to and usefulness for certain

topics and research questions. There are also activities that train students to distinguish between

important and unimportant information.

In addition to the ‗text selection‘ skills, students learn how to take and use good notes

from reading. The students are shown different types of abbreviations and symbols they can use

in taking notes but they are also told they can use their own abbreviations. The course book

contains several examples of good and bad notes for the sake of analysis and comparison. The

note taking activities help students read faster and enhance their comprehension. Many of the

students have not had the experience of reading several pages of ungraded English texts in

school. Therefore, many of them struggle with the readings. This is obvious from the large

amounts of underlining, highlighting and annotation that students make in the texts when they

submit them to the teacher.



The quality of the students‘ notes is evaluated using a list of criteria that include

relevance to the topic and evidence of comprehension of the main ideas in the text.

Planning the presentation

In this phase of the course, the students learn to transfer the information they have found

in their research into an oral presentation outline. The focus here is on selecting the most useful

information and organizing it and presenting it in the most effective manner. The students are

shown different ways to organize their notes for the presentation and are given examples from

previous students‘ work. They also learn to use visual aids in their presentations. They are told to

use pictures to illustrate certain points but they are warned not to overuse them.

In addition to organization, the students learn to use appropriate presentation language,

such as language for introduction, for moving between different ideas, for giving and for

summarizing and concluding. They are also taught how to use body language to communicate

ideas and interact with the audience during their talk.

The students have to prepare a detailed outline of their presentations and show it to the

teacher during office visits for feedback. The outline is assessed based on such criteria as

organization, level of detail and use of note taking skills.

Delivering the presentation

The students deliver their presentations following the guidelines given to them. They are

given five minutes to present the information. The purpose of the time limit is to train students to

choose the most relevant and useful information and fit it into the timeframe. It also teaches them

to stick to time restrictions.

The presentations are assessed using a detailed checklist of criteria that cover four main

areas, presentation stages, communication, body language and content. During the presentation,

the students are expected to first welcome the audience, give a summary of what they intend to

talk about, explain each point and give examples using visual aids and finally conclude and

answer questions from the audience. The students are discouraged from memorizing their speech

or reading directly from their notes. It is worth mentioning that grammar is not part of the

assessment criteria. The reason for this is to encourage students to focus on communicating ideas

and meaning rather than on memorizing chunks of language for the sake of obtaining high

marks. Our intention is to foster in the students confidence to talk in front of an audience without

fear of making mistakes.

Portfolio submission

After delivering the presentation, each student submits a folder containing all the texts

and notes from their research as well as their outline for the presentation and the visual aids used.

The portfolio is assessed as part of the presentation mark.

Reflection on the Course

I think the course has incorporated many of the design principles that Little (2001, 2007

& 2009) and Cotterall (2000) have proposed for autonomy training. The learners are involved in



the process from the outset of the course. They choose their own research topics, organize their

study schedule, monitor their progress, use English (the target language) to search for

information, organize their ideas and present their findings. It is true that the course focuses

primarily on research skills but the students acquire important life skills during the process, such

as planning, critical thinking, evaluating, time keeping and scheduling.

Moreover, the fact that the course is centered around a genuine task, a research project,

provides a meaningful and authentic context for developing and exercising learner autonomy. It

is hoped that the course provides the students with the conditions for their first steps towards

autonomy and independence. Ho and Crookall (1995, p. 238) note that ―a learning environment

or methodology which intends to help students develop the skills and attitudes that sustain

autonomous learning must provide students with an opportunity to make such decisions‖.

I think the fact that the project is conducted in a controlled manner helps the students

slowly develop autonomy. As Candy (1991, p. 124), cited in Thanasoulas (2000, p. 10), points

out, learner autonomy ―takes a long time to develop, and simply removing the barriers to a

person‘s ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away

from old habits or old ways of thinking‖. In addition to the formal instruction in class, the

students are expected to meet their teacher during office hours, complete homework assignments

and prepare their presentations. This level of supervision ensures that the students are on the

right track while at the same time develops in them a sense of responsibility.

Finally and most importantly, I think that the course and the project can serve as an

effective tool to help the students change their beliefs and learning styles in a way that is

appropriate for university life. As was mentioned above, the students in this context come from

an educational culture lacking autonomy. The students come to the university with over-

dependence on the teacher as the sole source of knowledge and with limited skills to search for,

evaluate and use information. The course serves as a starting point to induct the students into

autonomy. It also helps the students discover their potentials and improve them. The students

learn many important academic and study skills that are needed in college success. They also

learn to depend on themselves in making decisions about their own research interests,

information sources, pacing, etc. Our experience shows that many of the students have benefited

from the training the course provides and have acquired the skills. As previous research has

shown, autonomy can be developed with systematic training and practice despite all the cultural

and educational norms and values that might be prevalent in a certain community. This is of

course based on personal observations and anecdotes and still needs to be proven through

empirical research.

There is perhaps one component that seems to be missing from the course, that is, learner

reflection. At present, the students do not seem to have the opportunity to reflect on the content

or process of what they do in the course. They meet their teachers in their offices but the main

objective of these meetings is to discuss progress and get feedback. Students need space to

reflect on what they have done and what they have learned from it. This could be done in the

form of a log or diary which students keep or through an online audio log where students record

their reflections and share them with the teacher and other students in the class on a regular basis.

Future Research

I think that this course lends itself to many opportunities for future research and

improvements. Below are a few suggestions:



1. It would be interesting to probe into the learners‘ mental processes during the different stages

of the project to get some insights about their thoughts and how they arrive at decisions. This

could be done through a think-aloud procedure.

2. It would be good to see how teachers view the course. Little (2009) describes three

challenges in implementing learner autonomy in the classroom, especially in large settings.

The challenges are: teacher doubt, lack of teacher‘s knowledge about how to do things, and

the tyranny of the curriculum and/or the textbook and/or the exam. It would be useful to see

how these variables affect the implementation in this context.

3. As mentioned above, it would be important to add a learner reflection component to the

course and see what reflections students make about the course. The data from such

reflections could be used to improve the course.

4. It is well known that autonomy training is a long term objective. In order to assess the extent

to which the course has achieved its objectives and the students have indeed acquired the

skills in question it would be necessary to do a longitudinal study. This could involve

following the students up after they exit the intensive programme and enroll in their college

courses. Longitudinal studies are rare in the research on learner autonomy. Students‘

perceptions about the course and its relevance to their academic life could also be sought in

this study.

5. As Benson (2009) rightly notes, research is still needed on the difficulties that learners face

when working on their own in the absence of the teacher‘s formal guidance and instruction.

6. To the best of my knowledge, no published research exists about Omani students‘ learner

autonomy. This area certainly requires attentions.

7. Finally, one area that seems to be overlooked in the research on learner autonomy is

assessment. Benson (2007, p. 737) argues that: ―the essence of autonomous behavior … does

not lie in the behavior itself, but in the fact that it is authentic, self-initiated, and considered –

factors that are extremely difficult to assess.‖ However, I think we should try to find ways to

evaluate learners‘ work so that they are aware of their strengths and weaknesses. I do not

mean assessing students for the sake of punishment but rather for the sake of improvement.

The project described in the paper has adopted a fairly rigorous system of assessing students‘

work. There are detailed criteria for each component and stage of the project, starting from

the sources to the presentation delivery and portfolio. Marks are assigned using a four-point

scale. It would be good to study the extent to which teachers are similar or different in their

evaluations.

Conclusion

In this paper I have attempted to shed light into the concept of learner autonomy. I have

started by defining the concept and describing the various developments it has undergone over

the last years. I have also discussed the role of culture in fostering autonomy. Research shows

that culture can play a major role in shaping learner autonomy.

There is now more awareness about the importance of developing autonomy in language

programmes and the active role that learners should play in the process. The research and

presentation skills course at Sultan Qaboos University stands as one example of incorporating

learner autonomy into the curriculum. This course forms the first initiatives to promote



autonomy among university students but students undoubtedly need more training and

opportunities to consolidate what they have learned and build on it.

The present paper was mainly descriptive in nature. There are obviously areas for

improvement and further research. More research is needed on the areas related to learner

difficulties, classroom applications, teacher training, learner training, and assessment.

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APPENDIX

An overview of the study skills projects in the intensive programme

Level /

Programme


input and

guidance

Output

(what

students

produce)

Assessment

Total

marks

Breakdown of marks

2 Online

vocabulary

programme

+

Vocabulary

notebook

Individual students

answer vocabulary

activities online. They

also create and keep

notebooks of vocabulary

they learn from online

activities. The notebook

is assessed by teachers.

Online

vocabulary

exercises.

Vocabulary

Notebook

+

Online

vocabulary

exercises

5

+

5

100% Online vocabulary

exercises

100% Vocabulary

Notebook (assessed as

Vocabulary grade of

Testing matrix)

3 Interview

+

Presentation

Pairs of students

interview someone from

outside the class on a

given topic, for example,

their job, their home

country or their studies.

The interview is recorded

and the information

provides the basis for an

oral presentation.

Project

guidelines

Presentation

+

Interview

5

+

5

50% - Interview

50% - Presentation

100% Vocabulary

Notebook (assessed as

Vocabulary grade of

Testing matrix)

http://itesl.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html



Level /

Programme


input and

guidance

Output

(what

students

produce)

Assessment

Total

marks

Breakdown of marks

4 Dictionary

Study Skills

+

Computer

skills

Students will practice

finding the correct

meaning of words

quickly in the Macmillan

dictionary. Students will

utilize a typing tutorial,

MS Word, Moodle, and

the appropriate language

programmes.

In-house

dictionary

and computer

lab

worksheets.

Students‘

Guide to

Computer

and The

Computer

Labs

Dictionary

and computer

lab study

skills

notebook

N/A N/A

Level 5

Sciences

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library /

internet +

folder to

show

evidence of

research.


the library / internet to


using various information

sources and give a

presentation.

In-house

study skills

course.

A

presentation

of 5 minutes

using OHP

plus

responding to

questions.

10 50% - preparation

(including portfolio of

evidence of research)

50% - presentation

Level 5

Medicine

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library/inter

net

+ ―The

Human

Body‖ –

self-study

terminology

course with

in-house

book and

online

practice and

test.


the library/internet to

research a disease profile


sources and give a

presentation.

The Human Body – an

introduction to basic

anatomical terminology.

A self-study course

presented in hard-copy

and on audio cassette and

tested online (via

Moodle).

The in-house

study skills

course

+

Presentation

guidelines (in

Writing

book).

A 3 ½ -5

minute

formal

presentation

on a disease

profile

supported by

visuals.

The Human

Body: Ss sit

a 30 minute

online test.

10 70% - Presentation

- Preparation 10%

- Audio-visual 10%

- Delivery 50%

30% - Online test

Level 5

EES

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library/inter

net

+ folder





sources. They give a

presentation and submit a

folder of all their source

materials.

In-house

study skills

course.

A 5-7 minute

presentation

using OHP –

not

PowerPoint.


(which includes

delivery, language and

visual aids)

40% - Folder and

correct referencing of

sources



Level /

Programme


input and

guidance

Output

(what

students

produce)

Assessment

Total

marks

Breakdown of marks

Level 5

CCE

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library/inter

net

+ a written

report on

topic of

presentation



research a commerce-

related topic using

various information

sources and give a

presentation and a written

report

The in-house

study skills

course.

A 5-7 minute

presentation

using OHP or

PowerPoint.

10 30% - presentation

which includes delivery

and language

40% - effort

30% - written report

Level 6

Sciences

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library and

internet.

+ Reflective

report +

sources

Individual students select

and synthesise

information from 2

sources - an internet and

a library source to

prepare and give a

presentation.

The in-house

study skills

course

5-7 minute

presentation

10 55% - preparation,

including sources, a

typed reflective report

and a folder.

45% - presentation

Level 6

EES

Poem

Presentation

Individual students find

and research a suitable

poem which they analyze

and present. This must

include information about

the poet‘s life and period.

In-house

study skills

course

+

In-house L6

reading book

A 5-7 minute

presentation

using OHP.


which includes delivery,

language and critical

terminology.

50% - Folder, with

sources and correctly

presented references.

Level 6

CCE

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library/inter

net/intervie

ws/question

naires

+ a written

report on

topic of

presentation


the library/internet and

conduct interviews or

make questionnaires to

research an economic or

social issue. They give a

presentation and a written

report

The in-house

study skills

course.

A 5 minute

presentation

using OHP or

PowerPoint.

10 30% - presentation

which includes delivery

and language

40% - effort

30% - written report



Level /

Programme


input and

guidance

Output

(what

students

produce)

Assessment

Total

marks

Breakdown of marks

Level 6

Medicine

Presentation

based on

own

research

using the

library and

internet

+

―The

Chemistry

of Matter‖ –

self-study

course with

in-house

book and

online

practice and

test.


the internet and the

library to research a

medical specialty and do

a presentation.

The Chemistry of Matter:

an introduction to the

language of chemistry

and its terminology. A

self-study course

presented in hard-copy

and on audio cassette and

tested online (via

Moodle).

The in-house

study skills

course

+

Presentation

guidelines (in

Writing

book)

A 5 minute

formal

presentation

on a medical

specialty

supported by

visuals.

The

Chemistry of

Matter: Ss sit

a 30 minute

online test.

10

70% - Presentation

- Preparation 10%

- Audio-visual 10%

- Presentation delivery

50%

30% - Online test

Source: Curriculum Development Unit (2009 - 2010)


Reference # 21

Topic # 5

Developmental aspects for Omani adolescents (12-18 years):

Piloting instruments and initial findings Said Aldhafri [email protected], Ali Kazem [email protected],

Abdulqawi Alzubiadi [email protected], Yousif Yousif [email protected],

Muna Al-Bahrani [email protected], Hussain Alkharusi [email protected],

Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This paper reports in a national project that aimed to identify developmental aspects that

characterize Omani adolescents (ages 12-18). It included two studies: a pilot (reported herein) and

an actual study (in progress). The pilot study (N = 800) aimed to examine the appropriateness of

the measures used in measuring the adolescents‘ developmental aspects. Measures were adapted

through standard scale adaptation strategies like those proposed by the International Test

Commission (ITC). Psychometric findings indicated that the measures were appropriate and

showed reasonable reliability and validity evidences. Some initial developmental findings from

this pilot study will be presented. Recommendations are discussed.

Introduction

Adolescence represents an important developmental stage in individuals‘ lives. Many

biological, social, emotional, and mental changes take place in this stage. Interactions among

these changes form the individual‘s personality and influence the well-being levels experienced

by the individual. Following Hall‘s idea of ―storm-and-stress,‖ many researchers focused on

understanding the developmental changes and the characteristics of adolescence away from

general public judgment and media portrayals about adolescents. Previous research shows that

adolescents differ in their adjustments to the changes they experience. While a group of

adolescents can‘t ―negotiate the lengthy path to adult maturity successfully,‖ a large percentage

can show successful transition and become better adults (Santrock, 2008, p. 259).

Many factors influence the actual life trajectory of every adolescent. Examples include

lifestyle, age, socioeconomic, gender, ethnic, and cultural differences (Santrock, 2008).

Exploring the influence of these factors and other possible variables helps educators understand

the nature of this developmental stage. This understanding will allow educators and care-givers

to better serve the needs of adolescents and support healthy environment inside and outside

schools. While there is rich literature about this stage in the Western publication, little is known

about Arab (and particularly Omani) adolescents in the scientific research.

The purpose of this paper is to report some initial findings from an ongoing national

project that started last year. The project aimed to examine some developmental aspects that

characterize Omani adolescents (ages 12-18). A research team from the department of

psychology, college of education, Sultan Qaboos University, led the work of this project. The

research team examined a group of variables that represent different developmental aspects of

adolescents to understand some of the characteristics exposed by Omani adolescents.

In this report, we describe four pilot studies that were run to examine the psychometric

properties of the measures to ensure its usability before the actual study. Each pilot study

examined a group of variables and included different samples of students. Discussion will focus




on the psychometric findings and some preliminary findings of relationships among the variables

examined in each study.

The Four Studies

The First Study

The first study examined adolescents‘ problems, coping strategies, and perceptions of

parental styles.

Adolescents’ problems

Many challenges such as conflict with parents, mood disruption, and risk behavior may

arise during adolescence (Ebata & Moos, 1994). Other studies examining the types of problems

adolescents identify as important and stressful include issues regarding academic, financial

hardship, self-image, puberty concern, peer, and romantic relationships. Also, adolescents

reported problems related to health concerns and career issues as well as educational transition

(Boldero & Fallon, 1995; Magaya, Asner-Self, & Schreiber, 2005; Stredny & Ball, 2005). In a

related study, Dwairy (1997) found that young Arab expressed conflicts within family system.

The conflict manifests itself in two areas: first, between the individual‘s goals and the family‘s

will, and second, between individual, traditional, internalized values and an individual‘s needs.

Coping strategies

Studies conducted on coping strategies among adolescents have highlighted different

ways to alleviate stress. Coping is defined as cognitive and behavioral efforts made in response

to stress or threat (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, in a study by Thuen and Bru (2004),

it was found that nearly 40% of the students reported blaming themselves for problems at school.

Also, students showed tendency to employ dysfunctional coping styles, such as aggressive

coping and behavioral disengagement in order to solve school-related problems.

Parental Styles

Baumrind‘s three-parenting style- model was used in this study. This model includes

Authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian. Previous research investigated these three

dimensions in relation to different child‘s behaviors. For example, Buri (1991) constructed The

Parenting Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) based on Baumrind‘s model and found significant

positive relationship between authoritative parents and parental nurturance. Other studies

examined the three dimensions using different populations (e.g., Assadi, et al., 2007; Reitman,

Rhode, Hupp, & Altobello, 2002; Gonzalez, Holbein, & Quilter, 2002).

Sample

The participants were 189 adolescents (50.3% male and 49.7 % female). Their mean age

was (M =14.34, SD = 2.03). There were 52% (N = 100) of participants in grade seven, and 15.3%

(N = 29) in grade nine, 15.9% in grade eleven (N =30), and the remaining 15.9% (N =30) in

grade twelve. The sample consisted of participants with varying levels of their family

socioeconomic status. For example, 70 of the participants reported their family socioeconomic

status was above average, 46 averages, 22 less than average, and the remaining 35 reported some

what rich or very rich. In terms of parents‘ educational level of father, 131 had less than high

Aldhafri, et al.: Developmental aspects for Omani adolescents


school, 32 diploma, and the remaining 15 had bachelor degree and above. Parents‘ social status

divided into three groups, live together (N =163), divorced (N = 8), death of one or both parents

(N =9).

Measures

Parental styles measure. Parental styles were measured using the PAQ (Buri, 1991). The

PAQ was translated by a group of competent translators. Two Arabic versions were compared

and discussed by the group of translators and then one final Arabic version was back-translated.

The Arabic version, then, was evaluated by a group of specialists in psychology. No major

modification was suggested. The students completed the PAQ for both mothers and fathers.

Problems Questionnaire. The Problems questionnaire consists of 57 items that measure

degree to which adolescents perceive certain different issues as a problem. The items were rated

on a five-point Liker-type scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The

questionnaire offers subscales that assessing problems on six dimensions: academic, economic,

personal, health, family, and emotion.

Coping Styles Questionnaire. This 30-item questionnaire was used to measure

participants‘ style or strategies when they experience problems. These items were extracted from

an Arabic version of the Adolescent Coping Scale (Freydenberg & Lewis, 1993, as cited in

Alhashmi, in progress) that was adapted for Omani adolescents by Alhashmi (in progress). The

30-item scale measures positive coping strategies (15 items measuring getting helps, connecting

with friends, sport, and religious support) and negative coping strategies (15 items related to

anxiety, loneliness, ignorance, and self-criticism). The respondents rated each item on a five-

point Liker-type scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Results

PAQ. Validity and reliability indicators were examined for each of the PAQ three

subscales (permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian). Criterion-related validity was calculated

by calculating the correlation matrix among the three subscales using the current sample.

Findings showed differing correlations among the three subscales for the father version and the

mother version. Item-total correlations showed that all items scored 0.20 or higher with their

corresponding subscales except for items 1, 14, and 24 from permissive subscale, and item 26

from the authoritarian subscale. These items were deleted and reliability coefficients were

obtained for the remaining items. For father scale, values of 0.59, 0.71, and 0.67 were found for

the three subscales, respectively. Similar values were also obtained for the mother scales (0.55,

0.72, & 0.63).

Problems Questionnaire. Item-total correlations showed that two items (item 14 from

economic and item 44 from family subscales) got item-total correlation values less than the

accepted value (r = 0.20). Therefore, the two items were deleted before further analysis. A

Cronbach‘s alpha for the whole Questionnaire (55 items) was 0.92. The internal consistency of

the subscales has been found to be 0.65, 0.65, 0.78, 0.71, 0.78, and 0.84, respectively. These

coefficients suggested that the total scale has a high reliability coefficient with adequate to high

reliability coefficients for most subscales.

Coping Styles Questionnaire. Cronbach‘s alphas were examined for each of the coping

questionnaire. The positive coping strategies subscale showed a reliability of 0.70. Similar alpha

coefficient was found for the negative coping strategies subscale (α = 0.72).



Additional validity evidences found for the three subscales obtained through correlation

matrixes. The three measures (measuring parental styles, coping strategies, and adolescents‘

problems) correlated with each other differently, with some subscales having no relationships

with some other variables. In addition, these three variables correlated differently with

demographic variables. These findings show acceptable psychometric properties that encourage

the use of these measures in the larger national project.

The Second Study

This study examined a group of variables that included academic self-efficacy, mental

intelligence, and emotional intelligence.

Academic Self-efficacy

Academic self-efficacy refers to student‘s judgments of his or her capabilities to

successfully perform school-related works (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Schunk, 1991). Bandura

(1993) has postulated that student‘s beliefs about his or her efficacy to manage academic tasks

influence level of motivation and affective reactions. It influences the choice of activities people

make, the effort they invent, and how long they will persist in stressful situations (Bandura,

1986). Self-efficacy has gained increased credence as an explanatory factor of achievement-

related behaviors (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Schunk, 1991).

Mental Intelligence

For long time, metal ability has been a concern for educational systems all around the

world. Intelligence quotient (IQ) was believed to be a good indicator of student ability to succeed

and be able to adapt with the challenges of the educational system. Individual difference

researchers showed interest in IQ to understand differences in people‘s performance and age-

group behaviors (Choe & Ceci, 2005). One well-known non-verbal intelligence test is Raven‘s

Standard Progressive Matrices that has been used in most world countries, included Arabic

countries (Abdel-Khalek, 2006). The matrices aim to measure the general factor that Spearman

called perception of relationships and correlates (G factor) and has been considered as the best

individual test for the general factor (Abdel-Khalek and Raven, 2006; Kaplan & Saccuzzo,

1997).

Emotional Intelligence

The theory of emotional intelligence argues that thoughts become better if they use

emotional information. Emotions include the knowledge that reflect the person‘s relations with

surrounding. Emotional Intelligence has its impacts on the various educational and professional

aspects of personality. For long time, the performance of mental intelligence tests (not

emotional) has been a key indicator to judge the level of person‘s success and predict the future

of his/her performance in the areas of academic, practical and professional. However, recent

studies showed that (IQ) is not a good predicting variable in those areas (Cherniss, 2000) and

that emotional intelligence might be a better predictor (Alumran, 2006; Abi Samra, 2000; Parker,

Summerfeldt, Hogan, & Majeski, 2004).



Sample

The sample consisted of 217 students (grades 7, N = 67, 9, N = 57, 10, N = 30, 12, N =

63) from Muscat district. Ages ranged from 11 to 19 (M = 15, SD = 2.15). Ninety students were

male and 127 were female students.

Measures

Efficacy measure. Informed by the literature (Greene, Miller, Crowson, Duke, & Akey,

2004; Midgley, et al., 2000), six positively worded items were used to measure students‘

perceptions of their competence to do their school academic work. Responses were obtained on a

5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These items have

been validated for use with ninth grade students and undergraduate teacher education students in

Oman (Alkharusi, 2008, 2009).

Measure of mental intelligence. The researchers used Raven Normal Test of successive

matrices as indicator of mental intelligence. This is a non-verbal, culture-free test prepared by

John J. Raven and based on Spearman theory. It is considered as a power test rather than time- or

speed- test (Yahya, Ibrahim, & Jalal, 2003). The test involves five groups of matrices (a, b, c, d,

e) that vary in difficulty with group A being the easiest and group E being the most difficult one.

Each group consists of 12 matrices that also vary in difficulties, with a total number of 60

matrices for the whole test. The test is a worldwide test. Indicators of validity and reliability were

high. Yahya, et al. (2003) adapted Raven test for the use in the Omani school context. The

researchers computed various reliability coefficients (test - retest procedure and internal

consistency). Correlations were found between students‘ Raven scores and their school

achievement. Internal correlational matrices were calculated and supported its validity. Al-

Hikmani (2007) verified Raven test‘s validity and reliability, using another Omani sample. All

psychometric indicators were supportive. Psychometric examination was deemed unnecessary

for this study.

Measure of emotional intelligence. The research team surveyed available Arabic

measures of emotional intelligence (for example: Al-Dardeer, 2004; Radi, 2002; Alsmaduni,

2007; Hanai, 2002), and chose Alsmaduni‘s measure (2007) because it meets with the objectives

of the study and seems to be more appropriate than other measures for the sample age cohort.

Alsmaduni Scale (2007) consists of 33 items (corresponding to five dimensions). A similar 5-

point Likert scale was used in this measure. The original study reported acceptable validity and

reliability indicators for the measure (Alsmaduni, 2007).

Results

The Efficacy measure. For the purpose of this study, a principal-components factor

analysis was conducted on the six self-efficacy items to determine whether they represented a

single construct. This analysis yielded a single factor with an eigenvalue of 3.26, and the

unifactor solution accounted for 54.25% of the total variance. All items loaded higher than .70 on

the factor. A self-efficacy measure was constructed by averaging the six items. Internal

consistency coefficient was .83 as measured by Cronbach‘s alpha.

The measure of emotional intelligence. The researchers verified validity and reliability

of the scale using different techniques. For face validity, the measure was given to nine

professors who are specialists in educational and psychological sciences. The evaluators did not

suggest major changes on the scale. Item discrimination coefficients were calculated and found

that 25 items were good (while 8 items were not good items). Correlation matrixes of the five



subscales were statistically significant. The reliability coefficients (Cronpach‘s alphas) ranged

between 0.55 and 0.67, and reached 0.86 for whole scale.

The Third Study

The purpose of this study was to examine adolescents‘ health lifestyles, body image,

along with a group of demographic variables.

Health Styles

Lifestyle is ―away of life or style of living that reflects the attitudes and values of a

person or a group‖ (The American Heritage Dictionary). Lifestyle is also defined as ―a pattern of

individual practices and personal behavioral choices that are related to elevated or reduced health

risk‖ (Encyclopedia of Public Health). Wikipedia encyclopedia defines a lifestyle as the way a

person lives. This includes patterns of social relations, consumption, entertainment, and dress. A

healthy lifestyle is generally characterized as a ―balanced life‖ in which one makes ―wise

choices‖ (Wikipedia encyclopedia). Everyone has his own distinct lifestyle that covers his

typical actions on a daily basis .Some of the things that go into making a distinct lifestyle

include: nutrition habits, physical exercise or getting physically fit, pedicure of leisure time,

tobacco and alcohol consumption, adequate rest, and proper stress management (Inga, Marit, &

Ivar, 2005). Research findings indicate that the majority of adolescents do not have healthy

lifestyle behaviors (physical activity and nutrition) (Berkey, Rockett, Gillman, & Colditz, 2003).

The present study is an attempt to examine four of these facets that make a healthy lifestyle.

These included nutrition habits, physical exercise, leisure time activities, and use of alcohol and

tobacco and other chemicals.

Body Image

Body image (or what is referred to as physical self concept) is defined as ―the cumulative

set of images, fantasies and meanings about the body, its parts and functions.‖ ―Body image is an

integral part of self–image and forms the basis of self–representation‖ (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002,

pp.30-37). Essentially, body image describes how one perceives one‘s appearance to be to

others, which in many cases may be dramatically different from one‘s objective physical

condition, or how one is perceived by others (Wikipedia Encyclopedia). Body image also refers

to satisfaction with looks, weight, and relations with friends (Inga, et al., 2005). A vast body of

research is amounting on the issue of body image, or physical self–concept and its effect on the

individual‘ lifestyle (e. g. Marsh, Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman, 1984; Mendelson, Mendelson, &

White, 2001). Body image development is an important element of the developmental process.

Perceptions of one‘s body become increasingly important during adolescence as children

experience multiple physical and social changes (Sweeney & Zionts, 1989).

Sample

The sample consisted of 94 male and 95 female students (total of 189) with a wide range

of ages (12 to 20; M = 14.91, SD = 2.04). The participants were in grade 7 (N= 33), 8 (N = 64), 9

(N =30), and 12 (N = 62).



Measures

Health styles were measured through four subscales as described below. Body image was

measured by a separate questionnaire that focused on participants‘ body image.

Nutrition habits scale. A subscale of a larger scale was used to investigate the subjects‘

response to five items which are intended to measure habitual facts. Respondents were asked to

choose one response out of four responses as to the frequency of consumption of fruit and

vegetable.

Physical exercise scale. An increased energy intake and a reduced level of physical

activity are presumed to be the most important factors behind the prevalence of obesity in

children and adolescents (Troiano & Flegal, 2001). Items in this subscale were used for

investigating the respondents‘ physical exercise as a facet of healthy lifestyle. This subscale

consists of five items; the first three of which were attitude statements for which the responses

were obtained on a 5- point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

The last two were factual statements in which the respondents have to choose a response out of

two responses.

Leisure time scale. This subscale investigated how the respondents spend their leisure

time which is one facet of healthy lifestyle. This subscale consists of two items, for which the

respondent has to choose a response out of four.

Scale of the use of alcohol and tobacco and other chemicals. A somewhat larger

number of items were designed as a subscale in the larger scale to investigate the use of alcohol

and tobacco and other chemical stuff by the respondents. The subscale is comprised of 12

attitude statements and 14 factual items. For the attitude statements the responses were obtained

on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Body image. For the purpose of the present study, the Mendelson et al‘s scale of physical

self-concept was translated into Arabic and the translation was checked by some faculty in the

College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University. The final scale was given to the respondents

and they were asked to choose objectively one response out of five responses. The responses

were (1, never; 2, rarely; 3, sometimes; 4, often; 5, always). Eleven positively worded items and

nine negatively worded items were used to measure the respondents‘ body image (or their

physical self–concept).

Results

Nutrition habits. A principal-components factor analysis was conducted on the five

nutrition habits items to determine whether they represented a single construct. This analysis

yielded a single factor with an eigenvalue of 1.59, and the unifactor solution accounted for 31.85

% of the total variance. All items loaded higher than .31 on the factor. A nutrition habits measure

was constructed by averaging the five items. Internal consistency coefficient was .42 as

measured by Cronbach‘s alpha.

Physical Exercise. A principal-components factor analysis was conducted on the five

physical exercise items to determine whether they represented a single construct. This analysis

yielded a single factor with an eigenvalue of 1.65, and the unifactor solution accounted for 32.92

% of the total variance. All items loaded higher than .38 on the factor. A physical exercise

measure was constructed by averaging the five items. Internal consistency coefficient was .49 as

measured by Cronbach‘s alpha.

Leisure Time. A principal-component analysis was conducted on the two items in this

subscale to determine whether they represented a single construct. This analysis yielded a single



factor with an eigenvalue of 1.26, and the unifactor solution accounted for 63.15 % of the total

variance. All items loaded higher than .80 on the factor. A leisure time measure was constructed

by averaging the two items. Internal consistency coefficient was .42 as measured by Cronbach‘s

alpha.

Use of alcohol and tobacco and other chemicals. A principal-component analysis was

conducted on the 26 items to determine whether they represented a single construct. This

analysis yielded two factors. The first factor (12 items) had an eigenvalue of 8.36. The internal

consistency coefficient was 0.46. This first factor reflects the respondents‘ attitudes towards the

use and consumption of alcohol, tobacco and other chemicals. The second factor (14 items) had

an eigenvalue of 3.1 and reflects the respondents‘ use and consumption of alcohol, tobacco and

other chemicals. The internal consistency coefficient for the second factor was 0.44. Together the

two factors accounted for 44.04 % of the total variance. All items loaded higher than .54 on the

first factor and .32 on the second factor.

Body image. A principal-components factor analysis was conducted on the twenty items

to determine whether they represented a single construct. This analysis yielded a single factor of

an eigenvalue of 6.60, and the unifactor solution accounted for 30.02 of the total variance. All

items loaded higher than 0.30. The internal consistency coefficient was 0.87 as measured by

Cronbach‘s alpha.

The Fourth Study

This fourth study examined only adolescents‘ religious behavior along with a group of

demographic variables.

Religious Behavior

Psychological research has showed interest in religious behavior for long time. A turning

point in this interest was with Brichard‘s book of Nature History of Man. Since then, many

studies have examined religious behavior and a new approach in psychology was established as

The Psychology of Religion (Al Tai, 1985). Religion is an essential component of personality

and influences people life. Vermeer and Van Der Ven (2004) concluded that religion is a social

phenomenon that deserves more attention. Research shows that there is positive significant

connections between religiosity and personality characteristics (Baroun, 2008), psychological

health (Patel & Shikongo, 2006; Vilchinsky & Kravetz, 2005), positive sexual behavior (Helm,

Mcbride, knox, & Zusman, 2009; Odimegwu, 2005), decrease in depression (Phillips &

Henderson, 2006), and non-use of Alcohol (Ellison, Bradshaw, Rote, Storch, & Trevino, 2008).

Sample

One hundred- and ninety two students participated in this fourth study. Male students

represented 46.4% of the sample. Participants‘ ages ranged from 12 to 19 (M = 15.25, SD =

1.590. The larger percentage of this sample came from 9th

grade (45.3% of the sample), followed

by 17.2% from grade 12, 14.6% from grade 10, and 11.5% from grades 7 and 11.

Measures

Measure of religious behavior. Religious behavior was examined using Al Tai‘s

Religious Behavior Scale (1985), a widely used, true-false measure in the Arabic studies. The

scale consists of five sub-scales that measure tow concepts of religiosity: Religious Beliefs and



Religious Practices. The scale is designed to measure religious behavior for university,

secondary, and middle- school students, as well as the possibility of its use with people in public

life. The first scale includes the basics of the faith (11 items) describing religious beliefs of

people; the other four subscales (acts of worship, customs, rescues, mortals) contain 66 items

that examine the religious practices of individuals. Several validity indicators were found for the

measure including face validity, internal correlations of subscales, and construct validity (as

evident by differences between discriminate groups). Reliability has been calculated in two

ways: Test re-test (ranged between 0.67-0.88 for the subscales and 0.90 for the whole scale) and

internal consistency coefficient using Kudr-Richardson equation (values ranged between 0.70-

0.78 for the subscales and 0.83 for the whole scale).

Results

Al Tai‘s Religious Behavior Scale. The research team verified the scale‘s validity by

having nine specialists in Islamic studies and educational psychology to examine its

appropriateness for the Omani sample. The specialists recognized it as appropriate and suggest

little changes on the phrasing of some items. The researchers computed item- discrimination

coefficients and found 51 items to be discriminated and 26 to be non-discriminated. All internal

coefficients matrices were statistically significant. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach-alpha)

ranged between 0.55 and 0.73 for the subscales and reached 0.89 for the whole scale (0.89). The

final version used in further analyses consisted of 51 items unequally distributed among 5

subscales.

General Conclusion

The purposes of the present studies were to present the psychometric properties of several

measures exploring the developmental characteristics of Omani adolescents aged between 12 and

18 years. These include the parenting authority questionnaire (PAQ), adolescent problem

questionnaire, the coping style questionnaire, academic self efficacy, mental intelligence and

emotional intelligence, health style questionnaire and body image questionnaire, religious

behavior.

Analysis of data provided sufficient support for the use of these measures with Omani

adolescent children. The obtained Item-total correlations and internal consistency reliabilities of

the scales were encouraging. Moreover, the factor analyses of the efficacy and health styles,

body image measures confirmed that these measures represent a single –factor scale

Theses psychometric properties of the measures also extends previous evidence of

previous research used these measures and can be used to assess the characteristics of Omani

adolescents and their influence on children.

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Reference # 24

Topic # 1

Teachers’ conception of educational research in Sultanate of Oman Suleiman Al-Ghatami [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Suleiman Al-Husseini [email protected], Ibri College of Technology, Oman

This pioneering empirical study aims at developing an understanding of teachers‘ conceptions of

and engagement with and in educational research (ER) in Sultanate of Oman. The paper presents

results of data collected by the means of an open-ended and closed questionnaire from 547 school

teachers working in three different educational regions in Oman. The study finds that teachers‘

engagement in ER is influenced by a number of contextual circumstances including teachers

understanding of ER, its role in the development of the educational system, implementation of

results of teacher-research, teachers‘ work conditions, and availability of resources and

institutional support.

Introduction

As a new initiative for the educational system in the Sultanate of Oman, the Ministry of

Education has introduced education research (ER) into the school environment. Starting from the

academic year 2007/08, research has become a main subject in Post-Basic Education (PBE)

schools (Year 12). In addition, teachers at all grades, specializations, genders and regions are

encouraged to conduct research. To promote teachers engagement in research practice, two

annual national competitions, one for students and another for teachers, are organised by the

Ministry of Education. Winning research projects/papers are acknowledged and rewarded.

However, looking at this new development under the light of educational

innovation/reform, implies that ―if teachers are to implement an innovation successfully, it is

essential that they have a thorough understanding of the principles and practice of the proposed

change‖ (Carless, 2001p 264). At this juncture, one may wonder whether the teachers‘

understanding of ER supports prolific implementation of the target initiative. Furthermore,

―understanding of research held by teachers is important in attempt to engage them with and in

research‖ (Borg, 2006 p743). Previous research (e.g. Reis-Jorge, 2007, Borg, 2006, Allright,

1997 and Nunan, 1997) suggests that teachers conceptions, involvement, and attitudes towards

practicing research varies in a way that influences their engagement and the manner through

which they benefit from research in classroom practice. Available literature advises that some

teachers are aware of the positive impact of ER on various areas of pedagogy, some feel

unwilling to sustain their engagement in research, and others do not have the desire at all to be

involved in practicing research. The hindering factors include, for example, conceptual

inaccessibility, work conditions, knowledge, skills, attitudes, lack of autonomy to implement

research results and lack of time (Hannon, 1998, Worrall, 2004 and Barker, 2005).

Overall, then, introducing research culture into school environment in Oman should not

mean that the target educators become competent practitioners by default. The implication of this

argument is that teacher-based research, in Oman, should be empirically studied in order to

enable the teachers to engage in research and enable stakeholders to make informed decisions for

the improvement of initiative and development of policy. As to the best knowledge of the

researchers, no systematic investigation has yet been carried out. This case study aims at

fulfilling the present gap in our understanding of school-teachers‘ conception, use and practice of



ER in schools of the Ministry of Education. This goal is in line with the recommendations of

Muscat‘s 2002 Post Basic Education Symposium which aimed at improving the PBE. It was

recommended by the Ministry of Education that further empirical research is conducted on

different issues relevant to this sector. The study is also in line with the general governmental

research policies which encourage enquiry, especially in educational institutions.

1. What is teachers‘ perception of the role of educational research in development of the Omani

educational system?

2. To what extent do teachers read educational research?

3. To what extent do teachers conduct educational research?

4. What are teachers‘ attitudes towards conducting educational research?

5. To what extent do teachers sustain research skills?

6. What are the factors that hinder teachers from doing educational research?

7. What do teachers suggest to engage in and with educational research?

8. Do teachers‘ gender, experience, grade, specialisation and region in which they teach relate

to their perceptions, attitudes, and skills of educational research?

Pre-tertiary Education in Oman

The Ministry of Education has been the main provider of pre-tertiary education in Oman.

At present, the system contains three different concepts: General Education (GE), Basic

Education (BE) and PBE (Post-Basic Education). BE was launched in 1998/99 to replace GE.

The phasing in of BE is still going on which means that GE is still used in some schools. GE is a

twelve-year program divided into three stages: Elementary- 6 years, Preparatory- 3 years and

Secondary- 3 years. BE has two stages: Cycle 1 (Year 1-Year 4) and Cycle 2 (Year 5-10). It

provides basic educational needs as to information, aspects of knowledge and skills, as well as

the development of objectives and values that enable the learners to proceed in education and

training according to their tendencies, readiness and abilities (Ministry of Education, 2009).

PBE encompasses Years 11 and 12 aiming to continue to develop students‘ basic skills as

well as providing them with job skills and career planning techniques to enable them to become

active members of society, and to be able to take advantage of opportunities in education,

training and work after school. A major distinguishing factor of PBE is that it aims at enabling

students to become effective users of research and self-learning skills. Research curriculum

focuses on providing students with opportunities to develop their own learning through self-

reliance (Ministry of Education, 2009).

Literature review

Engagement of classroom teachers in ER has become a key issue in teacher education

and educational research. The ultimate objective of teachers engagement in research, as theorists

propose, is the improvement of education by making classroom teaching evidence based (Verma

& Mallick, 1999; Kincheloe, 1991and Borg, 2007). Previous research advises that while some

teachers‘ reasons for engagement in research support professional development and long-term

engagement in research, others‘ do not. Some examples of the first type of reasons include

Al-Ghatami & Al-Husseini: Teachers‟ conception of educational research


achieving a better understanding of specific issues in teaching and learning (Worrall, 2004),

improving quality of learning and teaching (Barker, 2005). The second type of reasons includes

engaging in interesting practices, especially in seasonal events such as summer programs and ―to

legitimize the work of professional researchers‖ (Myers, 1987 p 1). Myers remarks ―while I

don‟t happen to believe the work of professional researchers in education needs “legitimizing”,

both of these purposes may be laudable as short-term goals‖ (Myers, 1987, p 1).

Myers‘ concerns merit considering since there are cases where teachers do not sustain

their engagement in research, obstructions include lack of time, personal dispositions (e.g. beliefs

that research is done by outside experts rather than by teachers), lack of external pressure

(Worrall, 2004), and conditions of teachers‘ work (Burton, 1998). Myers suggested

institutionalizing inquiry to overcome obstacles. It means that schools should establish a culture

of teacher-research (Myers, 1987). However, it should be borne in mind that success of

institutional-based solutions is subject to questioning, unless teachers possess research

knowledge and skills that enable them to practice research. Researchers find that teachers, who

are not already involved in research, have limited understanding of social science research and

the process in which it is conducted. Not only that, the influence of research on such teachers‘

practice is indirect (through curriculum and policy) rather than direct (through reading research

papers) (Ratcliffe et al., 2004). Furthermore, teachers‘ knowledge and skills of research differs

from one context to another. As a result, their research background knowledge is shaped to a

large extent by the schools in which they teach, (Smith Blake et al, 2009), ―aspirations,

epistemological and methodological orientations of teacher-research‖ (Reis-Jorge, 2007, p 403).

Talking about teachers‘ knowledge of research leads us to think about the characteristics

of teacher-research- a point upon which many writers still debate. Allwright‘s (1997, p 368)

―concept of exploratory practice‖ proposes that teacher-research is a research-like practice but

with local demands, aspirations, support and goals rather than aiming at fulfilling the standards

of academic research. Other supporters of this view of teacher-research are Bissex & Bullock

(1987), Mohr & Mclean (1987), Richardson (1994) and Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1990). An

opponent to this view, Nunan (1997, p 366) writes ―I would argue that teacher-research should,

first and foremost, be evaluated against the same standards that are applied to any other kind of

research‖. A third view of the nature of teacher-research indicates that teacher-research is a

reflective and/or reflexive process where individual teachers and their learners are the main

target. As part of a day-to-day practice, teachers consciously evaluate their classroom practices

in order to come with new and improved classroom methodologies (Barker, 2005 and Reis-

Jorge, 2007).

To sum up, teacher-research is not a unified entity but a phenomenon entailing different

research traditions each shaped theoretically and practically by a particular school of thought and

influenced by diversity of contexts, aspirations, and methodological orientations (Reis-Jorge,

2007, Webb, 1990). The implication of such theoretical background on the reality of teacher-

research in Oman is that a systematic research would help the target teachers improve their

engagement with and in ER. Therefore, this case study tries to shed a light on schoolteachers‘

concept of ER, the difficulties they encounter, and the possible solutions.



Methodology

Data was collected from 547 randomly selected schoolteachers working in Muscat, Al-

Dakhilya and Al-Dhahira (educational regions), see Table 1 below. Equal numbers of

participants from each region were deemed unnecessary. Variation in gender, teaching

experiences and regions, we assume, provide cross-sectional opinions which enrich the data.

Data was collected using a questionnaire- a copy is enclosed in Appendix I. Questionnaires have

been considered rather practical in education research for collecting data from a large number of

participants (Robson, 1993, and Nunan, 1992).

An Arabic version of the questionnaire was prepared believing that most of the

participants may be incompetent in English. The pilot stage of the questionnaire was

administered on two grounds. First, research specialists at Sultan Qaboos University were

consulted for both the content and layout of the questionnaire. Second, copies of the

questionnaire were given to a group of schoolteachers who did not participate in the study. The

suggestions of both groups for improvement of the questionnaire were implemented. After

permission was granted by the Ministry of Education, the questionnaire was distributed.

As to the analysis of the questionnaire, Sections 1, 2 and 3 were analysed quantitatively

using SPSS and the results are presented in the forthcoming section. Participants‘ answers to the

five-point scale analysed using the Mean as an indicator of overall agreement with each

statement. The open-ended questions were analysed qualitatively. A coding system was used for

classifying the problems that participants believed were hindering them from practicing research

and the solutions they suggested overcoming them (Robson, 1993). The frequency of each idea

was also calculated.

Educational

Region

Gender Total

Male Female

Muscat 44 (33.6%) 87 (66.4%) 131 (100%)

Dakhilya 83 (43.7%) 107 (56.3%) 190 (100%)

Al-Dhahira 98 (43.4%) 128 (56.6%) 226 (100%)

Total 225 (41.1%) 322 (58.9%) 547 (100%) (3.5% of the whole population of 15,747 teachers)

Table 1: Number and percentage of participants from each educational region.

Analysis

Analysis of the data gathered by the questionnaire presented in this section was done

according to RQs sequence. Means of responses to each degree of the five point scale

categorised into three groups: from 1 to 2.5 = low agreement; more than 2.5 to 3.5 = medium

agreement, and more than 3.5 to 5 = high agreement.

5.1. Teachers‘ perceptions of the role of ER in educational system

Questionnaire Items 2, 3, 6, 14 & 23 provide answers to RQ1 (participants‘ perceptions

of ER). Means (see Table 2 below) shows that participants had a very humble and inconsistent

perception of ER role in the development of the educational system. Items 1, 2 and 3 (Means

around 4) show that respondents had upper medium/low high agreement with the idea that ER

has a role on the development of the educational system. Negative statements (Item 4 and 5)



indicate that participants had a negative perception of the role of ER in the development of

educational system. Does this contradiction between positive (Items 1, 2 & 3) and negative (Item

4 and 5) statements reflect true perception or is it a disadvantage of the questionnaire as a

research tool? A similar contradiction occurs between negative and positive statements below

(Data from RQ4 and RQ5), which makes us think that it is most likely that many participants did

not pay attention to the negative statements in the questionnaire. This is a very well known

disadvantage of this type of research tool and ―there is little or no check on the honesty or

seriousness of respondents‖ (Robson, 1993 p 243).

Answers to the open-ended questions give some examples of respondents‘ perceptions of

ER. The following perceptions are quoted by respondents. ―Planners have no attempts at all to

implement research outcomes. Studies are kept on shelves... only to be used as references for

further research only‖. Other perceptions are that ―research has no impact at all on teaching and

learning because research recommendations were never considered‖, ―the general opinion

towards research is negative because it is not used at all… many research projects have been

done but they have no accountability‖, ―[educators] should not depend on foreign research

findings and theories which are taught in universities because they are based on societies other

than the Omani society so they are irrelevant to our society‖.

No Statement Mean

1 Educational research helps in improving my professional skills and capabilities 4.06

2 Doing educational research helps me to understand the educational system 3.96

3 Educational research strengthens the relationship between school and society 3.91

4 Educational research has no impact on teaching and learning 3.62

5 Doing educational research does not help me solve my students‘ problems 3.52

Table 2: Participants’ perceptions of role of ER in education system

5.2. Extent to which teachers read ER

Data for this point (RQ2) was derived from responses to Question 1, Section 2 in the

questionnaire. As illustrated in Table 3 below, participants were not quite engaged in reading

ER: 36.8% maintained that they never read ER papers, the majority 49.6% read between 1 and 5

papers, and only 4.3% read more than 5 papers- 9.3% provided no answers (See Table 3 below).

5.3. Extent to which teachers do ER

Data for this point (RQ3) was gathered from responses to Question 2, Section 2 in the

questionnaire. As illustrated in Table 3 below, participants were not quite engaged in doing ER:

60.7% never done any ER, 29.1% did 1 to 5 research projects per year and 2.2% did more than 5

research projects per year- 8% provided no answers. The obstacles that prevent teachers from

carrying out research will be discussed in 5.6 below.



Research papers read

per year

number of

respondents Percentage

Research papers done

per year

Number of

respondents Percentage

Nothing 206 36.8 Nothing 340 60.7

1-5 278 49.6 1-5 163 29.1

6 - 10 14 2.5 6 - 10 6 1.1

More than 10 10 1.8 More than 10 6 1.1

No answer 52 9.3 No answer 45 8.0

Total 560 100% Total 560 100%

Table 3: Number of research read and done by participants per year.

5.4. Teachers‘ attitudes towards ER

Questionnaire items 5, 8, 10, 16, 19, 21, 25, 27, 29 and 32 set up to provide data for this

analysis which answers RQ4. Teachers‘ attitudes towards ER, as illustrated in Table 4 below, are

not quite positive. Item 4 proves negative attitudes towards ER are held by somehow a high

number of respondents (Mean = 3.90) who regard ‗ER as a waste of time and effort‘.

Moderate attitudes towards ER can be inferred from Item 7 (Mean = 3.50) ‗teachers do

not need to do ER‘, Item 8 (Mean = 3.46) ‗I feel happy when I conduct ER‘, Item 9 (Mean =

3.41) ‗asking teachers to conduct ER is unfair because it puts an extra load on them, and Item 10

(Mean = 2.86) ‗I do not like ER‘. Respondents have negative attitudes towards awards, Item 5,

(Mean = 3.76) ‗awards are not important and do not encourage me to do educational research‘. In

addition, Items 2 and 6 indicate that teachers‘ attitudes are influenced by personal and contextual

factors i.e. time and experience. Item 2 (Mean = 3.97) ‗I am upset because I do not have enough

time to do research‘. In Item 6 (Mean = 3.64) the response was ‗I feel uncomfortable for being

unfamiliar with the procedure of ER‘. Respondents have relatively high positive attitudes

towards support and training in ER. In Item 1 (Mean 4.15) ‗I need a specialist to help and guide

me when doing educational research‘ and Item 3, (Mean = 3.91), ‗ I need training on research

methodology‘. To sum up, participants‘ attitudes towards ER were by lack of research skills, and

work conditions.

No. Statement Mean

1 I need a specialist to help and guide me when doing educational research 4.15

2 I am upset because I do not have enough time to do research 3.97

3 I need training on research methodology 3.91

4 Educational research is a waste of time and effort 3.90

5 Awards are not important and do not encourage me to do educational research 3.76

6 I feel uncomfortable for being unfamiliar with the procedure of educational research 3.64

7 Teachers do not need to do educational research 3.50

8 I feel happy when I conduct educational research 3.46

9 Asking teachers to conduct ER is unfair because it puts an extra load on them 3.41

10 I do not like doing educational research 2.86

Table 4: Statements and Means of respondents’ attitudes of ER.

5.5. Teachers‘ comprehension of research skills

Items 4, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34 & 35 sought

information for this point targeting RQ5. In table 5 below, the Means of positive statements i.e. 1

to 10 indicate that participants have good understanding of ER skills. On the other hand, the



Means of the negative statements i.e. 11 to 20 show that respondents do not obtain good ER

skills. The inconsistency could be due to participants‘ carelessness when answering the

questionnaire. It seems that they did not pay attention to the negative statement. Anyway, this

raises a question about trustworthiness of questionnaire as a tool for data collection, a concern

pointed out in 5.1 above. However, it was mentioned more than 100 times in the open-ended

question that participants did not sustain ER skills; examples of quotes, ―a large number of

teachers do not know how to do ER‖ and ―I am not familiar with the correct procedure of ER‖.

No. Statement Mean

1 Literature review (electronic and paper-based) is important in research 4.43

2 Table of content helps readers spot the right information easily 4.38

3 Research reports have to be written in an accurate language and style 4.37

4 Research tools have to be administered in order to have results 4.29

5 Research questions are important 4.28

6 Tables, charts and illustrations help readers understand the research content 4.20

7 Selection of a sample is an important step in education research 4.13

8 I have a good idea about educational research 3.50

9 I can do educational research in the appropriate way 3.17

10 Research can be done before setting its objectives 1.96

11 It is not important to state a research problem when doing educational research 4.12

12 Results interpretation is not important for educational research 4.04

13 Referencing is not necessary for educational research 3.92

14 I can arrive to important results without data analysis 3.84

15 Testing of research validity and reliability is not important 3.79

16 Statistical analysis of data is not important 3.77

17 Recommendations are not important for educational research 3.75

18 Hypotheses are not necessary for research 3.60

19 Computer programs are not helpful for data analysis 3.56

20 I can do research without using any research tools 2.14

Table 5: Statements and Means of respondents’ assessment of ER knowledge and skills.

5.6. Factors hinder teachers from conducting ER

Information about this point collated from respondents‘ input for open Question 1 in the

questionnaire, and presented in the following four categories in quotes from respondents‘

comments in the open questions.

5.6.1. Lack of knowledge and skills

It was mentioned around 105 times that lack of ER knowledge and skills obstructed

participants from doing ER. The following examples are quoted, ―I don‘t know anything about

research skills‖, and ―I don‘t know the right way of doing research because I haven‘t done

anything after finishing university‖. Other participants mentioned that being incompetent in

computer skills and English deterred them from access to resources.

5.6.2. Work conditions, time constraints and logistics

Work conditions and time constraints are interlocked, both mentioned around 396 times.

Participants are overloaded with school work, their time was very tight in school and at home, so

that they could not conduct ER. A teacher asserted, ―I am too much overloaded with teaching,



assessment, out-of-class activities so that I can‘t do research or even think about doing it‖, and

the teacher mentioned that the teachers ―are busy with teaching and other types of work... at

home they have to go through other school duties in addition to their family and social

responsibilities‖. Issues relating to logistics, mentioned more than 85 times, for example:

deficiencies in resources, books, references, journals, computers, internet service, lack of

financial support to cover expenses, uncomfortable formal regulations and nonexistence of

practical assistance in terms of, for example, distribution and collection of questionnaires. A

teacher wrote, ―references are very rare. I tried many times to do research; the most difficulty I

faced was finding useful references‖.

5.6.3. Conceptual factors

Ideas under this category were mentioned around 60 times. It includes participants‘

understanding of and attitudes towards ER and its role in development of educational system,

their understanding of society‘s perception of ER and its consequences on teacher-research.

Examples of quotes are: ―first obstacle is that researches done by teachers are left inside drawers

and never used...‖; ―the society is unaware of the importance of ER... people are uncooperative...

when questionnaires are distributed, they never come back... when we conduct interviews we get

incorrect results and so on‖... ―many people think that ER is interfering in others‘ personal lives

and confidentiality‖.

5.6.4. Institutional factors

Institutional factors relate to participants‘ perception of the role of peers, schools and the

Ministry of Education in supporting/hindering teachers from practicing ER- an idea expressed

around 150 times. A major component of this category (mentioned around 100 times) is that

participants thought that there was no clear system of encouragement/rewards implemented by

the Ministry for supporting teacher research. Some more statements that respondents made were

as follows: There is ―no support provided by educational institutions ―,‖ any clear support and

encouragement... I have no idea about awards or promotions‖, ―the surroundings, especially the

school environment is not cooperative and not supportive‖, ―school administrators do not

encourage teacher research‖, and ―the teacher is surrounded by many discouraging people‖.

5.7. Participants‘ suggestions to engage in and with ER

In their answers to Question 2, participants suggested a number of ideas for more

engagement in ER. The suggestions are classified into three main categories below.

5.7.1. Training

Pre-service (undergraduate courses) and in-service training were mentioned more than

170 times as a main factor in helping teachers engage in ER. ―I suggest the establishment of in-

service training courses on research methodology which is run by qualified specialists so that all

teachers have a chance to attend‖. Other suggestions include, teachers should be provided with a

guidebook on how to conduct and write research in general, how to read and write internationally

published research papers, and teachers‘ winning research papers should also be published and

schools should be provided with copies of them so that teachers can refer to them as samples of

well done research papers.



5.7.2. More systematic rewarding approach

Participants suggested an implementation of a rewarding system that aims at establishing

a research society where ER becomes part of school life. This includes that ―teacher research

should be contextual-based and focus on real problems‖, ―adaptation and adoption of well done

research papers/projects and sound recommendations‖, and ―rewards should be given to research

practicing teachers‖.

5.7.3. Logistic support

Many participants suggested the establishment of an ER department in each educational

region aiming at providing researcher-teachers with professional support e.g. training, resources,

guidance, distribution and collection of questionnaires and financial support. Schools should be

provided with resources, PC‘s, internet service, and ER material. Teachers should also have

access to resource centres and libraries at Sultan Qaboos University and other research-based

institutions. Other suggestions include ―teachers should be given a chance to do research... the

workload should be reduced a little bit, especially with non-pedagogical duties... it should be said

that the teachers are more capable than anyone else to appreciate different types of educational

problems‖.

5.8. The relationship between teachers‘ gender, experience, grade, specialisation and region

in which they teach to their perceptions, attitudes, and skills of ER

Statistical analyses using a T-Test, and a one way ANOVA as presented in Table 6 below

shows that:

A. Participants’ perceptions of the role of ER in development of educational system

Gender: no differences between the participants in terms of their gender in relation to their

perceptions of the role of ER in development of educational system.

Experience: no differences between the participants in terms of their work experience in

relation to their perceptions of the role of ER in development of educational

system ER.

Grade: no differences between the participants in terms of the grade in which they teach in

relation to their perception of the role of ER in development of educational system

Specialisation: participants in Art stream had better perception of the role of ER in

development of educational system

Educational region: no differences between the participants in terms of the educational

region in which they teach in relation to their perception of the role of ER in

development of educational system

B. Participants attitudes for conducting ER

Gender: no differences between the participants in terms of their gender in relation to their

attitudes for conducting ER.


relation to their attitudes for conducting ER.

Grade: no differences between the participants in terms of the grade in which they teach in

relation to their attitudes for conducting ER



Specialisation: no differences between the participants in terms of their specialisation (Arts

vs. Science) in relation to their attitudes for conducting ER.

Educational region: participants from Al-Dhahira Educational Region had better attitudes

for conducting ER than participants from Muscat and Al-Dakhilya.

C. Participants’ ER skills

Gender: female participants are familiar more than male participants with ER skills.


relation to their ER skills

Grade: participants teaching Cycle 2 are more familiar with ER skills than participants

teaching in Cycle 1.

Specialisation: no differences between the participants in terms of their specialisation (Arts

vs. Science) in relation to their ER skills

Educational region: participants from Al-Dhahira Educational Region had better

knowledge of ER skills than participants from Muscat and Al-Dakhilya.

N Mean Std.

Deviation

Levene’s Test for

Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality

of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-

tailed)

gen

der

RQ

1

male 226 3.7646 .67868 2.102 .148 1.453 545 .147

female 321 3.8474 .63953 1.438 466.160 .151

RQ

4

male 223 3.6166 .43943 5.572 .019 1.884 543 .060

female 322 3.6832 .38130 1.836 432.539 .067

RQ

5

male 226 3.7252 .41051 10.724 .001 2.135 545 .033

female 321 3.7933 .33332 2.060 418.899 .040

exp

erie

nce

RQ

1

less than 5 years 175 3.7623 .63441

2.063

.128

5-10 years 223 3.7991 .64946

more than 10 years 157 3.9032 .67922

Total 555 3.8169 .65462

RQ

4

less than 5 years 175 3.6434 .42392

1.038

.355

5-10 years 222 3.6842 .37024

more than 10 years 156 3.6263 .43227

Total 553 3.6550 .40573

RQ

5

less than 5 years 174 3.7282 .38152

1.707 .182

5-10 years 224 3.7967 .34155

more than 10 years 157 3.7573 .39786

Total 555 3.7641 .37126

gra

de

RQ

1

cycle1 86 3.7698 .65549 .046 .831 .706 516 .480

cycle2 432 3.8245 .65710 .707 121.453 .481

RQ

4

cycle1 86 3.6012 .44734 .203 .652 1.301 514 .194

cycle2 430 3.6642 .40246 1.212 114.155 .228

RQ

5

cycle1 86 3.6913 .36567 .009 .924 2.279 515 .023

cycle2 431 3.7898 .36612 2.281 121.445 .024



N Mean Std.

Deviation

Levene’s Test for

Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality

of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-

tailed)

spec

iali

zati

on

RQ

1

Arts 235 3.8885 .66718 .194 .660 2.355 549 .019

Science 316 3.7557 .64542 2.343 494.960 .020

RQ

4

Arts 234 3.6547 .39796 1.673 .196 .148 547 .883

Science 315 3.6495 .41133 .149 510.838 .882

RQ

5

Arts 235 3.7547 .39133 4.942 .027 .402 549 .688

Science 316 3.7676 .35719 .397 477.597 .692

edu

cati

on

al r

egio

n

RQ

1

Muscat 134 3.7627 .58921

2.063

.128

Aldakhlia 192 3.8375 .71765

Aldhahira 228 3.8254 .64121

Total 554 3.8144 .65654

RQ

4

Muscat 135 3.5763 .40264

1.038

.355

Aldakhlia 189 3.6646 .41726

Aldhahira 228 3.6912 .39447

Total 552 3.6540 .40624

RQ

5

Muscat 135 3.6870 .38039

1.707 .182

Aldakhlia 191 3.7613 .37545

Aldhahira 228 3.8105 .35687

Total 554 3.7634 .37164

Table 6: statistical analysis of the relationship between teachers’ gender, experience, grade, specialisation and region in which they teach to their perceptions, attitudes, and skills of ER

Discussion and conclusion

In this study, participants‘ understanding of ER emerged from those items, which focused

on research skills (discussed in 5.5 above) and participants‘ answers to open Question 1 and 2.

All in all, participants endure a conventional conception of ER in terms of, for example, its

purpose, methodology, tools, and output, a finding that consents with studies discussed in

literature review e.g. Borg (2007) and Barker (2005). The study demonstrates that teachers‘

understanding of ER influences their engagement in ER. Actually, because teachers are not well

grounded in theory and practice of academic research in addition to the different contextual

difficulties, their concept of ER hinders rather than encourages them to engage in ER. For

example, at the purpose level, statements quoted from answers of open Question 1 and 2- such as

―I feel that my research is valueless because its results and recommendations are not considered

seriously especially when contradicting with school regulations such as length of teaching day

and curriculum‖. This statement indicates that for teachers, in order to do research its

recommendations have to be implemented by school management, policy makers, curriculum

designers, etc., otherwise they would not do research.

At the methodology level, statements such as ―one of the problems is that participants are

not honest when providing information or filling in a questionnaire‖ and ―when I distribute a

questionnaire I never get it back because teachers are too busy to fill it in‖. It is inferred that



teachers would not like to engage in ER because of research tools i.e. questionnaires do not work

properly in certain contexts.

This paper argues that teachers‘ understanding of teacher-research should not be limited

to conventional scientific/academic research. It might be useful for teachers to understand that

teacher-research is not a unified entity but a phenomenon entailing different research traditions

(Hichcock & Hughes, 1989; Reis-Jorge, 2007 and Webb, 1990) each with useful advantages,

which can be used to fulfill specific contextual research requirements and/or overcome

difficulties found in a specific situation. In the literature review, we mentioned three traditions of

teacher-research. First, Nunan (1992 &1997), Murray (1992) and Myers‘ (1985) view which

implies that teacher-research is an approximation of university-based academic research that is

taught in under/post graduate research skills courses and implemented by academics. Main

components of this practice should be methodological data collection, analysis and

interpretation. Teachers, therefore, should be grounded on basic and applied science research in

order to be competent to fulfill criteria set for teacher-research within this realm (Nunan, 1997;

Myers, 1987 and Reis-Jorge, 2007).

This study reveals that not all the participants have the skills and work conditions that

support practicing this type of teacher-research. Then, why not to consider performing teacher-

research as proposed by e.g. Allwright (1997), Bissex & Bullock (1987), Mohr & Mclean

(1987), Richardson (1994) and Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1990). Allwright (1997) argues that

teachers for practical reasons e.g. teaching loads, training opportunities, cannot produce research

that meet academic standards required by practitioner-researchers. Allwright proposes what he

calls exploratory practice, which is a pedagogy-oriented research-like approach that helps

maintain sustainability in teacher-research, though quality is damaged. He prioritizes

sustainability to quality because ―the adoption of a research perspective (an ongoing concern for

understanding) is arguably much more important than the production of one-off research

projects‖ (Allwright, 1997 p 369).

We think also that teacher-research should also be introduced under the umbrella of

reflective teaching where individual teachers and their learners are the main target (Barker, 2005

and Reis-Jorge, 2007). To clarify a possible confusion, in reflection-teaching literature, reflection

per se is alternated with research, particularly action research. Teachers use action research is

considered one of three methods by which teachers can follow a reflective approach in teaching-

the other two are ‗teachers participating in present learning experiences‘ and ‗they remember

past learning experiences‘ (Gimenez, 1999). Action research in reflective teaching, as Gimenez

(1999) points out, is of Nunan‘s (1993 & 1997) problem-solving approach, encompassing

problem identification, data collection and analysis, results interpretation, solution

implementation and finally a report (article) of the research is published locally. Nunan‘s

problem-solving approach is again contrasted to Allright‘s (1993 & 1997) exploratory teaching

as aiming at understanding rather than problem-solving. A common feature of these two

approaches is that both are suggested as research phenomena for reflective teaching to be used

by reflection-practicing teachers to understand their present practice and move forward to a more

improved one.

Helping teachers change their conception of ER requires institutional support. The

literature as discussed earlier suggests that teachers‘ engagement in ER is more evident in

institutions supportive of teacher-research (Borg, 2007, Barker, 2005 and Myers, 1987).

Participants‘ comments on the difficulties they encounter when conducting ER and the solutions

they suggested to overcome them indicate that institutional support should be provided at three



interconnected circles i.e. school level, educational regional level and the Ministry level, as

illustrated in Figure 1 below. In the core of the interconnected circle, comes the school level

institutional support. Participants explained that ―the school culture is not supportive of teacher-

research‖, reasons included ―school management does not encourage teachers to do research‖,

―shortage of time because of workloads‖, ―discouraging peers‖, ―lack of references, books and

previous research‖, etc. Participants also mentioned that parents were not cooperating. School

level support should be provided to overcome all school-level obstacles that hinder teachers from

doing ER. Literature suggests that sustained and productive teachers engagement in research

requires institutional commitment and a research culture that acknowledge all types of support

(Barker, 2005 and Borg, 2007). The educational region and the Ministry should build up schools

to become active research centers by setting up policies, strategic planning and providing

financial funds. Support at this level is required because it should help ―towards a positive

attitude and increased likelihood of participation in the innovation on the part of teachers‖

(Kennedy, 1987, p 165).

Figure 1: The circles represent the three levels of institutional support that teachers need in order to engage actively in a research culture that appreciates and practices ER.

This pioneering research on teachers‘ conception of ER in Oman suggests that further

research should be conducted for better understanding of teachers‘ engagement with and in ER.

The following areas can be explored:

How teachers benefit from research in their teaching

Analysis of teacher-research as a genre, e.g. its topics, methodology, type, etc.

Implementability of results and recommendations of teacher-research

The study also suggests that the Ministry of Education should conduct field investigations

to understand the actual problems that researchers/teachers face and the possible solutions to

overcome them.

time,

action plans, resources

etc.

Strategic

planning

Policies,

financial

support

etc.

Ministry Level

Educational Region Level

School level

Type of support

Level of Support



This study advises that any future research should not depend on a single research tool,

especially a questionnaire. It was explained in 5.1 that it seemed that respondents were careless.

As a result, they did not pay attention to the negative statements in the questionnaire. In addition,

triangulation of tools should be used to overcome any potential bias of using a single research

tool.

References

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& K. Richards (Eds.), Teachers Develop Teachers Research- Papers on Classroom Research and Teacher

Development (125-135). London: Heinemann.

Allwright, D. (1997). Quality and sustainability in teacher research. TESOL Quarterly, 31(2), 368-370.

Barker, P (2005). Research in schools and colleges. National Educational Research Forum Working Paper 7.2.

retrieved 2 August 2009 from http:www.nerf-uk.org/word/WP7.2ResearchinSchandCol.doc.

Bissex, G., & Bullock, R. (1987). Seeing for ourselves: Case study research by teachers of writing. Portsmouth, HN:

Heineman.

Borg, S. (2007). Research engagement in English language teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 731-747.

Burton, J. (1998). A cross-case analysis of teacher involvement in TESOL research. TESOL Quarterly, 32, 419-446.

Carless, D (2001). Case study of curriculum implementation in Hong Kong. In Hall, D and Hewings, A. (Eds.),

Innovation in English language teaching: a reader (pp 263-274). London: Routledge.

Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1990). Research on teaching and teacher research: The issues that divide.

Educational Researcher, 19(2), 2-11.

Gimenez, T. (1999). Reflective teaching and teacher education contributions from teacher training. Linguagem &

Ensino, 2(2), 129-143.

Kennedy, C. (1987). Innovation for a change: teacher development and innovation. ELT Journal, 41(3), 163-170.

Hannon, P. (1998). An ecological perspective on educational research. In J. Rudduck & D. McIntyre (Eds.),

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Hichcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1989). Research and the teacher. London: Routledge.

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http//www.moe.gove.om/portal/sitebuilder/sites/EPS/English/MOE/BasicEducation.aspx

Mohr, M., & Maclean, M. (1987). Working together: A guide for teacher-researchers. Urbana IL: National Council

of Teachers of English.

Murray, L. (1992). What is practitioner based enquiry? British Journal of In-Service Education, 18(3) 191-196.

Myers, M. (1987). Institutionalizing inquiry. The Quarterly of the National Writing Project, 9 (3) 1-4.

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Richardson, V. (1994). Conducting research on practice. Educational Researcher, 23(5), 5-10.

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APPENDIX:

A survey on teachers’ concepts of educational research

Dear teacher,

This survey aims at understanding schoolteachers‘ concepts of educational research and the

extent to which they do it. The Ministry of Education has recently introduced a number of

improvements including teaching research methodologies to school pupils, organisation of

annual research competitions targeting both teachers and pupils. Such developments imply that

schoolteachers should acquire a certain level of research skills, an issue this study tries to explore

in detail. Therefore, your participation, though not obligatory, is valuable and very much

appreciated. The information you provide will be dealt with confidentiality and used for

academic research only.

Yours

Dr. Suleiman Saif Al-Ghatami, SQU, College of Education, Email: [email protected]

Dr. Suleiman Salem Al-Husseini, Ibri College of Technology.

Email: [email protected] 26th

May 2009

First, background information

1- Would you please provide the information as required per the table below? Region in which you teach:........ Your Specialisation:

Your Gender (tick the applicable): male female Your Qualification:

Your teaching experience: (tick the applicable)

less than 5 years 5-10 years 11-15 years More than 15 years

Level(s) you are teaching:

Second: your expertise with educational research

1- What is the number of academic/educational research papers that you read per year? None 1-5 6-10 More than 10

2- What is the number of academic/educational research papers that you do per year? (this does

not include your degree/masters/PhD requirements) None 1-5 6-10 More than 10

Third: your concept of educational research

In the table below put a tick under the appropriate scale against each item as applicable.

No Item

Agree very

much Agree

Don’t

know Disagree

Disagree

very much

1 I have a good idea about educational research

2 Educational research helps in improving my

professional skills and capabilities

3 Educational research strengthens the relationship

between school and society

4 Hypotheses are not necessary for research

5 I feel uncomfortable for being unfamiliar with the

procedure of educational research

6 Doing educational research helps me to understand the

educational system

7 Referencing is not necessary for educational research





1- Would you write the difficulties that you think hinder you from conducting educational

research?

2- What would you suggest to improve the present status of education research conducted by

schoolteachers in Oman?

No Item

Agree very

much Agree

Don’t

know Disagree

Disagree

very much

8 I do not enjoy doing educational research

9 I can do research without using any research tools

10 Educational research is a waste of time and effort

11 I can do educational research in the appropriate way

12 Research questions are important

13 Research tools have to be administered in order to have

results

14 Educational research has no impact on teaching and

learning

15 Statistical analysis of data is not important

16 Asking teachers to conduct educational research is

unfair because it puts an extra load on them

17 Recommendations are not important for educational

research

18 Results interpretation is not important for educational

research

19 I need training on research methodology

20 Research can be done before setting its objectives

21 I feel happy when I conduct educational research

22 Selection of a sample is an important step in education

research

23 Doing educational research does not help me solve my

students‘ problems

24 Testing of research validity and reliability is not

important

25 I need a specialist to help and guide me when doing

educational research

26 Computer programs are not helpful for data analysis

27 Awards are not important and do not encourage me to

do educational research

28 Table of content helps readers spot the right information

easily

29 Teachers do not need to do educational research

30 Research reports have to be written in an accurate

language and style

31 Literature review (electronic and paper-based) is

important in research

32 I am upset because I do not have enough time to do

research

33 It is not important to state a research problem when

doing educational research

34 Tables, charts and illustrations help readers understand

the research content

35 I can obtain important results without data analysis


Reference # 32

Topic # 3

Teachers’ classroom assessment skills as a function of gender,

teaching area, teaching level, teaching experience,

and inservice assessment training Hussain Alkharusi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This study investigated teachers‘ self-perceived assessment skills as a function of gender, teaching

area, teaching level, teaching experience, and in-service assessment training. Participants were 213

Omani teachers from Muscat public schools. A 25-item Self-Perceived Assessment Skills Scale

was developed and used in the study. Results indicated statistically significant differences on the

self-perceived assessment skills with respect to teachers‘ gender, teaching area, teaching level,

teaching experience, and in-service assessment training. Implications for professional preparation

in classroom assessment as well as recommendations for future research are discussed.

Introduction

Classroom assessment refers to the process used in the classroom by the teacher to obtain

information about students‘ performances on assessment tasks, either as a group or individually,

using a wide range of assessment methods, to determine the extent to which students are

achieving the target instructional outcomes (Gallagher, 1998; Gronlund, 1998). The main

purpose of it is to improve student learning and motivation to learn (Gronlund, 2006; Harlen &

Crick, 2003; Stipek, 2002). Since a substantial proportion of classroom time is devoted to the

assessment for and of student learning (Mertler, 2003), suboptimal assessment practices might

hinder desirable student learning and motivation. As such, it seems reasonable to argue that

careful consideration of the teachers‘ classroom assessment skills is certainly warranted. In an

attempt to guide the professional preparation of teachers in classroom assessment, the American

Federation of Teachers, the National Council on Measurement in Education, and the National

Education Association (1990) have jointly defined seven Standards for Teacher Competence in

Educational Assessment of Students. The standards emphasized that teachers should competently

be able to choose and develop assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions;

administer, score, and interpret results of externally produced and teacher-made assessment; use

assessment results when making educational decisions; develop valid assessment-based grading

procedures; communicate assessment results; and recognize unethical, illegal, and inappropriate

methods and uses of assessment.

Unfortunately, findings from past and recent studies of classroom assessment have

consistently expressed a concern about the adequacy of teachers‘ assessment skills. For example,

in an earlier survey of statistical analyses of test results for 336 elementary and secondary school

teachers, Gullickson (1982) found that a substantial proportion of teachers reported using

relatively little statistical information such as means, medians, and standard deviations to

describe assessment results. Also, these same teachers did not have an adequate understanding of

basic testing concepts such as item difficulty and reliability. Parallel to Gullickson‘s (1982)

study, Mertler (1998, 1999) found in two studies of 625 K-12 Ohio state teachers that teachers

did not spend much time conducting statistical analyses of the assessment data with no

significant differences based on teacher‘s gender and years of teaching experience. Further, Hills



(1991) identified four misuses of classroom assessment in schools including using grades for

controlling students‘ behavior, assigning grades that are contingent on improvement, using tests

that are technically inadequate, and deviation from established standardized-test administration

procedures.

In a review of literature on teachers‘ grading practices, Brookhart (1994) located 19

studies that were done since 1985. Seven studies focused on grading practices of secondary

school teachers, 11 studies investigated both elementary and secondary school teachers, and one

study included only elementary school teachers. Research methods employed in those studies

included surveys in which teachers were asked about the components incorporated in term

grades, grade distributions, and their beliefs about grading issues and grading scenarios; and

observations, interviews, and document analyses. Based on this review, Brookhart (1994)

concluded that:

1. Teachers try hard to be fair when assigning grades.

2. Teachers inform students about the components of the grades.

3. Achievement tests are the main contributors to grades.

4. Teachers take into account student‘s effort and ability in grading.

5. Elementary teachers depend on informal evidence and observations, whereas

secondary teachers use paper-pencil achievement measures and other written

activities in grading.

6. Teachers differ in their perceptions of the meaning and purpose of grades, and

consideration of achievement and nonachievement factors in grading.

7. Teachers‘ grading practices deviate from the recommendations of educational

measurement and assessment experts.

In an investigation of classroom assessment practices of 246 third preparatory science

teachers from 112 schools in Oman, Alsarimi (2000) found that teachers indicated using short

answer, completion, oral exams, extended answer, and multiple-choice item formats with no

significant differences based on teacher‘s gender and years of teaching experience. Also,

Alsarimi (2000) found that the teachers indicated using four main sources of information when

assigning grades to students: final exams, midterm exams, class participation, and oral

questioning. Also, these same teachers tended to incorporate some nonachievement factors such

as student‘s effort in grading. The teachers commented that the grades reflect student

improvement, effort, and knowledge of the subject matter. Recently, Zhang and Burry-Stock

(2003) surveyed 297 teachers across teaching levels and content areas about their classroom

assessment practices. They found that mathematics and science teachers reported grading on

nonachievement factors more frequently than did teachers in social studies and nonacademic

subjects.

The aforementioned studies tend to confirm that classroom assessment practices may be

unique from one teaching level, teaching experience, and teaching area to another. It is also

evident from the classroom assessment literature that there seems to be some contradictions

between teachers‘ practices and recommendations of educational assessment experts. Therefore,

teachers‘ assessment skills need a considerable scrutiny.

Alkharusi: Teachers‟ classroom assessment skills


Purpose of the Study

Due to the increasing importance to adequately prepare teachers for the task of classroom

assessment, the present study was guided by the following primary research question: How do

teachers‘ self-perceived assessment skills vary with teachers‘ gender, teaching area, teaching

level, teaching experience, and inservice assessment training?

Methods

Participants and Data Collection Process

The participants in this study were 213 teachers teaching grades six, eight, and ten in

Muscat public schools in Oman. Permission was requested from Ministry of Education and

school principals to collect data from the teachers. The participants were informed that a study is

being conducted to investigate teachers‘ classroom assessment skills. The teachers were also

informed that they were not obligated to participate in the study, and that if they wished, their

responses would remain anonymous and confidential. Those who wished to participate in the

study were provided a cover letter and the instrument along with brief instructions about the

information that was requested in the instrument, how to respond to the items, and where to find

directions that were also included both on the cover letter and the instrument. Table 1 presents

characteristics of the participants. Table 1

Characteristics of the Participants

Variable n %

Gender

Male 100 46.9%

Female 113 53.1%

Teaching area

English language 86 40.4%

Fine arts 55 25.8%

Science 72 33.8%

Teaching level

Grade 6 49 23%

Grade 8 89 41.8%

Grade 10 75 35.2%

Teaching experience

1 – 5 years 71 33.3%

6 – 10 years 69 32.4%

> 10 years 73 34.3%

Have taken inservice assessment training?

No 133 62.4%

Yes 80 37.6%

Instrument

The participants were asked to indicate their gender, teaching area, teaching level,

teaching experience, and whether or not they have an inservice assessment training. In addition,



informed by the literature (e.g., Alkharusi, 2009; Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2003), a 25-item Self-

Perceived Assessment Skills Scale was developed and used in this study. The participants were

asked to indicate how skilled they are in using the assessment issue described by the item on a 5-

point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all skilled) to 5 (very skilled). To establish content

validity, the items were given to a group of faculty members in the areas of educational

measurement and psychology from Sultan Qaboos University. They were asked to judge the

clarity of wording and the appropriateness of each item and its relevance to the construct being

measured. Their feedback was used for further refinement of the items. The participants‘

responses were factor-analyzed with a principal-components method of extraction and a varimax

orthogonal rotation. The analysis yielded a five-factor structure: (Analyzing Test Items,

Communicating Assessment Results, Writing Achievement Test Items, Using Performance

Assessment, and Grading) accounting for 64% of the total variance. Table 2 presents the items,

the factor loadings, the percent of the variance explained, and Cronbach alpha reliability for each

factor.

Table 2

Factor Structure of the Self-Perceived Assessment Skills

Items

Factor loadings

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5

1. Calculating and interpreting central tendency measures of the test scores. .87

2. Calculating and interpreting variability measures of the test scores. .87

3. Verifying content validity of the test items. .80

4. Establishing reliability of the test scores. .79

5. Conducting item analysis (i.e., difficulty and discrimination) for the test. .50

6. Providing oral and written feedback to students. .77

7. Communicating assessment results to students. .71

8. Communicating assessment results to parents. .71

9. Communicating assessment results to other educators. .71

10. Writing multiple-choice questions. .77

11. Writing matching questions. .76

12. Writing true-false questions. .73

13. Writing fill-in-the-blank and short-answer questions. .73

14. Writing essay questions. .60

15. Assessing students through observations. .74

16. Evaluating oral questions from students. .73

17. Defining a rating scale for performance assessment criteria in advance. .66

18. Assessing individual and group hands-on activities. .55

19. Matching performance tasks to course instruction and objectives. .54

20. Communicating performance assessment criteria to students in advance. .49

21. Informing students in advance how grades are to be assigned. .75

22. Weighing differently projects, exams, homework, etc. when assigning

semester grades.

.72

23. Using systemic grading procedures to determine borderline grades. .64

24. Incorporating non-achievement factors (e.g., effort, classroom behavior,

attendance, etc.) in the calculation of grades.

.56

25. Developing a systematic grading procedure. .51

% of variance explained 15% 13% 13% 12% 11%

Reliability .88 .80 .84 .82 .80

Note. F1 = analyzing test items. F2 = communicating assessment results. F3 = writing test items. F4 = using performance assessment. F5 = grading.



Statistical Analysis

Prior to the analysis, all variables were examined for accuracy of data entry and missing

values. Independent t-tests were performed to explore differences in self-perceived assessment

skills with respect to gender and inservice assessment training. One-way analyses of variance

(ANOVA) were employed to investigate differences in the self-perceived assessment skills with

respect to teaching area, teaching level, and teaching experience. Once it was determined

statistically significant differences exist among the groups‘ means, Scheffe test was used to

determine which means differ.

Results and Discussion

Assessment Skills by Gender

Table 3 summarizes results of the independent samples t-tests on gender differences in

the self-perceived assessment skills. As shown in Table 3, female teachers reported on average a

higher level of self-perceived assessment skills in communicating assessment results and writing

test items than male teachers. However, there were no statistically significant gender differences

in the self-perceived assessment skills in analyzing test items, using performance assessment,

and grading. Although these results are in disagreement with studies investigating teachers‘

assessment practices (Alsarimi, 2000; Mertler, 1998, 1999), a qualitative approach of

investigation might shed more light on gender differences in self-perceived assessment skills.

Table 3 Results of the Independent Samples t-tests on Gender Differences

in the Self-Perceived Assessment Skills

Variable Females

(n = 113)

Males

(n = 100)

t Cohen’s d

M SD M SD

Analyzing test items 3.25 .97 3.30 1.02 .40 -

Communicating assessment results 3.78 .69 3.48 .88 2.84** .38

Writing test items 3.75 .76 3.50 .92 2.16* .30

Using performance assessment 4.31 .63 4.15 .71 1.68 -

Grading 3.96 .78 3.94 .79 .20 -

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Assessment Skills by Teaching Area

Table 4 displays means and standard deviations of the teachers‘ self-perceived

assessment skills by teaching area. Results revealed that there were statistically significant

differences across teaching areas in analyzing test items, F(2, 210) = 9.51, p < .001, η2 = .08;

communicating assessment results, F(2, 210) = 16.21, p < .001, η2 = .13; writing test items, F(2,

210) = 6.27, p < .01, η2 = .06; using performance assessment, F(2, 210) = 17.74, p < .001, η

2 =

.15; and grading, F(2, 210) = 6.65, p < .01, η2 = .06. Scheffe‘s test indicated that science teachers

reported on average higher levels of self-perceived skillfulness than English language teachers

and fine arts teachers in analyzing test items, writing test items, using performance assessment,



and grading. Also, on average, English language teachers reported a lower level of self-perceived

assessment skills than fine arts teachers and science teachers in communicating assessment

results. However, there were no statistically significant differences between English language

teachers and fine arts teachers in the self-perceived assessment skills in analyzing test items,

writing test items, using performance assessment, and grading. Also, there were no statistically

significant differences between science teachers and fine arts teachers in the self-perceived

assessment skills in communicating assessment results. These results lend support to the

previous research findings that teachers‘ assessment practices differ across subject areas

(Stiggins & Conklin, 1992; Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2003). The results imply a need to tailor

classroom assessment training to suit the different needs of teachers based on the content area

they teach.

Table 4 Means and Standard Deviations of the Self-Perceived Assessment Skills by Teaching Area

Variable English

(n = 86)

Fine arts

(n = 55)

Science

(n = 72)

M SD M SD M SD

Analyzing test items 3.08 1.01 3.05 .92 3.67 .92

Communicating assessment results 3.29 .93 3.77 .57 3.95 .62

Writing test items 3.47 .97 3.52 .77 3.91 .68

Using performance assessment 4.01 .73 4.13 .54 4.58 .53

Grading 3.80 .82 3.82 .68 4.21 .75

Assessment Skills by Teaching Level


assessment skills by teaching level. Results revealed that there were statistically significant

differences across teaching levels in analyzing test items, F(2, 210) = 4.27, p < .05, η2 = .04;

communicating assessment results, F(2, 210) = 5.60, p < .01, η2 = .05; using performance

assessment, F(2, 210) = 9.07, p < .001, η2 = .08; and grading, F(2, 210) = 3.11, p < .05, η

2 = .03.

Scheffe‘s test indicated that grade six teachers reported on average higher levels of self-

perceived skillfulness than grade 10 teachers in analyzing test items and grading. Also, on

average, grade six teachers reported a higher level of self-perceived assessment skills in using

performance assessment than both grade eight teachers and grade 10 years. Moreover, grade 10

teachers reported on average a higher level of self-perceived skillfulness than grade eight

teachers in communicating assessment results. These results are consistent with studies

examining teachers‘ assessment practices (Bol, Stephenson, O‘Connell, & Nunnery, 1998;

Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2003). The results imply that classroom assessment courses in teacher

education programs might need to be matched with what teachers need to know for classroom

practice delineated by the specific grade level.

Table 5 Means and Standard Deviations of the Self-Perceived Assessment Skills by Teaching Level

Variable Grade 6

(n = 49)

Grade 8

(n = 89)

Grade 10

(n = 75)

M SD M SD M SD

Analyzing test items 3.60 .93 3.26 1.01 3.07 .97






Grading 4.18 .76 3.92 .82 3.83 .74

Assessment Skills by Teaching Experience


assessment skills by teaching experience. Results revealed that there were statistically significant

differences across teaching experience in analyzing test items, F(2, 210) = 9.69, p < .001, η2 =

.08; communicating assessment results, F(2, 210) = 30.08, p < .001, η2 = .22; writing test items,

F(2, 210) = 9.80, p < .001, η2 = .09; using performance assessment, F(2, 210) = 17.39, p < .001,

η2 = .14; and grading, F(2, 210) = 7.32, p < .001, η

2 = .07. Scheffe‘s test indicated that teachers

with more than 10 years of teaching experience reported on average higher levels of self-

perceived skillfulness in analyzing test items, communicating assessment results, writing test

items, using performance assessment, and grading than both teachers with 1 to 5 years of

teaching experience and teachers with 6 to 10 years of teaching experience. Also, on average,

teachers with 6 to 10 years of teaching experience reported a higher level of self-perceived

assessment skills in communicating assessment results than with teachers with 1 to 5 years of

teaching experience. However, there were no statistically significant differences between

teachers with 1 to 5 years of teaching experience and teachers with 6 to 10 years of teaching

experience in the self-perceived assessment skills in analyzing test items, writing test items,

using performance assessment, and grading. Although these results disagree with previous

studies of teachers‘ assessment practices (Alsarimi, 2000; Mertler, 1998, 1999), the current study

results highlight the importance of teaching experience in that, assessment skills might best be

mastered through practice and classroom experience. As such, classroom assessment courses in

teacher education programs might need to be integrated with teaching practicum.

Table 6 Means and Standard Deviations of the Self-Perceived Assessment Skills by Teaching Experience

Variable 1 – 5 years

(n = 71)

6 – 10 years

(n = 69)

> 10 years

(n = 73)

M SD M SD M SD

Analyzing test items 3.03 1.02 3.10 .93 3.67 .91




Grading 3.76 .82 3.86 .71 4.22 .74

Assessment Skills by Inservice Assessment Training

Table 7 summarizes results of the independent samples t-tests on differences in the self-

perceived assessment skills with respect to the inservice assessment training. As shown in Table

7, teachers who had received inservice assessment training perceived themselves to be more

skilled than those without inservice assessment training in analyzing test items, communicating

assessment results, writing test items, using performance assessment, and grading. Like Zhang

and Burry-Stock‘s (2003) study findings, the present study findings emphasize that continuous

assessment training for inservice teachers might have a significant impact on their assessment

skills.



Table 7

Results of the Independent Samples t-tests on the Differences in the Self-Perceived Assessment Skills with respect to the Inservice Assessment Training

Variable With training

(n = 80)

Without training

(n = 133)

t Cohen’s d

M SD M SD

Analyzing test items 3.66 .95 3.04 .95 4.59*** .65

Communicating assessment results 3.95 .60 3.45 .84 4.66*** .68

Writing test items 3.95 .67 3.44 .89 4.45*** .65

Using performance assessment 4.58 .53 4.03 .66 6.24*** .92

Grading 4.22 .72 3.79 .78 4.01*** .57

***p < .001.

Conclusion

It has been estimated that teachers spend as much as a third to a half of their professional

time in classroom assessment activities ranging from designing assessment tasks to grading,

communicating assessment results to their respective audiences (Stiggins & Conklin, 1988,

1992). With classroom assessment taking its place as a major component in the educational

process, the quality of teaching and learning relies in part on teachers‘ assessment skills (Daniel

& King, 1998). Due to the increasing importance of the professional preparation of teachers in

classroom assessment, the present study aimed at investigating teachers‘ self-perceived

assessment skills as a function of teachers‘ gender, teaching area, teaching level, teaching

experience, and inservice assessment training.

The results point to the following conclusions: (a) female teachers perceived themselves

to be more skillful in writing test items and communicating assessment results; (b) teachers self-

perceived assessment skills are reflective of the nature of the subjects and grade levels they

teach; (c) as teaching experience increases, teachers self-perceived assessment skills tend to

increase; and (d) teachers with inservice assessment training showed a higher level of self-

perceived assessment skills than those without inservice assessment training. These results

suggest that male teachers might need more attention regarding their assessment skills in writing

test items and communicating assessment results. Also, the findings clearly highlight the value of

teachers‘ training in classroom assessment, and the need to match this training with the nature of

classroom assessment delineated by teaching areas and teaching levels. It should be noted that

the results of this study are limited by the use of a self-report survey and the participating

sample. Further studies may use classroom observations to analyze teachers‘ assessment

practices. Also, the survey should be sent to a more representative sample across the country.

References

Alkharusi, H. (2009). Correlates of Teacher Education Students‘ Academic Performance in an Educational

Measurement Course. International Journal of Learning, 16, 1-15.

Alsarimi, A. M. (2000). Classroom assessment and grading practices in the Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished

dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.



American Foundation of Teachers, National Council on Measurement in Education, & National Education

Association. (1990). Standards for teacher competence in educational assessment of students. Educational

Measurement: Issues and Practice, 2, 30 – 32.

Bol, L., Stephenson, P. L., O‘Connell, A. A., & Nunnery, J. A. (1998). Influence of experience, grade level, and

subject area on teachers‘ assessment practices. The Journal of Educational Research, 91, 323 – 330.

Brookhart, S. M. (1994). Teachers‘ grading: Practice and theory. Applied Measurement in Education, 7(4), 279 –

301.

Daniel, L. G., & King, D. A. (1998). Knowledge and use of testing and measurement literacy of elementary and

secondary teachers. Journal of Educational Research, 91, 331 – 343.

Gallagher, D., Jo. (1998). Classroom assessment for teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Gronlund, N. E. (1998). Assessment of student achievement (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Gronlund, N. E. (2006). Assessment of student achievement (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Gullickson, A. R. (1982, November). The practice of testing in elementary and secondary schools. Vermillion, SD:

University of South Dakota. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED229391)

Harlen, W., & Crick, R. D. (2003). Testing and motivation for learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy

& Practice, 10, 169 – 207.

Hills, J. R. (1991). Apathy concerning grading and testing. Phi Delta Kappan, 72, 540 – 545.

Mertler, C. A. (1998, October). Classroom assessment practices of Ohio teachers. Paper presented at the meeting of

the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.

Mertler, C. A. (1999, October). Teachers‘ (Mis)conceptions of classroom test validity and reliability. Paper

presented at the meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.

Mertler, C. A. (2003, October). Preservice versus inservice teachers‘ assessment literacy: Does classroom

experience make a difference? Paper presented at the meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research

Association, Columbus, OH.

Stiggins, R. J., & Conklin, N. F. (1988, November). Teacher training in assessment. Portland, OR: Northwest

Regional Educational Laboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Sevice No. ED303439)

Stiggins, R. J., & Conklin, N. F. (1992). In teachers‘ hands: Investigating the practices of classroom assessment.

Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Stipek, D. (2002). Motivation to learn: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Zhang, Z., & Burry-Stock, J. A. (1994). Assessment Practices Inventory. Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of

Alabama.


Reference # 38

Topic # 3

Reflections on Social Studies in the Basic Education Reform in Oman Mohammed Al-Nofli [email protected], Ministry of Education, Oman

This article analyzes social studies in terms of its goals, course offerings, and critical issues facing

the teaching of social studies in the Basic Education Reform in Oman. Social studies goals that

promote critical thinking and community participation receive little emphasis in schools. Social

studies curricula are dominated by geography and history over a wide range of social science

disciplines. Despite considerable efforts to improve social studies, it is apparent that social studies

become a subject of secondary importance in schools. The article provides a set of

recommendations that could help curriculum designers and teachers improve social studies in

Oman.

Reflections on Social Studies in the Basic Education Reform in Oman

Social studies is often associated with the preparation for effective citizenship. It was

formally introduced in 1916 in the United States by the Committee on Social Studies of the

National Education Association (Hertzberg, 1981). Over the years, social studies educators have

suggested several frameworks for the social studies (Barr, Barth, & Shermis, 1977; Brubaker,

Simon, & Williams, 1977; Martorella, 1985). In their influential framework, Barr et al. (1977)

identified three traditions or philosophical orientations to social studies. The dominant tradition

is citizenship transmission, which involves indoctrination of what is believed to be core

knowledge, values, and beliefs of society. The second tradition called social science focuses on

teaching basic knowledge and skills from social science disciplines. The third is reflective

inquiry, which emphasizes reflective thinking and inquiry process. In addition, there are other

perspectives that give insights into social studies purposes, content areas, and methods. These

include socio-political involvement (Brubaker et al., 1977), personal development, and informed

social criticism (Martorella, 1985).

Social studies in Oman has long been one of the core school subjects because it is

assigned the responsibility to help students acquire knowledge, skills, and dispositions associated

with effective citizenship. Recently, students in all public schools around the country start

learning social studies in grade three through 12. Children in grades three and four begin to

explore a wide range of topics, including families, local communities, Oman‘s geographical

features and natural resources, Muslim historical figures, world continents and oceans, and basic

map skills. Social studies in grades five through 10 integrate content areas from some social

science disciplines in one textbook of each grade level. Social studies program in grade 11 and

12 offers required and elective courses. There are two required social studies courses (This is My

Homeland 1 and 2) for students in grades 11 and 12. Elective courses include Economic

Geography, Geography and Modern Technologies, the History of Islamic Civilization, and the

World around Me. One of the current trends in social studies in Omani schools includes a shift in

the pedagogical emphasis from teacher-centered approaches to student-centered approaches. In

line with this trend, greater emphasis has been placed on implementing multiple formative

assessment methods, including class observations, student projects, self-assessment, and other

useful methods (Ministry of Education, 2001).



Despite considerable efforts to improve social studies in the Basic Education Reform,

social studies increasingly becomes a subject of secondary importance in basic education

schools. Unfortunately, its weekly instructional time in grade three through 10 is less than that of

mathematics, science, and language arts. Further evidence about the declining status of social

studies comes from a recent survey conducted with a sample of 618 students (318 boys and 300

girls) in grades eight, nine, and 10 (Al-Gharibi, 2008). Although students viewed learning social

studies lessons as enjoyable, they did not see social studies as useful for a career or helpful to

learn about their own country or even being related to their own lives. English language followed

by mathematics and science were seen as important subjects for getting career opportunities.

In a more recent study, Al-Nofli (2009) surveyed a national sample of 407 social studies

teachers in basic education schools of the second cycle (grades 5-10). Social studies teachers

reported having little emphasis on critical thinking and community participation. They rated

geography and history as the most implemented content areas over a wide range of content,

including career education, anthropology, political science, sociology, psychology, and law-

related education. Based on the findings of this study and the apparent decline in status of social

studies in Oman, it is crucial to examine various aspects of social studies in the Basic Education

Reform.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this article was to examine social studies in terms of its goals

and content organization. The following questions guided this article:

1. What social studies goals are emphasized in social studies curricula of grade five to 10?

2. How social studies content of grade five to 10 is organized?

Basic Education in Oman

The landscape of Oman‘s educational system has undergone marked changes since the

implementation of the Basic Education Reform in the academic year 1998/1999. Basic education

is defined as 10 years of unified education for all children to meet their basic needs in terms of

knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values (Ministry of Education, 2001). The aim of basic

education is to develop a comprehensive and integrated personality of the learner within the

context of Islamic principles and Oman identity. Additionally, basic education helps learners

develop a wide range of skills, including life skills, self learning, and scientific and critical

thinking (Ministry of Education, 2001). The structure of the current educational system includes

basic education (grades 1-10) and post-basic education (grades 11 and 12). The basic-education

stage is divided into two sub-cycles. The first cycle includes grades one through four, and the

second cycle includes grades five through ten. Each cycle is designed to meet students‘ basic

needs in terms of knowledge, skills, and values.

Data Sources

Before proceeding, I wish to clarify that this article included main content areas of social

studies, but not the intensity and complexity of content elements, including concepts, facts,

Al-Nofli: Reflections on Social Studies


generalizations, and theories. Social studies goals were those general expectations about what

students should accomplish in grades five through 10. Moreover, analysis of goals and content

organization was delimited to social studies in basic education schools of the second cycle

(grades 5-10). These schools are designed to provide a set of basic knowledge, values, skills, and

dispositions relevant to students‘ needs and interests. It is the hope of the author that this article

will further stimulate a critical examination of social studies curricula in Oman.

The first source of data for this article included teacher guidebooks for social studies in

grades five to 10. Each guidebook included general principles for the social studies, social

studies goals, instructional strategies, and guidelines for teaching content areas (e.g., Ministry of

Education, 2007a). The author with another reviewer reviewed all social studies goals designed

for grades five through 10. All the goals were independently analyzed and placed into specific

categories. Frequent discussions were held to resolve any differences in the analysis. Social

studies literature was reviewed to help interpret and place some goals into their corresponding

categorizes (Barr et al., 1977; National Council for the Social Studies, 1994).

The second source of data for this article included the current social studies textbooks-

student edition for grade five through 10 (Ministry of Education, 2003, 2005, 2007b, 2007c,

2007d, 2007e, 2007f, 2007g, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d). It should be noted that social studies

textbooks are the same in all public schools around the country. Units and lessons included in

each textbook were reviewed and analyzed to explore patterns that characterize content

organization across grade levels. A matrix was developed to identify major and minor topics in

each lesson. In the remainder of this article, I shall present findings about social studies goals and

content organization.

Social Studies Goals

Teacher guidebooks offer a wide range of goals, which remain the same for students in

grades five through 10. It is necessary to keep in mind that social studies goals reviewed in this

article describe broad expectations for students in grades five through 10. There were 41 goals

included in teacher guidebooks (e.g., Ministry of Education, 2007a). As shown in Appendix A,

five goal categories were identified from the analysis.

Citizenship Transmission

Of the 41 goals, 19 (46%) were found to deal with citizenship transmission. Social

studies goals in this category were intended to develop a strong sense of pride in the country and

the larger Arab and Islamic nations, develop national unity, and instill mainstream values and

norms of Omani society. Examples of social studies goals in this category included (a)

appreciating Islamic values and beliefs, (b) appreciating the roles of his Majesty the Sultan of

Oman and his government in building modern Oman, (c) developing pride in Oman‘s history and

national heritage, (d) appreciating the roles of Omani government in its foreign relations, (e)

appreciating the roles of government institutions in serving citizens, (f) developing pride in the

humanistic role of the Arab-Islamic civilization and its achievements, (g) appreciating the

effective roles of family, and (h) developing knowledge of traditions and heritage of the Omani

society. Clearly, the central thrust of these goals was to teach a set of knowledge, beliefs, values,



and norms, which are recognized by policy makers and curriculum developers as essential for

Omani students to adhere to the Omani national heritage.

Social Science

In contrast to social studies goals of citizenship transmission, goals in this category

focused on teaching knowledge and skills from social science disciplines. There were 16 (39%)

goals representing this category. Examples of social studies goals included promoting the study

of (a) location and natural habitats of Oman, the Arab World, and other countries; (b) concepts,

principles, and generalizations of the social sciences; (c) the Arab world and its human and

natural resources; (d) historical aspects of some nations; (e) the universe and achievements of

humanity in science and space; (f) some major events shaping modern and contemporary history,

including European Renaissance, geographical explorations, industrial revelation, and straggles

for independence; and (g) contemporary challenges and issues such as pollution and

immigration. Social science skills were centered on (a) drawing and reading maps as well as

preparing figures and charts, (b) applying concepts and theories, and (c) utilizing technologies

and tools. Technologies and tools were interpreted to be those used by social scientists such as

geographers, economists, sociologists, and psychologists.

Besides goals of citizenship transmission and social science, there were some goals

clustered around a group of social studies skills, which were arranged into the following

categories:

Thinking Skills

Social studies goals in this category were intended to help students develop thinking

skills. Unfortunately, there were only two goals (5%) representing this category: developing

scientific thinking and developing skills of observation, classification, comparison, analysis, and

inference.

Study Skills

Of the 41 goals, two (5%) dealt with study skills. One goal was to develop the ability of

locating information and writing research papers and the second goal was to develop the ability

of self learning and independent and critical thinking. In fact, critical thinking was linked with

self learning, but not an independent goal.

Interpersonal and Group Interaction Skills

Besides study skills, there were two goals (5%) dealing with interpersonal and group

interaction skills. These goals involved the ability of communicating ideas and expressing

feelings and the ability of planning and participating in effective cooperative projects.

Despite the great number of social studies goals designed for students in grade five

through 10, the majority of goals were centered on citizenship transmission and social science at

the expense of reflective thinking and community participation



Content Organization

Social studies is a required subject for all students in grades five through 10. It is taught

under a broad rubric of ―social studies‖. There is no separate course representing one of the

social science disciplines at this stage. Typically, the organizing matrix for grades five through

10 was geography, history, and civics. These three main content areas were woven into social

studies textbooks across grade levels (see Appendix B). Traditionally, social studies textbooks

remain the primary determiners for teaching and learning social studies around the country.

Given this reality, units and lessons within each textbook were designed to serve the exact

number of class periods for each grade level.

Geography units across all grades were organized around physical and human geography

of the Arab World, earth systems (geosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere),

population geography, and environmental and regional geography. History units were organized

around the study of Oman within the Arab and Islamic contexts. More specifically, the units

were centered on the study of ancient civilizations, Arabs before Islam, and some periods of

Islamic history. Two units highlighted some aspects of modern European history and modern and

contemporary Asian history. Civics units were organized around topics related to social life in

Oman, rights and duties of citizens, institutions of a modern state, Oman Constitution, Oman

relationships with other countries and world organizations. A deeper analysis of content

organization revealed interrelated issues. Chief among these were as follows:

Lack of Integration

As indicated earlier, social studies for all grade levels is taught under a broad rubric of

―social studies‘‘. Although geography, history, and civics were woven into each textbook, there

was a lack of integration among these content areas. Units were presented in isolation from each

other in most textbooks. Grade eight, for example, included a unit of study about weather and

climate (geography) and another unit about Al-Bosaid State (history). Grade 10 included the

study of internal and external forces shaping the Earth crust (geography) and two units about

expansion of Islam and Oman during the first three centuries of Islam (history). Indeed,

integration is useful when there is meaningful content. Rather than organizing social studies into

isolated units, curriculum developers would enhance integration by organizing a group of

meaningful units as they relate to a general topic such as Oman, Arab World, or New World.

Each topic would be addressed in terms of history, geography, culture, government, economics,

and other fields. If properly integrated, social studies can be an exciting and challenging subject.

Recurring Lessons and Themes

There were recurring lessons and themes across some grade levels (see Appendix B). For

example, social studies textbooks for grades six and 10 included lessons about erosions,

earthquakes, and volcanoes. Textbooks for grades six and eight laid emphasis upon weather,

climate, and topics related to atmosphere. The study of population geography was heavily

emphasized in grades seven and nine. In fact, both grades included similar topics: population

structure, population growth, and population density. Curriculum developers in Oman ought to

give some attention to this issue because there is so much meaningful social science content that

students could learn at this stage.



Narrow Scope

Scope is concerned with what is included in the curriculum. Although social studies for

grades five through 10 was intended to provide a wide range of social science disciplines, the

traditional disciplines of geography and history dominated social studies content across all grade

levels (see Appendix B). Even within these disciplines, most topics were centered on factual

knowledge about Oman in its Arab and Islamic contexts. Unfortunately, little consideration was

given to a synthesis of significant social, cultural, and economic issues. Topics related to world

history and world cultures were invisible across grade levels.

Discussion

Social studies goals and content organization were analyzed in this article. Analysis

revealed that citizenship transmission dominated social studies goals. As Barr et al. (1977)

indicated, the essence of citizenship transmission is to inculcate of what is believed to be the

most desirable knowledge, values, and beliefs assumed necessary for ―survival of society‖.

Unsurprisingly, social studies teachers in Oman identified strongly with goals of citizenship

transmission than with goals of social science, reflective thinking, or community participation.

Of nine social studies goals, helping students feel pride in their country and its core values and

beliefs received the highest rating in both importance and implementation (Al-Nofli, 2009).

Clearly, there were few goals dealing with thinking skills and no reference to community

participation. This analysis helped to explain why social studies teachers in basic education

schools put little emphasis on critical thinking and community participation (Al-Nofli, 2009).

Analysis of social studies content organization revealed several issues: lack of

integration, recurring themes, and narrow scope. Given widely disparate units (geography,

history, and civics) within each grade and recurring lessons and themes across grade levels, gaps

occurred in the sequence of social studies. It is likely that these issues emerged from the absence

of a curriculum framework. Literature revealed several curriculum models for the social studies.

Despite criticisms, the ―expanding-communities‖ design is still one of the most widely used

models for social studies in early and middle grades. As Hanna (1976) indicated, this model

starts from the learners and their immediate environments. It gradually expands to include other

communities as the learner progresses over successive years. Its sequence includes the child,

family, school, neighborhood, community, state, nation, and world communities. The National

Council for the Social Studies [NCSS] (1994) suggested 10 thematic strands for making designs

about what should be taught in K-12 social studies. The strands are culture; time, continuity, and

change; people, places, and environments; individual development and identity; individuals,

groups, and institutions; power, authority, and governance; production, distribution, and

consumption; science, technology, and society; global connections; and civic ideals and

practices. These strands are interrelated and constitute the basis for social studies across grade

levels.

Progressive education offers several implications for social studies programs. Typically,

the curriculum is organized around students‘ needs, interests, and activities. Social studies

program provides experiences about career opportunities, leisure-time interests, health and well-

being, and family-life education (Myers & Myers, 1995). In contrast to a child-centered

curriculum, the traditional organization of separate disciplines provides rigorous academic



content. This type of curriculum organization, which remains popular in secondary grades,

stresses concepts, facts, generalization, principles, and theories of one of the social science

disciplines. Social studies program based on social reconsructionism and critical theory provides

students with opportunities to analyze a wide range of real social, cultural, and economic issues

facing them in their own everyday lives.

Some Thoughts for the Future

Given various issues identified from social studies goals and content organization, we

cannot be confident that our students receive effective social studies in Oman. Probably one of

the urgent messages to policy makers is to develop a comprehensive framework for K-12 social

studies. A group of experts, teachers, and community members should participate in developing

various aspects of the framework. The following recommendations should be taken into account:

Social studies program should provide consistent and cumulative learning experiences

throughout K-12 grades (NCSS, 1994).

Social studies should integrate a wide range of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and

dispositions drawn from various social science disciplines and other related fields.

Social studies should comprise a common core curriculum and a range of elective courses.

Some appropriate elective courses for students in the upper grades of basic education include

law and society, participation in government, world cultures, world geography, word history,

law-related education, introduction to psychology, and introduction to sociology.

Social studies should involve students in various aspects of community participation. Some

forms of participation include volunteer service, community study, community projects,

internships, and participation in socio-political aspects of society (Conrad, 1991).

Social studies should include opportunities to analyze significant social, economic, and

cultural issues facing students in their own lives.

Besides developing a K-12 framework, it is crucial to take a course of action to improve

the status of social studies in schools. Recent research in Oman indicated that social studies is

not a high priority subject in basic education schools (Al-Gharibi, 2008; Al-Nofli, 2009). At this

time, we need to gather additional data about the current status of social studies and then develop

a remedial plan.

Important contributions to social studies in Oman would be research studies aiming at

identifying an exemplary scope and sequence for social studies, identifying social studies goals

and content areas emphasized by other school subjects, and identifying students‘ perceptions

about a wide range of social studies goals and content areas.

References

Al-Gharibi, Z. M. (2008). Attitudes related to social studies with young adolescents in the Sultanate of Oman.

Unpublished master‘s thesis, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom.

Al-Nofli, M. A. (2009). Perceptions of social studies teachers about social studies goals and content areas in Oman.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University Carbondale.

Barr, R. D., Barth, J. L., & Shermis, S. S. (1977). Defining the social studies. Arlington, VA: National Council for

the Social Studies.



Brubaker, D. L., Simon, L. H., & Williams, J. W. (1977). A conceptual framework for social studies curriculum and

instruction. Social Education, 41(3), 201-205.

Conrad, D. (1991). School-community participation for social studies. In J. P. Shaver (Ed.), Handbook of research

on social studies teaching and learning: A project of the National Council for the Social Studies (pp. 540-548).

New York: Macmillan.

Hanna, P. R. (1976). Revising the social studies: What is needed? In P. H. Martorella (Ed.), Social studies strategies:

Theory into practice (pp. 251-261). New York: Harper & Row.

Hertzberg, H. W. (1981). Social studies reform: 1880-1980. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium Inc.

Martorella, P. H. (1985). Elementary social studies: Developing reflective, competent, and concerned citizens.

Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Ministry of Education. (2001). Basic education in the Sultanate of Oman: The theoretical framework. Muscat,

Oman: Author.

Ministry of Education. (2005). ( 2جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌٓحوِ [Social studies for grade six (Vol. 2)]. Muscat,

Oman: Author.

Ministry of Education. (2007a). جٌٛف جٌٓحوِ : جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١سو١ًٌ جٌّؼٍُ ٌّحوز [Teacher guidbook for Social studies:

Grade six]. Muscat, Oman: Author.

Ministry of Education. (2007b). ( 2جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌهحِّ [Social studies for grade five (Vol. 2)].

Muscat, Oman: Author.

Ministry of Education. (2007c). ( 2جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌٓحذغ [Social studies for grade seven (Vol. 2)].


Ministry of Education. (2007d). ( 1جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌػحِٓ [Social studies for grade eight (Vol. 1)].


Ministry of Education. (2007e). ( 1جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌطحْغ [Social studies for grade nine (Vol. 1)].


Ministry of Education. (2007f). ( 2جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌطحْغ [Social studies for grade nine (Vol. 2)].


Ministry of Education. (2007g). ٍٖجٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌؼح [Social studies for grade ten]. Muscat, Oman: Author.

Ministry of Education. (2009a). ( 1جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌهحِّ [Social studies for grade five (Vol. 1)].


Ministry of Education. (2009b). ( 1جٌؿُء )جوِ جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌّ [Social studies for grade six (Vol. 1)].


Ministry of Education. (2009c). ( 1جٌؿُء )جٌىٌجْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌٓحذغ [Social studies for grade seven (Vol. 1)].


Ministry of Education. (2009d). ( 2جٌؿُء )جْحش جالؾطّحػ١س ٌٍٛف جٌػحِٓ جٌىٌ [Social studies for grade eight (Vol. 2)].


Myers, C. B., & Myers, L. K. (1995). The professional educator: A new introduction to teaching and schools.

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company

National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies.

Washington, DC: Author.

Appendix A Summary Analysis of the Distribution of Social Studies Goals across Five Goal Categories

Category Frequency Percentage

Citizenship Transmission 19 46

Social Science 16 39

Thinking Skills 2 5

Study Skills 2 5

Interpersonal and Group Interaction Skills 2 5

Total 41 100



Appendix B Social Studies Units across Grade levels

Grade 5: Social Studies:

Part one of this course includes two units of study: (1) Arabs and their natural

environments and (2) early history of Arabs and Muslims. Part two includes three units: (1)

expansions of the early Arab-Islamic state; (2) population, structure, and economic activities in

the Arab world, including population distribution, Arab city in the past and present, agriculture,

industry and power, and tourism; and (3) social concepts, including social work; social work

institutions, and aspects of social work.

Grade 6: Social Studies

Part one includes three units: (1) earth systems, including the study of earthquakes and

volcanoes, mountains, and erosions; (2) examples of independent Islamic states; and (3)

atmosphere and hydrosphere. Part two includes (1) foreign control over Islamic lands; (2)

biosphere and environmental systems; and (3) national and social concepts; including rights and

duties of citizens, honesty and truth, time management, and respect for work.

Grade 7: Social Studies:

Part one includes three units: (1) early civilizations in Oman and the Arabian Peninsula;

(2) population geography, including population structure, growth and density; and (3) concepts

in population education. Part two includes two units (1) lifestyles and population needs (2) and

early civilizations in Egypt and Fertile Crescent.


Part one of includes three unites: (1) weather and climate; (2) Al-Bosiad State in Oman

(1744); and (3) institutions of a modern state. Part two includes the study of (1) water, including

water resources, water problems, and water resources in Oman; (2) aspects of modern European

history, including European Renaissance, geographical explorations, and Industrial Revolution;

and (3) Omani major cities.


Part one includes the study of (1) population geography, including population data,

structure, growth, and density; (2) Omanis in East Africa; and (3) Oman in its Islamic and global

contexts. Part two includes the study of (1) population education; (2) Omani maritime

connections; and (3) modern and contemporary Asian history: Iran, India, China, Japan, and

South East Asia: Malaysia (as a case study).


This course consists of six units: (1) origin of the Earth- internal forces shaping Earth

crust; (2) external forces shaping Earth crust, including weathering and types of erosions; and (3)

expansions of Islam and building a new civilization; (4) Oman during the first three centuries of

Hijra (Islamic calendar); (5) environmental issues, including greenhouse effect, desertification,

tropical cyclones, earthquakes, and volcanoes; and (6) world powers and economic blocks: USA,

Japan, China, and economic blocks around the world.


Reference # 42

Topic # 3

A proposal for a program for Baccalaureate of Art Education

to face future needs and challenges Mohamed Aly Nassra [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The current study is among various attempts to develop outputs of the current program of

Baccalaureate of Art Education in (SQU), this will be done through designing a proposed program

to qualify the graduates to work as specialized cadres under the umbrella of art education as

general major. These cadres are considered to be a basic demand of labor market within the Arab

society, to face future needs and challenges. In this vein, the current study presents identifying

needed specializations - as well as the learning needs of each of these specializations and

presenting them in the proposed program.

Aly Nassra: A proposal for a B.A.Education program



Reference # 43

Topic # 5

Drama as a good medium in developing the understanding of teachers

to the progressive education in Palestine Hala Al-Yamani [email protected], Bethlehem University, Palestine

This paper reports on a part of a research project undertaken with first and second year students in

faculty of Education at Bethlehem University in order to understand what happens when drama is

used as teaching method? Does drama workable as a teaching method in our context as a culture?

What does drama mean to students? How does it affect them as people and also as future teachers?

This understanding is necessary to inform the developing field of drama in education. It has taken

place in three required courses where I used drama as the main teaching method. The research

used qualitative methods, utilizing information from observations, interviews, students‘ journals

and researcher journal.

Introduction

Educational methods and approaches in Palestine are mostly traditional and the teacher is

the main Maestro in this process. This came as a result to a long history of being occupied by

different occupiers since educational policies have inevitably aimed more at control than

enlightenment. For example, under the Ottoman regime which continued for around five

centuries, Ottmans focused in education almost entirely on specific skills and subjects such as

religion, reading and writing. So ‗people were ignorant and the support infrastructure, including

school buildings, teacher qualifications, equipment, and teaching methods were all sub-

standard… ‗ (Alasali, 1990, p. 24)

Under the British Mandate, the situation did not change. Thus many teachers were

unqualified, no attention was paid to schools in rural areas, and the curriculum was limited and

focused on main subjects.

Under the Israeli occupation since 1948 the story has changed significantly. There was

close control of educational institutions. In addition, the Israeli military government has had

complete authority over matters relating to the financing of, and the hiring and firing of, staff in

government schools. Moreover, Israeli authorities have compiled a long list of books, which are

banned from the schools... (Heiberg, 1993, p. 133)

As a result of their authoritarian approach the educational system has become weaker and

more restricted. This is reinforced by the Israeli policy of closing from time to time educational

institutions, such as kindergartens, schools and universities.

Recent education in Palestine

What the Palestinian Authority inherited from the various occupying forces in the

educational sector was very heavy inheritance. So what have done little to change the traditional

and weak1

educational system. We notice that the teacher‘s role is the main role, the learners‘

1 By weaknesses I mean the absence of effective resources such as educational programmes, suitable and modern

curriculum, well qualified teachers, rich and suitable educational materials , buildings, furniture etc.



contribution being confined to limited, often monosyllabic answers in response to the teacher‘s

questions and directions.

Basically, the work of teachers focus on teaching what is required by the curriculum,

regardless of the needs and abilities of their pupils and students. Mostly they focus on the

content of the text books. The underlying assumption of teachers seems to be school is a place

solely to provide learners with knowledge to be absorbed uncritically.

The school day is divided into lessons and some teachers teach more than one lesson such

as science, mathematics, Arabic language, English language, history, geography, religion, etc.,

each subject presented separately to the students through dedicated lessons for a specific time.

The content of the subject is the main focus of the teaching process, which is completely rigid.

This approach involves memorisation and rote learning. It views learning as memorising

information rather than the ability to discover, master and use knowledge to make meaning of

and improve the quality of life.

This sort of education does not draw out the hidden abilities and the creativity of the

learner. It provides few opportunities for mental processes and skills to be developed and

constrains more complex and advanced skills, since the priority is for knowledge and ‗book

learning‘. This does not mean that knowledge is not important in the educational process as well

as in life in general. Throughout our lives we are seeking knowledge. It is our tool to understand

the world and adapt to it. However, exaggerating the importance of pure and disembodied

knowledge and reducing the value of the person as an end is clearly unacceptable. In addition, to

achieve knowledge and to become an independent, lifelong learning, the individual needs to

develop learning skills- and learn how to learn. (Rogers 1983)

In the traditional system the relationship between teacher and student is hierarchical and

downward, mostly taking the form of orders, instructions, warnings, and the like. The teacher is

the one who asks for every small action in the classroom - what to do, what to say, what to draw

etc.

This sort of education creates the ‗Intellectual Heteronomy‘ which Kamii (1983)

explained as somebody else‘s view. In describing this Kamii said:

All of us who succeeded in school achieved this distinction by memorising an enormous number

of ‗right‘ answers without understanding or caring about them. All of us remember the relief we

felt at being free to forget the things we memorised for the purpose of passing a test. We made

these efforts mostly because we were good obedient achievers in a system that reinforced our

heteronomy‘. (pp. 46- 47)

Intellectual heteronomy is a critical chain that makes learners follow rather than lead.

Palestinian education focuses on conformity more than creativity and on traditional-

authoritative transmission rather than reasoning. This reflects the need to develop the educational

methods and approach to become more liberal and humanistic in dealing with both teacher and

learner, since they are both operating less effectively that they might, but in different ways and

on two different levels. To know how this happens we need first to know how the liberal

progressive education works. What are the roles of learner and teacher in this sort of education?

The progressive education

As a protest ‗against the old rigidly systematized school which imposed its procedure on

all the pupils‘ (Entwistle 1970) liberal or progressive education has grown.

Al-Yamani: Drama as a good medium in developing the understanding of teachers


This movement focused on the ‗enhancement of human freedom and growth, to the

realization and perfection of human potentialities and to an ethical code that places the highest

value on the dignity of humanity as an end in itself‘ (Aloni, 2001). Thus the learner is not an

object formulated by the teacher, but a human being who is free in a way, education should deal

with her accordingly, both by the materials used with her and by her central position in the

education process. To clarify the basics of this sort of education, it is worth presenting its

characteristics as stated by Egan (1975) who itemised what must be included as related elements.

These elements are:

Individualization, freedom for children to explore; provision of rich environments for learning,

children encouraged to plan their own activities, interdisciplinary inquiry; flexible scheduling;

open areas; cooperative work; talking and play, children‘s interests determining activities; flexible

grouping; non-didactic teacher- rather, a facilitator of learning; children encouraged to learn by

experience. (p. 24)

These elements reflect the main values of ‗liberal humanism‘ which considers people as

free individuals, characterised by self determination and autonomy in being able to govern

themselves by their active participation and individual judgement. However, what is the meaning

of these concepts and how do these values work in the context of the school?

Individualism in education

In this sort of education the learner as an individual is at the centre of the educational

process. She is an individual in her ‗own right whose particular strengths and weaknesses

deserve all possible consideration if she is to make the most of herself‘. (Ash 1969, p. 148).

Thus, the individual as a whole and specifically the interests and desires of the learner

became important aspects to be considered by the teachers in their work as well as by the school,

in order to provide what best suits these individuals.

This reflects recognition and acceptance of the learner as a person who carries different

needs and interests from others who might be at the same age and stage since ‗every mind has its

own form‘ (Rousseau 1762) There is an appreciation that individuals vary within these stages

and education must, as a result, respect these differences by individualising the work of the

learners. The learner has the right to be different as well as to find the learning approaches that

suit her. Individuality in this case emphasises the ‗uniqueness‘ of each individual (Entwisle

1970; Gordon 1986). This uniqueness demands an educational environment which allows the

individual to grow and develop, therefore, the work in the classroom should have meaning for

the learner as an individual. To make this possible learning should be based on the learner‘s

background, as well as on her own experience. Entwistle (1970) discussed this as a condition of

the child becoming a learner:

… schooling should be related to his own experience, to his weaknesses as well as his strengths.

The teacher must account for the learner‘s experience in the sense of discovering his personal

growth points and using the concrete daily life occurrence within the child‘s environment as

exemplar situations… . (p. 204)

So the starting point in this sort of education is the learner as an individual and not the

curriculum or the content of that curriculum. Knowing the learner and her capabilities is an

important role of the teacher . The teacher can then plan a learning programme for each pupil



taking his initial knowledge and learning strategies as the starting point‘ ( Sutherland, 1992 , p.

79). The curriculum must become individualised and based on the individual needs and

accomplishments of each learner.

Interaction with others is an important aspect in this sort of education and it has always

been ‗defended on the grounds that it developed the whole person‘ (Proefridt 1994, p. 111).

Learning occurs not as a private, but as an interactive process where it is socially shaped.

It is an inter-personal production; collaborative and a matter of exchange. Carr (1996) considered

education as a social process and that in the formation of democratic citizens, the most important

native power of human beings is their social intelligence, and that this can only be developed in

an educational environment which is characterised by ‗participation in cooperative deliberation,

shared enquiries and collective decision making‘. (p. 63) Thus the social aspect is as critical as

the intellectual and the school should be interested in providing a rich environment to allow the

learner to flourish as a whole person.

Using individual learning in a crowded classroom is not an easy task and presents a big

challenge as the possibility of decreasing learner / teacher ratio in the classroom is unrealistic

since pupil numbers are increasing in Palestine and school budgets are limited. What is

important when considering individuality is not the literal translation of the concept into action,

but the spirit of the recognition of the learner‘s abilities and needs as well as the acceptance of

her as an individual. When the teacher believes in this as a principle it will be reflected in the

teaching and it should become easier to create active and stimulating opportunities to suit each

learner or small group of learners. This will become clearer in the next aspect of liberal

education which focuses on the ways of teaching and learning in this sort of approach.

Active learning

In this sort of education as an approach the expectation is that the role of the learner is

more positive and active, not negative and passive. Progressive education relies on the active

learner and stresses initiative and the originality of the work of the individual.

The learner‘s action and interaction is critical to the educational environment since it

stimulates her thoughts to work and to discover what is hidden. Active learning demands action

by the learner through her educational experience, often based on problem solving. Dewey

(1964) focused in his educational approach on providing the learner with such experiences in

order to stimulate thinking. He said:

Thinking is the method of an educative experience. The essentials of method are therefore

identical with the essentials of reflection. They are first that the pupils have a genuine situation of

experience - that there be a continuous activity in which the child is interested for its own sake;

secondly, that a genuine problem develop within this situation as a stimulus to thought… .(In

Proefriedt 1994, p.88)

It is then the role of the learner to deal with that problem and to experiment with potential

solutions. The activity could be mental or physical since the learner is free to deal with the

experience as it demands, thus there are no restrictions on her action in this sort of education.

When the individual undertakes active learning she works on making the objects of

knowledge subjectively her own or, as Newman (1976) described it ‗it is the digestion of what

we receive, into the substance of our previous thought‘ (p.12).



Progressive educationalists considered learning a personal process which takes place

during the activity. In this way the learner is internalising knowledge, making it her own through

different mental and emotional processes. Learners are building or re-structuring their concepts

and knowledge from the active interaction with the experiences, as Cook (2001) explained:

… learners are to be seen as having an active role in ‗constructing, in some way, their own

meanings. Since individuals make their own meaning from their beliefs and experiences. All

knowledge is tentative, subjective and personal. (p. 5)

When it stands in the objective world or in books knowledge is rigid, but when the

learner deals with it through different experiences and by using different sorts of mental

processes then meanings and a subjective personal knowledge develops. In this way, learning is a

continuous process that is not limited to and focused on school as the main resource of

knowledge.

In this way education becomes an act of knowing, which happens when the person

experiences new learning through all aspects of herself as a person. Education becomes a

development process. It starts from perceiving the development of knowledge as a dynamic

process; it gives the learner the opportunity to discover knowledge by using different strategies

of thinking through exploring, experiencing, implementing and critically evaluating all new

learning experience.

In this sort of approach the learner is taking responsibility for the learning process. She is

the main agent of her learning. (Plowden 1967, Entwistle 1970). It is ‗self-directed activity and

freedom coupled with shared responsibility‘ (Lawson 1972, p. 1) This shared relationship is

conducted in cooperation with the teacher and with other learners in the classroom. This freedom

to deal with activities as the person chooses and to express the logic and reasons behind her

choice are considered as important elements in the liberal educational environment in order to

encourage autonomy.

The active involvement of the learner in a free and simulating educational environment

increases her internal motivation as well as developing the initiative to explore and understand

the world around her.

Progressive education is an approach that allows the learner to lead herself in the learning

process by investigating and experimenting, trying out her ideas and discovering what can be

done with materials and experiences. But where is the teacher in all of this? What is the role of

the teacher?

The teacher plays a critical role in this form of education; she is an enabler or facilitator

of the learning process rather than a controller of the knowledge. ( Entwistle 1970, Strike 1975,

Rogers 1982, Gordon 1985, Carr 2001) She plays a very important role in challenging her

learners by providing them with rich experiences in order to support their learning. The role of

the teacher is as important as the role of the learner.

Thus the quality of the teacher as a person, as well as a professional, is important as well

as the quality of training programmes for these teachers to be able to provide this quality of

education in the classroom. The examination of the use of drama in this process is one of the

central aims of this study.



Progressive education in Palestine

Progressive education had already been introduced in Palestinian pre-schools by the mid

80s and such approaches appeared in some teacher-education courses in the mid 90s, especially

in the education of teachers of the early childhood stage (3-9 years old). The faculty of Education

at Bethlehem University was one of those working on qualifying teachers by using the principles

of liberal education. However, my observations of the classrooms revealed that the actions and

interactions of the graduates of the new programmes were nearly similar in many ways to those

teachers graduated of other traditonal programmes. Consequently, I wonder if this is a result of

the rigidity of the educational system which does not allow the teacher to integrate new

approaches into classroom practice? Or could it relate to the weaknesses and limitations of the

new training programmes which do not provide the teacher education students with those rich

learning experiences which would allow them grasp the spirit of the new approach and to

transfer it into their classrooms?

Certainly, the rigidity of the educational system is a reality and integrating new methods

is a challenge for the individual teacher. But at the same time it is not impossible if the teacher

really wants to change the nature of her practice.

In addition, the weaknesses of the programmes can be related to several factors. One of

them is that the methodologies of the tutors who are teaching the new programmes are mainly

rooted in the traditional approach and the majority of the courses are taught by them. In addition,

the elements of what could be regarded as liberal education in these programmes is limited and

focused on theoretical aspects . What these teacher trainees need is to experience alternative

learning experiences in their educational programmes in order to internalise the meaning of the

new approach in preparation for their integration into their classroom practice. We need teachers

who believe in the need to develop the educational system and, particularly, in the importance of

changing the dynamics of the learning process.

Teachers must become highly qualified and trained in ways which can make a real

difference to their students in the classroom. This must start with the appropriate education of

teachers who need to learn new methods and techniques for the Palestinian context. We need

those teachers to be ‗agents for change‘ as Fullan (1993) called them.

This demands new and different techniques to develop teachers in Palestine since they

are themselves a product of the traditional system.

In my view drama is an effective tool to give trainee teachers the opportunity to

internalise the principles of the progressive approach where the learner is an active partner in the

educational process. Through acting ‗‗ as if ‗‗ in various experiences and living experiences of

drama future teachers might understand the meaning of learning as a process and the learner as

active in the learning process. They might understand the supportive role of the teacher.

Teachers themselves need to experience the liberating forces of this type of education.

They need to be validated as creative human beings. Drama is a direct experience that leads the

person to live it completely and follow what is going on both internally within the self and

externally with others who are involved in the situation.

Drama as a process in the education programmes of teachers constitutes an important

tool to develop all these areas and bring change into the classroom.



Drama in Palestine

Drama is not a newly discovered activity in education and historically it has taken two

main forms: as a teaching method where it is integrated in the teaching of different subjects and

as a subject in its own right, where the emphasis is more upon acquiring the skills of the drama

medium. In this study I am dealing with drama as the first form where the learner might engage

in both generating the drama and in receiving it. Giving this context, she feels more ‗free to

develop ideas and conflicts along her own lines and reach her own conclusion‘. (Pemberton-

Billing, 1965)

Drama in this form is based on the premise that everyone can act, and can learn from

her/his experience of the activity. In the capacity to act ‗as if‘, the person is in a different

situation or s/he is playing another character; both states presuppose the use of imagination. It is

a process where the person is engaged in ‗practice living‘ as Way (1967) described it. In

‗practice living‘ through various dramatic activities individuals transcend time, and place, and

the people who are related to that time and place; they might even go beyond the self as in

playing other, different roles from those played in ordinary daily life. Thus they are ‗putting

themselves into other people‘s shoes‘, playing other roles by using personal experience to help

them to understand another point of view and to discover new aspects of life. It is a form of

expression involving the making of meaning by living through imaginative experience. Its

subject matter is human interaction. It is a participatory, social activity where the person is

sharing with others or working with others in a dramatic situation.

In Palestine, just recently drama integrated in the educational context particularly in

training teachers and as non curricula activities for pupils and students. In the Early Childhood

programmes at Bethlehem University we introduced two drama courses for teachers of young

children. According to this the researcher focused on her postgraduate studies on drama and its

impact on the learning of teachers of the pre-service programmes. This section is part of it.

Drama is generally not known in the educational system, my interest in drama is in it

employment as an educational approach which provides an active role for the learner to allow

her to play an effective part in the educational process. In this study I use this form to provide

that educational approach as a teaching model which is founded on key principles of progressive

education as an entry to developing the educational system in Palestine.

Other Researches

There was little literature discussing drama and teacher education. What exists is

confined mostly to the use of drama in training teachers or the experiences of those teachers

whose students use drama.

Norris (1995) wrote about his experience of teaching teachers by using drama in one

course. The purpose of this course was to employ drama as a tool to help both students and

teacher to understand the life-world of teachers. He discovered that this method, and especially

the different scenes prepared by students, touched them deeply and reminded them that teaching

is a human activity. Drama helped them develop their attitudes towards teaching as a profession

as well as towards drama as a teaching method. He stated that:

The study of Waldschmidt (1998) showed the development in the attitude of teachers

towards drama and how it affected them as people through their discovery of new aspects of

themselves. The researcher worked with four teachers using drama in their second language



classrooms. He discovered that these four teachers experienced personal transformations as they

learned about and experimented with creative drama.

Coppens (2002) through her work with students, discovered that the improvisation

techniques that she used with students ‗not only proved to stimulate them to play, they also

helped them to understand the theory that was given to the students during pedagogy lectures.‘

(p. 204) She concluded that drama classes for student teachers bridge the gap between the theory

of university study and classroom practice. The way the course is organised is a theoretical part

of the training in skills to recognise behaviour and a practical part to train teacher behaviour. It

makes it possible for different teachers to give the classes a personal touch.

Johnstone (1981) found in her study a positive relationship between improvisation

techniques and training teachers especially in developing different behaviours of the teachers in

their classrooms.

These studies illustrate the positive effect of drama on the development of the teachers

and students .

The research

This part of the research investigate the impact of drama as a teaching and training

method in developing the understanding of the pre-service students in the Early Childhood

Programmes at Bethlehem University to the progressive education. Thus I planned a training

courses in the primary stage, but drama was the main teaching method in dealing with these

courses.

The Study Questions

My central research questions are:

1. 1. How do students of early childhood programmes interact and behave in drama- based

training courses?

2. 2. Does drama as a training method affect positively the learning process of the students?

3. 3. Does drama affect their understanding and attitudes towards their future job as teachers?

4. 3. If yes, how does it affect their understanding as students and future teachers?

5. 4. Where the training results in a modified approach ?

The Methodology

The type of personal questions I asked and the issues I wanted to understand should be

achieved by using qualitative research methods. In this study I used the interpretative approach

which is concerned with interpreting the thoughts and opinions of those students who were

participating in the whole experience of the research. Drama was the main medium in teaching

two main courses of the early childhood programmes.



The Sample

This research was limited to the students of early childhood education programmes and

who supposed to study the two courses continuously in an academic year. I, therefore, had

fourteen students from first and second year.

Data Collection

In this study I used different tools for collecting my data. These were:

1. The observations: They were carried out by an assistant who joined all sessions and

generated documented data of the participants interaction and reaction.

2. Interviews: There were three interviews with the participants: one at the beginning of the

course, the second one at the end of it and the third one was by the end of two courses. These

interviews focused on the experiences of the participants and their impact on themselves and

on their practice in the classrooms. The questions were open-ended which allowed the person

to express her/his thoughts and feelings.

3. The participant’s journals: Participants wrote their own reflections on the individual

sessions of the training sessions examining their experience in these sessions.

Data Analysis

This experience in training and learning was new and offered a different style of work as

mentioned by the students. They compared it with other courses which they attended and they

considered this as much interesting as other courses.

However, this group of students considered the style and the methods of the training very

challenging because it was based on their action and interaction, their thinking and analysis of

the issues which are related to the various activities. In this paper I am focusing only on themes

related to their understanding to the new understanding and attitudes towards the new

educational approach. By studying the various categories of the data, I noticed the following

themes:

1) Understanding the role of the teacher

All of students and teachers related their experiences in drama with their role as teachers

working with children in primary schools. They wrote about how ‗I should make each child talk

and express himself in front of the group in order to help others know him well so as to help him

develop self as a person‘ (SUSA, Journal). They realised their role as teachers in ‗encouraging

pupils to use imagination and to root it in my work to help them grow up as creative people.‘

(MITO, Journal)

They talked about their role as teachers in relation to what they had learned through

partaking in the activities. NAAB described this clearly:

I recognised how useful these activities are. It helps us to know how sensitive children are to

everything around them and to take more care in how to work with children. In each activity I

should put myself in the shoes of children in order to provide what suits them. (Second Interview)



Drama helped them to enter into the world of the child as learner and it helped them to

understand this world and to understand better their role as future teachers. They mentioned that

their participation in drama taught them new teaching techniques such as ‗how to work with

small groups of pupils instead of teaching the whole class as they used to do in schools‘.

(MAHA, First Interview)

Drama helped them to understand the role of teacher that they will play in the future:

I lived experiences that made me think of my role as teacher. Playing the role of children gave me

greater understanding of them. Drama gave me the ability to create a relationship with the pupil

which starts with the building of trust. (GHAS, Third Interview)

Through drama they recognised their responsibility ‗for pupils and for their

understanding and development – so naturally I should be able to understand them‘. (INSU,

Second Interview)

Drama gave them an opportunity to experience different approaches from those that are

familiar in the educational system.

I noticed a big difference between the other teachers and myself specifically in the concept of

childhood and how to deal with children. I focus on developing their language skills, physical

skills, concentration and on what it is to be human. Other teachers are focusing on imparting

knowledge, mostly treating the child as an object. Their concern is solely on improving academic

performance rather than the child as an individual. They don‟t work on developing children‟s

talents. The head mistress came to my classroom several times when the pupils were shouting,

playing in different drama activities and she was surprised and asked me to control them. (DIJA,

Third Interview)

They mentioned how their interaction with pupils could be fruitful and useful, and they

discussed the sort of follow up that pupils need in the classroom.

2) Understanding children’s needs and actions

Their experiences also helped them to understand the world of the child and how s/he is

learning and adapting to her environment. All of the students wrote about understanding children

and their world. They wrote how, through drama and its associated activities, they could

understand children and their needs, feelings and actions:

After these sessions I understood the needs and characteristics of children. This affected my way

of dealing with children and my understanding of and cares for their needs… I feel involved with

children and I prefer to be with them most of the time. I feel that I can be with them on their level

and I unconsciously feel as if I am their age…. I understand the needs of children and how to deal

with them. (KAOT, Journal)

Living through different situations either by going back to their childhood or by playing

the role of the child increased their recognition and understanding of children.

They wrote how they understood the needs of children and how to act towards them in

ways to satisfy their needs.

Now I understand some actions of children, which I did not understand before. For example,

screaming to feel release and using imagination as they live their different adventures. Through

my personal experience I understood reasons that make the child feel embarrassed in front his

peers, especially when she is finding it difficult to do things, which other children are doing



easily… From this session I could understand some feelings of the child that are important for me

as a teacher. (MAHA, Journal)

They became able to ‗understand the psychological aspects of the child and able to read

his feelings by his expressions and actions‘. (ALNA, First Interview). They developed a new

attitude towards the children either by ‗respecting the opinion of the pupils and listening to

them‘. (SHHI, Second Interview), or by ‗dealing with the pupils as human beings‘. (AMSH,

Second Interview)

In their view drama helped them to:

Empathise with the child much more and I realise his world better than sitting on our chairs as

university students while the teacher is talking about the world of the child. Through drama we

enter the world of the child which gives us a deeper understanding of our role as future teachers.

By living the role I understood the child and knew her much more. (INSU, Second Interview)

This reflected a positive attitude to children which, if it was carried into their future

careers, would create a positive relationship between teacher and pupils. Being involved in the

whole experience helped those students understand the child as learner and as human being and

how to work with her.

3) New beliefs and attitudes as future teachers

All the students wrote about their experiences and how they were developing new beliefs

and attitudes as future teachers. They were concerned mostly with different sorts of attitudes;

such as, their attitude towards using drama and the creative arts in school when they become

qualified teachers.

Using other new educational techniques, important teaching methods dealing with

children, such as open discussions and democratic methods. For example:

I would like to use drama with my pupils, but I am still considering how I can do it. I believe in the

effect of drama on the personality of the pupils. I think they will become creative by studying

drama. In addition, I don‟t like the traditional method of memorising facts to achieve good grades.

This was one of the most negative aspects when I was a student at school. (AMSH, Journal)

They mentioned the change in their attitude towards the ‗the child as an insignificant

creature who knows nothing. I now believe that the child is a special and unique creature with a

wonderful and interesting world and full of senses and emotions.‘ (GHAS, Journal)

Most of their beliefs have developed from an understanding of the educational system

and how it might be developed through their work with their pupils.

Drama helps me in developing the concept of the progressive teacher who has an important and

effective role in creating the new generation. This generation should be different from ours and we

are using new methods, different from those we learned by different teachers. (INSU, Journal)

These courses made me respect children regardless of who they are which was something new for

me. I respected their needs. In the past I used to prefer good pupils either in their study or

behaviour and I ignored quiet children. I looked at children from only one perspective but now I

believe that they all have their own abilities. I couldn‟t see that before. (KAOT, Third Interview)



This is a very important attitude for future teachers who are working in schools in order

to start breaking the continuous cycle of the traditional way of teaching and learning.

Students in their discussions presented the change in their view of the child from the

negative stereotypical one of the culture and society, to a positive one which admitted the ‗ability

of the child to think, together with many other abilities that they carry within themselves‘.

(SUSA, Second Interview).

They presented integrating imagination and play into the work in order to develop the

quality of the learner. They thought about what they were doing and how to do it in a way that

suited the child.

I want pupils to gain knowledge with new techniques and methods. I am always thinking how I

should activate them and avoid presenting information. I want the child to experience everything

and to think of it. I want to make the children value things but not force them. I am keen to learn

much more about them and their world. (SAQI, Third Interview)

This shows a new educational perspective that we need in school and it reflects a strong

belief of the new approach to teaching and learning. It was developed perhaps not by drama

alone, but by other factors such as students‘ own personal experiences at the university and in the

society, as well as the content of the courses that included new knowledge and information.

However, drama helped them to go deeper into the world of the child by playing a child‘s role

and understanding it. It helped them to develop new educational perspectives about learning,

about the learner, and about methods of supporting the learning process and themselves as

teachers.

It made them understand the main educational and social framework we need in our

society - democracy. One of the students said about this: ‗I learned about democracy since I have

responsibilities as well as rights. It is a sharing process and children should share it to learn‘.

(KAOT, Third Interview)

Students used their knowledge of drama courses to criticise the methods of teaching used

in the schools where they completed their teaching practice. Some of them mentioned this by

focusing on the actions of teachers in the classroom. Sometimes they shared their thoughts:

I am honestly interested in the child and I want the teacher to work well with him. Most of them

didn‟t listen to me but some made an effort especially when they saw me using dramatic skills with

the pupils. (GHAS, Second Interview)

Clearly they have taken their new ideas into the schools where they present them to the

staff. Some were critical of the methods used by the staff but were pleased when some teachers

used the new methods. ‗I was happy when they used it because it connected with what is

happening in the schoolroom and what we have been learning‘. (SAQI, Third Interview)

This belief pushed them to be critical of ‗many things while I know that I should accept

other people as they are, but I do not feel satisfied with our environment‘. (AMSH, Third

Interview)

Their new knowledge and understanding of themselves and others made them more keen

to develop. They took their knowledge into society and when they went into schools, they were

able to give feedback and constructive comments to the teaching staff. This reflects a real belief

in the new approach of teaching and learning.



4) Professional Awareness

Drama provided them with an opportunity to see the difference between this sort of

learning and that to which they were used. They consequently acquired new thoughts and

attitudes towards developing the educational situation. They discovered the importance of their

future role as teachers who would be responsible for such learners. Drama helped them to know

what sorts of teachers they are through thinking about their interaction in drama and what they

need to do to develop themselves as teachers.

Some of them mentioned that through this course they realised whether they wanted to be

teachers or not:

I am becoming more attached to the idea of being a teacher because I know my ability in playing

and enjoying myself is the same as the children. I have no problem doing this even in front of

other people since loving children and watching them laughing is the greatest thing in this world.

(KAOT, 22nd

Nov, 2001.)

They related the dramatic experiences to the role of the teacher and what she is supposed

to do to provide rich and useful experiences for the learners.

5) Playful Attitude

The beginning of the course exposed student rigidity and a resentful and un-playful

attitude towards the activities. This attitude changed and became more joyful and full of

happiness and an ability to play like small children .

… I felt the same as small children when they play any game and they enjoy it. This feeling rose up

in this activity and I started laughing loudly and shouting to other students. In this game, I took

away all restrictions imposed, by society for us as females. I was laughing, shouting especially

when I talked and clapped. I felt full of joy and enjoyment. This says that I am as a person

opposed to these restrictions and I want to get rid of them… (NAAB, Journal)

They wrote about how they discovered that there is no fault in acting freely and playing

with enjoyment. They played and became involved in different actions with the enthusiasm of

children. They expressed their happiness and strong motivation in being involved in the different

activities, and their enjoyment of interaction in play and the freedom it gave them. They were

happy to feel free and to act and play freely:

They found play more enjoyable, and were able to conduct it with the pupils in and

outside the school.

The observations as well reflected the atmosphere of fun and the development of humour

when they played so they were ‗shouting, moving and trying to escape from the wolf . DIJA

played the wolf, making wolfish gestures and movements.‘ ( ZIOW, Observation) This showed

their enjoyment and their full involvement, and they took pleasure in taking part in the various

activities.

The various tools provided good indicators for drama as an effective tool in developing

characteristics vital to change the traditional, oppressive educational system to make it more

open and respectful of children and their abilities and interests. They showed a strong belief in

the importance of play in teaching and working with children.



6) Empathising with other people

This feeling became stronger with the development of the course. Students wrote about

how they empathised with other people, especially those who they played in role. This also

included their sympathy with each other when one of them talked about herself or her problems:

In this activity I felt that I could live any situation and be affected by it, if it was sad then I felt sad

and if it was happy then I felt so happy… I could empathise with other people, not just my people

as Palestinians, but also others... I could put myself in her/ his shoes and feel his feelings and

recognise her/his thoughts. (INSU, Journal)

Drama and related activities worked on ‗moving feelings and emotions of the person and

it makes us more empathetic to other people‘ (SAQI, Journal). They mentioned understanding

other people and empathising with them and focused mostly on understanding the children:

As a result of the drama …I had lived in the place of the child and this helped me to understand

how they think as well as how others treat them. I think of others and of their situations, put

myself in their place, therefore, became more understanding and accepting of them. (NAAB, Third

Interview )

They learned how to live the situation of the other and deal with it; they learned to go

beyond their own concerns to reach out to others and understand the situation fully. They felt

more sensitive and accepting of others as human beings and they felt more deeply towards other

people in different situations.

7) Understanding the subject

All students mentioned how drama is a better way of learning than traditional methods.

They compared this way of learning and traditional ones and how they used to learn. KAOT

wrote clearly about this and reflected all others. She said:

This method is very simple and effective, making it easy for us to understand what is not

understandable. The idea of talking about people in those photographs and probing into the

character of the person is a good one and brought us much closer to the reality of those children.

This approach is more useful than the traditional methods. In addition it is enjoyable and it works

on encouraging us to participate and become involved… it roots the different subjects within us

much more than traditional methods. (KAOT, Journal)

This strengthens their belief in the efficacy of drama and its efficiency in their work.

Students mentioned drama as a medium which helped them believe in their specialisation. It

strengthened their interest in becoming teachers and working with children. A student said and

reflected the answers of the others:

It is drama which made me believe in education as my specialisation. It enabled me to come close

to the world of the child and I discovered that is where I want to be. (MITO, Third Interview)

According to the students, drama helped them to know if they want to have a career in the

school-room and whether or not they are capable of playing this role:

I need to transfer from the faculty of education because I cannot do this. I am not responsible

enough and I have limited patience to play this role. Drama made me feel very scared of following



a career which I am not suited to. I like children, but I couldn‟t take care of them properly and

fulfil their needs. (SUSA, Second Interview)

If drama helps students in understanding the subject and recognise the nature of their role

as future teachers, the quality of the teachers would improve because only those who are

confirmed in their desire to follow teaching as a career are likely to continue. The quality of

education will therefore improve.

Discussion

The previous themes showed a better understanding of the students to their role as future

teachers and to the learner and to her role in the educational process. It showed the development

of the attitudes to children and to the new educational approach. What presented previously fits

with the results of Norris (1995), Waldschmidt (1998) and Coppens (2002).

In tackling dramatic problems learners need to use their existing knowledge in this

process so the journey of investigation starts by ‗recalling‘ its relationship to the situation. The

action of dealing with a situation involving many kinds of internal and external processes (such

as investigating, experimenting, negotiating, synthesising, thinking of different possibilities and

alternatives and concluding) takes place in this sort of work. Henry (2000) mentioned that:

Drama as a way of learning can be considered a form of research. Students who enact scenes are

expected to learn by exploring the kinaesthetic and interactive possibilities of a given idea,

expanding their knowledge from an abstract starting point…. A search, like drama, is a way of

coming to know in the process of an experiential experiment. Both temporal forms reveal

information about situations and participants through their unfolding. (p. 52)

The learner is active in creating knowledge in all different ways. Watkins (1983) showed

that ‗the drama lesson may be thought of as occurring broadly in six stages: enquiry, decision,

definition, committal, reflection and appraisal.‘ (p. 43) All the stages of the lesson are important

for the reasons that are implied in the description of their functions. This process of continuous

research through drama pushes learning and thoughts to advanced stages where learners enlarge

their understanding of the world in which they are living. In this process the learner is entering

drama not for an ‗intention to learn‘ as Bolton mentioned (1984), but an intention to create or

take part in or solve something. In his view this has two implications:

The first is concerned with the ―personalising‖ of knowledge, where drama is used to create an

opportunity for coming to know something from the inside, a subjective- objective approach to

material to be understood that is both appropriate to the knower and the thing known,… and the

second has the notion of focusing attention, where, as the learner is focusing on the context of the

learning he works according his initiation. (pp. 154-155)

The emphasis is on creating the drama from the inside in order to further understanding.

Burgess (1986) discussed the relationship between drama and the creation of meanings. She said

that:

The primary function of drama in education is to provide a context whereby individuals may

participate in the experience and contemplation of issues of human concern. Both manifestations

of the dramatic process serve to increase personal understanding and extend awareness of one‘s



relationship with the wider world. The nature of role-taking and dramatic action holds the

potential for personal meaning to be created. (p. 117)

Through this process individual perceptions are aired, challenged and extended. In drama

work we are tackling problems of understanding by representing them in symbolic form. This

creates a dialogic relationship between the content and the form in which it is expressed. The

intended outcome is the resolution of the problem of meaning and understanding which is

motivating the work.

Drama is a powerful motivation for learning since learners experiment in action, trying

and retrying scenes until they are satisfied with what they achieve. The learners work actively

because they want to understand. They try their ideas in drama practice in order to achieve an

understanding of the problem they are living through. Knowledge gained in this way is a

collective of thoughts and meanings, feelings and emotions, symbols and how to express them all

in clear sounds and ideas either vocally or in printed form, using metaphors and images and

movements and actions. Wagner (1998) pointed out that ‗a participant in drama needs to have

several highly developed areas of intelligence: linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and

bodily-kinaesthetic.‘ (p. 31) What is interesting in this work is that with drama the learner not

only needs these in the process, but also develops different sorts of intelligence through the

process.

This means that the learner is involved holistically. Everything has a meaning related to

self, so knowledge is not decontextualised or in a different space from the learner. It is

everywhere and in everything around her, relating to her and to her life; she absorbs it and

internalises it and, in good drama experience, with relish. It is something which becomes familiar

and it has the potential for deep emotional and cognitive meaning. What the learners experience

through the drama process and what is happening to them cognitively and emotionally is much

more important than what they produce at the end. The process of the interaction itself is

important. Thus Bolton (1984) emphasised that drama created an opportunity for ‗knowing from

the inside‘ (p. 163). He considered that the learner‘s creation of meaning during drama is not

always evident to the observer and he described this dynamic as a ‗dialectical‘ process. (Martin-

Smith, 1996) This does not mean that the product is not important, but the creation of a specific

type of product is not important. Understanding and absorbing this point is paramount for future

teachers‘ attitudes to teaching and learning.

The various reflection statements of the trainers showed a transformation of the attitude

towards the relationship between the teacher and the learner. This change came as a result of

living drama experiences and realising that both playing an active role in the learning process.

Somers (2003) described this relationship thus:

Drama teaching involves quite different, more dynamic and democratic relationships between

students, the teacher and knowledge. They are dynamic in the sense that the relationships change

according to student need. The teacher‘s role will be important at some stages, but diminish

considerably when the student communes directly with knowledge through drama exploration and

the making of new social and personal meanings. (p. 21)

The learner is the creator of knowledge but with support from the teacher. Their

relationship goes beyond a formal, more rigid, type of relationship. Drama allows them to enter

each other‘s world, especially the teacher entering the world of the learner by the latter declaring

through the drama all sorts of ideas which in part reflect an aspects of their internal, hidden

world. Drama stimulates the participants to explore and express aspects of their internal world



so that these matters can be considered in a controlled context. As an essentially social activity,

drama gives the participants the opportunity to go beyond the limits of their individuality to

empathise with others through their imagination and emotions. It helps people to understand each

other. Way (1967) stated that:

Drama is arousing one‘s understanding, sympathy and compassion for people whose lives are

entirely different, even remote, from one‘s own in every conceivable facet. In a sense, this aspect

of social drama is providing the opportunity for deep experience of what it feels like to be other

people in other situations. (p. 297)

Thus the relationship between teacher and learner develops and grows warm, open and

based on respect and understanding as mentioned by the various trainees in the previous section.

It is open since continuous communication is part of this work, especially in reflection either as

individuals or in the group. The relationship is negotiable as Bolton described. O‘Toole (2000)

stated that:

It seems obvious to us that drama and theatre lead to humanistic approaches to education, and vice

versa. Drama is after all a shared and holistic representation of human behaviour, and as we have

seen provisional and dynamic, offering a multitude of meanings... . (p. 21)

In effective drama experience, consideration of all sorts of situations and different sorts

of people motivates all manner of deep feelings towards the self and others and this becomes

obvious by the way one acts and interacts with others.

Drama creates positive attitudes for teaching and learning with a strong and continuous

motivation to work and create the best for the individual learner, the group, the community and

society. But this still needs continuous work and research into drama in training this group of

students and with new other groups such as teachers. We need to learn more about their

experiences with drama and if it allow them to transfer what they learned into their practice as

well as to achieve the truth of using drama in training teachers. This work needs to be moved to a

further level to enable teachers to create a better educational process in our schools in Palestine

and to be able to use the progressive education in teaching and learning the new generations.

References

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Institute for Palestine Studies, 1973.

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Alqism althani, Aldirasat Alkhasah, Almoujalad Althalith, Drasat Alhadarah, Beirut, 1990.

Aloni, Nimrod, A redefinition of liberal and humanistic education, In Janet Collins & Deirdre Cook, Understanding

Learning: Influences and Outcomes, London, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. In association with The Open

University, 2001.

Ash, Maurice, Who are the Progressives Now?, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969.

Bolton, G., Towards a Theory of Drama in Education, London, Longman Group Limited, 1979.

Bolton, G., The activity of dramatic playing, In Day Christopher, & Norman, John L, Issues in Educational Drama,

London, The Falmer Press, 1983.

Bolton, G., Drama as Education: an Argument for Placing Drama at the Centre of the Curriculum, England,

Longman Group Limited, 1984.

Burgess, R., Collins, H., Gaudry P., & Tarteno, A., Drama and Theatre: a Shared Role in Learning, Education

Department of Victoria, 1982.



Burgess, R., & Gaudry, P., Time for Drama: a Handbook for Secondary Teachers, England, Open University Press,

1986.

Carr, Wilford & Hartnett, Anthony, Education and the Struggle for Democracy: the Politics of Educational Ideas,

Buckingham, Open University, 1996.

Carr, Wilfred & Hartnett, Anthony, The politics of educational ideas, In Janet Collins & Deirdre Cook,

Understanding Learning: Influences and Outcomes, London, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. in association

with The Open University, 2001.

Cook, Deirdre, Introduction, In Janet Collins & Deirdre Cook, Understanding Learning: Influences and Outcomes,

London, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. in association with The Open University, 2001.

Dewey, John, Art As Experience, New York, The Berkeley Publishing Group, 1934.

Egan, Kieran, Open education: open to what?, In David, Nyberg (ed.), The Philosophy of Open Education, London,

Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975.

Egan, Kieran, The origins of imagination and the curriculum, In Egan Kieran & Nadaner, Dan (eds.), Imagination

and Education, Milton Keynes, Open University, 1988.

Entwistle, Harold, Child-Centred Education, London, Methuen &Co Ltd., 1970.

Fullan, Michael G., Why teachers must become change agents, In Educational Leadership, Vol. 50, No. 6, 1993.

Gordon, Tuula, Democracy in one School Progressive Education and Restructuring, London, The Falmer Press,

1986.

Gowin, D. Bob, Teaching as making sense of what is known, In David, Nyberg (ed.), The Philosophy of Open

Education, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975.

Henry, Mallika, Drama‘s ways of learning, In Research in Drama Education, Vol. 5, 2000.

Kamii, Constance K., & DeClark, Georgia, Young Children Reinvent Arithmetic: Implications of Piaget‘s Theory,

New York, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1985.

Lawson, M. D., & Peterson, R.C., Progressive Education an Introduction, Australia, Angus and Robertson, 1972.

Martin-Smith, Alistair, British conceptions of drama in education: the fifties to the nineties, In NADIE Journal, Vol.

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Norris, Joe, The use of drama in teacher education: a call for embodied learning, In Bernie Warren, Creating a

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O‘Toole, John, Adults, learning and drama, In Drama for Life: Stories of Adult Learning & Empowerment,

O‘Toole, John, & Lepp, Margret (eds.), Australia, Playlap, 2000.

O‘Toole, John & Lepp, Margret, Art and artistry in education, In Drama for Life: Stories of adult learning &

empowerment, O‘Toole, John, & Lepp, Margret, Australia, Playlap, 2000.

O‘Toole, John, Drama: the productive pedagogy, In Melbourne Studies in Education, Vol. 43, No. 2, November

2002.

Proefriedt, William A., How Teachers Learn: Toward a More Liberal Teacher Education, New York, Teacher

College, Columbia University, 1994

Rawlins, George & Rich, Jillian, Look, Listen, and Trust: a Frame Work for Learning Through Drama, London,

Macmillan Education Ltd., 1985.

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Rogers, Carl, A Way of Being, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980.

Rogers, Carl, Freedom to Learn for the 80s, Columbus, A Bell & Howell Company, 1983.

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Way, Brian, Development Through Drama, England, Longman, 1967.

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Reference # 44

Topic # 5

Psychometric properties of GATES

for identification of superior and talented students in Oman Abdulqawi Alzubaidi [email protected], Ali Mahdi Kazem [email protected],

Humaira Alsuleimani, Rashid Almehrizy, Suad Sulaman, Saeed Aldhafry, Hussain AlKharusi,

Abdulhameed Hasan, Skreen Al-Mashhadani, Mahmood Ibrahim, Muna Al-Bahrani, Hilal Al-

Nabhany, Fawzia Al-Jamali, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Sana Al-Bulushi, Ministry of Education, Oman

Omayma Al-Busaidi, Taghreed Aal-Sa‘eed, Khawla Al-Mamari, Manal Al-Fazari,

Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The purpose of the study is to identify the psychometric properties of GATES for identification of

gifted and superior students in Oman. The sample were composed of 709 gifted and superior in

general achievement 90% or more, or Science and Mathematics. The sample was drawn from

grades 5-10, representing different educational areas. Three instruments for applied (GATES,

Torrence Creativity Test, and, Scale for Rating the Behavioral Characteristics of Superior

Students). The GATES demonstrated good validity (content, concurrent, and construct validity),

and Reliability (Cronbach‘s Alpha) ranged .94-.99. That the instrument (GATES) is consider to be

suitable measure to identify students in Oman.

Alzubaidi: Psychometric properties of GATES



Reference # 45

Topic # 5

Using DASTT-C tool for identifying the mental images about teaching

among student teachers of science at SQU Abdullah Ambusaidi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Suleiman Al-Balushi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This study aimed to reveal the mental images of student teachers of science at the Faculty of

Education, Sultan Qaboos University about teaching. To achieve this aim a DASTT-C tool was

used. The tool consisted of two parts. The first part requires the student teacher to draw

himself/herself in a teaching situation. The second part is a continuum measure that requires the

student teacher to choose from the given statements what s/he believes about some of the

educational aspects. The study sample consisted of 56 science student teachers at the Faculty of

Education, Sultan Qaboos University. The tool was applied to the sample twice: before and after

studying the Teaching Methods of Science (1) course. The results of the study indicate that: (1) the

mental images formed by the student teachers of science were affected by the way they were

taught in the pre-university education, and (2) the occurrence of some change in the mental images

of science teachers after studying the Methods of Teaching science (1) course.

Introduction

Teacher is the heart of the educational process and can be seen as the captain of the ship

in the sea who either takes up the ship to the port safely or let the ship sink. Teacher has many

duties to do such as planning for the educational process as a whole, designing exploratory

learning activities, and forming groups according to some variables, and assisting in training

students to acquire the needed skills. Teacher does not exercise these roles in and out of the

classroom, without having s strong beliefs about the effectiveness of the teaching process.

Belief is an important variable in the educational process which has many meaning. For

example, it so means to ratify all existing beyond any doubt, but is not necessarily has logical or

mental status; either be based on individual factors or emotions or the interests of expediency, or

be based on the principles of ethics, (Saliba, 1982).

Pajares (as cited in Ballone and Czerniak, 2001) proposed a number of assumptions about

beliefs, reached through what have been written in the educational literature, some of which are

summarized as follows:

1. Beliefs composite early in the individual, and prove with time.

2. Some beliefs are not controversial because of their nature.

3. The pattern of beliefs plays a role in helping individuals to know and understand the world, as

well as understand themselves.

4. Beliefs affect strongly in the perception of individuals, as well as in their behavior.

5. Beliefs affect the planning of tasks and decision-making.

6. Student teachers‘ beliefs composite better during their preparation in the teacher education

institute.

Since teacher beliefs are best developed during the period of preparation and training in

the teacher education institute, they should be discovered and studied well. Furthermore, they



should be explored in different aspects in order to modify or develop, so that the student teacher

after graduating and enter the real world of teaching lead the teaching and learning process in the

right way.

Aims of the Study

The objectives of this study are:

Investigating science student teachers‘ mental images that they construct about themselves as

science teachers.

Documenting changes in science student teachers‘ mental models before and after taking the

science methods (I) course.

Research Questions

The study seeks to find answer to the following questions:

What are science student teachers‘ mental images that they construct about themselves as

science teachers?

Do science student teachers‘ mental models change after taking the Science Methods (I)

course?

Subject of the Study

Fifty three science student teachers who were taking Science Methods (I) course during

Spring 2009 at the Sultan Qaboos University in Oman participated in the study. The course is

offered to student teachers in the third year. It consists of two parts: theoretical and practical. In

the theoretical part students are taught different topics in science education including: the nature

of science, aims and objectives of teaching science, planning to teach science and some general

methods of teaching science such as cooperative learning, classroom questions, brainstorming

and graphic organizers. Students practice these methods throughout what is called microteaching

sessions. The research instrument was administered to the sample before and after taking the

course.

Research Instruments

Previous studies used different methods and approaches to identify science teachers‘ pre

and in-service beliefs about teaching. Some of them used the conventional methods based on

questionnaire, others used Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C) and some of

them used questionnaire based on Azjen Theory of Planning Behavior. The current study used

the Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C)) instrument.

Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C) is originally proposed by

Chambers (1983) who used it to identify students‘ mental images about scientists. Then, Finson

et al. (1995) made a development to the instrument to make it easy to assess and to judge its

validity and reliability. A further development was made to the instrument by Thomas, Pedersen

& Finson (2001) to assess student teacher mental images about teaching science. The current

study used such instrument after translating it into Arabic and then translating it back into

English.

Ambusaidi & Al-Balushi: Using DASTT-C tool for identifying mental images about teaching


In the instrument, student teachers were asked to draw themselves while teaching science

and then elaborate more about their drawing by answering a question about what both students

and teachers do (see figure 1).

Figure (1)

Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C)

The scoring sheet of the drawing consists of three components: teacher, students and the

learning environment. In teacher and students components, two main criteria are considered for:

the activity that the teacher and students do and the position of both of them in the classroom. In

each of the three components, couple of statements describes them. Each statement is scored

either 1 or 0 (see table 1). The score ranges between 0 and 13. The closer the score to (0) means

that student teachers‘ mental images reflect students centre learning, whereas, the closer the

score to (13), means that the students‘ teacher mental images reflect teacher-centre learning.

Table (1)

The three components of the study instrument

Component Sub-component Statements

Teacher Activity 1.Demonstrating Experiment/Activity

2. Lecturing/Giving Directions (teacher talking)

3. Using Visual Aids (chalkboard, overhead, and charts).

Position 4. Centrally located (head of class)

5. Erect Posture (not sitting or bending down)

Students Activity 6. Watching and Listening (or so suggested by teacher behavior)

7. Responding to Teacher/Text Questions

Position 8. Seated (or so suggested by classroom furniture)

Environment 9. Desks are arranged in rows (more than one row)

10. Teacher desk/table is located at the front of the room

11. Laboratory organization (equipment on teacher desk or table).

12. Symbols of Teaching (ABC‘s, chalkboard, bulletin boards, etc.)

13. Symbols of Science knowledge (science equipment, lab

instruments, wall charts, etc.)

Draw a picture of yourself as a science teacher at work.

What is the teacher doing? What are the students doing?

____________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________



Results and Discussion:

What are science student teachers‘ mental images that they construct about themselves as

science teachers?

To answer the question, the student teachers‘ drawing have been analyzed

quantitatively and qualitatively to determine the type of learning (teacher-centered or learner-

centered), as science teachers.

It is shown from the data obtained that 41% of the study sample received scores closer to 13,

which means that the mental images formed by the students themselves as science teachers tend

to be teacher – centered teaching. As it is noted from the students‘ drawings, teacher position is

found in the front of the classroom either explaining or demonstrating something. Moreover, it is

noted from the different drawing that the students‘ desks organized in a traditional rows. Most

teaching was done in the traditional classroom; there is no indication from students‘ drawing that

teaching of science can be conducting outside the classroom (the school garden for example).

The analysis of the data also shows that about 11% of the sample obtained scores closer to

zero (0), which means that the images that they see themselves as science teachers tend to be

learner-centered teaching. The rest of the sample scores were located in the middle (from 5 to 9),

which means that the mental image of student teachers as science teacher has not resolved any

kind of teaching.

This result confirms that mental images and beliefs about the teaching process are

linked at the beginning by the way that student teachers were taught in the school. This supports

Thomas et al., (2001) findings. It is observed from the Omani educational system field that the

teacher still has the bigger role in the teaching and learning process and learner role is receiving

the information from the teacher in spite of all efforts made by the Ministry of Education to

change this situation.

It is also shown from the analysis of student teachers‘ drawing that teaching of science is

taking place only inside the normal classroom. The drawing did not show that science teacher

can be conducted in a school garden or a museum or field trip or using ICT. This is a reflection,

however to what has been practiced in Omani schools where teaching of science is not treated

differently from teaching the other subjects (Arabic, History, etc.) despite the nature of science.

Do science student teachers‘ mental models change after taking the Science Methods (I)

course?

To answer this question, mean averages, standard deviations and the value of ―t‖ of

independent samples were calculated as shown in table (2).

Table (2) Mean Scores, SD and t-value of pre-post application of the instrument

Application Mean SD t-value df Significant

Level

Pre 8.72 2.44 5.060 52 0.001

Post 6.64 2.84

It is seen from Table (2) above that there is a significant difference in the mean scores

between the two applications. Through the analysis of students‘ drawings after studying the

Ambusaidi & Al-Balushi: Using DASTT-C tool for identifying mental images about teaching


Teaching Methods (1) course, it is found that some change in the mental images of the students

themselves as science teacher took place. Some of the student teachers start to give the learner a

role in their teaching and learning process. The ratio of student teachers who their scores closer

to the type of learning based on learner (scores between 0-4) 20% and it was before studying the

teaching method course 11%. The percentage of student teachers who their scores closer to the

type of learning based on the teacher (scores between 10 to 13) 10% and it was 41% before

studied the course. The largest proportion of student teachers scores (about 70%) is located

between the two types (scores 6-9).

These results show that teaching method (1) course has an impact on changing student

teachers‘ beliefs about teaching to shift from teacher-centered to learner- centered. It is due to

what was taught to students in the course in teaching methods and practice these methods in

microteaching. Figure 2 shows example of these changes.

Figure (2)

Example of changing the mental image of student teachers as science teachers before and after taking science Method (1) course)

(Before studying Science Method (1) Course)

(After studying Science Method (1) Course)



Recommendations and Implications

In the light of the above results, the study recommends the following:

Science student teachers need to understand that their existing mental image about

themselves as science teachers is one image of several images.

Training teachers has an impact on their views of themselves. Therefore, it might be possible

to improve teachers‘ beliefs regarding the teaching-learning process using a well-designed

pre- or in-service program.

Further research is needed to investigate in-service science teachers‘ mental images of

themselves and comparing them with pre-service teachers‘ images would allow observing the

effect of their school work involvement on their images.

References

Saliba, J. (1982). The Philosophy Dictionary. Beirut, the Lebanese Book Publisher.

Ballone, L. M. & Czerniak, C. M. (2001). Teachers‘ beliefs about accommodating students‘ learning styles in

science class. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED. 463146).

Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The Draw – A- Scientist Test. Science Education,

67(2): 225-265.

Finson, K.D., Beaver, J. B., and Cramond, B. L. (1995). Development of and field test of checklist for the draw-a-

scientist test. School Science and Mathematics, 95(4): 195-205.

Thomas, J. A., Pederson, J. E. and Finson, K. (2001). Validating the Draw-A-Science-Test- Checklist (DASTT-C):

Exploring mental models and Teacher Beliefs, Journal of science Teacher Education, 12(3): 295-310.


Reference # 46 Topic # 2

Ethical standards for the use of computers and the Internet

by faculty members in the Arab World Talal Amer [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Ali Mouswi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This study aimed to develop a list of ethical standards for the use of computers and the Internet by

faculty members in the Arab educational environment. 153 faculty members were selected

randomly from academic institutions in Egypt, Oman, Bahrain and Jordan. The findings of the

study referred to the importance of these standards and to the ability of Arab educational faculty

members for coping with such standards. However, there were no statistically significant

differences between the views of respondents, which can be attributed to gender, academic rank,

educational institution and/or experience. In addition to the recommendations given, the study has

developed an integrated framework of standards and how to teach and adopt in the curriculum.

هقدهج ٢ؽاؼث ا٘غّبو ا٪ٛؼ٧ٗ٧ج ٗإضغ ا٘ٛفبؼ٧ى ا٘تضذ٧ج ا٘ٛخٕغٛج ٘فتٗج اؼتب٧ٝح ٦ّ( 1969)ٕ٘غ تغؤح فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ يبٚ

(arapnet) ّٜٗ ؛ ض٧د كٛٛح ٘خ٢ؽ٧ى ٛؼٜ ٢ًّبل ٢ًٙٛٙ٘ٛبح ٧مٜٛ ا٘خ٢س٧ٟ ا٘ػاخ٦ ٘فتٗج ا٧ٕ٘بغث ا٘خ٦ ٜٛ فإ١ٝب ؤٜ خٛ٢تًغ اٝفبء فتٗج . أىاً٘ؿٗؼ٧ج ا٪ٛؼ٧ٗ٧ج ٜٛ ٢ٛاكٙج اً٘ٛل ضخ٤ ٢٘ خٛح ا٬ضبنج ت١ب ٜٛ ٔتل اً٘غ٢ ٦ّ تًل ا٢ٛ٘

اٮٝخؼٝح ٗٛب ؤنٙٓ ي١٧ٙب ٮضٕب خن٢ؼح ا٤٘ فتٗج ٢٫٘ؿبن ا٪ٗبغ٧ٛ٧ج ا٪ٛؼ٧ٗ٧ج، تغءا ٜٛ ا٘سبًٛبح ٢اٝخفؼح تًغ ػٖ٘ ا٤٘ ٚ ٝض٢ ا٢٢٧٘ٔغ خمبيِ يغغ ٛؿخعغ٦ٛ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ٢غعٙح خنت٧ٕبخ١ب ٦ّ ٢ؿبئل ا٬يٯٚ ٢إ٘ٝبـ اً٘بٚ؛ ٠٢ٝبٖ . ا٘عبؼر

.ي٤ٙ ٝنبٓ اً٘ب٘ٚ 2008ٛؿخعغٛب ٘فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ؼتى ا٪٢ل ٜٛ يبٚ (1,407,724,920)٢ٗ٘٢ٜ اٮٝخؼٝح ٢مًح ؤكٯ ٪َؼال ٛضغ٢غث ٦ّ٢ تٙغ ٢اضغ ّٙٚ ٧ٜٗ ٠ٝبٖ ذٛج غاو ٘ٛٝبٔفج إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ا٘ٛخكٙج

ؤكتضح فبئًج اٮؿخعغاٚ ت٧ٜ ٢ٜ٘ٗ ٛى خٕغٚ اٮؿخعغاٛبح ٢خن٢ؼ٠ب ّب١ٝب ٘ٚ خًغ ضٗؼا ي٤ٙ يغغ ٧ٙٔل ٜٛ ا٘ٝبؾ تل. ت١بَب٘ت٧ج ا٢ٛ٘ان٧ٜٝ ٦ّ ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ غ٢ل اً٘ب٘ٚ ا٘خ٦ ٗبٜ ٘ٗل ١ٝٛب ٧ٟٔٛ ٢يبغاخٟ ٢خٕب٘ىغٞ ٢ذٕبّخٟ ٢تغؤح خن٢ْ ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿنص ٔمب٧ب

ا٘تؼ٧غ : ٢اػا ؤعػٝب ت٧ًٜ اٮيختبؼ ا٪فٗبل ا٘ؼئ٧ؿج ٘ٛم١ٝ٢ٛب ٛذل. ٗذ٧ؼث ػاح نت٧ًج ؤعٯ٧ٔج ٢ذٕب٧ّج ٢اسخٛبي٧ج ٢ٔب٧ٝ٢ٝجٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢، ٢ا٘ٛٝخغ٧بح ا٘ض٢اؼ٧ج، ٢ا٘ٛغ٢ٝبح ا٘فعك٧ج، ٢ٛؼاٗؽ ا٘تضد اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج، ٢ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ا٬عتبؼ٧ج، ٢ا٢ٕ٘ائٚ ا

؛ ٢٘سغٝب ؤٜ ّض٣٢ ٠ػٞ ا٪ٝفنج ٧ٙخ٦ٕ ٦ّ (107-105: ٦ّ2005 ا٘ضبر ي٧ؿ٤ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، 2003ف٦ٙ٧ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، ) ا٘تؼ٧غ٧ج٢ا٘ض٢ٗٛج اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ٢ا٘خ٦ خفٗل ٦ّ ٛس١ٙٛب خْبيٯ ت٧ٜ ا٪ّؼاغ اٮخكبٮح ٢خ٧ّ٢ؼ ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ٢ا٘خسبؼث ٢ا٘خغؼ٧ة

.٢ا٘ٛسخًٛبح ي٤ٙ اعخٯِ ذٕبّبخ١ب ١ٛ٧ٔ٢ب، ّٕغ خؼٗؽح نبٔبخٝب ٦ّ ا٘تغا٧ج ي٤ٙ ا٘خًٙٚ يٜ ٠ػٞ ا٘خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧بح ٢ٛى ؿؼيج اغعبل ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ٛغاؼؾ

ٛٝب ي٤ٙ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ا٘ٛض٧نج تب٘خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧ب ٘مٛبٜ ؤٜ ٝٛبؼؾ ٢ٝضٜ ا٨ٜ تضبسج ا٤٘ خؼ٧ٗؽ ا٠خٛب. ٧ْ٧ٗ٢ج اؿخعغا١ٛب٠٢ٝبٖ . اضخؼاٚ ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٢ٛٛخٙٗبخ١ٚ، ٢ض٢ٕٓ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج،، ٢ضٓ ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٦ّ ا٘عك٢ك٧ج:ا٧ٕ٘ٚ ا١ٛ٘ٛج ٘ٝب ٢٘نٯتٝب، ٛذل

تب٪ٝهٛج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج؛ ٢خإ٧٠ل ٢مى ؿ٧بؿبح اؿخعغاٚ ٕٛت٢٘ج؛ ٢٢مى ٢٘ائص : اؿخؼاخ٧س٧بح ٘خغؼ٧ؾ ؤعٯ٧ٔبح اٮٝخؼٝح ١ٝٛبٝٛبػر ٘ٙؿ٢ٖٙ ٢ا٧ٕ٘ٚ؛ ٢خفس٧ى ٛٝبٔفج إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج؛ ٢ؼكغ ؿ٢ٖٙ ا٘نب٘ة؛ ٢خإ٧ٗغ ؤٜٛ ا٘ٝهٚ ٢ا٘فتٗبح ٢ا٘تؼٛس٧بح؛

.٢خكْص ا٘فتٗج خضح افؼاِ اً٘ٛٙٚ؛ ٢ؼكغ ا٘تؼ٧غ اٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٢ا٢ٛ٘أى ي٤ٙ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح



، ٧ؿخختى ٛؿئ٧٘٢ج ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ ٢ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ا٘س٧غ ؼٝحخن٢ؼ ا٘ض٢ؿتج ٢خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧ب فتٗج اٮٝحاٜ ٧ضخبر ٧ّٟ ا٘ٝبفئج اً٘ؼة ٘ٯٔخغاء ٢اٮضخػاء ت١ٚ ٛى ٢م٢ش ( 251: ٦ّ2005 يتغاهلل ٢ؿ٧ٙٛبٜ، 2003تبؼٗب٥ ٢ؿخب٢ْٝؼغ، )

٠ػا ا٘ؿ٧بٓ، ت١غِ ا٘عؼ٢ر تٕبئٛج ٢سبءح ٠ػٞ ا٘غؼاؿج ٦ّ .٦ّ ا٘خ٧ًٙٛبح ٢خفس٧ى ي٤ٙ ٛٛبؼؿج ا٧ٕ٘ٚ ٢ا٘ؿ٢ٙٗبح إ٘ٛت٢٘ج .ًٛب٧٧ؼ ؤعٯ٧ٔج خٝبؿة ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج

أهداف الدراشج خ١غِ ٠ػٞ ا٘غؼاؿج ٢٘مى ٔبئٛج تبً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج

خؼٝح، ٧ؿخختى ٛؿئ٧٘٢ج ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج؛ ّخن٢ؼ ا٘ض٢ؿتج ٢خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧ب فتٗج اٮٜ٢ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ا٘س٧غ ٧ضخبر ٧ّٟ ا٘ٝبفئج اً٘ؼة ٘ٯٔخغاء ٢اٮضخػاء ت١ٚ ٛى ٢م٢ش ٦ّ ا٘خ٧ًٙٛبح ٢خفس٧ى ي٤ٙ ٛٛبؼؿج ا٧ٕ٘ٚ

:ٗٛب خ١غِ ا٘غؼاؿج ا٤٘. ٢ا٘ؿ٧ٗ٢ٙبح إ٘ٛت٢٘ج .ؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝحا٘ٗفِ يٜ ٛغ٣ خ٢اّؼ ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضب -1 .يؼل ا٧سبت٧بح خنت٧ٓ ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح -2 .خًؼِ ٛغ٣ اؿخًغاغ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٘خنت٧ٓ ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح -3

أشئمج الدراشج ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٛب اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ" :٘ٙتضد ٧٦ّخٛذل ا٘ؿئال ا٘تضذ٦ ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ

: ٧٢خْؼو ٟٛٝ ا٪ؿئٙج ا٘خب٧٘ج، " ؟ ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧جٛب ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ٘ٙضبؿ٢ة . ؤ -1

يمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ؟٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤ

٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ 0,05 ≥٠ل خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ . ة ا٘عتؼث؟ -ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج -ا٢ٝ٘و: ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح

ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ٘ٙضبؿ٢ة ٛب ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ . ؤ -2 ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ؟

٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ 0,05 ≥٠ل خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ . ةٜٛ ا٘عتؼث -ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘جال -ا٢ٝ٘و: ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح

؟٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾٛب ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ٢ا٘خكؼِ ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ٘ٙضبؿ٢ة -3

٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ؟

٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ 0,05 ≥ٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٠ل خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غ. ة ا٘عتؼث؟ -ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج -ا٢ٝ٘و: ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ٢ا٘خكؼِ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح

٘ٙضبؿ٢ة ٛب اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خغؼ٧ؿ٧ج ٢ا٘غايٛج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ . ؤ -4 ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ؟

Amer & Mouswi: Ethical standards for the use of computers and the Internet


٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ 0,05 ≥٠ل خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ . ة ا٘عتؼث -ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج -ا٢ٝ٘و: ض٢ل اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خغؼ٧ؿ٧ج ٢ا٘غايٛج ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح

؟ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾٛب ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ٘ٙضبؿ٢ة . ؤ -5

٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ؟٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ 0,05 ≥٠ل خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ . ة

ٜٛ ا٘عتؼث -ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج -ا٢ٝ٘و: ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ؟٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ

٘ضبؿ٢ة ٛب ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ل. ؤ -6 ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ؟

٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ 0,05 ≥٠ل خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢. ة ٜٛ ثا٘عتؼ -ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج -ا٢ٝ٘و: ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح

؟٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ

هترراح الدراشج وأههٍخهب :خٝتذٓ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ا٘غؼاؿج ٜٛ

.ؤ٧ٛ٠ج اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢ا٬ٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ؽٜٛ ا٢ً٘٘ٛج ٢اٮ٘خؽاٚ تب٘م٢اتن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ١٘ػا اٮؿخعغاٚ -1٢أى خنت٧ٓ ٠ػٞ ٝغؼث ا٘غؼاؿبح ا٘خ٦ ؤسؼ٧ح ي٤ٙ ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٢خًؼِ -2

.ا٪ٝٛبن ٢اٮخسب٠بح ٝض٠٢ب ٢ا٢ًٛ٘ٔبح ا٘خ٦ خض٢ل غ٢ٜ اؿخعغا١ٛب٢مى خك٢ؼ يٜ ٢أى خنت٧ٓ ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ -3

.٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج اً٘ؼت٧ج٦ّ اؿخٝتبن ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٘ٛئؿؿبخ١ٚ يٝغ اؿخعغاٚ ٛؿبيغث ا٘ٛؿئ٧٘٢ٜ ٢ٛخعػ٥ إ٘ؼاؼ ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج -4

.ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢ا٬ٝخؼٝحخًؼِ نؼٓ اٮؿخْبغث ٜٛ ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ؿ٧بٓ اً٘ب٦ٛ٘ ٢نؼٓ خ١ْ٧٧ٗب -5

.٘ٙت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج

: أدتٍبح الدراشجالقضبٍب األخالقٍج : أوال

٢ل ٛضخ٣٢ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ١ٝ٢ٗب عؼسح ٜٛ ا٘ٝنبٓ ا٢٘ن٦ٝ ا٤٘ ا٘ٛؿخ٣٢ اً٘ب٦ٛ٘، ٢ؤ١ٝب ٘ٚ خًغ خؿخعغٚ ٕ٘غ خؽا٧غ إ٘ٝبـ ش٢ٔغ تؼؽح ضبسج ض٧ٕ٧ٕج ١٘ػا إ٘ٝبـ ٘ضْؽ ٢خٝه٧ٚ ي٧ٙٛج اٮؿخعغاٚ . ٜٛ ٔتل اعخكبك٧٧ٜ ّٕن ٢ٜ٘ٗ ٜٛ ٔتل يبٛج ا٘ٝبؾ

٧٢ٜٛٗ خًّؼِ ا٘س٢اٝة ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ . ا٘فت٦ٗا٘خ٦ خئغ٥ ا٤٘ ٢مى ض٢ٙل خؼٗؽ ي٤ٙ ا٘س٢اٝة ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٘ٙخْبيل :اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ؤؼتًج ٛسبٮح ٗتؼ٣



غ، ٢اٝٛب ٦٠ ٛٝنٕج ٧ٙٛئج تب٘ٛضخ٣٢ ٢ا٘عغٛبح، ا٦٘ث ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ ٢ا٘خٓا٦٘ؤٜ اٮٝخؼٝح ٧٘ؿح ٛٝنٕج ط: ا٘ٛسبل ا٪٢ل -1 .٦٠٢ خخفٗل ٘خ٢ٜٗ يٝكؼا ؤؿبؿ٧ب ٜٛ يٝبكؼ ا٘خْبيل اٮسخٛبي٦ ٢ا٦ًٛٙ٘ ٢اٮٔخكبغ٥

ؤٜ خنت٧ٓ ا٢ٕ٘ا٧ٜٝ ٮ ٧فٛل ٠ػا اً٘ب٘ٚ ا٘ٛخكل تبٮٝخؼٝح، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ مؼ٢ؼث اتخٗبؼ ٛس٢ٛيج سغ٧غث : ا٘ٛسبل ا٘ذب٦ٝ -2ا ي٤ٙ ذٕبّج ٢اضغث ٗٛب ا٦ّ٘بٮٝخؼٝح ٮ خٕخكؼ ش. ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ ا٘ٛعككج ٘فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ٘ضل ٗبّج ا٘ٛفبٗل ا٧ًٙٛ٘ج

٧ج، ّٯ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خعمى ٘ٛس٢ٛيج ٢اضغث ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ تل ٮ تغ ١٘ب تغؤح ٢اٝٛب ٦٠ ٖٛٛٙ ٘ٙس٧ٛى؛ ٢ت٢ك١ْب هب٠ؼث يب٘ٚض٢ٕٓ ا٘نتى ٢ا٘ٝفؼ، ٢ضٛب٧ج ا٘ٛؿخ١ٖٙ، : ٢ٜٛ اٜ٘ٛٛٗ ؤٜ خُن٦ ٔمب٧ب ٛذل. ٜٛ اؿخ٧ًبة خًغغ ٝهٚ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ

.٢ا٘عك٢ك٧ج، ٢إ٘مب٧ب ا٘ذٕب٧ّج ٢اٮسخٛبي٧ج٘ٛؿخعغ٦ٛ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ا٘ضٓ ٦ّ ؤٜ ؤٜ اٮؿخسبتج ٘ؼؤ٥ ٛؿخعغٚ اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ًٝ٧ أؼاؼا تإٜ: ا٘ٛسبل ا٘ذب٘د -3

٢خؿ٤ً ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح اً٘بٛٙج ٦ّ ٛسبل خٕغ٧ٚ عغٛج اٮٝخؼٝح ي٤ٙ . ٧ًتّؼ٢ا تأؼائ١ٚ ض٢ل ٧ِٗ ٧سة ؤٜ خًٛلح ّٛٝهٛج ٘ٙضك٢ل ي٤ٙ آؼاء آ٧٘ب٢ٛى ػٖ٘، ٧٘ؿح ٠ٝبٖ . ا٘ٛؿخ٣٢ ا٘خ٦ٕٝ ا٤٘ ١ّٚ ٢خ٧ْٝػ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ٛؿخعغ١٧ٛب

.ا٘ٛؿخعغ٧ٜٛؤٟٝ ٮ تغ ٜٛ خضغ٧غ س١ج خخضٛل ٛؿئ٧٘٢ج ٛؼايبث خ٧ّ٢ؼ عغٛج اٮٝخؼٝح ٢ٛؼايبث ا٘خًغغ٧ج ٢آؼاء : اتىا٘ٛسبل ا٘ؼ -4

ا٘ٛؿخعغ٧ٜٛ ٢ا٘ضبسج ٘خ٧ٕٜٝ ا٘خْبيل ٢٢مى م٢اتنٟ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج، ٢ً٘ل ا٘ض٢ٗٛبح ٝفنح ٦ّ ٠ػا ا٘ٛسبل ٢٘مى .غ٢ٜ ٢ي٦ ٜٛ ا٪ّؼاغ ا٘م٢اتن ٢ا٢ٕ٘ايغ ا٘خ٦ خؼاي٦ ا٘خًغغ٧ج، ٧َؼ ؤٜ ٠ػا ا٘ٝفبن ٮ ٧ٜٛٗ خضٕٕٟ

: ٢ٝٯضه ؤٜ ا٘ٛفبٗل ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ا٘خ٦ خٝن٥٢ ي٤ٙ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة خفٗل خضغ٧ب ٜٛ ٢ٝو عبق، ً٘غغ ٜٛ ا٪ؿتبة ا٘ٛعخْٙج؛ ؤ١٘٢بؤٜ ٠ٝبٖ اخكبٮ فعك٧ب أل؛ ٢ٝضٜ ٝضخبر ٦ّ تًل ا٪ض٧بٜ ٘ٙخًبٛل ٛى فؼٗبئٝب ٢س١ب ٢٘سٟ ٮخعبػ إ٘ؼاؼاح، ٠٢ػا ا٢ٝ٘و

يٝغ اؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح؛ ٢٘ػٖ٘ ّٕغ ٢مًح ؤؿؾ ٢ٔ٢ايغ ٘ٙؿ٢ٖٙ ٦ّ ا٘خًبٛل تنؼ٧ٓ اٮٝخؼٝح ؤنٙٓ ٜٛ اٮخكبل ٢ْٕٛغ ٢ٜٛ ا٘ٛضخٛل ؤٜ ( 107: ٦ّ2005 ا٘ضبر ي٧ؿ٤ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، 2003ف٦ٙ٧ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، ) (netiquette) ي١٧ٙب ؤخ٧ٗ٧ح اٮٝخؼٝح

٢ذب١٧ٝب، ؤٜ ٘ؿؼيج اخعبػ إ٘ؼاؼاح تبؿخعغاٚ . خؼٝح٠ػٞ ا٢ٕ٘ايغ ٮ خًب٘ز ي٤ٙ ٝض٢ ٛٯئٚ ؤفٗبٮ ؤعؼ٣ ٜٛ اٮخكبل ي٤ٙ اٮٜ. اٮٝخؼٝح خغاي٧بح ي٤ٙ ؤيٛب٘ٝب ٘ٚ ٧خٚ ا٘ٝهؼ تٛب ٧ّٟ اْ٘ٗب٧ج ١٧ّب يٝغ اخعبػ خٖٙ إ٘ؼاؼاح، ٛٛب ٔغ ٢ٕ٧غ ا٤٘ ٝخبئز ٛئؿْج

ٛؼؿل ٮضٕب، ٢ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، ٧٘ؾ ٜٛ ا٘ٛٝبؿة اؼؿبل تؼ٧غ ا٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٦ّ ٘ضهج َمة ٧ئغ٥ ا٤٘ ٝغٚ ٤ًّٙ ٜٛ نؼِ ال٢ذب٘ذ١ب، ؤٜ ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ا٘ٛخ٢اّؼث ٦ّ فٗل ا٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٦٠ ؤٗذؼ . اػ ؤٟٝ ٮ ٧ٜٛٗ ٟ٘ ا٘خؼاسى يٜ ٔؼاؼ خٚ اخعبػٞ ٦ّ خٖٙ ا٘ٙضهج

٠فبفج ٛٛب ٗبٝح ي٧ٟٙ ٦ّ ف١ٙٗب ا٢٘ؼ٦ٔ، ٗٛب ٧ٜٛٗ خ٧٧ُؼ٠ب تؿ٢١٘ج، ٦٠٢ يؼمج ٬ٛٗب٧ٝج ٢ك٢ل ٧َؼ ا٘ٛكؼش ت١ٚ ض٢ٕٓ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج، ٢اٮٝخضبل، : ٜ ٛؿخٝؿعٟ ٠٢ػا ٧ذ٧ؼ ؤؿئٙج ٦ّ ٛب ٧خًٙٓ تٕمب٧ب ٛذل٠ب، ٗٛب ٧ٜٛٗ تؿ٢١٘ج ؤٜ خ٥٢ٗال

ؿٯٛج ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح، ٢ؿؼ٧خ١ب، : ٢ؼات١ًب، ؤٜ ٠ٝبٖ ٔمب٧ب ض٢ل نت٧ًج ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ػاخ١ب ٜٛ ض٧د. ٢إ٘ؼكٝج، ٢ا٘عك٢ك٧ج .٢ٛغ٣ خ٢اّؼ٠ب، ٢اٛٗب٧ٝج ختبغ١٘ب

٢ؿٝؿخًؼل ٦ّ ا٘ت٢ٝغ . ا ٧خًٙٓ تبؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح ٦٠ تضبسج ا٤٘ ًٛب٘سج ٢ّؼ٧ج٠٢ٝبٖ اً٘غ٧غ ٜٛ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٧ّٚ. ا٘خب٧٘ج ؤٗذؼ إ٘مب٧ب يٯٔج تٛسبل ا٘خ٧ًٙٚ ٢ا٘خًٙٚ

ض٢ٕٓ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج .1٠ٝبٖ سؽء ا٘ض٢ٕٓ ا٧٢ًٝٛ٘ج ا٘خ٦ ٧سة اغؼاس١ب مٜٛ ا٘خفؼ٧ًبح ٢اٮخْبٔبح ٢ا٘خ٢س١٧بح ٘خ٢ٜٗ ٦ّ كب٘ص اً٘ب٧ٜٙٛ ٜٛ

ٗٛب ٧ٝت٦ُ ؤٜ خ٢ٜٗ ي٢ٕتبح ي٤ٙ ا٪ّؼاغ ٢ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٦ . ِ ٢ٝفؼ ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧جؤ٦ٜ٘ ٢ؤكضبة ض٢ٕٓ حا٘ٛتغي٦



ّٜٗ ا٪ّؼاغ تؿؼيج ٜٛ ٝؿظ ا٪فؼنج ا٘ؿ٧ًٛج ٢ؤفؼنج . خٝخ١ٖ ٛذل ٠ػٞ ا٘خفؼ٧ًبح ٢ٛى ه٢١ؼ ا٘خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧بح ا٘سغ٧غث ا٘خ٦ خٛ٧غ خًؼ٧ِ ٢١ْٛٚ اٮعخٯؾ ؤ٢ إ٘ؼكٝج، ٢١ّ ٦ًٝ٧ ٧ٔبٚ فعق ٛب ، ّٕغ ؤو(316: 2004ي٧بغاح، ) ا٧ْ٘غ٢٧ ٢تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ة

٢خ٦ًٝ . ا٘خ٦ اتخٗؼح ٠ػا ا٘ٛٝخز( فؼٗج ؤ٢ ّؼغ)تؿؼٔج ٝؿعج ٜٛ ٛٝخز ٢٠٢ ٮ ٧ٛخٖٙ ؤ٢ ٧٘ؾ ٘غ٧ٟ اػٜ ٘ٙٝؿعج ٜٛ ا٘س١ج ٜٛ ٗبّج %(50)إ٘ؼكٝج ا٘ٝؿظ ٧َؼ ا٘ٛفؼ٢و ٘ٙتؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج، ٦٠٢ ٛفٗٙج عن٧ؼث، ض٧د ٧ّٕغؼ ؤٜ ٛب ٧ٕؼة ٜٛ

٢ؼَٚ ؤٜ ا٘تًل ٔغ . ٧٢ْٝٓ ا٘ٛتؼٛس٢ٜ ؿبيبح ن٧٢ٙج ٦ّ خك٧ٛٚ ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج. ا٘تؼاٛز ٦٠ ي٤ٙ ٝؿظ ٕٛؼكٝج٧سبغل تإٜ ٧ٝت٦ُ ا٘ؿٛبش تب٘ؿؼٔج ٦ّ ؤم٧ٓ ا٘ضغ٢غ ٪١ٝب خؿٛص تٝفؼ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛؽ٧غ ٜٛ ا٘ؿٗبٜ؛ ّبٜ ػٖ٘،

٢ٮفٖ ؤٜ ا٢ٕ٘ل تإٜ . ٧ٗج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج، ٧٢ئغ٥ ا٤٘ ا٘ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ ا٬مؼاؼ ت٢١اٛـ ا٘ؼتصتب٘ٝؿتج ٘ٙفؼٗبح، ٧ًختؼ ٠غؼا ٘ض٢ٕٓ ا٘ٛلخْٗٙج ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج تب٠هج ٢٠ ٧َؼ غ٧ٔٓ، ٪ٜ ا٘فؼٗبح ا٘ٛتخٗؼث ١٘ػٞ ا٘تؼاٛز يبغث ٛب خغّى ا٘ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ ا٪٢ٛال ٘ٗخبتج

ل تؼٝبٛز، ٢اػا ٛب ؤمْٝب ٘ػٖ٘ خْٗٙج ا٬يٯٝبح ٢اٝخبر خٖٙ ا٘تؼاٛز، ٠٢ػٞ ا٘خْٗٙج ٔغ خؽ٧غ ؤ٢ خٕٝق ختًب ٘غؼسج خ٧ًٕغ ٖ٘خًؼ٧ِ ا٘ٛؿخ٧ْغ٧ٜ يٜ خ٢اّؼ٠ب، ٢خْٗٙج خ٢ؽ١ً٧ب ٘ٛٝبّػ ا٘ت٧ى ٦ّ ا٘غ٢ل ا٘ٛعخْٙج، ٝب٧٠ٖ يٜ عغٛبح ا٘ٛخبتًج ٢ا٘خضغ٧د

ٞ ٢اؿخعغٚ ٢٘٢ ؤٜ ٗل فعق ٘ٚ ٧غّى ْٗٙج تؼٝبٛز ضبؿ٢ت٦ ٧ٕخ٦ٝ. ٘ٯؿخْبغث ٜٛ ا٘خ٧ُؼاح ا٘خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧ج ا٘ضبغذج ٦ّ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ةٝؿعج ٧َؼ ؤك٧ٙج ٟٛٝ ذٚ خض٢ل ا٪ٛؼ ٧٘كتص ا٤٘ ٛئبح ٜٛ ا٪فعبق ٧ؿ٢ٜٗٙ ْٝؾ ا٘ٛٝض٤، ّبٜ ٠ػا ؿ٧ئغ٥ ا٤٘ خ٧ٕٙل يغغ

٘ػٖ٘، ّبٜ اضخؼاٚ ٗبّج . ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ا٘ٛخبضج ٝخ٧سج اّٯؾ ا٘فؼٗبح ا٘ٛتخٗؼث ٢ؼّم١ب ٘ٗخبتج ٢اٝخبر تؼاٛز سغ٧غثؼ٧ٜ ٢ضك١٘٢ٚ ي٤ٙ ؤسؼ ٕٛبتل عغٛبخ١ٚ ٢اؿخعغاٚ تؼاٛس١ٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ؿ٢ٗ٧ٜ ٟ٘ ٛؼغ٢غ ا٘ض٢ٕٓ ٘ٙس١بح ٢ا٪ّؼاغ ا٘ٛتخٖ

٦ّ٢ ا٘ض٧ٜ ا٘ػ٥ خًختؼ ٧ّٟ ؿؼٔج ؤٜ ٧ٛخٖٙ ّؼغ تؼٝبٛسب ضبؿ٢ت٧ب ٝؿعج ٜٛ . ٗت٧ؼ ا٪ذؼ ي١٧ٙب ٢ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛؿخ٧ْغ٧ٜ ٜٛ عغٛبخ١ب٧ـ ؼتٛب ٮ ٧ٝغؼر خضح تٝغ اٮعخٯؾ عبكج ا٘تؼٝبٛز، ّبٜ ت٧ى تؼٝبٛز ضبؿ٢ت٦ خٛح ؿؼٔخٟ ٜٛ ا٘س١ج ا٘ٛتخٗؼث ٘ٗؿة ا٘ى

. اػا ٮضهٝب تإٜ ا٘فؼٗبح ا٘ٛتخٗؼث خغّى ؼ٢اخة ٪ٝبؾ ٢ًٙٛ٧ٜ ٘ٛئبح ا٘ؿبيبح ٧ٕم١ٝ٢ب ٮتخٗبؼ ٠ػا ا٘تؼٝبٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٦ٜٛ ٢ا٢ٕ٘ل تإٜ فؼٗبح ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ا٘خ٦ ٮ خمى ضٛب٧ج ٘تؼاٛس١ب ٦١ّ ٮ خ١خٚ تٝؿع١ب، ٢٠ ٢ٔل ٧َؼ كض٧ص، ّب٘ٗذ٧ؼ

ة ٘ضٛب٧ج تؼٛس٧بخ١ب ٘خضبّه ي٤ٙ ض١ٔ٢ٕب؛ ٢اػا ٛب خعّٙح تًل ا٪ض٧بٜ يٜ ػٖ٘ ١ٝ٫ّب خؿ٤ً ٘خ٧ّ٢ؼ ا٦٘ا٘فؼٗبح خؿخعغٚ ؤؾ٢ٜٛ اْ٘ٛب٧٠ٚ ا٘عبنئج ٘غ٣ . عغٛج ؤّمل تض٧د ٮ خئغ٥ نؼٓ ا٘ضٛب٧ج إً٘ٛغث ٘سًل خؼ٧ٗة ا٘تؼاٛز ي٤ٙ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة كًتج

٢٠ ؤٜ ٢ٕ٧ٚ ا٘ٛؿخعغٚ ٥لااؿ٢ت٦ ي٤ٙ ؤٗتؼ يغغ ٜٛ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة؛ ّب٢٘مى ا٘ٛدا٘تًل، ؤٟٝ تبٛٗبٟٝ خؼ٧ٗة ؤ٥ّ تؼٝبٛز شتخذت٧ح ؤ٢ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘تؼٝبٛز ا٪ك٦ٙ ي٤ٙ س١بؽ ضبؿ٢ة ٢اضغ ٦ّ ٢ٔح ٢اضغ، ٢ٛى ػٖ٘، ّبػا ٗبٜ ٘غ٣ ا٘ٛئؿؿج فتٗج

تفٗل ٧َؼ ٔب٦ٝ٢ٝ، ٢خّٕغٚ ا٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ّٜٛ اٜ٘ٛٛٗ اخبضج ا٘تؼٝبٛز ٪ٗذؼ ٜٛ ٛؿخعغٚ ٢اضغ، ؼَٚ ؤٜ ٠ػا ٧ًبغل ٝؿظ ا٘تؼٝبٛز٢ٜٛ اْ٘ٛب٧٠ٚ . ًٛهٚ ا٘فؼٗبح خع٧ْمبح ٗت٧ؼث ٘ٙٝؿظ ا٘فت٧ٗج ؤ٢ ا٘ٝؿظ اً٘غ٧غث ٜٛ تؼٝبٛز ٮؿخعغا١ٛب ٦ّ اْ٘ك٢ل ا٘غؼاؿ٧ج

ا٘عبنئج ا٪عؼ٣، ؤٜ ا٘تًل ٧ًخٕغ ؤٟٝ ٮ ٧خ٧ًٜ ي٧ٟٙ ؤٜ ٧غّى ٘تؼاٛز خسؼ٧ت٧ج ٢ٛسب٧ٝج؛ ٪١ٝب ٧ٗٙٛج يبٛج ٧س٢ؽ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٢ايبغث ٝؿع١ب ٢خ٢ؽ١ً٧ب؛ ٢ؼَٚ كضج ػٖ٘ سؽئ٧ب، ّبٜ ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘خسؼ٧ت٧ج ٦٠ تؼاٛز خًن٦ ٘ٙٛؿخعغٚ ّؼكج تضؼ٧ج

. ٮعختبؼ٠ب ٔتل ا٘فؼاء، ّبػا ّٔؼؼ اؿخعغا١ٛب، ٘ؽٚ ي٧ٟٙ ؤٜ ٧غّى ٮٔخٝبئ١با٢٘ك٢ل ٘ٙت٧بٝبح ٦ّ ٗٛب ؤٜ ٠ٝبٖ اً٘غ٧غ ٜٛ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ ا٘ٝهؼ ١٧ّب ٧ّٛب ٧خًٙٓ تض٢ٕٓ سٛى ٢خعؽ٧ٜ ٢

٦ّ اً٘بٛؼ٥، 2002آسؼ، ) ض٧د ٧ٝت٦ُ ا٘ضك٢ل ي٤ٙ اػٜ ٜٛ اْ٘ؼغ ؤ٢ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٦ خٝفؼ ا٘ت٧بٝبح فٗل ا٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢٧٢ًغ . ؛ ٢يٯ٢ث ي٤ٙ ػٖ٘، ٧سة ا٘ٝهؼ ٦ّ ٛغ٣ غٔج ا٘ت٧بٝبح ا٘خ٦ خٚ ا٘ضك٢ل ي١٧ٙب(313: 2004؛ ي٧بغاح، 114: 2004

ا٤٘ ؤفعبق آعؼ٧ٜ تًغ ؤٜ ٧خٚ ٝؿع١ب، ٦٠٢ ٛٛبؼؿج ٧َؼ ؤعٯ٧ٔج، ١ٝٗ٘٢ب ٗذ٧ؼا ٛب اٮٝخضبل ٛسبٮ ٧خٚ ٧ّٟ ٝؿة ؤيٛبلا ي٤ٙ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ّبٟٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿ١ل تٗذ٧ؼ ؤٜ ٧ؽغاغ اٮٝخضبل تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ، ا٢٦٘ٛى ٗل ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ا٘ٛخبضج ش. خضغد



يتبؼث ؤعؼ٣، خٕٛق ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج اٮٝخضبل تإٟٝ اعػ ا٪ّٗبؼ ٢ا٘ٗخبتبح ٢ا٘ؼؿ٢ٛبح، ٢ة( ,2001Bowyer)٧٢ًّؼِ ت٧٢ؼ ٢ٜٛ ا٘ٛؿٙٚ تٟ ي٢ٛٛب تإٜ ػٖ٘ ٧٘ؾ . ٫٘يٛبل ا٘خ٦ ؤٝفئح ٜٛ ٔتل ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٢يؼم١ب ي٤ٙ ا٘ٝض٢ ا٘عبق تفعق آعؼ

٧٢ف٧ؼ ت٧٢ؼ ؤ٧مب ا٤٘ اٮٝخضبل . )267 :2001ت٧٢ؼ، )ٔب٧ٝ٢ٝب، تل ٧فتٟ اٝخ١بٖ ض٢ٕٓ ا٘نتى ٢ا٘ٝفؼ، ٦٠٢ ٔم٧ج ٮ ؤعٯ٧ٔج ٠٢ٝبٖ ٛس٢ٛيج . ٢ٔٚ ا٘ٛئِ٘ ؤ٢ ا٘نب٘ة تبيبغث اؿخعغاٚ ٛب ٗختٟ ؿبتٕب ٛى ذتح ٛؼاسى ؤضغد ٦ّ ػ٧ل إ٘ٛبلا٘ػاخ٦، ض٧د ٥

. ٜٛ ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ا٘خ٦ خًٛل ي٤ٙ ٗفِ اٮٝخضبل ٜٛ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝحا٘عك٢ك٧ج ٢ا٘ؿؼ٧ج .2

ي٤ٙ اضخؼاٚ ض٢ٕٓ ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٦ّ ، ٧سة ؤٜ ٝؼت٦ نٯتٝب ٢ؤ٢ٮغٝب ا٦٘ٮفٖ ؤٝٝب ّٕٝغؼ ا٘عك٢ك٧ج ا٘عبكج تٝب، ٢تب٘ح٢ٗٛب ٧ٝت٦ُ ؤٜ ًّٝٙٚ نٯتٝب ؤّٮ ٧ْخف٢ا ٛٗبخة ا٨عؼ٧ٜ، ٢ؤّٮ ٧ْخض٢ا ؤ٢ ٧ٕؼئ٢ا تؼ٧غ٠ٚ، ٢ؤّٮ ٧غع٢ٙا ٛٝبؽل . عك٢ك٧بخ١ٚ

ا٨عؼ٧ٜ غ٢ٜ خ٢س٧ٟ ا٘غي٢ث ١٘ٚ؛ ّبٜ ٜٛ ا٘مؼ٢ؼ٥ خ١ٛ٧ًٙٚ يغٚ ّخص اْ٘ٛٙبح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ٩٘عؼ٧ٜ، ٢يغٚ اؿخعغاٚ ّب٘ض٢ٕٓ ٦٠ ػاخ١ب ٦ّ ا٘ضب٘خ٧ٜ، ٢اٝٛب خ٧ُؼ فٗل ٢٢ؿبئل . ا٘تؼ٧غ ٢اٮخكبٮح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ا٘خ٦ خعق ا٨عؼ٧ٜا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ٢

٧٢سة ؤٜ ٢ٜٗٝ تٛذبتج ٝٛبػر ٘نٯتٝب ٜٛ عٯل يغٚ ٔؼاءث ا٘تؼ٧غ اٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ا٘عبق ت١ٚ ؤ٢ اْ٘ٛٙبح غ٢ٜ . ٕٝل ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح٦ّ ًٛبٛٯح ا٘ت٢ٖٝ ٢فؼٗبح )كٝج ٢ٗؿؼ فْؼاح اْ٘ٛٙبح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ٢ٝضٜ تضبسج ؤ٧مب ا٤٘ خ١ٛ٧ًٙٚ تإٜ إ٘ؼ. اػٜ ١ٝٛٚ

ٮ خعخِٙ يٜ ٗؿؼ ا٪ْٔبل ي٤ٙ ا٪ت٢اة؛ ٢ؤٜ ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ا٘خ٦ ٧خٚ ا٘ضك٢ل ي١٧ٙب ت١ػٞ ا٘نؼ٧ٕج ٦٠ ( ا١٘بخِ ؤ٢ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة. (115: ٦ّ2004 اً٘بٛؼ٥، 2002آسؼ، ) ؿؼٔج ٢اٝخ١بٖ ٘ض٢ٕٓ ا٪ّؼاغ ٦ّ عك٢ك٧خ١ٚ

اح ٢ا٘خًبٛل ت١ب ٧ٗٙٛج ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٚ .3اٜ ا٪مؼاؼ ا٘خ٦ خٙضٓ تٛٛخٙٗبح ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٢ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٦ ٧خًّٙٚ ١٧ّب ا٘نٯة خئغ٥ ا٤٘ خعؼ٧ة ؤ٢ خغ٧ٛؼ ا٪س١ؽث

ّٜٛ ا٘مؼ٢ؼ٥ خ٧ًٙٚ ا٘نٯة ؤٜ اً٘تد تٛٛخٙٗبح ا٘ٛغؼؿج ٢٠ ٛفبتٟ . ٢ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ا٢ٛ٘س٢غث ١٧ّب ٢ا٤٘ عؿبئؼ ٛبغ٧ج ّبغضجتضبسج ٠ٝب ا٤٘ خ٢ؿ٧ى خًؼ٧ِ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج ٧٘فٛل ؤف٧بء ٮ ا٤٘ ؤٝٝب ( ,2008Alden)ف٧ؼ ؤ٘غٜ ٢ح. ً٘ٙتد تٛٛخٙٗبخ١ٚ ا٘عبكج

٠ب ٛبغ٧ب، ؤ٥ ٘خفٛل ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج، ٛذل ا٘ت٧بٝبح ٢اْ٘ٛٙبح ٢ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج؛ ٛٛب ٧سًل اً٘تد ٧٥ٛٗٝٝب ا٢٘ك٢ل ال٠٢ػا ٧فٛل خ٧٧ُؼ نب٘ة ٘خٕؼ٧ؼ . اضخؼاٚ ٛٛخٙٗبح ا٨عؼ٧ٜتب٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ٢خ٧٧ُؼ٠ب ٧ٝغؼر ٦ّ انبؼ ا٘خعؼ٧ة ٢يغٚ

. ؽ٧ٟٛٙ ا٘ٛعّؽٜ ي٤ٙ ٔؼق ضبؿ٢ت٦، ٢خًغ٧ل ؤ٢ ٛض٢ ْٛٙبح ا٘نٯة ا٨عؼ٧ٜ( netiquette" )ؤخ٧ٗح اٮٝخؼٝح"٢ٔغ ؤنٙٓ ي٤ٙ ا٪ؿؾ ٢ا٢ٕ٘ايغ ا٘خ٦ ٧خٚ ٦ّ انبؼ٠ب ا٘خًبٛل تنؼ٧ٓ اٮٝخؼٝح ٛكنٙص

٘خ٧ٕغ ت١ب ؤذٝبء اؿخعغاٚ ا٘فتٗج ٢ا٘تؼ٧غ اٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٢ا٘ٛؼاؿٯح ٢ا٘ٛٝبٔفبح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج٦٠٢ ٛس٢ٛيج ؿ٢ٙٗبح ٛٝهٛج ٧ٝت٦ُ اؤغٝبٞ تًمب ( 1)؛ ٧٢ت٧ٜ فٗل (1999؛ ا١٘ٯ٦٘ ٢ا٘كٕؼ٥، 108: ٦ّ2005 ا٘ضبر ي٧ؿ٤ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، 2003ف٦ٙ٧ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، )

" ة خ٢س٧١٧ج ٘ٙؿ٢ٖٙ ا٘ٛخضمؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘فتٗجٛتبغ"٦ّ ٕٛب٘خ١ب ( ,2000Lynch)٢ٔغ ؤفبؼح ا٤٘ ػٖ٘ ٧٘ٝـ .ٜٛ ٠ػٞ ا٢ٕ٘ايغ٢ا٘خ٦ فٛٙح، ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، خٕغ٧ؼ اٛٗبٝبح ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ي٤ٙ ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘فتٗج ٢إ٘غؼث ي٤ٙ خعؽ٧ٜ ٢خض٧ٛل ْٛٙبح ٗت٧ؼث؛

، ٢يغٚ اؿخعغاٚ ضؼ٢ِ ٗت٧ؼث يٝغ ا٘خًبٛل ( ,2008Alden) ٢يٯ٢ث ي٤ٙ ػٖ٘، يغٚ ا٘خْخ٧ـ ٦ّ ْٛٙبح ا٨عؼ٧ٜ غ٢ٜ اػ١ٝٚ .تًل ا٘ٛسخًٛبح ٪ٜ ٠ػا ٧غل ي٤ٙ ا٘كؼاط ٛىؤٜٛ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة ٢ا٘فتٗبح .4

ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ا٘خ٦ خئغ٥ ا٤٘ خغ٧ٛؼ ْٛٙبح ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ا٢ٙٛٛ٘ٗج ٫ّ٘ؼاغ ٢ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ؤٛؼا َب٧ج ٦ّ " ا٧ْ٘ؼ٢ؿبح"٧ًختؼ ٝفؼ ع٧ٛج ي٤ٙ ٢ٜٛ ا٢٘امص ؤٜ ٗخبتج ٢ٝفؼ تؼاٛز ا٧ْ٘ؼ٢ؿبح ٦٠ ؤيٛبل ٧َؼ ؤعٯ٧ٔج، ٧٢ٝخز يٟٝ ي٢أة ٢. ا٘عن٢ؼث



ا، ٢ٜٛ اٜ٘ٛٛٗ ؤٜ ا٢٦ٜ٘ٛ ا٢٘امص ؤ٧مب، ؤٜ ٠ٝبٖ ا٘ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ٛمبغث ٧ْٙ٘ؼ٢ؿبح ٦ّ ا٘ؿ٢ٓ ش. ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ٢ا٪ّؼاغ. ٧ؿبيغ ػٖ٘ ي٤ٙ ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ٠ػٞ ا٘ٛفٗٙج ا٘ٛخؽا٧غث تبؿخٛؼاؼ

٢ٔايغ اؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح( : 1)فٗل

(108: 2005ؽٛٯئٞ، ٦ّ ا٘ضبر ي٧ؿ٤ ٢ 2003ف٦ٙ٧ ٢ؽٛٯئٞ، : ا٘ٛكغؼ) اْ٘س٢ث ا٘ؼ٧ٛٔج .5

عغٛج ' ٢ٗٙٛ٧ٜ'٢ٚ؛ اػ ؤٜ ٠ٝبٖ ّس٢ث خؽغاغ اخؿبيب ت٧ٜ ّئبح ٝبفئج ٜٛ ا٘ٝبؾ ا٦٘خًختؼ اْ٘س٢ث ا٘ؼ٧ٛٔج ٛفٗٙج عن٧ؼث ٢ٜٛ ا٢٘امص ؤٜ . اٛٗب٧ٝج ا٢٘ك٢ل ٘ٙضبؿ٢ة ٢فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ٢اؿخعغا١ٛٛب' ٮ ٢ٗٙٛ٧ٜ'ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢ا٘فتٗج ٢ّئبح ؤعؼ٣

ؤعٯ٧ٔج سغ٧ج ٛخؼختج ي٤ٙ ػٖ٘؛ ١ّٝبٖ خ٧٧ٛؽ ت٧ٜ اْ٘ئخ٧ٜ خفًؼ ١ًٛب اْ٘ئج ا٘ذب٧ٝج ٢ٗإ١ٝب ٛؿختًغث اسخٛبي٧ب، ٠ٝبٖ ٔم٧ج ا٤٘ ؤٜ اضغ٣ ا٘ٛؿبئل ا٘ؼئ٧ؿج ٦ّ ٛسبل ا٘فتٗبح اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ( 2000)ف٧ؼ ٧٘ٝـ ح٢. ٢خم٧ى ي١٧ٙب ا٘ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ ّؼق ا٘ض٧بث

٢ك٢ل ٢ًٙٛٙ٘ٛبح، ٢ٛب ٦٠ ٢ٝو ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ا٘خ٦ ٧ٜٛٗ ا٘ضك٢ل ي١٧ٙب، ّٜٛ ٧ٟٛٗٝ ال( accessibility)٦٠ ٛؿإ٘ج ا٢ٛ٘ك٧ٙج ٚ ٠بئل أخكبغ٧ب ٢ؿ٧بؿ٧ب ٢ضخ٤ اسخٛبي٧ب ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛسخًٛبح ا٘خ٦ ؤخ٧ضح ١٘ٚ ّؼق ا٠٢٧٘ػٞ ا٪ؿئٙج ١ٛٛج ٪ٜ ؤذؼ ا٘فتٗبح

ّٗل ّز٥ا٢٘ك٢ل ال " ٜٛ ٢ٗٙٛ٧ٜ"٢ث ت٧ٜ ٠ب؛ ٢تٛب ؤٜ ا٘فتٗبح خؽغاغ خ٢اسغا ٦ّ خٖٙ ا٘ٛسخًٛبح ّب١ٝب ٜٛ اٜ٘ٛٛٗ ؤٜ خف٦ّ ض٧ٜ ؤٜ ا٘خك٢ؼ ا٘ٛٝبؿة ٧ٝت٦ُ ؤٜ ٢ٗ٧ٜ ٦ّ خض٧ٕٓ فتٗج اٮٝخؼٝح ٔغؼا ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛؿب٢اث ". ٜٛ ٮ ٢ٗٙٛ٧ٜ"ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ٢

٧٢خكل تبْ٘س٢ث ا٘ؼ٧ٛٔج ٔم٧ج ؤعؼ٣ ٦٠ . ٜٛ عٯل خ٧ّ٢ؼ ؿتل ا٢٘ك٢ل ا٤٘ س٧ٛى ا٘ٛكبغؼ ا٘ٯؽٛج ٘س٧ٛى ؤّؼاغ ا٘ٛسخٛى



. اح اػ خًختؼ ا٘ؿؼيج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٧ًخٛغ ي١٧ٙب خف٧ُل ؤس١ؽث ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٔم٧ج ؤعٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ ضغ ػاخ١بؿؼيج ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة ٢ا٘فتّٖب٘ؿٛبش ٘ٙٛئؿؿبح ٢ا٪ّؼاغ تإغاء ؤيٛب١٘ٚ تؿؼيج ٜٛ عٯل خؽ٧٢غ٠ٚ تغّٓ ؤؿؼو ٢ًٙٛٙ٘ٛبح ٢تإس١ؽث ضبؿ٢ة ؤضغد ٧فٗل

غ ٢ٛئؿؿبح ؤعؼ٣؛ ٢خًٙة ي٢اٛل ا٘خْٗٙج ٢ا٘خس٧١ؽاح ٔم٧ج ؤعٯ٧ٔج اػا ٛب ٢ٔؼٜ تؿؼيج ؤٔل ٢ؤس١ؽث ؤٔغٚ ٧ؽ٢غ ت١ب ؤّؼا. ا٧ْٝ٘ج ٧ًٛبؼا ١ٛٛب ٘خسؿ٧ؼ اْ٘س٢ث ٦ّ ٠ػا ا٘ٛسبل

ة خؼمٍن القضبٍب األخالقٍج الٌطرق خدرٍس وأس: ذبىٍب

ٜٛ ا٢٘امص ؤٜ خغؼ٧ؾ ٠ػٞ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٢اؿخعغا١ٛب ٦ّ ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٢٠ ؤٛؼ ١ٛٚ، ٠٢ٝبٖ اً٘غ٧غ ٜٛ ا٘نؼٓ ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ؤٜ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٘ٛؿبئل اٮسخٛبي٧ج ٢ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ ( ,٧َLidtkeؼ ٛئؼط)ػٞ إ٘مب٧ب ا٘خ٦ ٧ٜٛٗ خغؼ٧ؿ١ب، ٧٢ػٗؼ ٧٘غخٖ ٞ

ا٘ض٢ؿتج ٔغ ؤكتضح فؼنب مٜٛ ا٘ٛٝب٠ز ا٘غؼاؿ٧ج ٦ّ ا٘ؿ٢ٝاح ا٧ٕٙ٘ٙج ا٘ٛبم٧ج، ٠٢ٝبٖ ّئج ٗت٧ؼث ّٕن ٜٛ ا٧ًٜٛٙٛ٘ ٢ؤؿبخػث يٜ ١ٕٙٔٚ ٜٛ ٔمب٧ب ا٘ض٢ؿتج ٢ا٧ٕ٘ٚ، ٢ٗبٜ ٠ٝبٖ ٦ّ ا٘ؿ٢ٝاح ا٧ٕٙ٘ٙج ا٘سبًٛبح ٜٛٛ ٠ٚ ي٤ٙ ؼؤؾ ا٘عغٛج ٜٛٛ ؤيؼت٢ا

ا٘ٛبم٧ج خ٢آّ ٦ّ ا٨ؼاء تفإٜ مؼ٢ؼث اٗؿبة تًل ا٘خ١ْٚ ً٘ٙٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٝ١ٛ٘ج ٢ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٘ٗل نب٘ة سب٦ًٛ آ٢ ٛغؼؿ٦ . (312: 2004؛ ي٧بغاح، 2000، ٧٘ٝـ) ض٢ل ٠ػا ا٘ٛسبل

ا٘ٛضبمؼاح ٢ا٘ضٕٙبح ا٘غؼاؿ٧جة ا٧٦٘غ٧ج ٦ّ نؼائٓ ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٧ّٔٛج ١ٛ٢ٛج ٦ّ تًل ا٪ض٧بٜ، ٢ٮ ٧ٝت٦ُ خ٧٢ٕل ؤ٧ٛ٠خ١ب، ٘ٛسؼغ ؤ١ٝب ؤؾخًختؼ ا٘خٕل

٘ػا ٧ٝت٦ُ ا٘خؼ٧ٗؽ ي١٧ٙب ؤض٧بٝب ٦ّ ٧ٛبغ٧ٜ ؼّى ا٢٘ي٦ اٮسخٛبي٦ ٢ا٘ٛغؼؿ٦ . خ٧ٕٙغ٧ج ٢خؿخعغٚ ٦ّ ٠ػا ا٘ٛسبل ٧َؼ ا٘خ٧ٕٙغ٥ .تإ٧ٛ٠ج إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٢نؼٓ ا٘خًبٛل ١ًٛب

ٓا٘خًب٧ٝ٢ج ي٤ٙ اٮٝخؼٝح ا٘نؼ٢٘ضج ا٬يٯٝبح، ٦٠٢ ٧ْٛغث ٪١ٝب خ٢ّؼ ّؼق ٘ٙٛس٢ٛيبح : ٠ٝبٖ ؤغ٢اح ٢نؼٓ خًب٧ٝ٢ج ٛعخْٙج ي٤ٙ اٮٝخؼٝح، ٛذل

ا٘نٯت٧ج اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ٘ٛٝبٔفج ٔمب٧ب اٮٝخؼٝح، ١٘٢ػا ؤ٧ٛ٠ج عبكج ٦ّ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج اٮيخ٧بغ٧ج ٛذل اٮٝخضبل ٢اْ٘س٢ث . ا٘ؼ٧ٛٔج

ٓاً٘ٛل ؤ٢ؼا٦٠٢ نؼ٧ٕج ؤعؼ٣ ٜٛ ا٘نؼٓ ا٘خ٧ٕٙغ٧ج، ٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٧نٙة اً٘ٛٙٚ ٜٛ ا٘نٯة اٗٛبل ا٪ؿئٙج ا٘ٛغؼسج ي٤ٙ ؤ٢ؼآ

٧٢ٟٛٗٝ ٗػٖ٘ خٕؿ٧ٚ ا٘نٯة ؤ٧مب ا٤٘ ٛس٢ٛيبح خ٢ٕٚ تبٗٛبل ا٪ؿئٙج ا٘ٛغؼسج ي٤ٙ ٢ؼٔج اً٘ٛل، ٢ٜٛ ذٚ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ . اً٘ٛل. خخٚ ٛٝبٔفخ١ب ٧٢خت١ًب خُػ٧ج ؼاسًج ٜٛ اً٘ٛٙٚ

إ٘كقٛؿبتٕبح ا٘ف١ؼ ٘خًٙٚ ٦ّ ٢خف٧ؼ تبس٦ٙ . ٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خ٢ٜٗ إ٘كق نؼ٧ٕج س٧غث سغا ٘خ٧ًٙٚ ؤنْبل ا٘ٛغاؼؾ اٮتخغائ٧ج

ا٤٘ ا٘ؼ٢اتن اٮ٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٢ٛام٧ى ؤعٯ٧ٔبح ( ,1990Computer Learning Month Contests) ا٘ضبؿ٢ة؛ ٢اٛٗب٧ٝج ؤٜ ٧ؿبيغ ٠ػا ي٤ٙ سًل ا٘ؼؿب٘ج ؤٗذؼ ٢ا٧ًٔج ٦ّ ْٝؾ إ٘ؼاكٝج تٕكج إ٘تنبٜ ٢٠ٖ ٢خنت١ٕ٧ب ي٤ٙ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة

. ا٘نب٘ة ا٘ك٧ُؼ ً٘ة ا٪غ٢اؼ



خ٢ٜٗ ٠ػٞ ا٘نؼ٧ٕج ٧ْٛغث سغا ٪١ٝب خؿبيغ ي٤ٙ سًل ا٪٢مبو ٘ختغ٢ ض٧ٕ٧ٕج، ٧٢ٜٛٗ ٘ٙنٯة ؤٜ ٧ًٙت٢ا ؤ٧٢ٜٜٛٗ . ٮ٧ٔج، ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، ؿؼٔج ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧جؤغ٢اؼا ٧ْ٧ٗ٘ج خ٧ْٝػ ا٢ٕ٘ا٧ٜٝ ٦ّ ا٘ٛضبٗٚ ٧ّٛب ٧خًٙٓ تتًل ا٘ٛؿبئل ا٪ط

. ٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٢ٕ٧ٚ تٟ ا٘ٛفبؼ٢ٜٗ تإغ٢اؼ ٛعخْٙج، ٛذل، إ٘بم٦، ٢ا٘ٛغي٦ اً٘بٚ، ٢ا٘ٛضب٦ٛ ضكق ا٘ٛٝبٔفبح

ّب٘ٛٝبٔفبح خؿبيغ ٦ّ . ٢خًختؼ ا٘ضكق ا٘غؼاؿ٧ج ا٘ٛعككج ٘ٙٛٝبٔفبح ٧ْٛغث ُ٘ٙب٧ج، اػا خٚ خٝه١ٛ٧ب تفٗل كض٧صٮؿخؼاخ٧س٧بح ٘خ٧ًٙٚ ا٪نْبل ٪عٯ٧ٔبح ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح، ٗٛب خخبش اْ٘ؼكج ٘ٙنٯة ٮٗخفبِ خنت٧ٓ ًٛهٚ ا

٧٢ٜٛٗ ٛٝبٔفج ٢ٛام٧ى (. 1990ٛؿبتٕبح ا٘ف١ؼ ٘خًٙٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة، )١ّ٢ٚ ؤّمل ٘س٧ٛى ؤنؼاِ إ٘م٧ج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٧ٔ٢ٛخ١ب . ثاْ٘س٢ث ا٘ؼ٧ٛٔج، ٢ٔمب٧ب إ٘ؼكٝج اٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢: ٛضغغث، ٛذل

سٙؿبح ختبغل ا٪ّٗبؼ٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًن٦ اً٘ٛٙٚ . خًختؼ سٙؿبح ختبغل ا٪ّٗبؼ ٛٛخًج، ٧ضب٢ل ا٘نب٘ة ١٧ّب ا٘خًت٧ؼ تذٕج يٜ ؤؼائٟ ١ّ٢ٟٛ

٘ٙنٯة اؿخْؿبؼا ؤ٢ ٢ٛم٢يب ٦ّ ا٘تغا٧ج، ٧ٜٛٗ ٛٝبٔفخ١ب ٦ّ ٛس٢ٛيبح، ذٚ ا٢ً٘غث ا٤٘ اٮسخٛبو ٢ختبغل ا٪ّٗبؼ ٛى ت٧ٕج . تج ا٪ّٗبؼ ا٘ؼئ٧ؿج ٦ّ ا٢ٙ٘ضبح إ٘ٯتج ي٤ٙ ك٢ؼث ٕٝبن، ؤ٢ عؼائن ْٛب٧٠ٚ، ؤ٢ ؼؿ٢ٛب ت٧ب٧ٝج٧٢ٜٛٗ ٗخب. ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

اؿخعغاٚ ؤٛذٙج ٜٛ ا٘ض٧بث ا٢٘ا٧ًٔج٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٧فٛل ػٖ٘، ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، . ٧ًختؼ اؿخعغاٚ ؤٛذٙج ض٧ٕ٧ٕج ف٧ئب ٛتخٗؼا اػا ٗبٝح ٠ٝبٖ ّؼكج ٧ٕٙ٘بٚ تػٖ٘

٧ًٛٝج؛ ٧خٚ ٜٛ عٯ١٘ب يؽل ا٧ْ٘ؼ٢ؾ ٢غؼاؿج ٧ْ٧ٗج ٝفإث ا٘مؼؼ اٜ٘ٛٛٗ ٜٛ عٯ١٘ب؛ ذٚ غؼاؿج ٘ٛٗبّضج ضؽٛج ٧ّؼ٢ؿبح ا٧ٕ٘بٚ تٛؼأتج ض٧ٕ٧ٕج ٪٢مبو اً٘ٛل ا٘خ٦ ٧ًب٦ٝ ١٧ّب ا٢ٛ٘ه٢ْٜ ٜٛ ا٬س١بغ؛ ٢غؼاؿج ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘ٛؼ٧ضج ٢ٛٙ٘ه٧ْٜ ٦ّ إ٘ٛبتل

. ٢ا٘ض٢ٙل ا٧ْٗ٘ٙج تب٧سبغ خٖٙ ا٘ت٧ئج إ٘ٛبٮح ا٬عتبؼ٧ج

ٛؿبتٕبح ا٘ف١ؼ ٘خًٙٚ )٧٢ٕخؼش ٧٠د . ٮة ا٘تضد ٢ٛٝبٔفج ا٘خٕبؼ٧ؼ ا٬عتبؼ٧ج يٜ ا٘سؼائٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ٛذٯ٧ٜٛٗ ٘ٙنؤٜ ٢ٕ٧ٚ ا٘نٯة تبيغاغ ٔبئٛج يٜ ٛضبؿٜ ٢ٛؿب٢ة ؿؼٔج ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج، ٢ٛٝبٔفج ا٢٘ٔبئى ا٘خ٦ خ٢ٜٗ ( 1990ا٘ضبؿ٢ة،

. ٢ٛبح ٘ٙت٧ى ٩٘عؼ٧ٜٛؼ٧ضج ٘ٙٛئؿؿبح ض٢ل ٛب اػا ٗبٜ ٦ّ كب٘ض١ب اخبضج اً٘ٛلا٘ٛٙكٕبح

٢ٔغ . ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خؿخعغٚ ا٢ٙ٘ضبح ٢ا٘ٛٙكٕبح ٘ٯخكبل ٢اؼؿبل ا٘ؼؿبئل ض٢ل اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٘ٙنٯة ا٨عؼ٧ٜ. ٠ػٞ ا٘نؼ٧ٕج تفٗل ًّبل( 1990ٛؿبتٕبح ا٘ف١ؼ ٘خًٙٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة، )اؿخعغٛح س٧ٜٝ

اسؼاء ا٘غؼاؿبح اٮؿخٕكبئ٧جٛؿص، ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، ض٢ل ٢ٛأِ ٢اخسب٠بح ا٘نٯة ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٦ّ ا٘كِ ؤ٢ ٧ٜٛٗ ٘ٙنٯة اسؼاء ي٧ٙٛبح

٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤ٧مب ؤٜ ٧منٙى ا٘نٯة تغؼاؿبح اؿخٕكبئ٧ج . ا٘ٛغؼؿج ؤ٢ ا٘سبًٛج اؽاء ٔمب٧ب ؤعٯ٧ٔبح ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح. ٗتؼ٣ ٧خ٢س٢١ٜ ١٧ّب تإؿئٙخ١ٚ ٘ؿٗبٜ ا٘ٛسخٛى ا٘ٛض٦ٙ ي٤ٙ ٝنبٓ ٢اؿى

ِا٘ٛخضغذ٢ٜ ا٘م٢٧ؤٜ ٧غي٤ ا٘ٛخضغذ٢ٜ ا٘عبؼس٢٧ٜ غائٛب ٢تفٗل ا٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٘ٙضغ٧د يٜ ٛعخِٙ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٧ٜٛٗ

٢ٝ٢ٗ٧ا ّٗخبتب ؤ٢ ٛغؼؿ٦ خ٧ٕٝج ٢ًٙٛٛبح، ؤ٢ عتؼاء ؤ٢ ؤٗبغ٧٧ٛ٧ٜ؛ ي٤ٙ ؤٜ خؿخختى ػٖ٘ ٛٝبٔفج ًٕٛٛج ٛى ا٘ٛخضغد ض٢ل . إ٘مب٧ب ا٘خ٦ ؤذبؼ٠ب



القٍبح خطواح ىهوذر هىهسٌ لخدرٍس األخ: ذبلذب ا٤٘ مؼ٢ؼث اختبو ( ,2008Alden)٢ؤ٘غٜ ( ,2006Rikowski)٢ؼ٢ٗؿ٦ٗ ( ,2000Meyenn)٧ف٧ؼ ٗل ٜٛ ٧٧ٜٛ

: ا٘عن٢اح ا٘خب٧٘ج ٦ّ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح٢ا١٘غِ ١ٝٛب خضغ٧غ ٜٛ ٧فبؼٖ ٦ّ ا٘ٝفبن، ٧٢ٝت٦ُ ؤٜ ٧خٚ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘عن٢ث ٜٛ ٔتل س٧ٛى : ا٘عن٢ث ا٪٤٘٢ .1

ا٘خًبٛل ٛى نٯة ٜٛ س٧ٛى ا٪يٛبؼ ّبٜ ٜٛ ا١ٛ٘ٚ ؤٜ ٧ٝهؼ اً٘ٛٙٚ ا٤٘ ا٘ك٢ؼث ي٤ٙ ا٧ًٜٛٙٛ٘، ٢ٜ٘ٗ يٝغٛب ٧خٚ : ٝنبٓ ٢اؿى تض٧د ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٢٧مى ا٘ٝفبن ٦ّ ٛٝه٢ؼ ؤ٢ؿى، ٢ػٖ٘ ٔتل ا٬سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٪ؿئٙج ا٘ذٯذج ا٘خب٧٘ج

٢٠ ا٘ٛضؼل ي٤ٙ إ٘م٧ج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٜٛ ٠ٚ ا٪فعبق ا٧٧ًٜٝٛ٘ ٛتبفؼث ت١ػٞ إ٘م٧ج ٜٛ فعبق ا٘ٛفخؼ٢ٜٗ ٛتبفؼث ٦ّ ٠ػٞ إ٘م٧ج ٜٛ ٠ٚ ا٪

٢ٕ٧ٚ ٗل فعق ؤ٢ ٛس٢ٛيج ضغغح ٦ّ ا٘عن٢ث ا٪٤٘٢ ت٢كِ إ٘م٧ج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٜٛ ٢س١ج : ا٘عن٢ث ا٘ذب٧ٝج .2٧٢ٜٛٗ ًّل ػٖ٘ ٜٛ عٯل . ٛس٢ٛيج ت٢مى إ٘م٧ج/٢ا١٘غِ ٜٛ ػٖ٘ ٢٠ خضغ٧غ ٧ْ٧ٗج خإذؼ ٗل فعق. ـب/ٝهؼٞ

اٝخ١بٖ ضٓ ا٪فعبق ٦ّ ا٘عك٢ك٧ج تبيختبؼٞ : ح ا٘كٙج، ٦ّ ٢ٛأِ ٛذلا٘ٝهؼ ٦ّ خنت٧ٓ ا٘ٛتبغة ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ػاا٘ٛضؼل ا٪٢ل ض٧د اٝخ١ٖ ؤضغ ا٪فعبق ا٘عك٢ك٧ج، ؤ٢ اٝخ١بٖ ٧ٗٙٛ٘ج ا٪فعبق ض٧د ؤ٘ضٓ ا٘مؼؼ

ت٢ًٙٛٛبخ١ٚ، ؤ٢ ا٧١ٝبؼ ٢ٔايغ ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ؤ٢ اً٘ؼِ ا٘ٛخْٓ ي٧ٟٙ ض٧د ّٕغح ا٘ذٕج ٦ّ ا٘فعق ا٘ٛؿتة، ؤ٢ اٝخ١بٖ ٦ّ٢ ٠ػٞ ا٘عن٢ث ٧ؿإل اً٘ٛٙٚ ا٘نٯة يٜ ٛغ٣ خنت٧ٓ ا٘ٛتبغة ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ضؿة . أج ٦ّ ا٘خًبٛل ا٘فت٦ًٗٛب٧٧ؼ ا٦ٙ٘

٧٢نٙة ١ٝٛٚ ؤ٧مب ٗخبتج ْٛكٙج يٜ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ س٧ٛى ا٪فعبق . ا٢ٕ٘ا٧ٜٝ ػاح ا٘كٙج ٦ّ ا٘ضب٘ج ا٘ٛغؼ٢ؿج. ا٧٧ًٜٝٛ٘ تبٕ٘م٧ج

٠بح ٝهؼٞ ٜٛ إ٘م٧ج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج تك٢ؼث خٝبٔل ٢ٕ٧ٚ ا٘فعق ؤ٢ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيج ت٢مى آؼاءٞ ٢٢ر: ا٘عن٢ث ا٘ذب٘ذج .3خٛبٛب ٗبّج ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ا٘نٯة ا٨عؼ٧ٜ، ٢ا١٘غِ ٜٛ ٠ػٞ ا٘عن٢ث ٢٠ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء ي٤ٙ ا٘عٯّبح ٢ؤ٢سٟ ا٘فتٟ

٢ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، ضب٘ج ٧فبؼٖ ١٧ّب اً٘ٛٙٚ ٦ّ ك٢ؼث يؼل . ا٘خ٦ ؿخٝفإ ٜٛ ٕٛبؼٝج ٢س١بح ا٘ٝهؼ ا٘ٛخٝبٔمجا٤٘ ٢مى ٢ٗ٧ٜ ا٘ٛضؼل ١٧ّب ٔبغؼا ي٤ٙ ؼئ٧ج ٛب ا٘ػ٥ ٧ٜٛٗ يٟٛٙ تًغ اٝخ١بٖ ْٛخ٢ش، ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ ٧ئغ٥ . ا٘عك٢ك٧ج ا٘فعك٧ج

. ٢ٕ٧ٚ ا٘فعق ؤ٢ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيج ت٢كِ ا٘ٛفٗٙج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ ا٘ض٧بث ا٢٘ا٧ًٔج ٜٛ عٯل ٔم٧ج ٛٛبذٙج: ا٘عن٢ث ا٘ؼاتًج .4٦ّ فٗل ٛإ٢ِ٘ ١٘ب ٮؿخٗفبِ ٢خ١غِ ٠ػٞ ا٘عن٢ث ا٤٘ خفس٧ى ا٘نٯة ي٤ٙ خؼسٛج ٢س١بح ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ إ٘م٧ج

( forums)٢ٛذٯ، ٝسغ ؤٜ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح ا٘ٛٝنتٕج ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛٝخغ٧بح اْ٘ٛخ٢ضج . ٢خضغ٧غ ٗل ؤ٢سٟ اٮعخٯِ ٢ا٘خفبتٟ٢خًختؼ ٠ػٞ ا٘عن٢ث ١ٛٛج، اػ ؤٝٝب (. chat rooms)خعخِٙ يٜ خٖٙ ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ ؤٜ خنتٓ ٦ّ َؼِ ا٘ٛٝبٔفج

ا٘ض٦ٕ٧ٕ ض٧د ْٝخؼل خض٧٢ل ّٗؼث اٮٝخؼٝح ا٤٘ ٢مى ٢ا٦ًٔ ٘ٛؿبيغث ٝخضؼٖ ٜٛ اً٘ب٘ٚ اٮّخؼام٦ ا٤٘ اً٘ب٘ٚ . ا٘نٯة ٘ٙٝهؼ ٦ّ ا٬سؼاءاح ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ا٘ٛإ٢ّ٘ج ٘غ١٧ٚ ٦ّ ض٧بخ١ٚ ا٧ٛ٢٧٘ج

٢ٕ٧ٚ ا٘فعق ؤ٢ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيج تتٝبء ا٘ضب٘ج ا٘خ٦ ٢ٗ٧ٜ ١٧ّب ْٛخ٢ش ي٤ٙ س٧ٛى ا٪نؼاِ تض٧د ٢ٜٗٝ : ا٘عن٢ث ا٘عبٛؿج .5٧٢خنٙة ٠ػا ٜٛ ا٘نٯة عن٢اح ٬سؼاء ا٘ٛضبٗبث ٪٥ ٝفبن ٜٛ . ءاح ا٪عؼ٣ٔبغؼا ي٤ٙ ؼئ٧ج ٗل ا٬سؼا

٢ت١ػٞ ا٘نؼ٧ٕج، ي٤ٙ ؿت٧ل ا٘ٛذبل، اسؼاء خض٧ٕٕبح ٛى نٯة ٧غؼؿ٢ٜ ي٤ٙ . ا٪ٝفنج ا٘خ٦ خًٗؾ ؤعٯ٧ٔبح ا٘ضب٘جتب٘ؼغ ي٤ٙ ٢ٜٛ ا١ٛ٘ٚ ؤٜ خخٚ ٛٝبٔفج ٧ْ٧ٗج ٧ٔبٚ ٗل ٛس٢ٛيج . ٧٢ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خ٢ٜٗ ا٘ضب٘ج ٛٝبٔفج ؤ٢ ٔكج. ا٘فتٗج



. ا٘ضب٘ج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٢تًغ ػٖ٘ خٕؼؼ ٛب ٦٠ ا٘ؿتل ا٘ٛٛٗٝج ٮخعبػ ا٬سؼاءاح ا٘خ٦ ٧ٜٛٗ اخعبػ٠ب ٘ضل إ٘م٧ج ا٪عٯ٧ٔج٢خخس٤ٙ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ٠ػٞ ا٘عن٢ث، ٦ّ ٢ٜٗ ا٘نٯة ٢ًٙٛ٧ٜ ي٤ٙ ضغ ؿ٢اء ٮؿخٗفبِ ؤ٢سٟ ا٘فتٟ ٢اٮعخٯِ ت٧ٜ ٢أى

ٗٛب ؤ١ٝب ؤغاث خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج خٜٛٗ ا٘نٯة ٜٛ ا٘ٛفبؼٗج تٝفبن ٢خؼاي٦ . ا٘ض٧بث ٢ٛب خٝن٥٢ ي٧ٟٙ خ٢٘٢ٝٗس٧ب ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح. ؤ٧مب ا٘نٯة ا٘ػ٧ٜ ٧ْم٢ٜٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘نؼ٧ٕج ٦ّ ا٘خًٙٚ

٠٢غ١ّب ٦٠ اعخ٧بؼ ٢ختؼ٧ؼ . ٢ٕ٧ٚ ا٘فعق ؤ٢ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيج تبعخ٧بؼ ضل ٢اضغ ٢ختؼ٧ؼ ٠ػا اٮعخ٧بؼ: ا٘عن٢ث ا٘ؿبغؿج .6. ٛؿبؼ ً٘ٙٛل

الخالضج سؼائٚ : ٛذل: ٧٢ٜٛٗ خٕؿ١ٛ٧ب ا٤٘ يغغ ٜٛ إ٘مب٧ب. مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٧ّٟ، ٢ٔغ ٢ٝٔفح تًم١ب ٠ٝب٠ٝبٖ ٛس٢ٛيج ٢اؿًج ٜٛ ا٘ٓ

ا٘ضبؿ٢ة، ٢ا٨ذبؼ اٮسخٛبي٧ج ٘ٯٝخؼٝح، ٠٢ػٞ ٔمب٧ب ٛخٕغٛج، ٢ؤخ٧ٗح اٮٝخؼٝح، ٢ض٢ٕٓ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج، ٠٢ػٞ ٧ٜٛٗ ٢ٔايغ ٘ٙؿ٢ٖٙ، ٪ٜ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة ٢ا٘فتٗج خخعٙل ٠٢ٝبٖ مؼ٢ؼث ٢٘مى . خك١ْ٧ٝب ٕٗمب٧ب ايخ٧بغ٧ج تفٗل ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ؿبتٕخ١ب

٢ا٢ً٘اٛل ا٘خ٦ خ٧ٛؽ إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج . ٝب خ٧ًٙٚ ا٘نٯة اٮ٘خؽاٚ ٜٛ ؤ١ٝب خؿخعغٚ تفٗل ٛؿئ٢ل٥ا٘فعك٧ج، ٢يل ٝبيٛٙٝب ٢ض٧بح٧ؼ ٦ّ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢ا٘فتٗج خفٛل ؿؼيج ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢ا٘فتٗج، ٢سٛى ا٘ت٧بٝبح ٢ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ٢كغ١ٔب، ٠٢ٝبٖ ا٘ٗد

ٗٛب ؤٜ ٠ٝبٖ اً٘غ٧غ ٜٛ ا٘نؼٓ ا٘ٛعخْٙج ا٘خ٦ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ . ٘ٙخ٧ْٗؼ ٠٢ٝبٖ ا٘ٗذ٧ؼ ٜٛ اً٘ٛل ا٘ػ٥ ٧خ٧ًٜ ا٧ٕ٘بٚ ي٤ٙ ا٘خؼت٧٧٢ٜ تٟ: ة ا٘خ٧ًٙٚ ا٘خ٧ٕٙغ٧ج، ٛذلا٢٦ٜ٘ٛ ا٪ٛذٙج ٢مى ا٘ٛٙكٕبح ٢خ٢س٧ٟ ا٘ٝكبئص ٘س٧ٛى ا٘نٯة ٢ؤؾ. خغؼؾ ت١ب إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج

ٛٝبٔفبح، ٢ا٘ضكق ا٘غؼاؿ٧ج؛ امبّج ا٤٘ نؼٓ ؤعؼ٣ ٧ٜٛٗ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٦ّ ا٘ٛفبؼ٧ى ا٘ن٧٢ٙج ا٘ٛضبمؼاح، ٢ا٘ٝغ٢اح، ٢الّٚ يؼل ٢ٛٝػر ١ٝٛس٦ ٘ٙعن٢اح ا٘ؼئ٧ؿج ً٘ؼل ٢خغؼ٧ؾ ٢اؿخعغاٚ . اسؼاء غؼاؿج اؿخٕكبئ٧ج ْٛكٙج: ا٪سل، ٛذل ٢خ

.٢ضل إ٘مب٧ب ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٦ّ ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ

: هىهز الدراشج وإسراءاخهب: طرٍقج الدراشج

ايخٛغح ا٘غؼاؿج ي٤ٙ ا١ٝٛ٘ز ا٢٘ك٦ْ ا٘ٛؿض٦ ت١غِ ا٘ضك٢ل ي٤ٙ ٢ًٙٛٛبح يٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة .٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج، ٪ٟٝ ٧خٝبؿة ٛى ٠غِ ٢نت٧ًج ا٘غؼاؿج

: أداث الدراشج ح٠٢غِ. ٪عٯ٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾايخٛغح ا٘غؼاؿج ي٤ٙ اؿختبٝج اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا

٢ٔغ . اٮؿختبٝج ا٤٘ خًؼِ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ي٤ٙ خت٦ٝ ٠ػٞ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ٜٛ يغٟٛ ٜٛ ض٧د غؼسج ا٪٧ٛ٠ج ٢ا٘خنت٧ّٓٚ ايغاغ٠ب يٜ نؼ٧ٓ ا٬نٯو ي٤ٙ ا٘تض٢د ٢ا٘غؼاؿبح ا٘ؿبتٕج ا٘خ٦ خٝب٢٘ح ا٢ٛ٘م٢و، ٢ اٮؿخْبغث ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝبح ا٢ٛ٘س٢غث خ

. ٦ّ ا٘تض٢د ٢ا٘غؼاؿبح ا٘ؿبتٕج، ذٚ تٝبء خك٢ؼ ٘ٙٛضب٢ؼ ا٘خ٦ خٝغؼر خضخ١ب ا٪ٝٛبن ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ً٘ٙٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ٛفخٕج ٜٛ ا٪غت٧بحؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ تسبًٛج ا٘ؿٙنبٜ ٔبت٢ؾ ٢ػٖ٘ عٯل اْ٘كل ( 5)٢خٚ نؼش اٮؿختبٝج ا٪٧٘٢ج ي٤ٙ ي٧ٝج تٍٙ ٢ٔا١ٛب

٢٘ٙخإٗغ ٜٛ كغٓ ٛضخ٣٢ . ، ٢ٔغ افخٛٙح يغغا ٜٛ اً٘تبؼاح ٢ا٘ٛضب٢ؼ(2008 -2007)غؼاؿ٦ ا٘ؼت٦ً٧ ٜٛ اً٘بٚ ا٘سب٦ًٛ الاٮؿختبٝج، خٚ يؼم١ب ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٧ٜٛٗ ٢اٮؿخْبغث ٜٛ ا٘خُػ٧ج ا٘ؼاسًج ٢ا٘خ٧ًٕٙبح ا٘ٛٯئٛج، ٢ؤيّغح اٮؿختبٝج تًغ خك٧ِٝ

ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج، ٢ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج : ٢ٛؽيج ي٤ٙ ؿخج ٛضب٢ؼ، ٦٠اً٘تبؼاح ٢خت٧٢ة ا٘ٛضب٢ؼ، ّإكتضح اً٘تبؼاح ٢ٔغ . اً٘بٛج، ٢ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ٢ا٘خكؼِ، ٢اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خغؼ٧ؿ٧ج ٢ا٘غايٛج، ٢ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ، ٢ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج



١ٛٚ -١ٛٚ -٧َؼ ١ٛٚ -ح ٛخإٗغا٘ؾ)٦ّ ضب٘ج ا٬سبتج ( 4-1)٦ّ ٗل ا٘ٛضب٢ؼ غؼسبح ٛب ت٧ٜ ( ٧ًٛبؼ)ؤين٧ح ٘ٗل يتبؼث ٦٠٢ ( 0.96)ٗٛب خٚ ا٘خإٗغ ٜٛ ذتبح ا٪غاث اٮؿختبٝج تضؿبة ًٛبٛل ؤْ٘ب ٗؼ٢ٝتبط ً٘ٙتبؼاح ا٧ٙٗ٘ج ٢ٔغ تُٙح ٧ٔٛج ؤْ٘ب (سغا

.ث ٜٛ ا٘ذتبحا٦٘ث خغ٘ل ي٤ٙ ؤٜ اٮؿختبٝج خخٛخى تغؼسج وا٧ٔ٦٘ٛج وهخغٍراح الدراشج

٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝحخنت٧ٓ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ: ا٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘خبتى. ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘متن ٢ٛؿخ٧٢بخ١ب:

)ؤٝذ٤/ ػٗؼ: )ا٢ٝ٘و .1 )٧ًٛغ/ ٛغؼؾ/ ؤؿخبػ ٛؿبيغ / ؤؿخبػ ٛفبؼٖ/ ؤؿخبػ)ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج .2 )ؤؼغ٧ٝج/ تضؼ٧ٝ٧ج/ ُيٛب٧ٝج/ سبًٛج ٛكؼ٧ج)ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج .3 )ؿ٢ٝاح 10ؤٗذؼ ٜٛ / ؿ٢ٝاح 10-5/ ؿ٢ٝاح 5)ا٘عتؼث .4

شج حدود الدراٝخبئز ا٘غؼاؿج ا٘ضب٧٘ج تٛس٢ٛيج ٜٛ ا٘ضغ٢غ ا٘ؽ٧ٝٛج ٢ا٘تفؼ٧ج ٢ا٘ٛٗب٧ٝج ٢خخٛذل خٖٙ ا٘ضغ٢غ ت٧ًٟٝ ا٘غؼاؿج ا٘ٛخٛذٙج ٦ّ حضغغح

ٝخبئز ٠ػٞ ا٘غؼاؿج تبْ٘خؼث ا٘ؽ٧ٝٛج ا٘خ٦ ٗٛب خضغغحؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ تب٘سبًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٜٛٛ ٢ًٙٛ٧ٜ ٦ّ ٧ٙٗبخ١ب، :ٔخكؼ ضغ٢غ ا٘غؼاؿج ي٧٤ٙسؼ٥ ١٧ّب خنت٧ٓ ا٪غ٢اح ٢ح

يم٢ ٜٛ ت٧ٜ ا٘خعككبح ( 153)ي٧ٝج ٜٛ ت٧ٜ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ تب٘سبًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج : ا٘ضغ٢غ ا٘تفؼ٧ج .ا٘ٛعخْٙج

ا٘سبًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ا٘غ٢ل ا٪ؼتى : ا٘ضغ٢غ ا٘ٛٗب٧ٝج 2009-2008)اْ٘كل ا٘غؼاؿ٦ ا٘عؼ٦ْ٧ ٜٛ اً٘بٚ ا٘سب٦ًٛ : ا٘ضغ٢غ ا٘ؽٛب٧ٝج(

حضبئٍج الهؼبلسج اإل

:ا٬ضكبئ٧ج ٧ّٛب ٦ٙ٧ SPSSخٚ اؿخعغاٚ ضؽٛج ضؿبة ا٘خٗؼاؼاح ٢ا٘ٝؿة ا٘ٛئ٧٢ج ٘ٙٛخ٧ُؼاح ٢٘ٛضب٢ؼ اٮؿختبٝج ٜٛ ضؿبة ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ضؿبت٦ ٢اٮٝضؼاِ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ٘خضغ٧غ خؼخ٧ة اؿخسبتبح ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج خسبٞ يتبؼاح ٗل ٛض٢ؼ

.ٛضب٢ؼ اٮؿختبٝج ا٢ٝ٘و، )تضؿة ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘متن ( خنت٧ٓ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ)٢ٓ ٦ّ ا٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘خبتًج اعختبؼ ح ٢خض٧ٙل ا٘ختب٧ٜ ٘ضؿبة اْ٘ؼ

(. ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج، ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج، ا٘عتؼث

هسخهغ الدراشج ٛكؼ ٢ُيٛبٜ ٢ا٘تضؼ٧ٜ ٢ا٪ؼغٜ، ي٤ٙ اعخٯِ : فٛل ٛسخٛى ا٘غؼاؿج ٗبّج ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛئؿؿبح سب٧ًٛج ٦ّ

. )2009-2008)ا٘سب٦ًٛ خعككبخ١ٚ ٧ٙٗ٢بخ١ٚ ٦ّ اً٘بٚ

ػٍىج الدراشج وخوزٍؼهب



يم٢ ( 153)ؤسؼ٧ح ا٘غؼاؿج ي٤ٙ ي٧ٝج خٚ اعخ٧بؼ٠ب يف٢ائ٧ب ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ تب٘سبًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج تٍٙ يغغ٠ٚ :م٢ٚٔغ ؼ٢ي٦ ٦ّ اعخ٧بؼ٠ب ؤٜ ح. ٧٠ئج خغؼ٧ؾ ٧ٛذ٢ٜٙ ٗبّج ا٧ٙٗ٘بح ا٘سب٧ًٛج ٢ا٘خعككبح ٢ا٘غؼسبح ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ا٘ٛعخْٙج ١٧ّب

ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ٗبّج ا٧ٙٗ٘بح تب٘سبًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ٗبّج ا٧ٙٗ٘بح ا٧ًٙٛ٘ج ٢ا٘ٝهؼ٧ج ٦ّ ا٘سبًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج. ٗبّج ا٘غؼسبح ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ت٧ٜ ا٢٘اّغ٧ٜ اً٘ؼة ٢ا٢ٛ٘ان٧ٜٝ ٦ّ خٖٙ ا٘سبًٛبح اًٛبح ا٘ٛعخْٙج ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ٢ا٬ٝبد ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ تب٘ز

. خ٢ؽ٧ى ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج( 1)٧٢ت٧ٜ ا٘سغ٢ل

(1)سغ٢ل

ي٧ٝج ا٘ٛفبؼ٧ٜٗ ٦ّ ا٘تضد ٢ٛؽيج نتًٕب ٘ٙٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘غ٧ُٛؼا٧ّج اإلسهئلي الؼدد الهشخوى الهخغٍر ن

ا٢ٝ٘و .1 111 ػٗؼ

153 42 ؤٝذ٤

ا٘ؼختج .2 ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج

14 ؤؿخبػ

153 33 ؤؿخبػ ٛفبؼٖ 80 ؤؿخبػ ٛؿبيغ

17 ٛغؼؾ 9 ٧ًٛغ

(1)سغ٢ل

(خبتى)ي٧ٝج ا٘ٛفبؼ٧ٜٗ ٦ّ ا٘تضد ٢ٛؽيج نتًٕب ٘ٙٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘غ٧ُٛؼا٧ّج

اإلسهئلي الؼدد الهشخوى الهخغٍر ن

ا٘ٛئؿؿج .3 ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج

48 ٛكؼ٧ج

153 69 ُيٛب٧ٝج 25 تضؼ٧ٝ٧ج 11 ؤؼغ٧ٝج

ا٘عتؼث .4ؿ٢ٝاح 5 30

ؿ٢ٝاح 5-10 153 40 شىواح 10هو أكذر 83

خحمٍل التٍبىبح وهىبقشخهبا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جًٛب٧٧ؼ . ؤ. 1

ـُٙة ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ خضغ٧غ ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٪٢ل ٘ٙغؼاؿج؛ ن٧َؼ )؛ (١ٛٚ)؛ (٠ٚ سغاٚ: )٢س١ج ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ ٔبئٛج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج ي٤ٙ ٧ٕٛبؾ خك٧ِٝ ٢ٝي٦ ٜٛ ؤؼتى خٕغ٧ؼاح ٦٠



ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٮؿخسبتج ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ يتبؼاح ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج ( 2)، ٢٧٢مص سغ٢ل (٘ؿح ٛخإٗغا)؛ (١ٛٚ. ٢ا٘ٛخًٕٙج تًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج، ٛى خ٢م٧ص خؼخ٧ة ٗل ٧ًٛبؼ؛ ٢ًّٕب ٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ضؿبت٦

(2)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج (

(2)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج ( (خبتى)

ا الهؼٍبر لرقن

الخكراراحال

هخوشط *الحشبتٌ

االىحراف الهؼٍبرً

حرخٍة الهؼٍبر

ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

3. ٧ٛخٝى يٜ ت٧ى

و ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ا٘ٛٝخسج ٜٛ ا٘ٛفبؼ٥.ٔتل ا٘نٙتج ٘ضؿبتٟ ا٘عبق

1

34 1

4 3 2 3

.83

0

.51 1

4.

٧خسٝة ا٘ضك٢ل ي٤ٙ ٝؿظ ٧َؼ ٔب٧ٝ٢ٝج ؤ٢ ٛؿؼ٢ٔج ٘تؼٛس٧بح ٘غ١٧ب ض٢ٕٓ نتبيج

.٢ٝفؼ

9

1 4

0 1

4 8 3

.398

0

.861 5

5.

٧خسٝة اٮنٯو ي٤ٙ ْٛٙبح ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ا٘ٛعؽٝج ي٤ٙ ض٢اؿ٧ة ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج

.اح نٯتٟتبؿخذٝبء ِٛٙ

1

26 1

9 6 2 3

.758

0

.585 3

6. ٧ٛخٝى يٜ اؿخعغاٚ

ا٘ٛكبغؼ ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج .٩٘عؼ٧ٜ غ٢ٜ اػٜ ١ٝٛٚ

1

10 3

7 5 1 3

.673

0

.571 4

ا لرقن

الهؼٍبرالن الخكراراح

خوشط *الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

ل ؿح ٛخإٗغا

1. ٧خإٗغ ٜٛ ؤٜ س٧ٛى

ا٘نٯة ٘ٚ ٧ٝؿع٢ا كْضبح .ٜٛ ا٧٢٘ة ٢ٝؿت١ب ٪ْٝؿ١ٚ

1

25 2

4 3 1 3.

784

0.

499 2

2.

٧ٛٝى ا٘نب٘ة ٜٛ ٕٝل ٕ٘نبح ٧ّغ٢٧ ؤ٢ ؼؿ٢ٛبح

ٜٛ اٮٝخؼٝح ؤ٢ ٝك٢ق ٢٘ضغث ٧ك١ٛٛب تْٝؿٟ غ٢ٜ

.اػٜ ٛؿتٓ/خكؼ٧ص

8

0 5

2 1

8 3 3.

366

0.

767 6



(2)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج ( (خبتى)

.4 –٧1خؼا٢ش ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥ ت٧ٜ *

٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٠ػا، ّٕغ ٢سغ ؤٜ (. 2.751)٢( 3.83)ؤٜ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿنبح ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج خٕى ت٧ٜ ( 2)٧ه١ؼ سغ٢ل ، ٢ٔغ (2,5)ٔغٚ اػ ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿنبخ١ب ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ٗبٝح ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج خٕى ١ٙٗب ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٛح

، ٦ّ ض٧ٜ (3.784)٧ٙ٧ٟ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٪٢ل تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ( 3.83)اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ذب٘د ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪٤٘٢ ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ٢ختؼؽ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج اخْبٓ ؤّؼاغ (. 2.751)غؼٞ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؿبتى ٜٛ إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪ع٧ؼث ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ضؿبت٦ ٓ

ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج، ٢ختؼؽ تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ف٢ٖٗ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل اٛٗب٧ٝج ٧ٔبٚ ا٘ٛغؼؿ٧ٜ . تبيبغث ت٧ى ا٘ٛفبؼ٧ى ا٘ضبؿ٢ت٧ج ٘نٯت١ٚ ٘ضؿبت١ٚ ا٘عبق، ٢مؼ٢ؼث ا٘خؽا١ٛٚ ا٪عٯ٦ٔ تبٮٛخٝبو يٜ ػٖ٘

:ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جٕٛبؼٝج ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ . ة. 1 . ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٪٢ل ٘ٙغؼاؿج اُخِتًح ا٬سؼاءاح ا٘خب٧٘ج ٢ًّٕب ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘غؼاؿج

:ا٢ٝ٘و: ؤ٢ٮ ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ٦ٗ٘ ٧خٚ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ي٤ٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج، خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج

٘ٛس٢ٛيخ٧ٜ ٛؿخٕٙخ٧ٜ ٛعخْٙخ٦ اً٘غغ، ٢ػٖ٘ تًغ ضؿبة ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٢اٮٝضؼاِ ( ح)ا٢ٝ٘و تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ . ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٧ٔ٢ٛج اعختبؼ ح تب٘ٝؿتج ٪غاء ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٪٢ل( 3)ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ١٘ٛب، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل


ال الخكراراحهخوشط *الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

7.

٧خسٝة مٚ ا٘ٝؿظ إ٘غ٧ٛج ٜٛ ا٘تؼاٛز ا٤٘ ٕٛخ٧ٝبخٟ

ا٘عبكج تًغ ؤٜ ٢ٕ٧ٚ تخض٧ٛل ا٘ٝؿظ .ا٘سغ٧غث ٜٛ خٖٙ ا٘تؼاٛز

4

3 4

8 4

3 1

9 2.

751

1.

001 9

٧ؼّل ٝؿظ ا٘تؼٛس٧بح .8.ي٤ٙ يغث ض٢اؿ٧ة عبكج

4

6 5

2 3

5 2

0 2.

81 1.

011 8

9. ٧ضؼق ي٤ٙ غّى

ا٘ٛضغغث ٕٛبتل ٛب٧٘جلا٘ٛتبٍ٘ ا.اؿخعغاٟٛ ٘ٙتؼٛس٧بح

7

7 5

3 1

3 1

0 3.

287

0.

878 7



(3)سغ٢ل

٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج( ح)ٝخبئز اعختبؼ

الىوعا

لؼدد الهخوشط الحشبتٌ


قٍهج ح

الداللجاإلحضبئٌ ث

1 ذكور

11 30.45 3.784

غٍر دالج 1.1394 إىبد

2 31.214 3.467

وهشخوى الداللج 151ػىد درسج حرٍج قٍهج ح السدولٍج* 0.05 = 1.658.

، (30.45)ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج تٍٙ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ( 3)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ٢تج ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ح ا٘ٛضؾ(31.214)ت٧ٝٛب تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٬ٝبد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ْٝؿٟ

(. 0.05)، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٮعختبؼ ح؛ ٠٢ػا ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼٓ غال اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ (1.139). ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ ؤٜ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ا٘سٝؿ٧ٜ ٦ّ ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج ٧خ٢ْٕٜ ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج

ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج : ذب٧ٝبخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؾ

(ANOVA) ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ (4)، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل ،. ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج

(4)سغ٢ل

ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٥ هسن هضدر الختبٍو

وع الهرتؼبحدرسج

الحرٍجهخوس

ط الهرتؼبح قٍهج ف

الداللجاإلحص

ائٍج.68 ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

721

4 17.1

8

٧َؼ 1.26 غا٘ج

غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

20

17.606

148 13.6

32

، وهشخوى الداللج 148، 4ث ف السدولٍج ػىد درسخٌ حرٍج قٍن* 0.05 = 2.45

، ٢ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (68.721)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 4)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (17.18)، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2017.606)ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

( 1.26)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (13.632)ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ (0.05)٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ غا٘ج اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢

.٦ّ ٛعخِٙ ا٘ؼخة ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج



: ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج: ذب٘ذبخٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥

٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥( 5)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ . ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج

(5)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جهز هضدر الختبٍو

هوع الهرتؼبحدرسج

الحرٍجاهخوشط

ح الهرتؼبح قٍهج ف


83 ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

.421 3 27.807

٧َؼ غا٘ج 2.06920 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

02.906 149 13.442

، وهشخوى الداللج 149، 3قٍهج ف السدولٍج ػىد درسخٌ حرٍج * 0.05 = 2.68.

، ٢ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (83.421)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 5)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (27.807)، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2002.906)ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

( 2.069)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ ((13.442ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا (0.05)٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا

. ٦ًٝ٧ ؤٜ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛعخِٙ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٘ٛغؼ٢ؿج ٧خ٢ْٕٜ ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج

: ا٘عتؼث: ؼاتًبخغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ال

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ (. 6)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ. ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧ج

(6)سغ٢ل

اء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيل

ٛكغؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜٚ

س٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح

غؼسج ا٘ضؼ٧ج

ٛخ٢ؿنب ح ا٘ٛؼتًبح

٧ٔٛجِ

ا٘غٮ٘جا٬ضكبة

٧ج 2.5 2 5 ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

2 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٧َؼ غا٘ج 0.18

081.327

150 13.876

= 0.05 ، وهشخوى الداللج150، 2قٍهج ف السدولٍج ػىد درسخٌ حرٍج * 3.07.



، ٢ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح (5)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 6)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن 2.5))، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2081.327)٦٠

، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج 0.18))، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (13.876)ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج (0.05)ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ . ثا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ا٘عتؼث ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٥

ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛجًٛب٧٧ؼ . ؤ. 2

ـُٙة ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ خضغ٧غ ٢س١ج ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٘ٙغؼاؿج؛ ن؛ (٧َؼ ١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ سغا: )ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ ٔبئٛج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج ي٤ٙ ٧ٕٛبؾ خك٧ِٝ ٢ٝي٦ ٜٛ ؤؼتى خٕغ٧ؼاح ٦٠

ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٮؿخسبتج ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ يتبؼاح ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج ( 7)، ٢٧٢مص سغ٢ل (٘ؿح ٛخإٗغا). ٢ا٘ٛخًٕٙج تًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج، ٛى خ٢م٧ص خؼخ٧ة ٗل ٧ًٛبؼ؛ ٢ًّٕب ٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ضؿبت٦

(7)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج (


الن الخكراراحخوشط

*تٌالحشب



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

ل ؿح ٛخإٗغا

٧خسٝة اؿخعغاٚ .1ض٢اؿ٧ة ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج

٬ؼؿبل تؼ٧غ ا٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ .٫َ٘ؼال ا٘عبكج

4

0 3

6 6

8 9 2.

699

0

.925 5

٧خسٝة اؿخعغاٚ .2ض٢اؿ٧ة ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج .٘ٛخبتًج خٕبؼ٧ؼ عبكج

4

3 5

0 5

3 7 2.

843

0

.889 3

ٮ ٧كنضة .3ا٘تؼٛس٧بح اً٘ٛغث ٜٛ ٔتل

ا٘سبًٛج ٮؿخعغا١ٛب /ا٢٘ؽاؼث.٦ّ ا٘ٛٝؽل

3

1 4

6 5

5 2

1 2.

568

0

.964 6

٧ت٦ٝ اؿخعغاٟٛ .4٘٭ٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿج

ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ي٤ٙ ؤؿبؾ ؤٟٝ .اٛخ٧بؽ ٧٘٢ؾ ضٕب

4

2 6

8 3

0 1

3 2.

908

0

.898 2

٧ٛٝى ا٘نب٘ة ٜٛ .5اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة ٬سؼاء

عبكج يتؼ ٛضبغذبح.اٮٝخؼٝح ٛى ا٨عؼ٧ٜ

6

3 5

3 3

0 7 3.

124

0

.883 1



(7)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج ( (خبتى)

.4 –1ٍخراوش الهخوشط الىظرً تٍو *

٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٠ػا، ّٕغ ٢سغ ؤٜ (. 2.516)٢( 3.124)ؤٜ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿنبح ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج خٕى ت٧ٜ ( 7)٧ه١ؼ سغ٢ل ، ٢ٔغ (2,5)خ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج خٕى ١ٙٗب ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٛخٕغٚ اػ ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿنبخ١ب ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ٗبٝح ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٚ

١٧ٙ٧ب ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؼاتى تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ( 3.124)اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘عبٛؾ ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪٤٘٢ ت٧ٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٠ػا ا٘ٛض٢ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ٢ختؼؽ (. 2.516)، ٦ّ ض٧ٜ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٜٛ إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪ع٧ؼث ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ضؿبت٦ ٔغؼٞ (2.908)

. خْبٓ ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج ي٤ٙ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج ا

:ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛجٕٛبؼٝج ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ . ة. 2

٧َؼاح ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٘ٙغؼاؿج اُخِتًح ا٬سؼاءاح ا٘خب٧٘ج ٢ًّٕب ٘ٛح .ا٘غؼاؿج

:ا٢ٝ٘و: ؤ٢ٮ ٦ٗ٘ ٧خٚ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ي٤ٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج، خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ

٘ٛس٢ٛيخ٧ٜ ٛؿخٕٙخ٧ٜ ٛعخْٙخ٦ اً٘غغ، ٢ػٖ٘ تًغ ضؿبة ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٢اٮٝضؼاِ ( ح)ا٢ٝ٘و تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ . ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٧ٔ٢ٛج اعختبؼ ح تب٘ٝؿتج ٪غاء ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ذب٦ٝ( 8)ا، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ٟ٘


الن الخكراراحخوشط *الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

٧ٛٝى ا٘نب٘ة ٜٛ .6اؿخعغاٚ ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة ٬سؼاء

ٛضبغذبح عبكج يتؼ .اٮٝخؼٝح ٛى ا٨عؼ٧ٜ

6

3 5

3 3

0 7 3.

124

0

.883 1

٧ٛٝى ا٘نب٘ة ٜٛ .7اؿخعغاٚ ض٢اؿ٧ة ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٘ٛخبتًج ا٘كضِ

.٢ا٘ٛسٯح

2

7 3

2 8

7 7 2.

516

0

.835 7

٧ٛٝى ا٘نب٘ة ٜٛ .8اؿخعغاٚ ض٢اؿ٧ة ا٘ٛئؿؿج

ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٘ٛخبتًج ا٘تؼاٛز .ا٬ػاي٧ج ؤ٢ ا٘خ٧ْٙؽ٧ٝ٢٧ج

5

0 3

3 6

2 8 2.

817

0

.955 4



(8)سغ٢ل

٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج( ح)ٝخبئز اعختبؼ

الىوعا



قٍهج ح

الداللجحضبئٌاإل

ث

1 ػ٢ٗؼ

11 19.225 4.414

٧َؼ غا٘ج 1.1424 اٝبد

2 20.142 4.497

وهشخوى الداللج 151قٍهج ح السدولٍج ػىد درسج حرٍج * 0.05 = 1.658.

، (19.225)ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج تٍٙ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ( 8)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ح ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج 20.142))ن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٬ٝبد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ْٝؿٟ ت٧ٝٛب تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؾ

(. 0.05)، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٮعختبؼ ح؛ ٠٢ػا ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼٓ غال اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ (1.142). ٜ ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٜٛ ا٘سٝؿ٦

ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج : ذب٧ٝبخٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ

(ANOVA) اتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ، ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخز(9)، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل. ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج

(9)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛجهسهو هضدر الختبٍو

ع الهرتؼبحدرسج

الحرٍجهخوشط

الهرتؼبح قٍهج ف

الداللجاإلحضبا

ٍج

٢ٛيبحت٧ٜ ا٘ٛز 65.1

07 4 16.27

7 ٧َؼ غا٘ج 0.821

293 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

3.063 148 19.81

8


، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (65.107)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 9)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (16.277)، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2933.063) ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

( (0.821، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠(19.818)ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ (0.05)غا٘ج اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ

. ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛعخِٙ ا٘ؼخة ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج



: ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج: ذب٘ذبضبغ٥ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤ

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ( 10)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ . ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج

(10)سغ٢ل

ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛجٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل

هضدر الختبٍوهز


الحرٍجهخوشطب




1.632 3 123.87

7 7.027

غا٘ج 26 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح اضكبئ٧ب

26.538

149 17.628


، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (371.632)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 10)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (123.877)، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2626.538)ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

( 7.027)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (17.628)ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ( 0.05)٦٠٢ ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢

يؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج اعخٯّب ٦ّ ٢س١بح ا٘ٝهؼ ت٧ٜ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج ٥ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ . ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٢ٔغ ٢ٗ٧ٜ ٠ػا ٝبخسب يٜ ١ّٚ ٛختب٧ٜ ١٘ػٞ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ٦ّ ا٘غ٢ل اً٘ؼت٧ج ا٘ٛغؼ٢ؿج

: ا٘عتؼث: ؼاتًبخٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥

اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝخبئز( 11)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ. ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج

(11)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج

هضدر الختبٍون

سهوع الهرتؼبح

درسج الحرٍج

هخوشطبػبحح الهرة

قٍهج ف



3.86 2 31.93

غٍر دالج 1.6322 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

934.31 150 19.562




٧ٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ، ٢اٜ ٓ(63.86)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 11)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ت٧ٝٛب (31.93)، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ((2934.31ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، (1.632)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (19.562)٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا (0.05)٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج

. ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ا٘عتؼث ا٘ذٯد ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اً٘بٛج

ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ًٙٚٛب٧٧ؼ . ؤ. 3ـُٙة ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ خضغ٧غ ٢س١ج ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ذب٘د ٘ٙغؼا ؿج؛ ن

؛ (٧َؼ ١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ سغا: )ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ ٔبئٛج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ ي٤ٙ ٧ٕٛبؾ خك٧ِٝ ٢ٝي٦ ٜٛ ؤؼتى خٕغ٧ؼاح ٦٠ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٮؿخسبتج ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ يتبؼاح ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ذب٘د ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج ( 12)، ٢٧٢مص سغ٢ل (٘ؿح ٛخإٗغا)

. خًٕٙج تًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ، ٛى خ٢م٧ص خؼخ٧ة ٗل ٧ًٛبؼ؛ ٢ًّٕب ٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ضؿبت٢٦ا٘ٚ

(12)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ (



*الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغاٚ

ٚ٠ ٌ

٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

1.

٧ٕٝى ا٘نب٘ة تًغٚ ع٢ل ا٤٘ ٢ٛأى ٧َؼ ٛؼ٢َة ا٘غ

١٧ّب ؤ٢ ٧َؼ ٛٯئٛج ٜٛ ا٘ٝبض٧ج .ا٘غ٧ٝ٧ج ٢اٮسخٛبي٧ج

1

28 1

8 5 2 3.

777

0.

564 1

2.

٧ؿٖٙ ؿ٢ٙٗب ٢ٛٝػس٧ب تخنت٧ٓ اْ٘ٛب٧٠ٚ ا٘عبكج تإعٯ٧ٔبح

ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٜٛ عٯل .ا٘خنت٧ٕبح ٢مؼة ا٪ٛذٙج

1

13 3

7 0 3 3.

699

0.

574 2

3.

٧ٕغٚ ؤٛذٙج ٢ٛٝػس٧ج ٧ج ْ٘ٙٛب٧٠ٚ ا٘عبكج تإعٯ٧ٔبح خنت٧ٓ

ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٜٛ عٯل ٢مى ٝؿظ ي١ٝب ي٤ٙ ؤس١ؽث

.ا٘نٯة

7

7 5

7 4 1

5 3.

281

0.

92 7

4. ٧ضؼٚ ا٘نب٘ة ٜٛ

اؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح اػا ٛب ؤؿبء .اؿخعغاٟٛ

7

3 5

0 1

9 1

1 3.

209

0.

922 8

٧ذتح ٢٘ضبح خخمٜٛ .5.آغاة ٢ٔ٢ايغ اؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح

8

0 5

9 1

0 4 3.

405

0.

729 5



(12)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ ( (خبتى)



*الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغاٚ

ٚ٠ ٌ

٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

٧ذتح ٢٘ضبح خخمٜٛ .6.آغاة ٢ٔ٢ايغ اؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح

8

0 5

9 1

0 4 3.

405

0.

729 5

7.

ئ٧غ ٢س١ج ا٘ٝهؼ تًغٚ ٥نؼش ا٘نٯة ٕ٘ٙمب٧ب ا٘ٛذ٧ؼث

٘ٙسغل ٦ّ ٛٝخغ٧بح ا٘ٛٝبٔفج .ا٬٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج

3

2 4

8 5

9 1

4 2.

64

0.

914

1

1

٧ؼأة اؿخعغاٚ ا٘نٯة .8.٘ٙض٢اؿ٧ة

3

9 7

2 3

3 9 2.

921

0.

839

1

0

٧ؼأة ا٢ٛ٘أى ا٘خ٦ .9.٧ؽ٢ؼ٠ب ا٘نٯة

4

4 6

6 3

3 1

0 2.

941

0.

875 9

10. ٧ذتح ٢٘ضبح خخمٜٛ

ؼاءاح ا٘خإغ٧ت٧ج ٦ّ ضب٘ج اؿبءث ا٬ر.اؿخعغاٚ اٮٝخؼٝح

7

1 6

7 1

2 3 3.

346

0.

71 6

11.

٧ئٗغ ٘ٙنٯة ي٤ٙ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج عك٢ك٧ج ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح ٢ضٓ ا٨عؼ٧ٜ ٦ّ يغٚ سٛى ؤ٢ اؿخعغاٚ .٢ًٙٛٛبح ي١ٝٚ

1

06 4

4 2 1 3.

666

0.

538 3

٧ٝتٟ ا٘نٯة ٦ٗ٘ .12٧ضؿ٢ٝا ا٘خكؼِ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ

.٘ٯٝخؼٝح

9

0 5

6 3 4 3.

516 0.

669 4


٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٠ػا، ّٕغ ٢سغ (. 2.64)٢( 3.777)ؤٜ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿنبح ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ خٕى ت٧ٜ ( 12)٧ه١ؼ سغ٢ل ، (2,5)ؤٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ خٕى ١ٙٗب ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٛخٕغٚ اػ ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿنبخ١ب ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ٗبٝح ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥

١٧ٙ٧ب ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ذب٦ٝ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ( 3.777)٢ٔغ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٪٢ل ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪٤٘٢ ت٧ٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٠ػا ا٘ٛض٢ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ٢ختؼؽ (. 2.64)، ٦ّ ض٧ٜ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٜٛ إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪ع٧ؼث ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ضؿبت٦ ٔغؼٞ (3.699)

مبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٝض٢ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ ٦ّ اؿخعغاٚ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج اخْبٓ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤو .ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٢خ٧ٕٝبخ١ٛب

:ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٕٙٚٛبؼٝج ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ . ة. 3

. ا٘خب٧٘ج ٢ًّٕب ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘غؼاؿج ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ذب٘د ٘ٙغؼاؿج اُخِتًح ا٬سؼاءاح



: ا٢ٝ٘و: ؤ٢ٮ٦ٗ٘ ٧خٚ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ي٤ٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج، خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ

ٝضؼاِ ٘ٛس٢ٛيخ٧ٜ ٛؿخٕٙخ٧ٜ ٛعخْٙخ٦ اً٘غغ، ٢ػٖ٘ تًغ ضؿبة ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٢اٮ( ح)ا٢ٝ٘و تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ . ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٧ٔ٢ٛج اعختبؼ ح تب٘ٝؿتج ٪غاء ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ذب٘د( 13)ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ١٘ب، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل

(13)سغ٢ل

٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ( ح)ٝخبئز اعختبؼ

الىوعا



ثقٍن ح


1 ػ٢ٗؼ

11 36.297 4.783

٧َؼ غا٘ج 0.4814 اٝبد

2 36.714 4.774

(0.05)وهشخوى الداللج 151قٍهج ح السدولٍج ػىد درسج حرٍج * . = 1.658

، (36.297)ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ذب٘د ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج تٍٙ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ( 13)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ح ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج (36.714)ت٧ٝٛب تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٬ٝبد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ْٝؿٟ

(. 0.05)، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٮعختبؼ ح؛ ٠٢ػا ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼٓ غال اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ (0.481). ٢ؼ ٢ا٬ٝبد ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٠٢ٚ٧ٙػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ا٘ػٖ

ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج : ذب٧ٝب

خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ (ANOVA) ٧ٛج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ، ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج اً٘ل(14)، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل

.ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ

(14)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ

هضدر الختبٍوهسهو





ٍج

.116 ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

767 4

29.19

2 ٧َؼ غا٘ج 1.293

334 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

0.292 148 22.57

(0.05)، وهشخوى الداللج 148، 4قٍهج ف السدولٍج ػىد درسخٌ حرٍج * = 2.45.

، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (116.767)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 14)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (29.192)، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (3340.292)٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ا



( 1.293)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (22.57)ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ (0.05)ٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ غا٘ج اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغ

. ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛعخِٙ ا٘ؼخة ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ

: ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج: ذب٘ذبا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ( 15)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ .ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ

(15)سغ٢ل

ؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغ

هز هضدر الختبٍو هوع الهرتؼبح


هخوشطب ح الهرتؼبح

قٍهج ف


الهسهوػبحت٧ٜ 27

9.411 3 93.137

4.367 غا٘ج

31 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح اضكبئ٧ب

77.647 149 21.326

(0.05) ، وهشخوى الداللج149، 3قٍهج ف السدولٍج ػىد درسخٌ حرٍج * = 2.68.

، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (279.411)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 15)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ((93.137، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ 3177.647))ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

( 4.367)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ ((٦٠21.326 ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ (0.05)٦٠٢ ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢

٧ٛ٘ج ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘ى. ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ

: ا٘عتؼث: ؼاتًب

خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٦٠( 16)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ

. ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ



(16)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ





قٍهج ف



8.614 2 19.307

٧َؼ غا٘ج 0.8473 غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح

418.445 150 22.79


، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل (38.614)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 16)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (19.307)ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ،((3418.445ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، (0.847)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (22.79)ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا (0.05)اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج

. ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ا٘عتؼث ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خكؼِ ا٘ؿ٧ٙٚ

خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبحًٛب٧٧ؼ . ؤ. 4ـُٙة ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ خضغ٧غ ٢سٟ ث ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ؼاتى ٘ٙغؼاؿج؛ ن

٧َؼ )؛ (١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ سغا: )ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ ٔبئٛج ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح ي٤ٙ ٧ٕٛبؾ خك٧ِٝ ٢ٝي٦ ٜٛ ؤؼتى خٕغ٧ؼاح ٦٠ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٮؿخسبتج ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ يتبؼاح ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ؼاتى ٜٛ ( 17)، ٢٧٢مص سغ٢ل (٘ؿح ٛخإٗغا)؛ (١ٛٚ

. ٧ص خؼخ٧ة ٗل ٧ًٛبؼ؛ ٢ًّٕب ٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ضؿبت٦اٮؿختبٝج ٢ا٘ٛخًٕٙج تًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح، ٛى خ٢ل

(17)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح (


الن الخكراراحخوشط *ًالحشبة



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

1. ٧غّؼؾ نٯتٟ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ

ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٘ٙخًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة .ٮٝخؼٝح٢ا

9

4 4

8 7 4 3.5

16

0

.708 2

2. ٧ٝبٔـ ٛى نٯتٟ

اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٘ٙخًبٛل ٛى .ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح

8

0 6

7 4 2 3.4

70

0

.618 3

3.

٧ِّٗٙ نٯتٟ تبٝخبر تض٢د ٢ٕٛبٮح سبغث ض٢ل ؤ٧ٛ٠ج

ؤعٯ٧ٔبح ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ٗٛت٢٧خؼ .٢اٮٝخؼٝح

5

2 7

1 2

6 4 3.1

17

0

.777 6



(17)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح ًٛب٧٧ؼ ( (خبتى)

.4 –1اوش الهخوشط الىظرً تٍو ٍخر*

٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٠ػا، ّٕغ (. 2.339)٢( 3.712)ت٧ٜ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح خٕىؤٜ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿنبح ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ( 17)٧ه١ؼ سغ٢ل ٢سغ ؤٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح خٕى ١ٙٗب ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٛخٕغٚ اػ ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿنبخ١ب ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ٗبٝح ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥

، ٢ٔغ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؼاتى ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪٤٘٢ ت٧ٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٠ػا (2.339)خذٝبء ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘خبؿى اػ تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؿنٟ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج تبؾ( 2,5)، ٦ّ ض٧ٜ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘خبؿى ٜٛ إ٘بئٛج (3.516)٧ٙ٧ٟ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٪٢ل تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ( 3.712)ا٘ٛض٢ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ

٢ختؼؽ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٢س١بح (. 2.339) ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪ع٧ؼث ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ضؿبت٦ ٔغؼٞٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح ٧َؼ ؤ١ٝٚ ٮ ٧ؼ٢ٜ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ٛؼأتج ا٘تؼ٧غ اٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٢ا٘ٛضبغذبح ا٘خ٦ ٧سؼ١٧ب ا٘نٯة يتؼ

ي٤ٙ ا٘تؼ٧غ اٮ٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ا٘فعك٦ اٮٝخؼٝح ؼتٛب ً٘غٚ خ٢ّؼ ا٢٘ٔح ا٘ٗب٦ّ ٧ٕٙ٘بٚ تػٖ٘ ؤ٢ تؿتة يغٚ ٔغؼخ١ٚ ي٤ٙ اٮنٯو . ٘نٯت١ٚ ٗٛب ٢٠ ا٘ٛختى ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٗسؽء ٜٛ ؿ٧بؿبخ١ب ٦ّ ٛسبل ا٘ضْبه ي٤ٙ ا٘عك٢ك٧ج


الخكراراحالن

خوشط *ًالحشبة



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

4.

٧ِّٗٙ نٯتٟ تبٝخبر تض٢د ٢ٕٛبٮح سبغث ض٢ل ؤ٧ٛ٠ج

ؤعٯ٧ٔبح ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ٗٛت٢٧خؼ .٢اٮٝخؼٝح

5

2 7

1 2

6 4 3.1

17

0

.777 6

5. ٢ٗ٧ٜ ٢ٛٝػسب س٧غا

٘نٯتٟ ٦ّ خنت٧ٓ خٖٙ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ، .ّٯ ٧خٝبٔل ٢ٟٔ٘ ٛى ًّٟٙ

1

16 3

2 3 2 3.7

12

0

.569 1

6.

٧ًغ ؤٛذٙج ٧٢تخٗؼ ٢ٛأِ ٘خ٧ًٙٚ ؤعٯ٧ٔبح ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح تفٗل

.٧َؼ ٔكغ٥

6

5 7

2 1

2 4 3.2

94

0

.724 5

٧ًؽؽ اؿخعغاٚ ا٘نٙتج .7.٘خٖٙ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح

7

7 6

9 2 5 3.4

24

0

.685 4

٧ؼأة ؿ٢ٖٙ ا٘نٯة .8.يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ٘٭ٝخؼٝح

4

3 6

5 3

6 9 2.9

28

0

.866 7

٧فسى ا٘نٯة ي٤ٙ .9.خكْص اٮٝخؼٝح تبفؼاّٟ

3

3 6

5 5

0 5 2.8

23

0

.803 8

10. ٧ؼأة ا٘تؼ٧غ

ا٬٘ٗخؼ٦ٝ٢ ٢ا٘ٛضبغذبح ا٘خ٦ . ٧سؼ١٧ب ا٘نٯة يتؼ اٮٝخؼٝح

1

1 4

8 7

6 1

8 2.3

39

0

.779 9



:ٕٛبؼٝج ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح. ة. 4

ؼاؿج اُخِتًح ا٬سؼاءاح ا٘خب٧٘ج ٢ًّٕب ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ؼاتى ٘ٙغ .ا٘غؼاؿج

:ا٢ٝ٘و: ؤ٢ٮ ٦ٗ٘ ٧خٚ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ي٤ٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج، خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ

غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٘ٛس٢ٛيخ٧ٜ ٛؿخٕٙخ٧ٜ ٛعخْٙخ٦ اً٘غغ، ٢ػٖ٘ تًغ ضؿبة ٛخ٢ؿن( ح)ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٧ٔ٢ٛج اعختبؼ ح تب٘ٝؿتج ٪غاء ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ ( 18)٢اٮٝضؼاِ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ١٘ب، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل

. ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ؼاتى

(18)سغ٢ل

٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح( ح)ٝخبئز اعختبؼ

ا الىوع لؼدد

الهخوشطاتٌالحس


قٍهج ح


1 ذكور

11 28.522 4.216

٧َؼ غا٘ج 0.5094 إىبد

2 28.904 3.949

(0.05)وهشخوى الداللج 151قٍهج ح السدولٍج ػىد درسج حرٍج * = 1.658.

ٮؿختبٝج تٍٙ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ؼاتى ٜٛ ا( 18)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ح (28.904)، ت٧ٝٛب تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٬ٝبد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ْٝؿٟ (28.522)

، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٮعختبؼ ح؛ ٠٢ػا ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼٓ غال اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ 0.509))ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج . ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ٢ا٬ٝبد ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ (. 0.05)

ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج: ذب٧ٝب خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥

ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ، ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٥(19)، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ .ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح

(19)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح

هسهو هضدر الختبٍو ع الهرتؼبح


هخوشط لهرتؼبحا

قٍهج ف


ٍج

.128 تٍو الهسهوػبح

667 4

32.16

7 ٧َؼ غا٘ج 1.927

247 داخل الهسهوػبح

1.097 148 16.69

7




، ٢ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح (128.667)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 19)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2471.097)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب آٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج (16.697)، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (32.167)، (0.05)ث ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ غا٘ج اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٚ( 1.927)٦٠

. ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ ؤٜ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛعخِٙ ا٘ؼخة ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٧خ٢ْٕٜ ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح:ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج: ذب٘ذب

ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧دٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ( 20)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ

. ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح

(20)سغ٢ل

ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ

هز هضدر الختبٍو هوع الهرتؼبح



قٍهج ف


95 تٍو الهسهوػبح

.299 3 31.766

٧َؼ غا٘ج 1.89025 داخل الهسهوػبح

04.466 149 16.808

(0.05)، وهشخوى الداللج 149، 3ولٍج ػىد درسخٌ حرٍج قٍهج ف السد* = 2.68.

، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ((95.299ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 20)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2504.466)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب اٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج (16.808)، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (31.766)٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ( 1.890)٦٠

٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ا٘غ٢ل اً٘ؼت٧ج ٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼخ١ٚ ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا(0.05). ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح

:ا٘عتؼث: ؼاتًب ا٘عتؼث تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ

خ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٚ(. 21)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ. ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح



(21)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح





قٍهج ف

لجالدال اإلحضبئٌ ث


5.338 2 12.669


574.427 150 17.163


ٛؼتًبح ، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ال(25.338)آٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 21)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (2574.427)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج (17.163)، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (12.669)ٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٚ(0.738)٦٠

. ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ا٘عتؼث ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح(0.05)

ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبحًٛب٧٧ؼ . ؤ. 5 ـُٙة ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ خضغ٧غ ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘عبٚ ؾ ٘ٙغؼاؿج؛ ن

؛ (١ٛٚ سغا: )٢س١ج ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ ٔبئٛج ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح ي٤ٙ ٧ٕٛبؾ خك٧ِٝ ٢ٝي٦ ٜٛ ؤؼتى خٕغ٧ؼاح ٦٠ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٮؿخسبتج ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ يتبؼاح ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ( 22)، ٢٧٢مص سغ٢ل (٘ؿح ٛخإٗغا)؛ (٧َؼ ١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ)

اٛؾ ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج ٢ا٘ٛخًٕٙج تًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح، ٛى خ٢م٧ص خؼخ٧ة ٗل ٧ًٛبؼ؛ ٢ًّٕب ٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ظ. ا٘ضؿبت٦

(22)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ) ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبحًٛب٧٧ؼ (


الخكراراحالهخو

*شط الحشبتٌ

االوحراف الهؼٍبرً


ٚ ٠ٚ سغاٚ

ٞٚ ٌ

٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

1.

٧ٛخٝى يٜ خؽ٧٢غ ا٘فؼٗبح اً٘بٛٙج ٦ّ ٛسبل

خ٧ٕٝبح ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح تت٧بٝبح ض٢ل .ا٢ٛ٘ه٧ْٜ، ٢ا٘نٯة، ٢ا٪س١ؽث

9

3 3

5 1

3 1

2 3.36

6

0.

937 7

2. ٧ضػؼ ا٘نٯة ٜٛ

ا٘غع٢ل ا٤٘ ٢ٛأى ي٧ٛٙج ٮ .خضغد ٢ًٙٛٛبخ١ب تفٗل غ٢ؼ٥

3

0 5

8 5

8 7 2.72

5

0.

829

1

4



(22)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح ( (خبتى)






ٚ ٠ٚ سغاٚ

ٚ٠ ٌ

٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

3.

٧ؿبيغ ؽٛٯءٞ ٢ٛأى /ا٘ٛغؼؿ٧ٜ تخ٧ّ٢ؼ يٝب٧٢ٜ

٘ؼّى ٢ي١٧ٚ تإعٯ٧ٔبح اؿخعغاٚ .ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح

7

2 5

5 2

0 6 3.26

1

0.

833

1

1

4.

٧خسٝة خ٧ّ٢ؼ يٝب٧٢ٜ ٢ٛأى ٢ٗ٧ٜ ٠غ١ّب ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ت٧ى

ٛٝخسبح ٧َؼ خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ؤ٢ عغٛبح .غيبئ٧ج

5

0 5

6 4

1 6 2.98 0.

869

1

3

٧ْٗؼ ٦ّ ا٪ذؼ .5. اٮسخٛبي٦ ٘ٙتؼاٛز ا٘خ٦ ٧ًغ٠ب

7

3 6

4 1

0 6 3.33

3

0.

769 8

6.

٧فبؼٖ ٦ّ ٛفبَل ٘ٙٛغؼؿ٧ٜ ٢ا٬غاؼ٧٧ٜ ٘ٙخ٢ي٧ج

ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ت٢ٕايغ.٢ؿتل ا٘ضْبه ي٧ٟٙ

6

8 6

7 1

2 6 3.28

7

0.

775

1

0

7.

٧ف٧ى ا٢٘ي٦ تإعٯ٧ٔبح ا٘خًبٛل ٛى ا٘ضبؿ٢ة

٢اٮٝخؼٝح غاعل ا٘ٛسخٛى .ا٪ٗبغ٦ٛ٧ ا٘ػ٥ ٧ًٛل ٧ّٟ

8

7 5

9 6 1 3.51

6

0.

608 5

8. ٢٧سٟ ا٘نٯة تًغٚ

ؤعػ ٛخًٕٙبح ؽٛٯء٠ٚ ٜٛ .ا٘ض٢اؿ٧ة ٢ا٘تؼٛس٧بح

9

8 5

2 1 2 3.60

7

0.

576 2

٢٧سٟ ا٘نٯة تًغٚ .9اؿخًبؼث ا٘تؼٛس٧بح ٜٛ ؽٛٯء٠ٚ .اٮ تًغ اؿخئػا١ٝٚ

9

4 5

4 3 2 3.56

8

0.

604 3

٢٧سٟ ا٘نٯة تًغٚ .10خت٤ٝ ا٪ّٗبؼ ا٘عبنئج ٦ّ ٛسبل *.ا٘خًبٛل ٛى اٮٝخؼٝح

8

8 5

9 3 3 3.51

6

0.

639 4

٧ضػؼ ا٘نٯة ٜٛ .11.اعخؼآ ا٢ٛ٘أى ا٪عؼ٣

9

5 4

2 9 7 3.47 0.

803 6

٧ضػؼ ا٘نٯة ٜٛ .12اؼخٗبة سؼائٚ ا٘ٗٛت٢٧خؼ

.٢اٮٝخؼٝح

1

16 3

3 3 1 3.72

5

0.

528 1



(22)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ)ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح ( (خبتى)


(. 2.725)٢( 3.725)ث تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح خٕى ت٧ٜ ؤٜ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿنبح ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٦( 22)٧ه١ؼ سغ٢ل ٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٠ػا، ّٕغ ٢سغ ؤٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح خٕى ١ٙٗب ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٛخٕغٚ اػ ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿنبخ١ب ا٘ضؿبت٧ج

ؼٞ ، ٢ٔغ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ذب٤ٝ يفؼ ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪٤٘٢ ت٧ٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٠ػا ا٘ٛض٢ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغ(2,5)ٗبٝح ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥ ، ٦ّ ض٧ٜ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ذب٤ٝ ٜٛ إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪ع٧ؼث ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ (3.607)١٧ٙ٧ب ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ذبٜٛ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ( 3.725)

٢ختؼؽ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج (. 2.725)تٛخ٢ؿن ضؿبت٦ ٔغؼٞ . تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح

:ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبحهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٕٛبؼٝج ٢س١بح ٜ. ة. 5

٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘عبٛؾ ٘ٙغؼاؿج اُخِتًح ا٬سؼاءاح ا٘خب٧٘ج ٢ًّٕب .٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٘غؼاؿج

:ا٢ٝ٘و: ؤ٢ٮ ث ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ٦ٗ٘ ٧خٚ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ي٤ٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج، خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٜ

٘ٛس٢ٛيخ٧ٜ ٛؿخٕٙخ٧ٜ ٛعخْٙخ٦ اً٘غغ، ٢ػٖ٘ تًغ ضؿبة ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ( ح)ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٧ٔ٢ٛج اعختبؼ ح تب٘ٝؿتج ٪غاء ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ ( 23)٢اٮٝضؼاِ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ١٘ب، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل

. ٛؾا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘عب(23)سغ٢ل

ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ( ح)ٝخبئز اعختبؼ


الهخوشط الحشبتٌ


قٍهج ح


1 ذكور

11 46.765 6.252


2 47.285 5.388

(0.05)وهشخوى الداللج 151لسدولٍج ػىد درسج حرٍج قٍهج ح ا* . = 1.658






ٚ ٠ٚ سغاٚ

ٚ٠ ٌ

٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

٘خع٧ِْ ٜٛ ٧ضب٢ل ا .13ؤذؼ اْ٘س٢ث ا٘ؼ٧ٛٔج ي٤ٙ

.** نٯتٟ

6

8 6

4 1

2 9 3.24

8

0.

837

1

2

٢ٕ٧ٚ تخض٧ٛل ا٘تؼاٛز .14ا٘ٛمبغث ٧ْٙ٘ؼ٢ؿبح ي٤ٙ

.ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٜٛ ؤٔؼاق ؤك٧ٙج

8

1 4

4 2

1 7 3.3 0.

874 9



ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘عبٛؾ ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج تٍٙ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ( 23)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ٛج ح ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤٜ ٦ٔ(47.285)، ت٧ٝٛب تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٬ٝبد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ْٝؿٟ (46.765)

، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٮعختبؼ ح؛ ٠٢ػا ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼٓ غال اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ (0.476)ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج . ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ا٘سٝؿ٧ٜ ٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼخ١ٚ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح(. 0.05)

ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج: ذب٧ٝب ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ( 24)، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ . ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح

(24)سغ٢ل

ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبحٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ

هسهو هضدر الختبٍو ع الهرتؼبح


هخوشط الهرتؼبح

قٍهج ف


ٍج

.262 تٍو الهسهوػبح

834 4 65.7

٧َؼ غا٘ج 1.857احداخل الهسهوع 523

5.88 148 35.37

8


، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح (262.834)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 24)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، (65.7)ن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؾ(5235.88)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

( 1.857)، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ (35.378)ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ (0.05)٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ غا٘ج اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢

. ٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبحاء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٦ّ ٛعخِٙ ا٘ؼخة ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛبؤيل:ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج: ذب٘ذب

خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ( 25)خًؼل سغ٢ل ٧٢ؾ(. ANOVA)ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ

. ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح

(25)سغ٢ل

٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ٧ٔبحا٢٘ي٦ ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ







.791 3 5.93


80.928 149 36.785




، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح (17.791)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 25)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (5480.928)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ٦٠ ، ٗٛب ت36.785٦))، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (5.93)٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ( 0.161)، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج (0.05)

. حتب٪عٯ٧ٔب

:ا٘عتؼث: ؼاتًب خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ

(ANOVA .) ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ( 26)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل. ٧ٔبحًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج تب٪عٯ

(26)سغ٢ل

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ خغؼ٧ؾ ا٪عٯ٧ٔبح





قٍهج ف



9.926 2 44.963

٧َؼ غا٘ج 1.247هوػبحداخل الهز 5

408.793 150 36.059


، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح (89.926)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 26)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج (5408.793)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج (36.059)، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (44.963)، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ (1.247)٦٠

ي٦ٝ اخْبٔب ت٧ٜ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ا٘عتؼث ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧ج ، ٠٢ػا ٥(0.05). تب٪عٯ٧ٔبح

ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبًٜٛب٧٧ؼ . ؤ. 6 ـُٙة ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ خضغ٧غ ٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٪٢ل ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٘ٙغؼاؿج؛ ن

٧َؼ )؛ (١ٛٚ)؛ (١ٛٚ سغا: )يب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ ي٤ٙ ٧ٕٛبؾ خك٧ِٝ ٢ٝي٦ ٜٛ ؤؼتى خٕغ٧ؼاح ٢٦٠س١ج ٝهؼ٠ٚ ٦ّ ٔبئٛج ٚا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٮؿخسبتج ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ يتبؼاح ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٜٛ ( 27)، ٢٧٢مص سغ٢ل (٘ؿح ٛخإٗغا)؛ (١ٛٚ

.ًّٕب ٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ضؿبت٦اٮؿختبٝج ٢ا٘ٛخًٕٙج تًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ، ٛى خ٢م٧ص خؼخ٧ة ٗل ٧ًٛبؼ؛ ٢



(27)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ) ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبًٜٛب٧٧ؼ (


الن الخكراراحخوشط *الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

1.

٧ّٕغٚ ا٘ٛف٢ؼث ( تؼٝبٛز)٧٧ْٜٝٙ٘ ٘خ٧ًْل تؼاٛز

ا٘خ٧ٕٝج ٘ضهؼ ٢ٛأى ٧َؼ .تج ٛٗخفْٟ ٜٛ ٔتٟٙٛٝبؾ

8

1 5

8 6 8 3.

385

0.

795 5

2. ٧ؼفغ ا٘نٯة ا٤٘

٧ْ٧ٗج ضٛب٧ج ض٢اؿ٧ت١ٚ ا٘ٛٝؽ٧٘ج .ٜٛ ا٧ْ٘ؼ٢ؿبح

8

9 5

5 8 1 3.

516

0.

629 4

3. ٧نتٓ ٝهبٚ ا٘خضٗٚ

تب٘غع٢ل ي٤ٙ ؤس١ؽث ا٘ضبؿ٢ة .ا٘خ٦ ٧خًبٛل ١ًٛب ا٘نٯة

7

2 6

3 9 9 3.

294

0.

826 7

4. ٧خإٗغ ٜٛ ع٢ٙ ٗبّج

ا٧ْ٘ؼ٢ؿبح ٔتل ا٘تؼٛس٧بح ٜٛ .اؿخعغا١ٛب

1

18 3

4 1 0 3.

764

0.

44 2

5.

٧ؿخعغٚ ؤضغد ا٘تؼاٛز ا٘ٛمبغث ٧ْٙ٘ؼ٢ؿبح

تٛب ٧مٜٛ ضٛب٧ج ا٪س١ؽث ٜٛ .ٛعبنؼ٠ب

1

25 2

8 0 0 3.

817

0.

387 1

6.

٢ٕ٧ٚ تخض٧ٛل تؼٝبٛز ٧ض٢ل غ٢ٜ خٕغ٧ٚ

ا٘نٯة ٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح فعك٧ج تفٗل ي٥٢ْ يتؼ ا٘ؼؿبئل

.ا٬٘ٗخؼ٧ٝ٢ج ؤ٢ َؼِ ا٘ض٢اؼ

7

4 4

8 1

8 1

3 3.

196

0.

953 8

7.

٢٧هِ تؼاٛز ؼٔبتج ي٤ٙ ا٪س١ؽث خٛٝى

ا٘نٯة ٜٛ ا٘ضك٢ل ي٤ٙ ٢ًٙٛٛبح ٛؼختنج تب٘غؼسبح ٢ًٛغٮح ا٘ضم٢ؼ ٢ا٧ُ٘بة

.ا٘ظ

8

5 4

2 2

1 5 3.

352

0.

838 6



(27)سغ٢ل

153= ٜ) ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبًٜٛب٧٧ؼ ( (خبتى)


٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٠ػا، (. 3.196)٢( 3.817)٘ٛخ٢ؿنبح ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ خٕى ت٧ٜ ؤٜ ا( 27)٧ه١ؼ سغ٢ل ّٕغ ٢سغ ؤٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ خٕى ١ٙٗب ٦ّ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٛخٕغٚ اػ ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿنبخ١ب ا٘ضؿبت٧ج ٗبٝح ؤٗتؼ ٜٛ ا٘ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٝهؼ٥

٧ٙ٧ٟ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؼاتى ( 3.817)ض٢ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ ، ٢ٔغ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘عبٛؾ ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪٤٘٢ ت٧ٜ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٠ػا ا٘ٚ(2,5)، ٦ّ ض٧ٜ اضخل ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٜٛ إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛؼختج ا٪ع٧ؼث ت٧ٜ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ تٛخ٢ؿن ضؿبت٦ ٔغؼٞ (3.764)تٛخ٢ؿن ٔغؼٞ

.٢ختؼؽ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ٠ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ(. 3.196)

:ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛب٢ٜس١بح ٝهؼ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٝض٢ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٕٛبؼٝج . ة. 6

٘٭سبتج ي٤ٙ ا٘ؿئال اْ٘ؼي٦ ا٘ذب٦ٝ ٜٛ ا٘ؿئال ا٘ؼئ٧ؾ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٘ٙغؼاؿج اُخِتًح ا٬سؼاءاح ا٘خب٧٘ج ٢ًّٕب ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح . ؼاؿجا٘غ

:ا٢ٝ٘و: ؤ٢ٮ سبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ٦ٗ٘ ٧خٚ خؿ٧ٙن ا٘م٢ء تك٢ؼث ؤٗتؼ ي٤ٙ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخ٧سج، خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿح

٘ٛس٢ٛيخ٧ٜ ٛؿخٕٙخ٧ٜ ٛعخْٙخ٦ اً٘غغ، ٢ػٖ٘ تًغ ضؿبة ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ( ح)ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٬ضكبء ا٢٘ك٦ْ ٧ٔ٢ٛج اعختبؼ ح تب٘ٝؿتج ٪غاء ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ي٤ٙ ( 28)٢اٮٝضؼاِ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٥ ١٘ب، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل

. ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ؿبغؾ(28)سغ٢ل

ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٢ٝ٘و ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ( ح)ٝخبئز اعختبؼ


الهخوشط الحشبتٌ


قٍهج ح


1 ذكور

11 27.639 3.536


2 28.452 3.03

(0.05)وهشخوى الداللج 151قٍهج ح السدولٍج ػىد درسج حرٍج * = 1.658.


الخكراراحال

هخوشط *الحشبتٌ



ٚ ٠ٚ سغا

ٚٚ٠

ٌ ٧ؼ ١ٛٚ

لؿح ٛخإٗغا

8.

٢ٕ٧ٚ تخض٧ٛل ا٘ٛؿخٝغاح ٜٛ اٮٝخؼٝح ٦ّ ِٛٙ

عبق ي٤ٙ إ٘ؼق ا٘كٙة، ٧٢خضؼ٣ ع٠٢ٙب ٜٛ ا٧ْ٘ؼ٢ؿبح

.٢ّؼ خٝؽ١ٙ٧ب

9

3 5

3 3 4 3.

535

0

.669 3



ؤٜ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٘ػ٢ٗؼ ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ا٘ؿبغؾ ٜٛ اٮؿختبٝج تٍٙ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ( 28)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ح (28.452)، ت٧ٝٛب تٍٙ ٛخ٢ؿن غؼسبح ي٧ٝج ا٘تضد ٜٛ ا٬ٝبد ي٤ٙ ا٘ٛض٢ؼ ْٝؿٟ (27.639)

٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٮعختبؼ ح؛ ٠٢ػا ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼٓ غال اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ، 1.31))ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج . ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ػ٢ٗؼا ٢اٝبذب ٦ّ ٝهؼخ١ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ(. 0.05)

ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج: ذب٧ٝب ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د

ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ( 29)، ٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (ANOVA)اٮخسبٞ . ؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜا٘خغ

(29)سغ٢ل

ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٮ

هضدر الختبٍوهسهو





ٍج

95.7 تٍو الهسهوػبح

02 4

23.92

5 ٧َؼ غا٘ج 2.112

167 داخل الهسهوػبح

6.416 148 11.32

7


، ٢ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح (95.702)ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ( 29)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ((1676.416غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب اٜ ٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج (11,327)تًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼ(23.925)، (0.05)٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ا٤٘ يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ غا٘ج اضكبئ٧ب يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٦٠2.112

.ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛب٦ّٜ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ٠ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ الٜٛ ا٘ؼخة ا٘ٛعخْٙج ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ :ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج: ذب٘ذب

خٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ( 30)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل (. ANOVA)ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞ

. ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ ٮؿخسبتبح

(30)سغ٢ل

ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ






الهسهوػبحتٍو 40

.584 3 13.528


31.534 149 11.621




، ٢اٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح (40.584)٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ؤٜ( 30)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘ ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (1731.534)يبح ٦٠ غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛ

٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ؤٜ، ٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب (11.621)، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (13.528)غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ يغٚ ٢س٢ ٦٠٢٣ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ال( 1.164)٦٠

٦ّ ٢س١بح ٦ّ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٘ٙغ٢ل اً٘ؼت٧ج ا٘ٛفبؼٗج ٦ّ ا٘غؼاؿج ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ (0.05) .ٝهؼ٠ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ

:ا٘عتؼث: ؼاتًب ث تبؿخعغاٚ اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ؤضبغ٥ اٮخسبٞخٚ اسؼاء ٕٛبؼٝج ت٧ٜ اؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٜٛ ض٧د ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼ

(ANOVA .) ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ( 31)٧٢ؿخًؼل سغ٢ل .ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜ

(31)سغ٢ل

ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜا٧٧ؼ ٝخبئز اعختبؼ ا٘ختب٧ٜ ا٪ضبغ٥ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘عتؼث ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ٛى





قٍهج ف



4.304 2 22.152


727.814 150 11.519


ٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ؤ، ٢(44.304)٧ٔٛج ٛس٢ٛو ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ؤٜ (31)٧خمص ٜٛ سغ٢ل ؤٜ ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح ت٧ٜ ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ ،، ٗٛب ٧خمص ٜٛ ا٘سغ٢ل ٗػٖ٘(1727.814)غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠

٧ٔٛج ِ ا٘ٛضؿ٢تج ؤٜٗٛب ت٧ٝح ا٘ٝخبئز ؤ٧مًب ، (11.519)، ت٧ٝٛب ٧ٔٛج ٛخ٢ؿن ا٘ٛؼتًبح غاعل ا٘ٛس٢ٛيبح ٦٠ (22.152)يغٚ ٢س٢غ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج يٝغ ٛؿخ٣٢ ٣، ٦٠٢ ؤٔل ٜٛ ا٧ٕ٘ٛج ا٘سغ٧٘٢ج ٧ٕ٘ٛج ِ؛ ٛٛب ٧ف٧ؼ ال(1.923)٦٠

. ٦ّ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ٠ٚ ً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜتٛعخِٙ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ا٘عتؼاح ، ٠٢ػا ٦ًٝ٧ اخْبٓ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ (0.05): ر الدراشجىخبا

٠ػٞ ا٘غؼاؿج ٢٘مى ٔبئٛج تبً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٪عٯ٧ٔج ٮؿخعغاٚ ا٘ضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ح٠غِ، ٢ٔغ افخٕح ٦ّ ؿت٧ل خض٧ٕٓ ٠ػا ا١٘غِ ًٛب٧٧ؼ ؤغت٧ج خٚ يؼم١ب ٦ّ اؿختبٝج ي٤ٙ ي٧ٝج ٜٛ ؤيمبء ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج

خ٢كل ا٘تبضذ٧ٜ ٢ٔغ ؤفبؼح ت٧بٝبح ا٘غؼاؿج ٢خض١ٙ٧ٙب ا٤٘ , سب٧ًٛج ٦ّ غ٢ل يؼت٧ج ٛعخْٙج ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ٛئؿؿبح خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج :٘ٙٝخبئز ا٘خب٧٘ج

٢خخؿٓ ٠ػٞ اٮؿخسبتبح . ؤذتخح اؿخسبتبح ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج خ٢ا١ّٕب ي٤ٙ ؤ٧ٛ٠ج ٠ػٞ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ ؤّؼاغ٠ب: ؤ٢ٮ

ا٘خ٦ خٚ افخٕبٓ ا٢ٕ٘ائٚ ا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٧ج ( ، ٧٘غخٖ، ٧َؼ ٛئؼط2000 ، ٧٘ٝـ،2001ت٧٢ؼ، )ٛى ٛب ػ٠تح ا٧ٟ٘ ؤغت٧بح ا٘غؼاؿج



٢خف٧ؼ ٠ػا ا٘ٝخبئز ا٤٘ ٔبت٧ٙج ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٘خنت٧ٓ ٛذل ٠ػٞ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ؛ ٗٛب خخمٜٛ خ٢س١ب يبٛب ٘غ٣ . ١ٝٛبخت١٧ٝب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ اً٘ؼة ٦ّ ا٘سبًٛبح ٢ٙ٘ي٦ ٢ا٘ف٢ًؼ تب٘ٛتبغؼث ٘خفؼ٧ى ٠ػٞ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ٢خٕت١ٙب ٢

.ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج

ؤ٢مضح اؿخسبتبح ي٧ٝج ا٘غؼاؿج ؤٟٝ ٮ خ٢سغ ّؼ٢ٓ ػاح غٮ٘ج اضكبئ٧ج ت٧ٜ ٢س١بح ٝهؼ ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٜٛ : ذب٧ٝبض٧د ؼئ٧ج ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٧ٜٛٗ ؤٜ خًؽ٣ ٘ٛخ٧ُؼاح ا٢ٝ٘و ؤ٢ ا٘ؼختج ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ؤ٢ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ؤ٢ ا٘عتؼث؛

٘ٛخ٧ُؼ ا٘ٛئؿؿج ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج ٮؿخسبتبح ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ض٢ل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج غ غال اضكبئ٧ب تبؿخذٝبء ّؼٓ ٢اش٢خغّيٚ ٠ػٞ ا٘ٝخبئز ف٢ًؼ ٗبّج ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٜٛ ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ ٦ّ ا٘سبًٛبح اً٘ؼت٧ج ٢ٛمى ا٘غؼاؿج . اً٘بٛج

٢غ١٘٢ٚ ٢عتؼخ١ٚ تإ٧ٛ٠ج ٠ػٞ اً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ٢خنت١ٕ٧ب ػ٢ٗؼا ٢اٝبذب ٦ّ٢ ٛعخِٙ ٛؿخ٧٢بح ؼخت١ٚ ا٧ًٛٙ٘ج ٢ٛئؿؿبخ١ٚ ا٘خ٧ٛ٧ًٙج. ٢خت١٧ٝب ٜٛ ٔت١ٙٚ ٢ٜٛ ٔتل ٛئؿؿبخ١ٚ

ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خ٦ ٧ٝت٦ُ اؿخعغا١ٛب ٜٛ ٔتل ؤيمبء ٧٠ئج ا٘خغؼ٧ؾ يٝغ اؿخعغا١ٛٚ ٘ٙضبؿ٢ة ٢اٮٝخؼٝح خخٙعق ٢ٔائٚ ال: ذب٘ذب :ؤّؼاغ ا٧ً٘ٝج ٦ّ ا٘ت٧ئج ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج ٜٛ ٢س١ج ٝهؼ

. ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج اْ٘ٗؼ٧جٜٛ ا٘غؼاؿج؛ ٢ا٘خ٦ خٛذل ًٛب٧٧ؼ ( 2)٦ّ سغ٢ل إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛغؼسج -1. اً٘بٛجًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٧ٗٙٛ٘ج ٜٛ ا٘غؼاؿج، ٢ا٘خ٦ خٛذل ( 7)إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛغؼسج ٦ّ سغ٢ل -2. ا٘ؿ٢ٖٙ ٢ا٘خكؼًِٛب٧٧ؼ ٜٛ ا٘غؼاؿج، ٢ا٘خ٦ خٛذل ( 12)إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛغؼسج ٦ّ سغ٢ل -3 .٢ا٘غايٛجاً٘ٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘خغؼ٧ؿ٧ج ؛ ٢ا٘خ٦ خٛذل (٧ًٛبؼ ا٘خبؿىيغا ال)ٜٛ ا٘غؼاؿج ( 17)إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛغؼسج ٦ّ سغ٢ل -4

. ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٢٘ي٦ ٢ا٘خ٢ي٧جٜٛ ا٘غؼاؿج، ٢ا٘خ٦ خٛذل ( 22)إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛغؼسج ٦ّ سغ٢ل -5. ًٛب٧٧ؼ ا٘ضٛب٧ج ٢ا٪ٛبٜٜٛ ا٘غؼاؿج، ٢ا٘خ٦ خٛذل ( 27)إ٘بئٛج ا٘ٛغؼسج ٦ّ سغ٢ل -6

ا٧٧ؼ ٧ْ٧ٗ٢ج خغؼ٧ؿ١ب ك٧ْب تب٬مبّج ا٤٘ خت١٧ٝب ٦ّ ا٘ٛٝب٠ز٢مى ا٪غة ا٘ٝهؼ٥ ٘ٙغؼاؿج انبؼا ٛخٗبٛٯ ٘ٙٛى: ؼاتًب .

: الخوضٍبح ٦ّ٢ م٢ء ٛب خ٢كٙح ا٧ٟ٘ ا٘غؼاؿج ا٘ضب٧٘ج، ّٕغ خٚ ا٘خ٢ك٧ج ت٧ٕبٚ ا٘ٛئؿؿبح ا٘خؼت٧٢ج اً٘ؼت٧ج تخنت٧ٓ ٠ػٞ ا٢ٕ٘ائٚ

ٛئؿؿبح خٖٙ ال٧ٜٛ ا٘تضد ٦ّ ٜٛ ٛمبا٧ًٛ٘بؼ٧ج ٢خت١٧ٝب ٢خغؼ٧ؿ١ب ٦ّ ٛٝب٠س١ب ٢ك١ّ٢ْب ا٘غؼاؿ٧ج ي٤ٙ ؤٜ خخٚ اٮؿخْبغث .ٛضغ٢غ٧ج ٔبت٧ٙج ا٘خ٧ًٛٚ ٢ٕٝل ا٘ٝخبئزٛؼايبث ا٘ٝه٧ؼث ٘ت٧ئبح اسؼاء ا٘تضد ٛى

الهراسغ

:أواًل الهراسغ الؼرتٍج خؼ ف٦ٙ٧، ٢ٗبفٛبٜ، ٢سٜ: ؛ خإ٧ِ٘"خقىٍبح خرتوٍج حدٍذج"(. 2005)ا٘ضبر ي٧ؿ٤، ٛكتبش؛ ٢فٛبيج، ؽ٠ؼ٧ج؛ ٢ٛؿ٢ًغ، ؿٝبء؛ ٢ؤت٢ ٘تغث، ا٧ٝبؾ .1

.ٛخؼسٚ. ٚ.و.ا: ؛ غاؼ ا٘ٗخبة ا٘سب٦ًٛ، ا٧ًٜ٘(2003)

آسؼ، ؼ٧خفبؼغ : ؛ خإ٧ِ٘"كٍف ٍوظف الهدرشوو خكىولوسٍب الهؼموهبح واالخضبالح فٌ شرش الهىبهز الدراشٍج"(. 2004)اً٘بٛؼ٥، عب٘غ .2 .ٛخؼسٚ. و.ٚ.ر: ؛ غاؼ اْ٘بؼ٢ٓ ٘ٙٝفؼ ٢ا٘خ٢ؽ٧ى(2002)



؛ .ر. ؛ ٢ؿخب٢ْٝؼغ، ة.؛ خإ٧ِ٘ تبؼ٦ٗ، ِ"الهؤذراح ػمي حٍبث الهؼمهٍو الههىٍج: ههىج الخؼمٍن"(. 2005)يتغ اهلل، ٧ٛؿ٢ٜ؛ ٢ؿ٧ٙٛبٜ، ٛضٛغ .3 .ٛخؼسٚ. ّٙؿن٧ٜ: غاؼ ا٘ٗخبة ا٘سب٦ًٛ

.ا٪ؼغٜ: ؛ غاؼ ا٘ٛؿ٧ؼث"الحبشوة الخؼمٍهٌ وخطتٍقبخه الخرتوٍج"(. 2004)ي٧بغاح، ٢٧ؿِ .4

االخسبهبح : الكخبة الدورً؛ "اٮٝخؼٝح -ٮ٧ٔبح ا٘خًبٛل ٛى فتٗج ا٢ًٙٛ٘ٛبح اً٘ب٧ٛ٘جؤط(. "٧1999ٝب٧ؼ )ا١٘ٯ٦٘، ٛضٛغ؛ ٢ا٘كٕؼ٥، ٛضٛغ .5 .140-121؛ ق (11)6، الحدٍذج فٌ الهكختبح والهؼموهبح

:ذبىًٍب الهراسغ األسىتٍج

Alden, S. B. (2008). Computer Learning Foundation Emphasizes Responsible Use of Technology, Available:

http://www.computerlearning.org/articles/respmyth.htm, (Accessed May 2008).

Bowyer, Kevin W. (ed.) (2001), Ethics and computing, New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers.

Computer Learning Month Contests (1990). Strategies for Teaching Children Responsible Use of Technology.

Available at: http://www.virginialearning.org/Neighborhoods/ProDev/Spot02/tssa.ppt (Accessed

September 2008).

Lidtke, Dorie Keefe (und.) Realities of teaching social and ethical issues in computing. Available at:

www.southernct.edu/organization…teaching_mono/lidtke_intro.html, (Accessed October 2007).

Lynch, Margaret (2000) Ethical issues in electronic information systems. Available at:

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/ethics/ethics.html (Accessed October 2003).

Meyenn, Andrew (2000).A proposed methodology for the teaching of Information Technology ethics in schools.

Available at: http://crpit.com/confpapers/CRPITV1Meyenn. pdf (Accessed June 2008).

Rikowski, Ruth (2006).Teaching ethical issues in Information Technology: how and when. Available at:

http://libr.org/isc/issues/ISC23/B9a%20Ruth%20Rikowski.pdf (Accessed July 2008).

http://www.computerlearning.org/articles/respmyth.htm

http://crpit.com/confpapers/CRPITV1Meyenn

http://libr.org/isc/issues/ISC23/B9a%20Ruth%20Rikowski.pdf


Reference # 47

Topic # 5

Future perspective of Management Education:

Strategic issues and imperatives S. Ananda [email protected], Salalah College of Applied Science

(Ministry of Higher Ed.), Oman

Business schools should play as a centre for knowledge and skill creation, adaptation and

dissemination to meet the 21st century needs of the corporate world. Management education is

therefore critical for economic progress, stability and sustainability, as well as building strong

human resource force to drive the economy forward with rigor. The purpose of this paper is to

explore a mechanism to stimulate development of new curricular elements, methods and programs

that synthesize effective concepts and features of international management education model.

This paper also describes the emerging strategy to make teaching methodology in management

education more vibrant with the changes in business and economic environment.

Introduction

Management education as a concept took birth in USA as its MBAs were seen as relevant

to the world of business. The collegiate business education is marked by the founding of the

Wharton School of Finance and Economy at the University of Pennsylvania in 18811. The first

well known full-fledged management school was established in 1906 by the Harvard University.

It was the notion of professionalism that inspired the founders of Harvard Business School,

Wharton School and the Tuck School in the early years‘ of the 20th

century. Over the years, the

MBA went through roadblocks in terms of acceptance, visibility and credibility in the eyes of

corporate world2. During the last few decades, management education has gained importance

due to the emergence of professionalism in corporate sector. The competitive business

environment and its increasing magnitude have paved the way for increased demand for

management graduates in the employment market. This has led for a significant expansion of

management education across the world. It is evident from the spurt in the number of business

schools from private and public sector.

It is essential from the wealth creating economy point of view to develop new skills

include ‗employability‘ skills and the skills needed to undertake ‗knowledge work‘. Investment

in knowledge and skills brings direct economic returns to individuals and society3. The people

gain the knowledge, skills and competencies through learning contribute to economic

development of a nation. In this context, management education plays a vital role to enhance

competitiveness in globalized knowledge society.

In this background, this paper attempts to explore a mechanism to stimulate development

of new curricular elements, methods and programs that synthesize effective concepts and

features of international management education model. This paper provides a critical analysis of

teaching and learning in management education, so that business schools respond to current

paradigms.



Purpose of Management Education

The management education aims at developing holistic personality capable of

maintaining balance among contradictory demands, taking charge functional responsibility, be

accountable for the action and contribute to creating a desirable future for business in particular

and economy as a whole. The ultimate goal in management education is preparing students to

achieve professional success in business management. Keeping in view the larger purpose of

management education, the focus would be on developing the following aptitude and skills4:

Domain knowledge: state of art knowledge, skills, competencies.

Higher order generic skills: generic skills transferrable across the domains and situations,

such as creativity, innovation, problem solving, strategic thinking and communication.

Thinking person: cognitive development – conceptualization, analysis, synthesis, dealing

with abstraction.

Spirit of enquiry: critical evaluation and experimentation of ideas, information, approaches,

assumptions and frame of reference.

Research attitudes: research ability, research value, methodological rigor

Ability to learn on one‘s own: Learning how to learn, autonomous learning / life-long

learning, and ability to reflect one‘s own learning process.

Originality of thinking: originality of thinking and critically examining prevailing concepts

rather than mere conformance to existing notions and approaches.

Interdisciplinary/trans-disciplinary approach: cross functional perspective, and mind set,

systemic orientation, and system thinking.

Ability to convert ideas into practice: delineating, planning, implementation and evaluation

of ideas and concepts.

Values: professional values, human values, ability to reject dis-values.

Attitude: to grow, learn, and openness to change.

Behavioural Skills: cooperation, collaboration, team work and interpersonal competence.

Entrepreneurial leadership: initiative, risk taking, mobilizing support and resources, self

discipline.

Transcendental ability: vision, aspiration, transformation, inspiration.

Self-efficacy: positive self regard, self directing and self regulating capabilities, positive

outcome judgement.

Integrated personality development: congruency among values, attitudes, thoughts, feeling

and actions, integrity.

Socially informed and responsible professional: creating understanding of the societal

context and sensitivity to social issues of development.

Holistic perspective: balanced emphasis on often conflicting constituents of the system

within the framework of larger purpose of life and society.

The business school has to know this basic purpose of management education and

accordingly has to create a dynamic learning environment, which can nurture superior quality

management intellectual capital of the world.

Ananda: Future perspective of Management Education


Projected Industry Trend

Some of the industry trends that it believes will persist into the future are as below:

There will be increase in the knowledge intensity of organizations. Hence, the need to

produce and use knowledge to devise new and better products and for innovating better

delivery systems would intensify.

In general, across industries, competition (both in output and input markets) is only going to

intensify over the years.

Uncertainty in the survival of product-market domains would increase. This could mean

shorter product and technology life cycles and competition from new forms of generic

competitors and new players from new countries with very different factor deployments with

unusual competitive advantages, etc. These imply that a firm would need to either change

rapidly in its current domains or exit existing domains and enter new domains. Thus, job

longevity would be under threat.

Increasing trend of working in new geographical territories with very different cultural

characteristics. This means different sets of customers need priorities, different languages to

contend with, different norms and values to contend with.

The above possible industry trend facilitate to understand what qualities competencies

that management graduates should possess in their real time corporate career. Hence, it is the

responsibilities of business schools to prepare their curriculum and pedagogy so that the students

imbibe industry expected qualities during the process of learning.

Industry expected ‗qualities‘ from business graduates

In light of these trends, industries expect that the business graduates should possess the

following qualities before they board into corporate careers. Hence, it the responsibility of

business schools to produce the students with following values, concepts and skills in their

graduates5:

a. The first and foremost quality is an eagerness and capacity to learn. They wish to see this

eagerness during the program, as then it is a joy to teach. They also wish the graduate to

carry this eagerness with him/her throughout their lives. This is felt essential in all domains

of endeavor due to the increasing velocity of change today. Jobs are transient and people

need the ability to move to new jobs, which means constant development is a must. Also, to

do well even in a given job requires a developing mastery all the time. And, even in the same

jobs today, many new situations are imminent, needing a capacity to ‗learn to learn‘. The

student and graduate must have an inquiring mind, questioning especially the ‗why‘ of

phenomena of interest. The capacity to learn comes from a good grasp of basic concepts and

their applications, the ‗know why‘ in whatsoever the student has learnt or will learn. The

focus has to be less on the ‗know how‘, or the ‗know what‘.

b. The second set of qualities could be collectively labeled a thoroughly professional attitude.

This means that they must be outcome oriented. This means that they must do whatever they

choose to do with a strong sense of responsibility to do it well of high quality. This means



they must be efficient in the use of resources, especially time. They need to do what is

needed to remain productive not just in short bursts, but also consistently, for long durations.

c. The third quality is an action orientation. In other words, our students must learn not just to

plan, but to also execute well. They must be willing to ‗roll up their sleeves‘ and ‗soil their

hands‘. For example, if in the software industry, they must not only be good business

analysts, but also be willing and able to work with technology. Further, we are not preparing

our students to indulge in ‗analyses paralyses‘ but to take time bound decisions on issues

they encounter.

d. The fourth set of qualities has to do with being good at teamwork. They must respect and be

open to the ideas and opinions of others (without succumbing to pressures or blindly

swallowing what others say). They need to be assertive with colleagues, making sure that

people keep to their commitments. They must be willing and able to disagree without being

‗disagreeable‘. They must be willing and able to share their thoughts and ideas without fear.

They must make sure that everyone in the team learns and grows.

e. Another quality is an intrapreneurial/entrepreneurial attitude: Initiative taking and looking

at newer possibilities to achieve objectives.

f. Overriding all these qualities is that our graduates must have the public interest at heart at all

times.

Restructuring of Curriculum

The curriculum places a tremendous emphasis on integration and connection, so that

students actually have a much more complete understanding of the way in which management

and leadership challenges unfold in organizations and how they, themselves, are going to add

value to those organizations6. The curriculum should be such that there is similarity between

what is taught in the classroom and the ground reality, which a student has to actually face in

corporate life. Modern management practice demands to have specialized knowledge and skill

while maintaining a broad perspective. The expertise one has today will suffice tomorrow, so a

willingness to lean is critical for successful corporate career. The development of ‗right attitude‘

among the students is another important issue to be given due attention while developing

curriculum to produce world class management personnel who would be sought globally.

Given the development in today‘s business environment, preparing our students for their

future will require significant change in both what we teach and how we teach. While continued

emphasis on core subjects is essential at the same time business schools must increasingly focus

on adding global content, including foreign language, geography, and culture to ensure students

are prepared to compete effectively in a global marketplace. Equally important, students must

master more than content—they must acquire the ability, ―learn, unlearn, and relearn.‖ And

they need to be able to view current events through a lens that sees beyond traditional borders.

The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, a group of business and education leaders advocate

education reform, has developed a framework for 21st century learning7:

Learning and thinking skills, including critical-thinking and problem-solving skills,

communications skills, creativity and innovation skills, collaboration skills, contextual

learning skills, and information and media literacy skills.



Information and communications technology (ICT) literacy, which is the ability to use

technology to acquire and develop 21st century content knowledge and skills.

Life skills, including leadership, ethics, accountability, adaptability, personal productivity,

personal responsibility, people skills, self-direction, and social responsibility.

The management institutions should reinvent management education with a bold new

MBA curriculum and new programs. The curriculum of management education should provide a

holistic view of leadership with an emphasis on practical knowledge and personalized learning.

With a focus on personalized learning that builds on each individual student‘s education and

experience. The modules should present a rigorous, action-oriented, and collaborative learning

environment designed to develop outstanding business leaders who can achieve results in all

market climates. The redesigned curriculum should emphasize in-depth on experiential

learning, faculty advising, new opportunities for collaborative education. The MBA curriculum

followed by successful business schools across the world focus more on following module in

nurturing quality new generation business managers.

i. Building Foundational Skills

This module is to provide a solid foundation in functional disciplines such as accounting

and finance, marketing, operations, business strategy, entrepreneurship and decision sciences.

The objective is to develop working knowledge in each of these functional domains.

ii. Sharpening Diagnostic Skills

This module is to focus on setting direction and determining a sustainable competitive

position. The students learn to develop detailed action plans to implement their strategies and

address their challenges by directly linking it to the company context maximizes the learning,

sets the stage for subsequent learning in later modules.

iii. Applying the Knowledge

In the third module, students will have exposure by way of corporate internship

programme to understand the skill of application of what they have learned in the first two

modules. It also provides an opportunity for students to share their insights and analyses with

executives at work as a way to further refine their personalized action plan.

iv. Action-Oriented Leadership

The focus is on leading in turbulent and uncertain environments, driving fundamental

change throughout the organization, and achieving longer-term objectives. They discover new

insights about themselves: how they analyze problems, what constitutes their leadership style,

and how they can best contribute to the success of their organizations.

v. Implementation and Ongoing Learning

The ultimate measure of success is the positive impact they make when applying their

new leadership skills and insights across all levels of the organization. In addition to

implementing their personal action plans, students begin the process of lifelong learning.

v. Implementation and Ongoing Learning

iv. Action-Oriented Leadership

iii. Applying the Knowledge

ii. Sharpening Diagnostic Skills

i. Building Foundational Skills



The experience of mobility is a vital ingredient of management education and training in

times of globalization. All management students should have the opportunity during their

studies to undertake a recognized period of study or a work placement in another country.

Management education should include a mobility window as an integral part of studies.

Business Schools should think about more generous and more accessible student support. Hence,

management institutes will have to establish a new partnership of with governments, businesses,

universities and professors9.

Teaching Method

The students learn through many ways in the class room interaction. The challenge of a

good lecture is the ability to get student actively engaged. The teaching methods encourage the

students debating on the topic and create the curiosity to know in depth about the subject by

asking many questions. This process would help the students to internalize the various

dimensions of the management issue. This also creates the genuine excitement and creativity in

the mind-think exercise to integrate theory to practice. The integration of theory to practice

creates genuine excitement and creativity in the mind think exercise. Student engagement

through interactive learning events is critical in preparing student for 21st century careers in

global business. The techniques like questioning skills, use of props, worksheets, presentation

slides and films help in creating an interactive lecture. Hence, the role of the teacher has

changed with a new emphasis on being a designer and facilitator of learning. Defining student

learning outcomes is a critical first step in course design. Technology tools can help facilitate a

more efficient and effective delivery of concepts, ideas, and analyses10

.

Co-operative learning is another key technique of teaching methodology in management

education. The activities like management games and projects help students hone personal as

well as professional work skills. These management games give students simulated

opportunities to put theories into practice. Using this technique, students are able to learn from

each other. Student-centered, active learning forces all students to participate in learning

activity. This would also help the students to understand the benefit of team work concept in real

work situations.

In nutshell, the management education pedagogy should be focused on:

more student centered

more case input to integrate theory verses practice

workshops to envelope deep thinking on the subject

more exposure to realities of industries

work environment, project method to promote discovery learning

more emphasis on theme or simulation, role playing, socio -drama.

Focus on Research

Research is a central part and a collective endeavor of the academic mission of business

schools. It moulds the thinking of researcher and advances the degree of knowledge that is

conveyed in the classroom. The research outcomes ultimately determine the educational content

of business schools around the world. Any successful attempt to transform the educational

process must therefore consider the types of research that are necessary to support such



transformation and to produce the required body of knowledge11

. Management education ought

to develop a ―body of knowledge of substantial intellectual content‖ to answering critical

management questions as well as a set of ―standards of professional conduct, which take

precedence over the goal of personal gain‖12

.

A recent report by the Association for the Advancement of Collegiate Schools of

Business (AACSB) on the impact of research has drawn attention to the three levels of research

required of any professional discipline: basic, applied and pedagogical. Basic research is

intended to contribute to the ―stock of knowledge of business and management theory‖ and will

normally be the subject of peer reviewed publications targeted to other academics. Applied

research refers to the ―scholarship of application‖, that is, how existing knowledge and theories

can help resolve important business and management problems. This type of research is intended

to reach the world of practice and is often disseminated through professional journals and trade

books. Finally, pedagogical research focuses on producing teaching materials and instructional

methodologies to improve the learning process of current or future practitioners13

.

The basic research is needed to test the limits of current paradigms and build new ones.

Those paradigms must be translated into actionable knowledge through rigorous applied

research, and ultimately into new pedagogical and learning tools to put the new theories and

practical knowledge in the hands and minds of practicing managers. Case-based research has

emerged as a powerful tool for applied research which can also be helpful in building new theory

on one hand and can result in effective teaching tools on the other.

There is the growing need among corporate houses for frameworks and tools that will

help them address the new critical issues encountered by business managers in a more systematic

and effective way. This would enable the institutions to serve the current needs of managers that

are relevant and useful to practitioners through applied research. This in turn brings the gap

between management theory and practice closer.

Quality Assurance

It is imperative that a passion for quality has become a necessity in the era of global

competitiveness; it is also true in the case of management education. The rise in initiatives

aimed at promoting the globalization of management education has underlined an urgent need to

establish robust frameworks for quality assurance and the recognition of qualifications14

. The

stake holders of management education (higher education institutions, students, teachers,

researchers, professional bodies, employers) should collaborate and partner jointly to set the

quality standards on the efficacy of the business schools. Investment in quality-assured learning

offers benefits to the individual, economy and wider society. It has to be ensured that whatever

learning a person takes is of the highest quality15

. There is a need of a vibrant, high quality

management education, which is capable of rapidly responding to new skill demands, new

executive market conditions, new contexts for learning and the increasing expectations of stake

holders. The focus on quality in teaching, learning and assessment in business school is in part

an outcome of the many changes that have impacted on education sector in recent times.

Value orientation

Values can be broadly termed as code of conduct or behavior towards harmony,

happiness and progress in a system. An individual belongs to different set and subsets like



universe, nation, religion, community, family, profession etc. and each set lays values to its

members to meet the objectives of that particular set. It can be listed as follows:

Universal value – truth, non-violence, compassion, concern for others etc

Normal values – Civic duties and responsibilities as an honest citizen

Social values – Norms prescribed by the society

Family values – responsibilities towards elders, children and other family members

Community values – norms prescribed with one‘s own profession

Technology can be used to protect the society or harm it. The dividing line between two

is the value that people hold about life, people, society and everything that contributes to human

development. Value orientation is critical for survival and well-being of the society. Values

form an important link connecting one generation to the next. Values are instrumental

determining a code of conduct among people and between nations. In business transactions a

code is essential for the betterment of the country. A value code governs international

relationships as well. In this global business context, it is imperative to develop values in the

management education16

.

New Collaborations

The institution grows in many ways in which it should foster collaboration in the campus.

It should offer opportunities for students to work in cross-school teams in courses and pursue

joint and dual degrees. Institute should also encourage faculty research and leadership in

conjunction with university-wide initiatives. As global market is integrated and inter-dependent

in recent days due liberalization of economies, there is a growth need for partnership among

management institutions both global and regional level. Brand-conscious among business

executives and students have preferences for management degrees with high-reputation

international partners, whether from the United States or from Europe. As increasing numbers of

Western universities seek a foothold in Asia and Middle East, there will continue to be

opportunities for such global partnerships. However, regional partnerships are an opportunity

that should not be missed. From joint degree programs to collaborative research centers, there are

many ways to join forces to exploit the location in the rapidly developing management education

and research spaces. It is imperative that policymakers in government, universities, and the

private sector must foster collaboration in the area of management education, relevant research,

publication, and faculty development to bring closer working relationships and integration

among the stake holders management education17

.

B-School Rating

Business School survey assigns a different score to commonly used parameter such as

infrastructure, intellectual capital, placement rate, institute-industry interface and admissions

process at the aggregate level. These surveys rely on self administered questionnaires and so

there is scope for maneuverability. Nevertheless, there are vital advantages to such surveys.

First, these surveys inform stakeholders of B-Schools of the relative standing of a

management institute in the country. For students, who are perceived as customers, these



surveys are an opportunity to learn more about institutes and make the right choice. For those

heading them, it is an opportunity to know how their institutes are performing in relation to

others. It also helps companies identify which institute to recruit from

Second, these surveys serve as benchmarks. They report the scores obtained by the top few

B-schools. This gives others a comparison between them and ‗the best‘18

.

Conclusion

Management institutes have a vital role to play in creating informed, responsible business

executives who work efficiently in a global context. It is essential to business schools to adjust

their program structures, curricula, teaching and learning method in 21st century to meet the

raising corporate expectations, student aspirations and the demands of global completion. The

business school has to cope into the needs of changing situations to produce future managers

with all the required skills for best possible strategies. The necessity for business schools to be

innovative, flexible and responsive to the dictates of the changing environment.

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Reference # 48

Topic # 1

The advisability of using English-Arabic code switching

as a teaching strategy in EFL university classroom: A case study Muayyed An-Nasralla [email protected], Zarka Private University, Jordan

This paper addresses the issue of English-Arabic code-switching in the university classroom and

how the use of alternative codes might or might not serve the learning and teaching processes. The

study is based on analyzing 25 in-class recorded lectures presented by the researcher along a

whole semester.

1. Preliminary Remarks

1.1. The Early Attempts:

In his discussion of the foundational studies of code switching, Nilep (2006) assumes that

the concept of code switching is dated back to Hans Vogt‘s ―Language Contact‖ (1954) who was

inspired by Uriel Weinreich‘s (1953) ―Languages in Contact‖. The main interest of Weinreich

was to describe the various consequences of language contact in bilingual communities. In the

course of his criticism to the previous anthropological research of code switching particularly

that of Barker (1947) (cited in Nilep: 2006), Weinreich talked about the deficiency of limiting

the speech situations into: intimate, informal, formal, and inter-group. He was in pursuing of a

more linguistic, rather than anthropological, treatment of code switching assuming that each

bilingual has two different language varieties and is competent in using them in various contexts.

Vogt (1954), on the other hand, emphasized on the psychological perspective of code switching

distinguishing between bilingualism which might be treated by the linguists due to its

connectedness to language interference, and code switching which is basically extra linguistic.

The other well-known early efforts presented with reference to explaining the process of

code switching were that of Gumperz (1964/1972/ 1976) and Tim (1975) cited in Poplack

(2004), Mattson & Burenhult (1999), Lin (1988), Redouane (2005) among many others. Blom

and Gumperz‘s (1972) ―Social Meaning in Linguistic Structure‖ has initiated the preliminary

ideas of the situational and metaphorical switching which were later developed by various

anthropologists interested in studying the various consequences of language contact.

1.2. Selected Definitions:

Various types of definitions have been found in the literature depending on the various

types of methodological approaches the researchers implement, and hence it is very had to arrive

at a widely-accepted definition. One of the early definitions is that of Valdés-Fallis (1978) who

studied code switching in its naturally occurring context of bilingual communities of Spanish and

English: “The alternating use of two languages on the word, phrase, clause, or sentence

level”. He states:

When bilingual speakers of English and Spanish are speaking Spanish and introduce a word,

phrase, clause, or sentence that is recognizably English (in both pronunciation and form), they are

said to have code-switched into English. The same bilinguals may code switch into Spanish by

introducing Spanish words, clauses, etc. into their English speech.



A more general definition is that produced by Lyons (1981-2006: 283) in which he

assumes that code switching occurs as a result of ―a situational change in the value of one of the

variables that define a domain‖; by ―domain‖ he means ―a fairly clear functional differentiation

of the two languages‖. In the same respect, Fromkin, Rodman & Hymes (2003:466) assume that

―Code switching occurs wherever there are groups of bilinguals who speak the same two

languages… (it) occurs in specific social situations, enriching the repertoire of the speaker‖.

Following a communicative approach of studying the language contact, Gal (1988:247)

defines code switching as “a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group

boundaries; to create evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and

obligations.‖ In the same respect, two comparative definitions are suggested by Heller (1988) as

―the use of more than one language in the course of a single communicative episode‖, and

Auer (1984) as ―the alternating use of more than one language‖.

On the other hand, Verschueren (1999:119), in the course of his distinction between code

switching and code mixing, states:

―Code is any distinguishable variant of a language, involving systematic sets of choices, whether

linked to specific geographical area, a social class, an assignment of functions, or a specific

context of use. Code switching is the change from one code to the other‖

Placing CS in the setting of conversational analysis, Gumperz (1982:59) states:

“Conversational code switching can be defined as the juxtaposition within the same speech

exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems and

subsystems”. Myers-Scotton (1993), alternatively, refers to CS as “the use of two or more

languages in the same conversation”.

Ellis (1994: 28), with his second language acquisition research background, distinguishes

between code mixing as “the use of both L1 and L2 in the construction of the same

sentence” and code switching as “the alternative use of L1 and L2 within a discourse” (see

section 1.5 below).

Finally, in his section of some integrated definitions of CS, Nilep (2006) presents the

following concluding one: “CS is a practice of parties in discourse to signal changes in

context by using alternate grammatical systems or subsystems, or codes.”

1.3. The Diversity of Analysis

As it is obvious in the above section, defining CS depends on the different types of

approaches a researcher follows. Ziran, He and Yu Guodong (2001) mentions four types of

analysis they found in the literature: sociolinguistic, grammatical, psychological, and

conversational analysis They claim that all these four approaches are insufficient since they

emphasize on a particular aspect of the CS data and disregarding the others; and hence they

recommend another approach which they call the ―pragmatic approach‖ claiming to be a

comprehensive one (ibid: 44).

As far as the sociolinguistic approach of CS analysis is concerned, one of the early

questions that the CS researchers tried to answer was: Is CS a sign of an insufficient knowledge

or it occurs spontaneously or unconsciously? Building of Grice‘s maxims of cooperative

An-Nasralla: Using English-Arabic code switching as a teaching strategy


principle, Myers-Scotton (1983) initiates a model based on the theory of markedness1 trying to

suggest some answers to this question. This paper establishes what is called ―the negotiable

principle‖ with the following three maxims:

The Unmarked choice maxim

The marked choice maxim

The exploratory choice maxim

The markedness model of language choice adopted by Myers-Scotton is based on

studying the sociolinguistic and psychological considerations of switching between Swahili and

English in some African countries. The bilinguals/ multilinguals are assumed to be aware of the

various types of codes they use in particular contexts assigning particular meanings to the

choices they perform. The meaning is usually associated with the marked or the unexpected

choice. Other researchers (such as Tay: 1989, Adendorff: 1996) share with Myers-Scotton the

assumption that CS is mainly utilized in bilingual communities to maintain solidarity or intimacy

among the members of the same society.

One of the most noteworthy works in adopting the sociolinguistic approach of CS

analysis is that of J. Gumperz. Gumperz‘s early works (such as 1958; 1961) were implemented

to study the Hindi variants. Building on the work of Ervin-Tripp (1964) about the role of setting,

topic, and function in language choice, Gumperz emphasizes on the fact that although these three

language choice determiners are essential, they might put a ceiling on other linguistic elements.

Accordingly, together with Bloom, Jan-Petter, they initiated what they call the ―situational and

metaphorical switching‖ (Bloom & Gumperz: 1972). The situational and metaphorical switching

associate the language choice with the social setting; the former occurs when the linguistic form

is changed with reference to the change in a social setting, whereas the latter occurs when two

varieties are used in a single social setting ( Nilep: 2006).

The second approach to CS analysis is that which considers the syntactic realizations in

the two languages involved. One of the earliest researches in this reference is that of Weinreich

(1953/1968) which is usually identified as grammatically constrained intra-sentential CS

(Poplack: 2004). Such research is based on the assumption that in all bilingual communities,

bilinguals have the tendency to code switch from one language to another at clearly identified

morphosyntactic boundaries. Gumperz (1976/1968) and Timm, L. (1975) identify some of these

boundaries within a sentence such as between pronominal subject and verbs or between

conjunctions and conjuncts. In this respect, there has been an extended controversy with

reference to the syntactic restrictions that might occur on CS. Lance (1975: 143), for instance,

has his doubts about the existence of such restrictions as opposed to the other studies such as

those of Gumperz (1976), Kashu (1977), Lipski (1978) which emphasize on various types of

syntactic constraints (Redounane: 2005).

Another important research is that of Poplack (1980) in which is the idea of ―Equivalence

Constraint‖ is presented; it stipulates that ―Code switching will tend to occur at points in

1 The first clear definition of the marked/unmarked relation appears in Jakobson‘s article ―Structure of the

Russian Verb‖ (1932). In this article, he emphasizes that the marked category is identified by the signalization of

―A‖ and the unmarked category by the non-signalization of ―A‖ whereby ―A‖ means some already defined property.

Linda Waugh (1982:299) defines markedness as ―the asymmetrical and hierarchical relationship between the two

poles of any oppositions‖. She assumes that the marked category ―necessarily conveys a more narrowly specified

and delimited conceptual item than the unmarked‖.



discourse where juxtaposition of L1 and L2 elements does not violate a syntactic rule of either

language‖ (ibid: 586). This constraint is one of three constraints (the other two are free

morpheme constraint, size of constituent constraint) suggested by Polack and some of her

associates which were, later on, supported and criticized by many researchers (Pandharipande:

1990; Nartey: 1982; Berk-Seligson: 1986; Park: 1990). These constraints are placed within the

general framework of the universality of the syntactic theory adopted by the generative approach

of Chomsky (1965;1981;1982) and his followers on one hand, and the typological universal

approach initiated by Greenberg (1966), and developed by Comrie (1984), and Croft (1990) on

the other hand.

Moreover, various types of researches have made use of many well-known theories in the

formal syntax. For example Di Sciullo, et al. (1986) and MacSwan (1999) explain CS in terms of

Chomsky‘s theory of ―Government and Binding‖ appeared in his book ―Lectures on Government

and Binding‖ (1981) later developed to what is called ―the Minimalist Approach‖ appeared in

Chomsky‘s (1995) ―The Minimalist Program‖.

The basic idea of the minimalist approach could be explained in terms of the principles

and parameters approach suggested in the earlier versions of Chomsky‘s theory (For example,

the pro-drop parameter in Hyams: 1983; White:1989a; Chomsky: 1981, 1988; Gass: 1989 and

the prepositional stranding and pied piping in Bardovi-Harlig: 1987; Mazurkewich: 1984)

presented neatly in Ellis (1994-2000:319) in which he assumes that the parametric variation is

workable within the circle of the marked ―periphery‖ rules, whereas the unmarked ―core‖ rules

are ―those that can be arrived at through the application of general, abstract principles of

language structure‖. MacSwan (1999) places CS within the unmarked limited circle of core rules

and disregarding the periphery ones as they are subject to linguistic variations among languages

stating that:

The crucial advantage of minimalist grammars for the study of code switching is precisely …

(that) the lexicon has much richer requirements than in earlier models, requirements rich enough

to generate clause structure, and language-specific requirements may be concretely related to

particular lexical items … an explanation of the code switching facts in terms of conflicts in the

lexical requirements of words which are independent of code switching specific mechanisms.

Using particular theories appeared in the theoretical monolingual syntax in describing the

various characteristics of CS discourse has proved to be incomprehensive; Poplack (2004: 105-

120) states in this reference:

The assumption that bilingual syntax can be explained by general principles of monolingual

grammar may account well for monolingual language structure (including that of the monolingual

fragments in CS discourse), there is no evidence that the juxtaposition of two languages can be

explained in the same way.

Valldes-Fallis (1978: 10), on the other hand, suggests a stylistic approach on analyzing

CS. He distinguishes between CSS which indicate social information and those performed by

particular code switchers as a ―personal rhetorical device to add color to an utterance, to

emphasize, to contrast, to underscore a context, to create new poetic meanings‖. He adds that the

stylistic CS is performed to imply a particular meaningful message and not as a result of

language incompetence and thus it occurs ―when all participants are bilingual and when the

social situations allow the use of either code‖ (ibid: 11).



In the course of his distinction between the structural-constraints based approaches on the

analysis of CS and the nonstructural-constraints based ones, Nilep (2006: 2) assumes that despite

the fact that the various types of syntactic, morphological, and phonological constraints on

studying CS have produced various models, they disregard the sociocultural perspectives and

hence ―they are not sufficient to describe the reason for or effect of a particular switch‖.

1.4. Code Switching and Code Mixing

Some researchers distinguish between code mixing as the use of two languages within

the same sentence boundaries which is sometimes termed as intrasentential CS, and code

switching which occurs across the sentence boundaries and sometimes termed as intersentential

CS (Lipski, 1985: 5). Code mixing is a process similar to that performed by the creators of a

pidgin which is defined by Romaine (2000) as ―a contact variety restricted in form and function

and native to no one, which is formed by members of at least two groups of different linguistic

backgrounds‖; yet, code mixing users, unlike a pidgin users, should have the same linguistic

knowledge in the languages involved in the process. The terms code switching and code mixing

are usually used interchangeably (Muysken: 2000, Bokamba: 1987) though some researchers

make a clear distinction between them. Muysken (2000:1) defines code mixing as ―all cases

where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence‖.

Bentahila et al. (1983), moreover, state that the ―act of choosing one code rather than another

must be distinguished from the act of mixing the two codes together to produce something which

might itself be called a third code‖.

On the other hand, Wardhaugh (2002) makes a distinction between creoles languages,

which are developed from pidgins when they create some native users, and mixing the codes

which is one aspect of code switching in bilingual and multilingual societies. Lipski (1985),

moreover, suggests the term ―mechanical switching‖ to describe what he calls the shift that

occurs unconsciously in the middle of the sentence when ―a speaker is momentarily unable to

remember a term, but is able to recall it in a different language‖.

1.5. Manifestations of Language Contact

CS, diglossia, borrowing, and interference share the common characteristic of occurring

when two or more languages come in contact as a result of various types of sociocultural,

political, geopolitical, or economical reasons. Yet, researchers make a clear distinction between

these processes.

In an initiative well-known research, Ferguson (1959) and Fishman (1967) talk about a

linguistic phenomenon that occurs in some societies when they assign a high prestigious status to

a particular variant of their language in comparison to a low status to other variants of the same

language. A typical example in this reference is the standard Arabic with its high value used in

particular situations in comparison to the other low-status colloquial variants used in other

defined situations. Fishman (1967) extended Ferguson‘s description of limiting diglossia within

the same language varieties to include the functional divisions between different languages.

Trying to distinguish between diglossia and CS, Nilep (2006) assumes that diglossia is based on

the notion of situational switching (formal and informal), whereas CS might occur within a

single situation, interaction, or a discourse. Moreover, in an interesting study of Wlodzimierz J.

Szmanaik (2002) which examines the immigrants‘ language in Canada based on the language



used by a Polish girl who immigrates to Canada in a novel called ―Necessary Lies‖ by Eva

Stachniak, he assumes that the concept of diglossia as discussed by Fishman (1967) are almost

irrelevant because no cases of diglossia in Fishman‘s sense appear in the protagonist‘s discourse

in the novel. He adds: ―The protagonist uses the two languages in every kind of situation,

motivated solely by pragmatic factors, such as, for example, the language of the interlocutor or

of the written document‖. Accordingly, it is a matter of CS rather than that of diglossia.

Valldes-Fallis (1978: 7), on the other hand, assumes that ―it is important not to confuse

code switching with the process of borrowing1―, the English word ―push‖ which has been

exported to the Spanish and changed into ―puchando‖ in the example he cites, ―has not only been

given Spanish pronunciation, but has also been transformed into Spanish present participle‖. In a

similar assumption, Poplack (2004: 150-160) believes that CS should be clearly distinguished

from the other manifestations of language contact; namely ―lexical borrowing‖ which ―tend to be

recurrent in the speech of the individual and widespread across the community… Loanwords

further differ from CS in that there is no involvement of the morphology, syntax or phonology of

the lexifier language‖.

In the course of his distinction between negative and positive transfer Lado (1957:2)

states:

The student who comes into contact with a foreign language will find some features of it quite

easy and others extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his native language will be

simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult.

This statement of Lado, who was one of the pioneers of the adopters of the

behaviorist approach to L2 learning, stands as a starting point to the Contrastive

Analysis Hypothesis (henceforth CAH) which was the most important method used by

most L2 researchers in the United States and Europe throughout the first half of the twentieth

century. The behaviorist theory had its impact on all fields of knowledge including linguistics.

Thus, almost all the second language researches used to work under the assumption that L2

learning could proceed by using the methods of imitation and reinforcement. If there was an

error in the performance of an L2 learner, it was because the old habits which impeded the

learning of the new ones. Such an assumption led them to invent the notion of interference which

was one of the most important notions in this respect.

Within the same behaviorist atmosphere, Vogt (1954: 368) suggested the following

distinction between code switching and interference:

Code switching in itself is perhaps not a linguistic phenomenon, but rather a psychological one

and its causes are obviously extra linguistic. But bilingualism is of great interest to the linguist

because it is the condition of what has been called interference between languages (cited in Nilep:

2006).

Valldes-Falis (1978:6) instigates his article ―Code Switching and the Classroom Teacher‖

by making a clear distinction between these two manifestations of language contact. He assumes

that in CS ―there is ordinarily a clean break between phonemic systems‖. Based on the

1 In the course of his distinction between ―transfer‖ and ―borrowing‖ Corder (1983) assumes that borrowing is ―a

performance phenomenon, not a learning process, a feature, therefore, of language use and not of language

structure… nothing is being transferred from anywhere to anywhere.‖ Thus, borrowing implies the insufficient

knowledge in second language or foreign language learning which is used to ―compensate for deficiencies in the

interlanguage system‖ of L2 learners (Ellis, 1994: 336).



assumption that CS should not be analyzed in terms of language competency of bilinguals since

there are always some particular messages to be conveyed and hence should be clearly

distinguished from interference, he explains the latter as ―a momentary transfer from one

language to another of elements from one of the languages spoken by a bilingual‖. He concludes

by approving Fishman‘s (1964) assumption of interference which ―has unfortunate pejorative

connotations and suggests that the language of bilinguals has not been approached in an unbiased

fashion.‖

2. The Use of L1 in the Classroom

2.1. The Conventional Approach against Using the L1 in the Classroom

One of the basic assumptions in teaching second and foreign languages, which has

always been taken for granted in all over the world, is that the students‘ first language should be

prohibited inside the classroom (e.g. Willis:1981; Swain:1982; Dulay, Burt & Krashen: 1982).

Such an assumption has recently been questioned by several scholars for the sake of arriving at a

more reasonable treatment to this thorny issue (e.g. Dodson: 1967; Guthrie: 1984; Atkinson:

1987; Cook: 2001). One of the most influential attempts in this reference has been suggested by

Vivian Cook (2001). Vivian Cook starts with a discussion to the strongest and the weakest

theories which forbid the use of L1 in the classroom. The strongest stipulates that L1 should be

banned from the classroom and the weakest stipulates that L1 should be minimized.

The bulk of research which discourages the use of L1 in the classroom (e.g. Krashen:

1982; Wong-Fillmore: 1985; Chaudron: 1988), is based on the several conventional assumptions.

Cook (2001) suggests three major ones. One of these assumptions is based on what is called the

―identity hypothesis‖ or L1= L2 hypothesis which suggests that L1 and L2 learning share many

fundamental principles and hence implies that L2 teaching should follow a comparable process

to L1 acquisition (Dulay and Burt: 1974;Ervin-Tripp: 1974). Such an assumption has been

refuted by many scholars (e.g. Bley-Vorman: 1988) who states various types of differences

between foreign and native language learners (Ellis, 1994: 107).

The second assumption is based on those researches which study bilingualism in terms of

clearly distinct separable parts of the two languages in the minds of the users. A good example in

this reference is that of Weinreich‘s (1953) ―Languages in Contact‖ in which he suggests that

bilinguals have two clearly separated languages and they use each in particular contexts. Such

proposal has also been refuted by Cook (2001) and other researchers cited in his article

(Beauvillian & Graninger: 1987; Obler: 1982; Locastro: 1987) who proved that ―the two

languages are interwoven in the L2 user‘s mind‖ at the various language levels.

The third conventional assumption mentioned by Cook is related to how foreign language

teachers are always advised to maximize the second language exposure inside the classroom

since it might be the only chance for the students to use it. Although Cook does not deny this

factual assumption, he states:

The maximal provision of L2 input does not deny the L1 role in learning and teaching. Having a

large amount of meaningful L2 use, including samples of language relating to external goals, does

not preclude using the L1.



2.2. The Role of L1 in Learning the L2

CAH, mentioned in 1.5 above, was pedagogic in principle. It was directed to foreign

language teachers. Lado (1957) states:

The teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the

students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them.

After the 1960s, several applied linguists questioned the strength of CAH in second

language learning. Such criticism to CAH has forced L2 researchers to think of a more

convincing theory of language learning, which might overcome these obvious shortcomings.

Hatch (1983) assumes that ―naturalness‖ factors and interference might be at work in SLA. By

naturalness factors, Hatch means those features which are inherited in L2 and hence cause

difficulty not only for L2 learners but for the native speakers as well. He concludes that the role

of naturalness factors is determined with reference to the different levels of language. In a

famous study made by Cazden et al. (1975) of Spanish learners of English as L2, it is found that

the learners follow the same developmental routes (the first negative consisted of no+V). Since

such construction occurs in L1 acquisition of English but not in Spanish, they assume that it is

more likely that such construction appears as a result of naturalness factors rather than

interference. They conclude their study by listing three factors, which might be at work in SLA:

a. Universal factors

b. Specific factors about the learner‘s L1

c. Specific factors about the L2.

In this respect, Gass (1980:180) states that ―universal factors determine the general

outline of learning. Language-specific considerations can come into play only when universal

factors underdetermine the result‖.

The minimalist position on transfer works under three important claims; the similarity

between L1 and L2 acquisition, the underestimation of the role of L1 in SL and the importance

of the contribution of universal processes of language learning. Newmark & Reibel (1968) for

instance assume that the phenomenon of interference could be interpreted in terms of ignorance.

They assume that when a learner uses some structures of his L1, he may simply ―fill in his gaps

of training he refers for help to what he already knows‖. Researchers such as Dulay and Burt

(1973), Newmark & Reibel (1968), Krashen (1983) Rutherford (1983) and Zobl (1986) have

worked under the assumption that there are universal learning strategies which might be used by

both the first and the second language learners.

One the other hand, in order to investigative the role of L1 in learning the L2, several

scholars study particular linguistic aspects of the L2 of learners with different native languages

(Odlin: 1989; Kellerman: 1983; Gass: 1979; 1983; Hyltenstam: 1984). These researchers talk

about the facilitative effect of L1 in learning the L2. They assume that learners might pass

through different levels of development; in the early stages of such development they might

make use of their L1 if there is a comparable corresponding feature in L2. Gass (1979; 1983)

investigated the structural phenomenon of pronominal retention in 17 adult learners of English

with different mother tongues arriving at a conclusion that those learners whose first language

does not permit pronominal retention, similar to English, committed fewer errors in comparison

to those learners whose first language permits it.



Other scholars, alternatively, have suggested an inclusion of the L1 in the teaching

methods of the L2. The first method, which is called New Concurrent Method (Jacobson: 1990)

is based on the assumption of using CS between Spanish and English in schools. The study

suggests that the teacher can switch to L1 (Spanish) to convey meaning of difficult ideas, to

maintain discipline, and to reward or warn students. The second method is that of Dodson‘s

Bilingual Method (Dodson: 1967) which recommends that a teacher might read the L2 sentences

more than one time and follow the reading with an interpretation in L1. Despite the fact that

these two teaching methods receive a great deal of criticism in the literature, they attract the

attention to the unreasonable earlier attempts of the strongest approach of banning the L1 in the

classroom.

Some researchers (cited in Gray: 2005), moreover, suggest that the culture of the first

language users, might also be helpful in learning several aspects of the second language. Oller:

2005; Chihara Sakurai, and Oller: 1989 assume that changing the names of particular places or

characters mentioned in L2 literature into more familiar L1 comparable names might facilitate

the general comprehension of L2. Floyd and Carroll, (1987: 90-91), alternatively, assume that

the cultural origin of folktales for Iranian EFL students had a greater effect on their

comprehension than did the level of the syntactic and semantic complexity of the text. That is,

Iranians performed better on the texts adapted in English from their native culture than on a text

from American culture.

Adapting a more communicative approach to the benefits of using CS inside language

classroom, Skiba (1997) assumes that L2 learners might be allowed to use their L1 for the sake

of communicative continuity which might help in interference avoidance.

2.3. CS inside and outside the Classroom

One of the theoretical problems that researchers studying CS inside the classroom are

usually encountered with is related to the debatable assumption of whether it is acceptable to

consider using the L1 inside the classroom a similar or a different manifestation of CS in

comparison to CS in its naturally occurring contexts; i.e. in bilingual/multilingual communities.

As it is explained in 1.5 above, CS, in its naturally occurring context, is a manifestation of

language contact which appears due to several sociocultural, political, and geopolitical reasons.

An essential question might be asked in this reference: Is it satisfactory to consider a foreign

language teacher, who has learned his second language in a different monolingual community, a

bilingual and hence is competent to CS between the two languages as bilinguals do in bilingual

communities?

In the course of his distinction between the bilingual and monolingual communities,

Lyons (1981-2006: 281) states:

We can admit, as a theoretical ideal, the possibility of perfect bilingualism, defined as the full

range of competence in both languages that a native monolingual speaker has in one. Perfect

bilingualism, if it exists at all, is extremely rare, because it is rare for individuals to be in a

position to use each language in a full range of situations.

Building on Lyon‘s assumption, one may conclude that as far as there are no perfect

bilinguals, it is possible to take CS outside the limited circle of bilingual communities to arrive at

a more extended sense of switching between any two languages regardless the sociolinguistic

circumstances in which these languages are learned and used. Yet, it might be useful to identify



the similarities and differences between the various sociolinguistic circumstances of using CS

inside and outside the classroom.

An early attempt in this context is made by Valldes-Fallis (1978) who distinguishes

between ―academic‖ and ―natural‖ bilingualism. He assumes that the academic bilingual

becomes so by choice and ―generally acquires such additional language skills in an academic

context, and may or may not actually be a member of a bilingual community‖, whereas the

natural bilingual is ―the product of a specific linguistic community that uses one of its languages

for certain functions and the other for other functions and situations‖1. Valldes-Fallis (ibid)

concludes that teachers should not consider academic CS as a sign of language strength or

weakness because it is similar to the natural CS in having particular messages to be conveyed.

Talking about a context more comparable to the background situation of this study,

Mattson & Burenhult (1999) distinguish between what they call the ―tutorial‖ and ―natural‖

situations of CS claiming that CS in tutorial situations differ a great deal from its counterpart in

natural discourse. They state (ibid: 4):

We should bear in mind that the foreign language teacher perhaps should not be regarded as a true

bilingual who can choose freely between different codes. Instead we are normally dealing with a

monolingual individual who has skills in a foreign language and whose task is to teach this

language to other monolinguals.

Yet, a rapid review for the functions of these two faces of CS in the academic and the

naturally occurring contexts of bilingual communities might illustrate obvious correspondences.

Sert (2005) assumes in this reference that the CS in natural contexts ―may have commonalities

with its observable applications in foreign language classroom‖. Such commonalities are

ascribed to the fact that in spite of the differences, the language classroom is, in one way or

another, a social bilingual community which is the basic requisite for CS to occur.

2.4. Various Functions of Using CS inside the Classroom

Building on the new approach of specifying some types of restricted permissions granted

to in-class CS mentioned in the above sections, several scholar suggested many pedagogical and

―para-pedagogical‖ functions of using the L1 in the classroom depending on various types of

empirical studies.

Many researchers cite a variety of utilities that might be gained in using the L1 in the

classroom. An early attempt in this reference is that of Atkinson (1987) which includes ―eliciting

language, checking comprehension, giving instructions, explaining classroom methodology,

translation, checking for sense, and testing‖. Eldridge (1996: 305-307) suggests four functions:

equivalence, floor-holding, reiteration, and conflict control. Other researchers (Polio and

Duff:1994 ; Mattsson, A. and Niclas Burenhult: 1999; Swain and Lapkin: 2000; Sert, Olcay:

2005; Thoms et al.: 2005; Li Wei and Zhu Hua:2006) keep on listing more and more functions

1 It should be clearly defined here that in this study Valldes-Fallis concentrates on investigating the Spanish-English

bilingual community in the US wherein English is a second language whether inside or outside the classroom. Such

situation differs in many respects in dealing with CS in the context of teaching English as a foreign language which

is the background of this study.



for the use of L1 inside the classroom. Polio (1994: 145) responded to some of these lists stating

that ―There is little left to do in the L2, if all the above may be done in the L1‖.

In this paper we are going to deal with the following most obvious three functions

elicited in the data of the study.

2.4.1. Meaning Conveyance

Meaning conveyance might be used in a different way by students and teachers inside the

class. One of the main functions of using the L1 in both the naturally occurring contexts of CS

and by the students inside the classroom is to fill the communicative gabs that might occur due to

language incompetence in L2. Mattson & Burenhult (1999), who call such phenomenon, the

―linguistic insecurity‖, assume that it is generally associated with students‘ rather than teachers‘

L2 performance because teachers usually stay away from using the words and the phrases they

don‘t know. Eldridge (1996: 305-307), on the other hand, calls this phenomenon ―equivalence‖

assuming that it is usually occurred as a result of students‘ linguistic deficiency in L2. Moreover,

Pennington (1995) examined the CS of eight English teachers concluding that they sometimes

use the students‘ L1 to compensate their low language ability and little motivation.

Teachers, on the other hand, might use the L1 to save time and effort when they need to

explain some difficult L2 words or ideas. Frnaklin (1990) (cited in Cook: 2001) finds that 39%

of the tested Scottish teachers used the L1 to explain the difficult meanings, and only 8% used

the L2. Lin, Angel (1988) studies the performance of an English language teacher in a secondary

school who shares the same L1 (Cantonese) with the students assuming that the teacher followed

the English question with ―a series of elaborations of the meaning in Cantonese‖. Sert (2005)

believes, in this reference, that the teacher‘s continuous inclination to follow the L2 instruction

with L1 interpretation might have some negative pedagogical results.

2.4.2. Class Organization

Allwright and Bailey (1991) mention three major stages in classroom discourse:

Planning, classroom interaction, the outcomes. The first stage includes the pre-class processes

which include ―syllabus‖, ―method‖ and ―atmosphere‖, the second stage incorporates the main

classroom activities; some of them presented by the teacher and others by both the teachers and

the students such as teaching, students‘ participation, doing exercises, raising questions and

listening to answerers etc., the third stage incorporates the ―input‖, ―practice opportunities‖, and

―receptivity‖. The process of in-class CS might appear in more or less percentages in one or in

all of these three stages depending on various rudiments such as the topic under teaching, the

students‘/ teachers‘ language proficiency, the teacher-students mutual cultural and sociolinguistic

backgrounds etc.

Firstly, many researchers find that teachers are inclined to CS to the L1 when they like to

maintain discipline. On the basis of a comprehensive data of in-class CS, Lin (1988) assumes

that teachers switch to Cantonese to indicate a move from teaching to disciplining. On the other

hand, CS might occur when a teacher likes to carry out a particular task for instance reading a

text followed by asking some reading comprehension questions. Macaro (1997) came to a

general conclusion that teachers are forced to use the L1 after they feel desperate to keep on in

doing particular class activities; a condition which usually happens when the students are under

various types of pressures as in examinations and quizzes times. Thoms et al. (2005) investigates



the use of L1 by second language learners when a jigsaw task in a computer chat environment is

performed. They assume that the use of L1 was proved to be an effective procedure for a

management strategy.

Another reason for in-class CS, in this respect, is the topic switching. Mattson &

Burenhult (1999) suggest that the grammar instruction is always preferred to be introduced by

using the L1 due to the fact that ―the proficiency of the students is not developed enough to

include terms necessary in grammar instruction2―. Mattson & Burenhult (ibid: 6) also includes

the shift from the ―focus on meaning to focus on form‖ within their general use of topic

switching since some of their data demonstrate some ambiguous topic changes.

2.4.3. Sociocultural Functions

The interaction between teachers and students inside the classroom is very complicated.

Teaching is not

solely pedagogical but involves various other tasks like promoting learning motivation, marinating

classroom discipline and fostering a favorable human relationship that is conductive to both

teaching and learning in the classroom setting… It is no exaggeration to say that the degree of

success of the pedagogical to a great extent depends upon the degree of success of the other tasks

(Lin, 1988:83).

Mattson & Burenhult (1999) noticed that their subject teacher occasionally ―expresses his

sympathies by switching to Swedish, and continues with French as soon as focus back on the

task‖. Macaro (1997) assumes that praising the students if they do something well is more ―real‖

if the teachers use their mother tongue. Polio & Duff (1994: 318) adds that a personal remark

presented by a teacher in response to a students‘ cough might send a particular sociocultural

message for everybody in the class; a message which might be understood like ―I am now

speaking to you not so much as your English language teacher but as your friend‖ (Lin, 1988

:77).

Accordingly, the teacher who shares the same L1 with his students might make use of it

in maintaining a kind of language solidarity; an action comparable to a continuously occurring

action in bilingual and multilingual societies. It has always been very-well known that one of the

most influential functions of CS in any bilingual community is to maintain solidarity among its

members particularly at the times of political or cultural threats (Romaine, 2000; 162-3). In this

reference, Auerbach (1993: 10) states: ―whether or not we support the use of learners‘ L1s is not

just a pedagogical matter: it is a political one, and the way that we address it in ESL instruction is

both a mirror of and a rehearsal for relations of power in the broader society‖. Carless (2004:

107), alternatively, talks about the teacher-students socio-political mutual background stating

that by using the L1, ―teachers may be resisting ―linguistic imperialism or showing pride in their

own heritage‖.

An interesting notice has been presented by Mattson & Burenhult (1999: 9). They suggest

that In-class CS might also be performed by switching form the first language to the foreign

2 It should be mentioned here that I usually avoid using the L1 in teaching English grammar in contrast to what is

concluded in the study of Mattson & Burenhult among many other studies; one of the reasons might be the language

distance between English and Arabic on one hand and French and Sweden (the two languages of their study). I have

noticed that translating the grammatical terms used to describe, for instance, the English tenses to Arabic has always

proved to be ineffectual.



language when the teacher does not share the same mother tongue with his students. The

Swedish teacher in their study sometimes switch from Swedish (the language of instruction) to

French (the L2 language) in order to ―mark a socializing even‖3.

3. The Study

3.1. The Background

The study investigates CS as a teaching strategy in a foreign language university

classroom. The teacher used the audio-recorded method in data collection. He recorded his

lectures along a whole summer semester which lasted 45 days. The average duration of each

lecture was 50 minutes. CS in 20 lectures was identified and analyzed. Since it is usually a more

condensed semester in comparison to the other ones, the lectures were presented five days a

week. The semester‘s main topic was about teaching English phonetics to the Jordanian Arab

learners of English. The students‘ major was English and phonetics is one of the courses they

usually study in their second year. The classroom was a language lab which comprises 25

students (seven male and 18 female).

The course description states as:

―This course aims at introducing students to the scientific description of the English

sound system as well as sound articulation, sound functions and sound sequences. In addition,

the course will focus on practical training in producing sounds, words, and sentences in

connection with their phonetic transcription.‖

The course components are:

Production of speech sounds.

Vowels and consonants

English cardinal vowels

English short vowels

English long vowels

Diphthongs and Triphthongs

Fricatives and affricates

Nasals and other consonants

Nasals and other consonants

3.2. The Limits of the Study:

1. The study concentrates on the functions of the teacher‘s CS as opposed to the students‘ CS.

2. The study deals with CS inside the university classroom as opposed to CS in its naturally

occurring context of bilingual communities.

3. The subjects of the study are monolingual learners of English as a foreign language; their

mother tongue is Jordanian Arabic.

4. The major aim of the course is ―phonetics‖ in comparison to the other courses offered in the

university which deal with teaching the four English basic skills.

3 The researcher has noticed that some native English language teachers working in Oman practice code mixing for

different reasons mainly s by using some Arabic words usually religiously oriented because they are deeply rooted

in the Arabic culture for the same purpose of marking particular social events.



3.3. Data Analysis

The three functions of using the L1 in the classroom, mentioned in 2.4. above, were

verified in the data of the study. With reference to the first function (conveyance of meaning),

the data proved that the teacher usually switched to Arabic to translate some difficult words or to

elaborate in L1 to explain some difficult ideas (e.g. excerpts 2, 5, 15, 17 and 6).

Excerpt Two:

In excerpt 2, the teacher repeated the same English question in L1 for the sake of

emphasis and to explain some difficult ideas.

What‟s the difference between /t/ and /n/ with reference to the place of articulation? There is no

difference… they are the same because both of them are alveolar… the /t/ the blade touches the

alveolar ridge and the /n/ the blade touches the alveolar ridge… they are similar… the difference

in the manner of articulation; the /t/ is oral, whereas /n/ is nasal. What is meant by the place of

articulation?

CS E-A Meaning… whereas does exactly the articulation

occur. (explaining difficult ideas)

٠ؼٕٟ ٠ٚٓ ذحٌٟر١ ١ٛ٠ٍ جٌٕطك

CS A-E OK? Did you get it?

Excerpt 5

In excerpt 5, the teacher translated the word ―vibration‖ to Arabic to save time and effort

in explaining the term.

If you just put your thumb here and say /ð /, you would feel the vibration, but if you say /θ /, there

is no vibration.

CS E-A Vibration means “ihtizaz”

(explaining difficult terms)

فح٠ر٠ٍٗٓ ٠ؼٕٟ ج٘طُجَ

Excerpt 15

In excerpt 15, the teacher had a long elaboration in L1 to explain the acoustic sound

property of ―pitch‖.

Think about musical instruments; any musical instrument should have a box…



CS E-A For instance the lute and the guitar contain a box to

amplify the sound; How can the size of such a box,

whether big or small, affect the sound properties? How

does the size affect the pitch of the sound?

Sounds like those of insects, for instance, that of a

cockroach; Does it have a high or a low pitch?

Women‟s sound is low because of the pitch.

(Explaining difficult less important conceptions)

٠ؼٕٟ جٌؼٛو ٚجٌى١طحٌ وٍٙح ف١ٙح ٕٚىٚق جٌغٍٜ ِٕٗ جْ ٠ٟهُ جيج وحٔص جالٌس ج١ٌّْٛم١س ذ١ٙح ٕٚىٚق ور١ٍجٚ ٚغ١ٍ ٍْٖٛ ً٘ج ..جٌٛٛش

٠حغٍ ػٍٝ CM - Pitch

٠ؼٕٟ قؿُ CM - Box

جيج وحْ ور١ٍ ً٘ج CM - Pitch

ٌجـ ٠ىْٛ ػحٌٟ جٚ ٚج٠ٝء ٌٌٚٛ ٠ىْٛ ٖح٠ف١ٓ جٚٛجش ِػال جٚٛجش جٌكٍٗجش ِػً ٚٛش جٌٙ

ٚٛضٗ ذٟ CM - Pitch

ػحٌٟ ٚال ٚج٠ٟ؟ ٚٛش جٌٍّجز ٌف١غ ذٓرد جٌضفحع

CM - Pitch

Excerpt 17

In excerpt 17, the teacher believed that explaining how to pronounce the schwa required

more attention and hence switched to Arabic and asked one of the students to read some words

with the schwa.

Listening to audio-recording material about how to pronounce the schwa /ǝ/: hear, square…

CS E-A Meaning, the schwa is almost silent, lets hear it from

the beginning; who can read the words from the

beginning but slowly and loudly? From the beginning

till the word “square”.

(explaining information and performing classroom

activity)

٠ؼٕٟ CM: Schwa

نٍٟ ذال ّٔٓغ ِٓ جٌرىج٠س ِٓ ٠مٍج جٌىالِحش ذّ , ضم٠ٍرح ١ٍِٕفع CM: slowly and loudly

ِٓ جٌرىج٠س جٌٝ قىCM: Square

Excerpt 6

Moreover, in excerpt 6, the teacher switched to translate the term ―transcription‖.

With reference to what is called orthography or the transcription…

CS E-A Meaning the way it is written


٠ؼٕٟ ٠ٍ٠مس وطحذطٗ

The following points should be noticed in this reference:

The main objective of this course as it is stated in the course description above is to

―introduce students to the scientific description of the English sound system as well as sound

articulation‖ so the concept of increasing the L2 exposure is less important here.

The function of explaining some difficult words or ideas by using the L1 as illustrated in

these four excerpts is associated with some other functions. For instance in excerpt 17, it is

associated with another function of using the L1 to perform particular classroom activities.



The researcher has noticed that the teacher switched to the L1 whenever he talked about

Arabic or wanted to compare English and Arabic with reference to particular phonological or

grammatical phenomena (see excerpts no. 9, 11, 16, and 20).

It is usually very hard to identify the average percentage of the use of L1 in performing a

particular function in comparison to the others since there is no clear-cut boundaries between

these different functions; an L1 sentence, a phrase, or even a word might be used to perform

more than one function simultaneously.

On the other hand, the second function of using the L1 in the classroom for the sake of

organizing the class has been verified clearly in the data of the study (e.g. excerpts 1 and 10). In

excerpt 1, the teacher tried to warn the students to avoid being distracted telling them that he

would put them in an embarrassing situation by some direct questions. This word of warning was

followed by a socializing comment to avoid shocking or upsetting the students. Thus, in the

second part of the excerpt, the teacher tried to create a social atmosphere of understanding his

students‘ reasons of being distracted. Accordingly, this excerpt shows that CS here is a sign of

function two and three together.

Excerpt One:

Why do we consider /w/, /j/, and we have /r/ as approximant consonants and not vowels….

Hadeel? Why?

CS E-A What did I ask? What was my question? I don‟t

understand why haven‟t you got used to my procedure

yet? I know this is your first semester with me; I am

always asking those students who I find distracted; you

have to stay on alarm in order to avoid any

embarrassment. I know that you may pass through

difficult times or some particular difficult situations;

yet, please, not only in my lecture, when you entered

the classroom you should leave everything outside.

(discipline with socializing / avoiding distraction)

٠ؼٕٟ جٔح ِحػٍف جٔطٛج ِطؼٛوضٛج ... ٖٕٛ ْإجٌٟ ... ج٠ٕ وٕص جْحي ٘ٓٗ ٚك١ف جٔطٛج جٚي ٍِز ضحنًْٚ ػٕىٞ ٠ؼٕٟ جٟٔ ٠ٚٓ ِحٖٛف ... ػٍٟ

ٚجقى ٍْقحْ جْحٌٗ ِطؼٛوضٛج الََ ضٕطرْٙٛ قطٝ الجقٍؾىُ ٚالََ جٟٔ جػٍف ٍِجش فٟ ٚجقى ٠ٍّ فٟ ِٗحوً ... ضٕطرْٙٛ ػٍٝ ٠ٛي جٌه١

ِؼ١ٓ ذّ ٌؾحء ِٕ ذّ ذّكحٍٞضٟ ٌّح ضؿْٛ ػٍٝ ِؼ١ٕس جٚ فٟ ِٛلف جٌّكحٍٞز ضكحٚي ضطٍن وٍٟٗ نحٌؼ جٌّكحٍٞز

CS A-E

So I was asking about /w/ and /j/ why we consider them approximants and not vowels. That was

my question… Yazin

Excerpt 10

In excerpt 10, the teacher used the L1 spontaneously; he was annoyed because one of the

students kept arriving late. He thought that using the L1 might have more effective power to

control the class.

Aymen, this is the last time I allow you to arrive late; if

you do it again, I won‟t allow you to enter the class.

You did it two times before; I can‟t accept that.

(Spontaneous)

ج٠ّٓ ٘حٞ جنٍ ٍِز جّْكٍه ذ١ٙح ضطحنٍ ١٘ه ٍِز غح١ٔس ِطىنً جٌّكحٍٞز . ِؼٍٚف ٚلطٙح ّْكٕحٌه ٍِز ٍِض١ٓ ِح١ٛ٠ٍ وً ٍِز ١٘ه



On the other hand, in order to organize the classroom the teacher repeatedly switched to

Arabic in order to attract the students‘ attention to what he believed to be important (e.g. excerpt

4, 8, 13).

Excerpt 4

Now the lower teeth are not usually involved in sound production; they are just used for the sake

of resonance…

CS E-A In other words, if I am going to ask you to fill in the

blanks

One of the questions will be like this; alright?

(attracting the attention)

٠ؼٕٟ ٌٛ جؾ١رٍهCM A-E

فً جًٔ ذالٔىّ ٚجقى ِٓ جالْثٍس ١٘ه

CS E-A

alright?

The teacher here inserts the phrase ―fill in the blanks‖ in his Arabic discourse; a process

which is usually called code mixing rather than code switching. The idea of using the L1 here in

talking about the expected questions in the exam is to attract the students‘ attention to bring them

back to the classroom as many of them were always loosing their focus. A similar demonstration

is applicable to excerpt 8 and 13 below; though the CS in 8 is also associated with the function of

performing a class activity.

Excerpt 8

Now, you need to learn how to write these sounds. I am going to give you words and asking you to

write how these words are pronounced by using these sounds; ok? This is called transcription.

Switching the code…

CS E-A You will have one question in the first, second, and

final exam in which I am going to provide you with

some words asking you to transcribe them… not the

spelling which is the normal procedure of writing.

(Attracting the students‟ attention and performing a

classroom activity)

جٔط١ىُ وٍّحش . ْإجي ذحالِطكحْ جألٚي ْٚإجي ذحٌػحٟٔ ْٚإجي ذحٌػحٌع ضىطرٛ٘ح ِٛ

Switching to English

Spelling

Switching back to Arabic

ِٕ وطحذس ػحو٠س

Excerpt 134

What is this sound? Is it /ʃ / or /ʒ/?

4During the lecture, one of the students mispronounced the /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ and the teacher has discovered that they have

a serious problem in Jordan in pronouncing these sounds due to the effect of the Jordanian dialect of Arabic; hence

he found it was more appropriate to use Arabic to attract their attention about this problem.



CS E-A The problem is I concentrated only on how to

distinguish between the dark and the light /l/ and

disregarded that you also have a problem in

pronouncing /tʃ/ and /dʒ/.

(attracting the students attention to what the teacher

identifies as an important topic)

: ٌوُش فم١ ػ٠ٍٝرؼح جٟٔ جٌّٗىٍس ٍِوُش ػٍٝ ً٘ج جٌّٛٞٛع CM

Dark and light /l/ : ػىوُ ِٗىٍس ذًٙج جٌّٛٞٛع جّْؼٛ٘ح و٠ّٛ جٔطٛج ػىوُ ِٗىٍس ج٠ٟح خ

CM

/tʃ/ and /dʒ/

Within the same framework of organizing the classroom, the teacher used the L1 in

performing various types of classroom activities as it is clear in excerpt 8 above in addition to

excerpts 12 and 18 below:

Excerpt 12

All your papers should be left aside; prepare a small

piece of paper; write your name then write the cardinal

and short vowels; I don‟t want to see any paper in front

of you; if you like you can locate them in the chart.

One student asks: Orderly arranged?

The teacher answers: Of course.

(Performing a task)

وً جٌٚجلىُ ٘ٓٗ ٠رىٛ٘ح ذّ ٠ٍؼٌٟٛ ٌٚلس ٚغ١ٍز جوطد ػ١ٍٙح جّْه ٚجوطد

CS A-E Cardinal and short vowels

ِحذىٞ جٞ ٌٚلس جِحِىُ ض٠ٍى ضٍّْٙح ػٍٝ جٌٍُْ جفًٟOne student is asking in Arabic:

ذحٌطٍض١د؟The teacher answers in Arabic:

٠رؼح ذحٌطٍض١د

The teacher here stops teaching to do a particular quiz task; he gave the instructions in

Arabic. When one of the students found his teacher using Arabic he asked his question in Arabic

too.

Excerpt 18

Listening to a student pronouncing the English vowels:

No you have pronounced this incorrectly; they are /ei/

/and /ai/. I‟m going to pronounce them again; I need

everybody to repeat after me.

A student said: not me

No, you do it four times.

(Performing classroom activities; socialization)

ال ً٘ج ٌفظطٟ غ١ٍ CM: /ei/ and /ai/

ٌجـ جٌفظٗ جٌىُ ِٓ ؾى٠ى ٚج٠ٌى جٌىً ضٍفع ذؼىٞ A student said: not me

ال جٔص جٌذغ ٍِجش

In addition to the functions of meaning conveyance and organizing the classroom, the

data of the study show the occasional use of L1 for various types of affective reasons. In excerpts

18 (cited above), 7 and 19 the teacher made some friendly attempts to establish a social

atmosphere in the class.

Excerpt 7

(A late student comes in)

Are you with us?



CS E-A Why are you late?

Ok it seems that you feel hot; sit down here close to the

air condition.

(Creating a social atmosphere)

١ٌٕ ِطحنٍز ١٠د ٖىٍه ِٗٛذس جوؼىٞ ٕ٘ح ضكص جٌّى١ف

Excerpt 19

Ending the lecture: Alright; that‟s enough for today

Did anybody download this software? I think not

everybody has an internet access.

Some students answered in Arabic that they couldn‟t

download the software

What if I do?

I would reward myself with two additional marks.

(Ending the lecture; socialization)

ً٘ج جٌرٍٔحِؽ فٟ قىج ٌُٔٗ ِٓ جٌٕص ؟ جػطمى جٌّٗىٍس ِٛ جٌىً ػىُ٘ ٔصSome students answered in Arabic that they couldn‟t

download the software

ٚجيج ٌُٔطٗ جٟٔ؟ ج٠َى ٔفٟٓ ػالِط١ٓ

On the other hand, the data show that the affective function is usually associated with

some other ones as it is clear in excerpts 3 and 14 below.

Excerpt 3

Teeth also give special resonance…

CS E-A Do you remember its meaning that I mentioned before?

Resonant (Switching “hay” this) is an adjective


What? Do you have a shortage of Vitamin B12 and

hence you forget? (arouse laughter)

It means “raneen”

This means that teeth give particular properties to the

sound; thus when an old man losses his teeth, he is not

only unable to pronounce the / θ / sound but also has

different sound properties. (explaining difficult terms

and arousing laughter)

ج٠ٕ قى١ص ٖٛ ِؼٕح٘ح

٘ح ٔمٙ ذٟ ض٠ٍٛف ضْٕٓٛ

ضؼٕٟ ج١ٌٍٔٓ

٠ؼٕٟ جالْٕحْ ضؼطٟ ٌٍٛٛش نح١ٚس ِؼ١ٕس ًٌٌه ضٗٛفْٛ ٚجقى نط١حٌ غحء ٌىٓ نح١ٚس ٚٛضٗ ِهطٍفس جٌٟ ْْٕٛ ِىٍٓز ِٛ فم١ ِح٠ٍفع جي

The teacher here looked for some feed back from the students to realize if they had

comprehended some already mentioned data; he mixed his question with some humorous

remarks to arouse laughter to create a social atmosphere.

Excerpt 14

Now, from now on if you want to check the meaning of a particular word in a dictionary, don‟t

check the meaning only, you have to check the way it is pronounced…



CS E-A Meaning, if you want to improve your language. Yet,

some students they even don‟t have dictionaries; he

finishes his study without having a dictionary as if they

are so experts that they don‟t need one. When you ask

him; he answers: well, I don‟t like my major; it‟s all

because of Dad he choose my major not me. It‟s a

disaster.

(Repetition, attracting the students‟ attention, arousing

laughter, and talking about motivation)

٠ؼٕٟ ً٘ج جيج ٌوش ضكٓٓ ٌغطه ٌىٓ جوٛ ٠الخ قطٝ لحِِٛ ِحػٕىٖ ػٍٝ

٠طهٍؼ ٚ٘ٛ ِحػٕىٖ لحِِٛ ٚضٓحٌٗ ١ٌٕ , جْحِ ّ٘ٗ فطحقً ذحالٔى١ٍُٞ

ذح قىحٌٟ جونً جالٔى١ٍُٞ ٚهللا ١ِٛرس٠ىٍه جٟٔ ِحقد جالٔى١ٍُٞ ذح

This excerpt contains many functions performed in one L1 sentence. It starts with trying

to repeat the same idea in Arabic to attract the students‘ attention. In other words the teacher

thinks that Arabic here would be more efficient. The teacher, afterwards, made some sarcastic

remarks about the students‘ motivation in choosing their major.

Another important function of the use of L1 that the data of the study show is what other

scholars call ―topic switch‖ (e.g. Mattson & Burenhult: 1999; Nilep: 2006 and Sert: 2005). Most

of them associate this function with explaining the L2 grammar by making use of the students‘

prior knowledge of the grammar of their L1. Excerpts 9, 11, and 16 demonstrate clearly this

function.

Excerpt 9

The phonological distribution for vowels is different from the phonological distribution for the

consonants not only in English but also in Arabic ….

CS E-A In Arabic we don‟t have consonant clusters; in the

collegial variants of Arabic we may have such a thing,

but in the standard Arabic we don‟t; we either have a

vowel or an inflectional diacritical mark placed

between two consonants; we are talking here about

phonology not phonetics.

(Topic Switch)

فٟ جٌٍغس جٌؼٍذ١س ػىٔح جٌكٍٚف جٌٛك١كس ال٠ّىٓ جْ ضطمح٠غ ِغ قٍٚف فٟ جٌٍٙؿحش جٌّك١ٍس ِٛؾٛو ٌٚىٓ فٟ جٌفٛكٝ الََ ٠ىْٛ ػىٔح جِح ,جٌؼٍس

قٍف ػٍس جٚ قٍوحش ِػً جٌّٟس ٚجٌىٍٓز ٚجٌفطكس جٌٟ ٟ٘ الََ ضىْٛ فٟ ِٕطٛف قٍف١ٓ ٚك١ك١ٓ ٕٚ٘ح ٔطىٍُ

CM A-E

ذحٌفٌٛٔٛٛؾٟ ١ٌّٚ جٌفٛٔطىّ

Excerpt 11

You, here in Jordan, are mixing between the second and the first cardinal vowel /I/ and /e/ be

careful …

CS E-A As your colleague said the /I/ and /e/ are pronounced

similar to the two inflectional diacritical marks

assigned for accusative and genitive cases; you‟ve got

a problem here; ok, you…

The students reads and the teachers listens

Things have been mixed now; you usually

mispronounce /e/ as /I/, but you did the opposite.

( Topic Switch)

َٞ ِحقىٝ ١ٍَِىُ جٌىٍٓز ٚجٌفطكٗ ذحٌٍغس جٌؼٍذ١س الْ ٘حٞ ػىوُ ذ١ٙح :ِٗىٍس ٠ال جٔص ج٠ٕ ٘حٞ

CS A-E

The student: /pin/, /bin/, /hen/ …

جٔطٛج ػحوز ضٍفظْٛ, جنطٍطص جالٌِٛ

CS A-E /e/ - /I/

ج٠ٕ ٚحٌ ِؼحن جٔص ٠ْٛصCS A-E /I/- /e/



The teacher in these two excerpts found that it would be more appropriate to use Arabic

to talk about Arabic phonology and making a comparison between Arabic and English

pronunciation.

Excerpt 16

Please try to pay more attention to /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ / and /ʒ/ they are very confusing for you here in

Jordan because simply…

Which one of these sounds you have in your various

dialects?

/keefak/, /kaifak/, /shlonek/ what are the sounds that

change here?

The /k/ is velum not like /ʃ / and /t ʃ /

Do you see how close they are; that is why they are so

confusing; even their names “fricatives” and

“affricates” are very close.

Ok what about this one; do you have it in your dialect?

Aha it exists; so you have the four sounds in your

dialect.

The difficulty is when you produce a sound like the

retroflex /r/ which does not exist in your mother

tongue. That is why the British can not produce

particular Arabic sounds and also the Greeks.

The students: Also the Jewish.

(Topic Switch; explaining difficult conceptions;

comparison)

...ِٕٛ ِٓ جالٚٛجش ٘حٞ ػىوُ ذحٌٍٙؿحش جٌّك١ٍس The students answered

ٍٖٛٔه ١ِٓ جٌٟ ؾحٞ ٠طغ١ٍ,ؾ١فه,و١فه فٟ ػىٔح CM: the fricative and the affricate

ذّ و١فه ٚحٌ CM: Velum

ٌىٓ

CM: /ʃ / and /t ʃ /

وٖٛفْٛ و١ف ل٠ٍرسCS A-E: That is why they are so confusing ; they are

very close

قطٝ جّْٙح CM: Fricative / affricates

:١٠د ًٚ٘ج ِٛؾٛو ػىوُ

CM: /tʃ/ not /dʒ/?

ج٘ح ِٛؾٛو ػىوُ جيْ جٌّٗىٍس ٠ٚٓ فم١ ًٚ٘ج ج٠ٟح ِٛؾٛو خ CM: Dialect

فحيْ جالٌذؼس جٚٛجش ِٛؾٛوٖ فّغ ضٍو١ُ ذ١١ٓCS: A-E: you can do it

ٌٛؼٛذس جٌٟ ف١ٙح ج٠ٕ ٠ؼٕٟ ٘ٓٗ جٟٔ ٌّٓ جوٍه ٠ؼٕٟ ذحع ٘ٛ جالٚٛجش ج:ضؼحي جٌفظٍٟ ٚٛش ِػً

CM: retroflex /r/

:جٌٟ ٘ٛ جٚال ِحِٛؾٛو ذحي CM: mother tongue

ذٍغطه جال١ٍٚس ال ذحٌٍغس جيCM: Standard dialect

ًٌٌه ضٗٛف جالٔى١ٍُٞ ِٓ ٠ٍ٠ى ٠طؼٍُ ػٍذٟ , و١ف ٌجـ ضٍفظٗ؟ ٚؼدٌكحء ٠ٍفظٗ نحء جٚ ٘حء ٚج١ٌٛٔح١١ٔٓ ٠ىٌْٛٛ نر١رٟ جٌمحف ِٓطك١ً ٠ٍفظٗ ٚج

The students adding..

ٚج١ٌٙٛو وّحْ CM: They have

نحء CM: But not

قحء

This is the longest excerpt in which the teacher and the students entered into a long

discussion in L1 about a comparison between the various sounds in English and in the Jordanian

dialect of Arabic5.

The following excerpt 20, moreover, shows the teacher‘s attempt to use the L1 to perform

two different functions of ―topic switch‖ and ―affective function‖:

5The teacher‘s mother dialect is Iraqi Arabic and he is not well-acquainted with the Jordanian dialect of

Arabic.



Excerpt 20:

Asking one student: What is the difference between the definite and indefinite articles?

Don‟t be embarrassed; you are a student and I am

expecting you to commit mistakes. You may say “I

don‟t know” that‟s it; but don‟t say something you are

not sure about.

Even in Arabic we have the same idea concerning the

“definite” and “indefinite”; we say “kitabun” and

“alkitab”.

(Socialization; Topic switch)

الضٕكٍؼ ِحفٟ وجػٟ ضٕكٍؼ جٔص ٠حٌد ٚجٔح جْطحي ٚجٟٔ ِطٛلغ ِٕه وٛي ِحػٍف ٚنٍٙ ذّ الضكىٟ غ١ٍ ,ضهطأ

ٚ ”وطحخٌب “ج جٌىالَ جٌّؼٍفس ٚجٌٕىٍز ِٓ ٔىٛي قطٝ ذحٌؼٍذٟ ػىٔح ٔفّ ً٘٘حٞ جٌّكىوجش ”جٌىطحخ“

3.4. Findings and Discussion

The data elicited from the 20 audio-recorded lectures manifest various types, functions,

and durations of using Arabic inside the classroom. Most of the excerpts show that the teacher is

using Arabic for particular purposes as it is explained clearly in the above section. Cook (2001)

assumes in this reference that teachers who share the same native language with their students

might switch to their mother tongue in the following three different ways:

a. Spontaneously,

b. for direct translation, or

c. intentionally.

Spontaneous switching is very rare in the data (excerpt 10); direct translation (excerpts 3,

5, and 6) and intentional switching (all the excerpts) are more prominent. The intentional

switching is used to serve various types of functions illustrated in 3.3. above.

As it is obvious in table one below, the lectures‘ average time is 41.24 Min.; ranging

from the maximum time of 51.41 Min. to the minimum time of 24.19 Min. The data also show

that the average duration of L1 used in the class is 5.90 Min. ranging form the maximum use of

12.13 Min. to the minimum use of 1.5 Min. The average percentage of using the L1 in the class

as it is clear in figure 1 is 13%, and hence the average percentage of using the L2 is 87%.

Figure 1, on the other hand, manifests that the longest duration of using the L1 occurred

in lecture No.5 (31.82%). In this lecture, there is a 480 minute excerpt in which the teacher

talked about three secondary ideas namely: the biological functions of some articulators such as

the larynx and the pharynx which are not used in producing English sounds; the second idea was

about some physical sound properties such as ―pitch‖ which is not included in the course

description, the third idea was an explanation of the word ―cartilage‖ and the teacher here

elaborated in talking about football players knowing that most of the students have an interest in

this topic. The shortest duration of using the L1 occurred in lecture No. 14 (5.4 %). The lecture‘s

main topic was to describe the differences between affricate and fricative sounds in terms of

manner and place of articulation and their phonological distributions. That topic had an integral

part within the general outlines of the course.

Furthermore, the data show a variety of elements involved in switching to Arabic by the

teacher. The most prominent one is what other scholars call ―topic switch‖ (e.g. Mattson &

Burenhult: 1999; Nilep: 2006 and Sert: 2005). Mattson & Burenhult: 1999 state that ―certain

aspects of foreign language teaching such as grammar instruction are preferably expressed in the

mother tongue of the students‖. The data present a different, but related, aspect of the topic



switch mentioned by those scholars. The teacher seemed to have a potential tendency to switch

to Arabic when he liked to compare between the English and Arabic phonological systems (see

excerpts 9, 11, 16, and 20). In excerpt 16, for instance, the teacher talked about particular Arabic

consonants in comparison to their English counterparts, and in excerpt 9, he talked about

consonant clusters in English and Arabic.

Another important element involved in the teacher‘s CS is his inclination to explain the

various types of the course materials at any expense including the L2 exposure reduction. In

many cases the teacher switched to Arabic because he believed that the topic under discussion

wouldn‘t be plainly comprehended by his students due to its highly theoretical nature. In excerpt

15, for instance, the teacher presupposed that the abstract nature of the concept of ―pitch‖ might

obstruct the student‘s comprehension and hence he thought that it might be useful to explain it

even in Arabic.

The other important factor is the nature and the objectives of the various types of

classroom activities. Classroom activities vary depending on the nature and the topic of the

course (for instance practical VS theoretical/ optional VS obligatory etc.), the students‘ L2

proficiency, and the teacher‘s academic standards in teaching methodology. The practical course

on which the data of this study is based required particular types of activities including listening

to students pronunciation, watching some video- recorded lectures, listening to many audio-

recordings, using a mixture of computer‘s software to explain the articulators movements and

positions among many other tasks. If the instruction associated with quiz task mentioned in

excerpt 12, for example, was explained in English, it would be possible to cost the teacher more

time and effort.

Date Total time Time in Arabic Percentage of Using

L1

1 30/06/2009 45.36 Min. 10.18 Min. 22.45 %

2 01/07/2009 51.41 Min. 4.52 Min. 8.79 %

3 02/07/2009 48.29 Min. 11.87 Min. 24.58 %

4 05/07/2009 49.54 Min. 9.76 Min. 19.70 %

5 06/07/2009 38.12 Min. 12.13 Min. 31.82 %

6 07/07/2009 41.41 Min. 5.9 Min. 14.40

7 08/07/2009 39.20 Min. 4.40 Min. 11.22 %

8 12/07/2009 53.25 Min. 4.5 Min. 8.45 %

9 13/07/2009 47.17 Min. 5.7 Min. 12.11 %

10 14/07/2009 37.15 Min. 1.98 Min. 5.33 %

11 15/07/2009 43.01 Min. 1.5 Min. 2.50 %

12 23/07/2009 45.19 Min. 9.05 Min 20.02 %

13 27/07/2009 38.40 Min. 7.07 Min. 18.41 %

14 28/07/2009 33.17 Min. 1.8 Min. 5.4 %

15 29/07/2009 40.50 Min. 7.2 Min. 17.86 %

16 30/07/2009 40.66 Min. 4.38 Min. 10.77 %

17 02/08/2009 40.28 Min. 2.10 Min. 5.21 %

18 04/08/2009 24.33 Min. 2.71 Min. 11.16 %

19 11/08/2009 44.34 Min. 8.50 Min. 19.17 %

20 12/8/2009 24.19 Min. 2.75 Min. 11.36 %

Total 824.97 Min. 118 Min. 14.30 %

Average 41.24 Min. 5.90 Min.



Table One The Data Statistics

Figure One

The Use of L1 in the Classroom

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

L1 and L2 Duration

Tim

e i

n M

inu

tes

L1 Duration

L2 Duration

Figure Two

The Average Percentage of Using L1

Series1; 1; 87%

Series1; 2; 13%

1

2

Figure Three

Shortest and Longest Duration of Using L1

0 10 20 30 40 50

1

2

Duration in Minutes

L1 Duration

L2 Duration



4. Conclusion

The conventional approach against banning the use of L1 in the classroom is no longer

taken for granted; many researchers have suggested that CS in language classroom should not

always be associated with language incompetence; on the contrary, it might be utilized as a

useful method if it is used in a proficient way. Yet, it should be noticed that the teachers should

be highly cautious in this respect as Baker (1997) assumes that although using the L2 learners

native language inside the classroom might be helpful ―to build conceptual understanding and to

process knowledge and skills; instructors must be clear about when and how to use it‖.

The study has come up with the following concluding remarks:

1. University classroom code switching is an indispensable process if the teacher shares the

same native language with his students.

2. Instead of warning L2 teachers to create some hypothetical foreign contexts which might

differ a great deal from their L1 counterparts in various cultural aspects, they might be

advised to have a full control of using code switching inside the classroom by taking the

advantage of sharing the native language with their students in supporting the general process

of learning.

3. The use of L1 inside the university classroom should not exceed particular limits and should

be used in a clearly identified purpose; for instance, to explain particular difficult terms,

maintain the students-teacher solidarity, or to show discipline. Yet, occasional spontaneous

code switching are not as harmful as they used to be considered particularly if we assimilate

the inside classroom L2 learning to the natural L2 acquisition outside the classroom.

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Reference # 49

Topic # 3

The impact of globalization on translation with special reference

to English- to- Arabic and Arabic- to- English translation Muayyed An-Nasralla [email protected], Zarka Private University, Jordan

There has been a debate as to whether globalization is a useful course of action to the existence of

man in this universe. Extremes range from its supporters who insist on some of its political,

economical and cultural rewards to all mankind, to its opponents who foretell a reasonably gloomy

image to the new world of globalization. As far as language is concerned, language distance has

been increasingly shrinking as a result of the prevalence of globalization similar to geographical

and physical distance. The respectable position occupied by English has had great effect on the

other non-global languages. Arabic is not an exception in this respect. This paper will try to seek

an answer for the question, does globalization, that reduces language distance between English

and Arabic facilitate English-to-Arabic translation and vice versa or does it create new challenges

for it?

Introduction

There has been a debate as to whether globalization is a useful course of action to the

existence of man in this universe. Extremes range from its supporters who insist on some of its

political, economical and cultural rewards to all mankind, to its opponents who foretell a

reasonably gloomy image to the new world of globalization. The advocates of globalization

assume the existence of a global village that smoothes the progress to the increase of

modernization and technology all around the world. According to them, globalization would

move up the wealth Standard s of millions of people by providing various types of job

opportunities and it leads to a more cultural, social, religious and political understanding between

the various civilizations of the world. The opponents stand in the other extreme by linking

globalization with imperialism, Americanism and neo-colonization.

Globalization as an ideology was basically planted in the period that came after the

industrial revolution as a result of the expansion of European colonization. There was a natural

interrelatedness between the evolution theory of Darwin that emphasizes on the proposal of the

survival of the fittest, the secular and materialistic scopes of capitalism and globalization. In the

twentieth century, this ideology was further developed in the United States as a result of several

political, demographical and economical reasons. Politically speaking, the United States was

progressively taking the lead as one of the superior political powers of the world. . Moreover,

The newly- established state of America was a tempting model of freedom and prosperity for

many people around the world. The colossal migration of men from different cultures to this

state resulted in an extremely heterogeneous society that had no specific color or flavor. On the

other hand, the adaptation of the capitalist policy in economy attracted enormous capitals to

consider this state as a promising optimal target.

The ideology of globalization was crystallized and moved from theory to practice

during the 1970s and the 1980s of the previous century as a result of two essential dramatic

proceedings. The first was the conquest of the Chinese market by the capitals of the United

States, and the second was the striking collapse of the Soviet Union and the fall of its social

dogma that put an end to the Cold War and declared the triumph of the capitalist philosophy.



In his discussion of the principle of homogenization which is one of the manifestations of

globalization, Mazrui (1998) assumes that globalization leads us to ―resemble each other to a

much greater degree than we ever did in the past… homogenization is increasing similarity‖. He

keeps on by emphasizing the fact that the western culture has become universalized throughout

the world. This is indicated by the western‘s man suit, which is considered the formal costume of

businessmen, diplomats, professors etc. in the whole world, and by the jeans revolution which

has captured the dress culture of the young people all around the world (ibid.).

As far as language is concerned, language distance has been increasingly shrinking as a

result of the prevalence of globalization similar to geographical and physical distance. There

have been several languages (English, French, German and Spanish) that win the title of a global

language. The eminent position occupied by the American English in the whole world is simply

one of the natural consequences of the age of globalization. It is a well-known fact that almost

any successful technocrat should know English wherever he lives. The world technocrat‘s ideal

model in economy, law, education and all aspects of social and physical sciences is that of

Harvard or Princeton universities which ask for a TOFEL certificate as a prerequisite of their

membership. On the other hand, the ever-growing technology of communication and

telecommunication has added another indispensable need to English as a global language.

The respectable position occupied by English has had great effect on the other non-global

languages. Arabic is not an exception in this respect. Modern Standard Arabic languages as well

as the various Arabic dialects have been using a large amount of loanwords that borrowed from

English. These loanwords have traveled with their signified as they are used in the Arab societies

(AL-Najar: 1998). Most of these loanwords are used in particular scientific registers; such as in

the field engineering and medicine. Yet, this does not deny the fact that there are many

loanwords that are used in non-scientific registers; such as the language used between the

illiterate car repairers (ibid).

The borrowing of such a large amount of loanwords form English has had serious

consequences on the process of English-to-Arabic translation and vice versa. The borrowing of

new words has created a debate between the translators in the Arab world. Several proposals

have been introduced to solve this thorny issue. Some translators assume that in order to keep the

several connotations of the original English lexical item, it is better to transliterate it. The other

team of translators insists that the classical Arabic is rich enough to provide us with whatever

equivalents we need to the newly- appeared ideas or concepts.

This paper tries to seek an answer for the question, does globalization, that reduces

language distance between English and Arabic facilitate English-to-Arabic translation and vice

versa or does it create new challenges for it?

2. Some Linguistics and Sociolinguistic Preliminaries

Before discussing the impact of globalization on the translation process in general and on

English-to-Arabic translation and vice versa in particular, it is advisable first to discuss three

Following Badawi (1973) among many other Arab linguists, it is assumed in this paper that the linguistic

composition in the North-African and the Middle-East Arabic countries (the Arab Homeland) comprises the

existence of different variants of Arabic: colloquial (illiterate, educated, and elevated), modern formal Arabic

(Standard Arabic), and classical Arabic. Each one of these variants has its own registers and contexts.

An-Nasralla: The impact of globalization on translation


fundamental linguistics and sociolinguistic principles: The concepts of language distance and

language contact, global languages and the effect of cultural disparity between nations on

translation.

2.1. Language Distance and Language Contact

The comparative philologists of the 19th

century proposed two types of classification to

the major languages of the world. The first type which was latter called diachronic as opposed to

the structural or synchronic classification, classifies languages to different families and groups

languages together on the basis of their common ancestor; that is the transmission from an earlier

common parent language. Those of Europe (the Germanic family, the Romance, the Celtic, the

Hellenic etc.) were treated in more detail. This type of classification was further developed by

several comparative linguists in Europe and the United States in the twentieth century.

As for English, it belongs to the Indo-European family of languages and hence it is very

close to the languages that belong to the same family and spoken in Europe (see figure 1). The

comparative philologists of the 19th

century imagined the existence of an ancient language

(Proto-Indo-European), which was supposed to be spoken 5.000 years ago and tried to gradually

reconstruct it word by word. Germanic languages, which are descended from the PIE, are usually

divided into three regional groups the eastern languages (Gothic, Burgundian, Vandal etc.), the

northern languages (Norwegian, Swedish, Danish etc.) and the western languages (German,

Dutch, Flemish, English etc.). Arabic, on the other hand, belongs to a completely distant family

called the Semitic family of languages (see figure.2). The languages of this family are spoken in

Northern Africa and the Middle East (the Arab Homeland). Four groups of languages are usually

included within this family: the Northeastern to which only one language belong (the Akkadian),

the Northwestern to which various languages belong (Aramaic, Phoenician, Syriac, Hebrew etc.),

the Southern Central to which Arabic belongs and the Southern Peripheral to which south Arabic

and Ethiopia belong (Encyclopaedia Britannica: 2003).

The second type of classification (the synchronic) is that which classifies the languages

of the world on the basis of the similarities and differences of their grammatical structure

regardless of their family belonging. Three types of language structure are usually mentioned in

this respect: isolating, inflectional and agglutinative. Isolating or analytical languages (such as

Chinese and Vietnamese) make little or no use of word-form variation for grammatical purposes

such as that found in Arabic for instance (e.g. ٠ىطرٓ/ وحضد / ٠ىطرحْ / ٠ىطرْٛ / وطد (or in English

(write, wrote, writes, written, writing). In inflectional languages, words manifest several

grammatical relationships morphologically. In languages such as Arabic, Latin and to some

extent English, the inflectional form of words represents several morphological oppositions. In

agglutinative languages, words comprise a linear sequence of morphs as in English

―un.desir.ability‖ and in Egyptian Arabic ―mushhankelimoh‖ ٍِّٖٛٗكٕى” “ (we are not going to

talk to him) (Bell: 1976).

There is no grammatical structure of any language in the world, which is completely

isolating, inflectional, or agglutinative, rather languages usually make use of these three types of

structures. Yet, some languages such as Arabic is mainly inflectional and agglutinative unlike

English that irregularly makes use of such constructions.



Figure 1 The Germanic Family of Languages

Based on Crystal, D. (1981)

This approach was later developed by the ―typological universalists‖ that was established

first by Greenberg (1966) and developed by several scholars such as Hawkins (1983), Comrie

(1984) and Croft (1990). It attempts to identify common features in languages that belong to

different families. It is based on the assumptions of the abstract principles and the various

parametric settings discussed in Chomsky (1981) in the course of his discussion of the theory of

universal grammar. The typological approach involves a crosslinguistic comparison of particular

features such as articles, tenses, a relative clause or interrogative constructions. The analysis is

supposed to result in a basis for identifying the rare and common features in particular languages

(Ellis: 2000). For instance Gass (1979; 1983) studies the phenomena of pronominal retention in

Old Saxon

Low Germanic

Old Frisian

Old Frisian

Pidgin

English

Old English

Ingvaeonic

Crimean Gothic

Yeddish

German

Upper German

High German

Afrikaans

Dutch Flemish

Old Low Franconian

Gothic

Germanic

Indo-European

Proto-Indo-European

PIE



English, Arabic, French, Italian and Persian. She investigated whether the Arabic, French and

Persian learners of English will accept sentences such as

The woman that I gave a book to her is my sister.

Gass found that the Arab and Persian learners of English were much more likely to

accept this sentence than the French and Italian learners of English.

Regardless of the approach that one may advocate concerning the language distance

between English and Arabic, it is obvious that it is huge. Unsurprisingly, this would have

serious consequences on the process of translation from English to Arabic and vice versa. To

illustrate, let us consider the following English simple sentence and how they are translated into

Dutch, German, and French on one hand and into Arabic on the other hand:

English The Man broke his oath

Dutch De Man brak Zijn eed

German Zum mann brach sein schwr

French L‘ homme brisa ses Serment

َكث ال سخم ة ٔعذ ِ انعشثٛخ

Table One The Effect of Language Distance on Translation

Apart from the dissimilarities of the form of the lexical items and the word order

direction between English and Arabic as compared to that between the other languages and

English which is very problematic in the process of translation, the grammatical structure in

Arabic is entirely different from those of the defined other languages. The structure of the above

sentence in the four languages is illustrated in the following table:

English Definite

Article

Noun Verb Personal

pronoun

Noun

Dutch Definite

Article

Noun Verb Personal

pronoun

Noun

German Definite

Article

Noun Verb Personal

pronoun

Noun

French Definite

Article

Noun Verb Personal

pronoun

Noun

Word

Order

Subject (S) Verb (V) Complement (C)

Personal pronoun + Noun

Verb Definite جٌؼٍذ١س

Article

Noun Preposition Noun Bound

pronoun ( ٍ١ّٞ

(ِطًٛ Word

Order

Verb (V) Subject (S) Complement (C)

Preposition + Noun+ Bound pronoun

Table Two Language Distance and Grammatical Structure

According to Ellis (2000) distance between the native language and the target language

can be understood as a linguistic phenomena; that is to make out the degree of the actual



linguistic similarities and differences between the two languages or a psychological one; that is

by identifying what the learner thinks the degree of difference. The essential role of the distance

between the native and the target languages in second language learning and hence on translation

is reflected in the amount of time depleted to the courses in the Foreign Service Institute in the

United States (20 weeks for French as opposed to 44 for Serbo-Croatian) (Ibid.).

Language distance can always be amended by language contact. Language contact which

is subject to several political, social and economical factors is referred to as ―a situation of

geographical continuity or close social proximity and thus of mutual influence between

languages and dialects‖ (Crystal: 2003). The result of language contact is manifested at the

various levels of language such as in the growth of loan words and several mixed grammatical

and phonological patterns.

The effect of the source languages on the native language and vice versa is of course not

restricted to the relation between Arabic and English. The existence of borrowing, interference

and code switching is a natural process whenever there is a possibility of language contact. For

instance, Stockwell (2002) cites several examples of the bilingual society of Paraguay wherein

more than 90 per cent are bilingual in Guarani and Spanish. He assumes that language choice in

such linguistic situation is non-random and heavily influenced by several external constraints;

such as rural / non-rural, formal / non-formal, intimate/ non-intimate etc.

2.2. Global Languages

There is an Arab proverb (cited in Fromkin, V & R. Rodman: 1988) that says, ―language

is a steed that carries one into a far country‖. As a result of different reasons in a range of

different areas of the world, there are groups of people each with their indigenous linguistic and

cultural traditions desire social, commercial, religious etc. communication. Different solutions

have been invented in such a state of affairs; one of these is the adoption of a language known by

the two groups to be used as a means of communication. Such language is usually called a lingua

franca.

The term was first introduced in medieval times when a trade language, which was a

mixture of Italian, French, Spanish and Arabic, came into use in Mediterranean ports and was

known as Lingua Franca or ―Frankish Language‖. Various languages in all around the world

turned out to be lingua francas as a consequent to different reasons. Greek and Latin were the

lingua francas of Christianity in the whole world for centuries. French, was a lingua franca of

diplomacy in the 18th

and 19th

century (ibid.). Classical Arabic and to some extent Standard

Arabic have been the lingua francas of Islam all over the world.

Stockwell (2002) identifies four forms of lingua franca: a contact language, auxiliary

language, international language and a trade language. The contact language lingua franca, such

as French in North Africa, usually appears when the speakers of that language have a particular

political or economical power over the users of other languages. Contrastively, trade language

lingua franca, such as Swahili in the African east cost, designates equivalent social status. An

international lingua franca, such as English, French, Spanish and Arabic, is used as ―a neutral

form‖ for the sake of global communication. Auxiliary languages include several artificial

languages, such as Esperanto, which are used in very restricted functions.



2.3. Cultural Disparity and Translation

Following Sapir, Lado (1957) defines culture as ―structured systems of patterned

behaviour‖. Several sociologists and anthropologists have usually defined culture as an aspect of

human behaviour. It includes the knowledge, beliefs, morals, traditions, values, language etc. of

a particular society. Thus, language is considered as integral part of any culture.

It is universally known that language board lines do not have a one-to-one

correspondence with cultural board lines. Different cultures might use the same language.

English and French, for instance, have been used in the some western and eastern societies with

entirely different cultures. The reverse is true; the bilingual or multilingual societies in several

areas of the world are usually using various languages though they belong to the same culture.

In their course of the discussion of the impact of cultural disparity on translation,

Newmark (1988) and Nida (1964) identify different types of translation problems that arise as a

result of cultural discrepancy; the following are the most significant:

2.3.1. Ecology

The lexis of a particular language is closely associated to the environmental elements

surround the users of that language. Nida (ibid.) mentions several translation problems that he

faced in the translation of Bible to some African and South American target languages. For

instance he didn‘t find a particular equivalent to the lexeme ―fig‖ which does not exist in their

environment. Moreover, Arabic has a large amount of vocabulary which is peculiar to the

environment of its users such as: names of dates, camels, swords, lions, clouds, rain, winds, etc.

English, on the other hand has several lexemes related to the sea.

Aziz, Y & Muftah, S. (2000) cite the following examples to clarify cultural

untranslatability concerning ecology.

-Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day

-Thou art more lovely and more temperate ٌجتغ ثٕٛو طٛفً٘ ألحٌٔه -

فحٔص أؾًّ ِٕٗ ٚأوػٍ جػطىجال -

Shakespeare‘s attempt to use the image of the beautiful summer day (lovely temperate

weather) is typical in the environment of most of the Northern European countries. This is not

the case in most of the countries wherein Arabic is used.

2.3.2. Religion

Despite the fact that cultures are different in the way they are influenced by religious

doctrines, religion is deeply rooted in the total linguistic behaviour of any language users. This is

evident in the various attempts that have been made by several scholars to the translation of the

Glorious Quran to different languages. As an illustration, let‘s consider the following translation

of two verses of the Glorious Quran translated by (Yussuf Ali: 1999):

:لحي ضؼحٌٝ

أٌ ٚشبء هللاٚال ضمٌٛٓ ٌٗحٞء جٟٔ فحػً يٌه غىجً ئال

(23:جٌىٙف)

آي ػٍّجْ) إال ثئرٌ هللاِٚح وحْ ٌٕفّ أْ ضّٛش : 145 )

-Nor say anything ―I shall be sure to do so and so

tomorrow‖ without adding “so please Allah”

- Nor can a soul die except by Allah’s leave”



Phrases like “ِحٖحء هللا“ ”ذايْ هللا“ ”ئْ ٖحء هللا” are very commonly used by the Arab Muslims

in every-day language and they always create various types of translation problems. The

untranslatability of such Arabic phrases into English, among many others, is obviously ascribed

to the disparity between the Islamic culture and the western culture.

2.3.3. Social Culture

Even though there are many universal social attitudes towards various things in life, there

is no doubt that there are many indigenous social values and traditions which are peculiar to each

society. Speakers of different languages are different with regard to their attitudes towards

concepts such as love, marriage, family relationship, friendship, politeness/impoliteness,

apologies, requests, refusals etc. Olshtain (1989), Cohen and Olshtain (1981) and Wu (1981)

conducted several case studies as part of the cross-cultural speech act realization project,

investigated the strategies used to realize apologies by speakers of different languages (Hebrew,

Australian, English, Canadian French, Russian, Chinese and German). Olshtain and Cohen

(1983:30) assume ―while Hebrew L2 speakers of English may appear somewhat rude to native

English speakers when expressing regret, Chinese L2 speakers may appear overly polite, even

obsequious‖.

As an example of the difference between the Arabic and English speaking communities

regarding social matters, we may consider the concept of Phatic Communion of the

anthropologist Malinowski (1884-1942) when language is used to maintain social contact rather

than to exchange information. In English community the typical way of starting a conversation is

to talk about the weather by saying sentences like ―such a nice day is today, isn‘t it‖, ―its

freezing‖ etc, whereas in Arabic community the conversation is usually started by phrases such

as “ُٚركه هللا ذحٌه١ٍ“ ”جٌٓالَ ػ١ٍى” etc.

In order to overcome such translation problems, there are various alternatives available to

the translator. He may choose to be loyal to the SL language text to maintain the social attitude

of the SL speaker at the expense of the comprehensive understanding of the TL reader; a method

called by Newmark (1988) as semantic translation, and as formal translation by Nida (1974). Or

he may be more concerned in creating an effect in the mind of the TL reader similar to the effect

created by the author/speaker of the SL text in the mind of his reader/listener, and hence

selecting the communicative method (Newmark: 1988) or dynamic (Nida: 1974). This type of

translation will definitely forfeit some aspects of the social attitudes of the author of the SL text.

3. Globalization, language and Translation

3.1. Introduction

Even though the proposal of the existence of particular linguistic characteristics which

are proved to be similar in all natural languages is not a latest one, it has been invigorated by the

mentalistic approach adopted by the generative grammarians.

While the structuralists concentrates on the superficial dissimilarities between languages,

the generative grammarians, on the basis of the heritage of the traditional linguistics, are

concerned with the ―deep-seated similarities‖ between languages. Although Chomsky‘s version

of universal grammar asserts the major assumption of the traditional grammarians particularly



with respect to the relation between logic and grammar on one hand and thought on the other

hand, he develops the concept emphasizing that the empirical study of language is more effective

than the traditional sense of logic.

Chomsky assumes the existence of a global grammar or a ―Universal Grammar‖ which

he defines as ―the system of principles, conditions and rules that are elements or properties of all

human languages‖. The first major assumption of Universal Grammar is that all languages know

a set of principles that apply to every language and parameters which are the possibilities

representing a limited choice available to the speaker. These parameters differ from one language

to another. In order to learn a particular language, the speaker has to know how these principles

are applied to that language.

The second major assumption suggested by Chomsky with reference to Universal

Grammar is that Universal Grammar is concerned with the internal structure of human mind, the

theory of universal grammar integrates language acquisition with the description of grammar by

emphasizing the fact that universal grammar is present in the mind of the child as a system of

principles and parameters which in their interaction with various principles create a core

grammar.

Since the publication of Chomsky‘s books Syntactic Structures (1957) and Aspects of

the Theory of Syntax (1965), the theory of generative grammar has occupied a pioneer position

among the other approaches, despite the countless criticisms written against it that led Chomsky

and his followers to reformulate his original theory several times. The recent version of the

theory of generative grammar which appeared after the publication of Chomsky‘s book Lectures

on Government and Binding Theory (1981) is no exception in this respect. Several linguists

working on the universal aspects of language have proved that this theory which is usually called

the theory of ―Principles and Parameters‖, suffers from many theoretical and empirical problems.

Since then the universalists have been searching for a more convincing theory. In 1993, Alan

Prince and Paul Smolensky published their book Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction

in Generative Grammar. In this book, Prince & Smolensky propose an elegant explanation to

the interactions between the principles of universal grammar and the way they are applied to

particular languages.

The emergence of optimal theory has introduced a new way of considering the principles

adopted by Chomsky and his followers throughout the last half of the previous century. It tries to

bridge the everlasting gap between the functional and formal approaches to linguistic theory.

Regardless of the debatable differences between the various theories proposed by

different universalists, all of these theories are based on the scheme of the ―deep-seated

similarities‖ between languages founded by the traditional grammarians and adopted in principle

by Chomsky since the 1950s of the previous century.

Whether we agree with the universalists or not, no one can deny the fact that all natural

languages share particular grammatical, phonological, semantic and even pragmatic

characteristics. The existence of such global linguistic characteristics would certainly facilitate

the mutual rapprochement between all world languages resulted from the rapid consequences of

globalization.

On the other hand, it has been assumed by several translation theorists (Nida: 1974,

Newmark: 1988, Catford: 1965 etc.), that translation is simply a matter of reproduction of the

closest equivalent of the source language text in the target language. In other words, translation

is based on the idea of closest equivalence selection and not on that of transferring the meaning.



This stand is usually supported by the fact that each natural language has its own formal and

contextual relationships which constitute its meaning.

Nevertheless, this does not indicate that meaning cannot be transferred from one

language to another. It is universally known that human culture is just like an ice ball falling

down from a mountain summit. Each civilization adds its own characteristics with its particular

flavor along the natural course of human advancement. Hence, nations usually adopt conceptions

from each other. Such adaptation is usually amended to fit the particular linguistic features of

each language. Conceptions transferred from one culture to another are usually associated to

their original name.

The natural transference of meaning among languages belong to different cultures added

to the ―deep- seated similarities‖ proposed by the traditional grammarians and adopted by the

universalists in the theory of principles and parameters and optimal theory smoothed the way to

the existence of what might be called Linguistic Globalization. Unsurprisingly, Linguistic

Globalization would have its own consequences on the process of translation. In the following

sections, we will try to give some brief account to some aspects of Linguistic Globalization and

the degree of its impact on translation.

3.2. Linguistic Globalization, Language Distance and Language Contact

Despite the well-know fact that English and Arabic belong to different language families

as mentioned in (2.1) above and hence there is, generally speaking, no formal correspondence

between the two languages, we still have the possibility to find different types of

correspondences at the lexical, grammatical and structural levels. This observable fact could be

interpreted with reference to two factors. Firstly, the universal characteristic of human

conceptualization which results in a mutual conceptual understanding to various extra-linguistic

phenomena. Such universal human tendency is discussed by Gass and Ard (1984:35-38) in their

course of identifying some potential sources of language universals:

a. Physical basis: The universal reflects ―a physical fact, perhaps dependent on the way the

world is, or…on the way the human body, especially the vocal and aural apparatus, is

structured‖.

b. Perceptual/cognitive: The universal reflects, ―factors in the human perceptual and cognitive

apparatus and processing capabilities‖. Such factors affect more than just one language.

c. Language acquisition device: The universal reflects knowledge of language that a learner

brings to the learning task.

Apart from this universal human tendency, the various types of formal correspondences

that might be found between English and Arabic, similar to any other two languages, with

reference to various levels of language is ascribed to the process of language contact. Language

contact between English and Arabic, which might be considered as one manifestation of

linguistic globalization, could be recognized with reference to several political, educational and

economical factors. Many Arab countries were colonized by the British Empire after the First

World War. Such colonization has had a great influence on creating various types of linguistic

bridges between the two languages. On the other hand, most of the Arab intellectuals with

different fields of knowledge have pursued their higher studies in western universities, which use

English as a means of instruction. Such Arab elite particularly men of letters, journalists,



linguists and translators have established many new Arabic grammatical constructions and use

enormous English loanwords. The result was a new variant of Arabic which is usually called جٌٍغس

which comprises many hybrid lexical and grammatical structures. Economically جٌفٛكٝ

speaking, the policy of ―Infitah‖ openness adopted by most of the Arab countries in the 1980s

facilitated the establishing of thousands of large, middle and small Arabic trading companies,

which use both English and Arabic in their commercial correspondences. The role played by

such companies in creating various types of new Arabic grammatical, lexical and phonological

structures is crucial. As an illustration, one may only think of the language of advertisement used

by these companies in different Arabic mass media.

An important point to be mentioned here is that the majority of the English loanwords

used in Arabic are part of the various Arabic dialects with a considerable amount (mostly

technical) used in Standard Arabic. There are no English loanwords in classical Arabic. Most of

these loanwords have become part of Standard Arabic as a result of the social, economical or

political contact between English native speakers and the Arabs whose first languages are the

various variants of colloquial Arabic spoken in different countries. As an illustration, let us

consider the classification made in (AL-Najar: 1998) wherein he talks about the foreign

borrowings into Standard Arabic and Iraqi spoken dialect in terms of nine processes (two of

which are explained as loan borrowing, see table three):

1. Loan words (transliteration) ٟٔمً ٚٛض

2.Loanblends ٓٔمً ٚٛضٟ ِٙؿ

3. Translation Couplet ضٍؾّس َٚؾ١س

4. Semantic Loan َ ِؿح

5. Derivation from Arabic roots جٖطمحق

6. Calque or Loan Translation ٔكص

7. Compounding Arabic words جْطؼحٌز ِطٍؾّس

8. Intentional substitution جْطرىجي ِمٛٛو

9. Definition ضؼ٠ٍف

Process English Standard Arabic

Equivalents

Iraqi Spoken

Dialect

Notes

1. Loanword or

transliteration

جٌٕمً جٌٛٛضٟ

- Brake

- Fuel pump

- Glass

- Gas

- Gram

- Mile

وحذف -

ِٟهس -

لىـ -

غحَ -

غٍجَ -

- ً١ِ

ذ٠ٍه -

ف١ص ذّد -

والِ -

غحَ -

غٍجَ -

- ً١ِ

The two usages of

the first three words

are mutually

exclusive; that is,

they are not used in

the same contexts.

Whereas, the two

usages of the others

are in free variation;

that is, they are used

in the same contexts.

2. Loanblend ًٔم

ٚٛضٟ ِٙؿٓ

-Democracy

-Potato

-Sulfur dioxide

و٠ّمٍج١٠س-

ذطح٠ّ -

ٌىر٠ٍص غحٟٔ جٚو١ٓى ج -

و٠ّمٍج١٠س-

ذٛض١طس -

غحٟٔ جٚو١ٓى جٌىر٠ٍص -

An Arabic feminine

suffix is affixed to

the Arabic

equivalence with

reference to the first

two examples and

hence we have a

hybrid Arabic

equivalent.

Table Three/ English Borrowings into Arabic



Apart from loanwords, there are some English structures, which are imposed on the

Arabic structures as a result of the language contact between English and Arabic. The existence

of such Arabic structures is the result of a language contact of different nature. The language

contact between English and Arabic, which leads to the use of a large amount of English

loanwords in Arabic, is mostly verbal (it is resulted from the direct association between English

and Arab native speakers), whereas the language contact between English and Arabic, which

leads to the use of some English structures, is written (it is resulted from the borrowed structures

used in the writings of Arab translators, educators, men of letters, intellectuals etc and become an

integral part of Standard Arabic).

As an illustration, let us consider the following Standard Arabic translation to some

English constructions which is not found in Arabic:

1. The guest was received by the Mayor of the city.

. ٌت١ّ جٌرٍى٠س يٍ قجمجْطٌبمرً ج١ٌٟف .2

3. Another bridge will be built next year.

.ذٕحء ؾٍٓ جنٍ فٟ جٌٕٓس جٌمحوِس صٛتى .4

(Cited in: Aziz: 1989)

5. The guest was received eagerly and excitingly.

.ثشكم يشٕق ٔثشكم يثٛشجْطٌبمرً ج١ٌٟف .6

Such kind of constructions is not found in classical Arabic, it is only restricted to

Standard Arabic that is mainly used in the language of newspapers and mass media. Thus instead

of saying “ًلر ِٓ” one may translate the first sentence by changing the passive voice in English to

active voice in Arabic “جْطمرً ٌت١ّ جٌرٍى٠س ج١ٌٟف” or by using the following constructions which is

found in classical Arabic:

.جْطمرٍٗ ٌت١ّ جٌرٍى٠س, جْطٌبمرً ج١ٌٟف .7

Sentences 3 and 5 may be translated as in 8 and 9 to fit the classical Arabic constructions:

.فٟ جٌٕٓس جٌمحوِس ١ٌْبرٕٝ جٌؿٍٓ .8

.جْطٌبمرً ج١ٌٟف ذٗٛق ٚجغحٌز .9

Despite the fact that the amount of the English structures used in Standard Arabic is

restricted as compared to the amount of the English loanwords used in Arabic, nobody can deny

their existence. All the efforts made by the various types of linguistic academies established in

the Arab world to deter the tendency of using both loanwords and loan structures have proved to

be fruitless. This is because linguistic globalization has been gradually reinforced. The strength

of such type of globalization is a natural consequence of both the intensifying decrease of

language distance and the intensifying increase of language contact which is considered one of

the hallmarks of our modern age.

3.3. English and Linguistic Globalization

Since the second half of the 20th

century and as a result of several political and

economical factors, English has been enjoying the status of the lingua franca of the whole world.



For instance, English, as the remainder of the British colonial rule, is used as a language that

connect the central government in India with the various sates of the country. In China, a

distorted Pidgin English was invented since 17th

century to be used as a trade language between

the British and Chinese. Moreover, English, which is the main language of Wales, Scotland,

Ireland, many Commonwealth countries, and the United States, is considered the primary

language of business, politics and communication in the world, it is the language of instruction in

hundreds of celebrated universities and schools both governmental and non-governmental all

over the world. The English-language press is the most influential in the world public opinion.

The English mass media (space stations, films, radio, television, popular music, theater) has been

the most fashionable almost in all the continents of the globe.

Moreover, English, or most particularly the American English, enjoy a principal position

in this age of globalization. Successful technocrats in all around the world should acquire this

predominate variant in one way or another whether as a second or as a foreign language.

Regardless the fact that the American English developed from the British English during the last

three centuries, it reacts more positively towards the large amount of scientific, economical and

social progress that has been occurring since then. It is a well-know fact that the pioneers of

linguistics of the 20th

century were the American structuralists followed by the functionalists and

the transformationalists. Before and during the cold war (1945-1990), the American attempts to

set up English as a universal lingua franca made by several politicians, linguists and businessmen

were not very well triumphant as a result of the strong confrontation that they faced all around

the world. Yet, since the collapse of the previous Soviet Union, English has enjoyed the leading

role at the expense of the other classical lingua francas such as French and Arabic (Abu-Rabi‘:

1998).

The impact of English as a lingua franca of the age of linguistic globalization is not

restricted to its sister languages, rather it surpasses to all world languages. Arabic is no exception

in this respect. The Arab ruling and non-ruling elites, which are considered an important

authority responsible for determining the general linguistic nature of Arabic, have adopted a

large amount of western, mostly American, intellectualism and conceptualization as their ideal

model. The result was a large amount of English loanwords and English structures imposed on

Arabic.

Arab translators, who are considered an essential part of such elite, have contributed

significantly in this respect. For instance, Instead of following translation methods such as

semantic loan or extension wherein an old Arabic item is assigned a new meaning or a derivation

from an Arabic root or stem whenever they are encountered with new English ideas or terms,

they use methods such as loanword, loanblend, translation couplet. The inclination towards using

loanwords and similar methods by Arab translators is ascribed to three major facts: First, to their

inadequate knowledge of classical Arabic, second, to their readers‘ inadequate knowledge of

classical Arabic as compared to their knowledge of the meaning of particular lexical items in

English, and third, to the extensive use of these loanwords in colloquial Arabic. Thus, despite the

fact that there are particular equivalents in Standard Arabic for some English lexical items, there

is an insistence to translate them by using loanwords. Table four illustrates some English lexical

items with both their Standard Arabic equivalents and their correspondent loanwords.



English Lexical Items Standard Arabic Equivalents Loanwords

Computer وِٛر١ٛضٍ قحْٛخ

Internet جٔط١ٍٔص ٖرىس جٌّؼٍِٛحض١س Anemia َج١ّ١ٔح فمٍ جٌى Archives ج١ٌٖف وجتٍز جٌّكفٛظحش NATO ٍٟٓ( ج١ٌٕطٛ)قٍف جٌٕحضٛ قٍف ّٖحي جال٠ AIDS ج٠٢ىَ ٍِٜ ٔمٙ جٌّٕحػس جٌّىطٓرس ٍِٜ

Table Four: English Borrowings into Arabic

3.4. Linguistic Globalization, Cultural Disparity and Translation

Two contradictory viewpoints have been proposed with reference to the interaction

between globalization and culture. Scholars such as Malcolm Waters (1995) emphasizes on the

social and cultural implications of globalization. He defines globalization as a “social process in

which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in

which people become increasingly aware that they are receding” (Ibid: 3). Contrastively,

other scholars such as Mittelman (1996) insist on considering the economical implications of

globalization. He calls attention to the distribution of the production processes of the same goods

over various firms that belong to scattered countries over the world. Away from the fundamental

dispute between these two stands, the profound cultural effects of globalization are irrefutable.

Since the second half of the 20th

century, people all over the world have been dressing more alike

than they had been dressing before. The jeans fashion has grasped the dress culture of most of

the teenagers over the world. Many global corporations such as McDonalds and Coca-Cola have

established area offices across the continents. Young people of different nationalities adopt the

hairstyle of any celebrated actor or football player without delay. The startling revolution in

technology and communication provides us with an instant responsiveness of what is going

around us in any remote piece of land in the globe.

Despite all these mutual rapprochements between the people of the world resulted from

the age of globalization, we are still far from having a global culture. There is a natural human

tendency to keep the indigenous cultures, which are associated to traditions people hold dear.

This does not deny the fact that we are now having more common cultural denominators than we

ever had. The existence of such common denominators would certainly has its effect on the

availability of common linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts of situations which would

naturally lead to facilitate the transference of meaning from the source language to the target

language in translation.

One of the most serious problems in translation is the translators‘ non-acquaintance with

the source language or the target language culture. The following example from Shakespeare‘s

play, King Lear (Cited in Ilyas: 1989) may illustrate this: ―To fight when I cannot chuse, and to

eat no fish‖.

The implication hold by the phrase ―eat no fish‖ cannot be rendered into Arabic as ْٚج

since in Shakespeare‘s time only Roman Catholics, who were enemies of the الججوً جٌّٓه

government, ate fish. Moreover, Shakespeare belonged to Protestant. Thus, the translator has to

know these two pieces of information before he translates this phrase otherwise he would loose a

great deal of the original meaning implied in the source language text.



Another example might be cited in this reference is the translation of the phrase هللا ٠ؼط١ه

.which is usually used in the Jordanian spoken dialect excessively in every day situations جٌؼحف١س

One of these situations wherein this phrase is used is when somebody needs to stop the bus

driver and get out of the bus. Thus, the rendering of this phrase as ―May Allah bless you with

good health‖ will sound out of context to an English listener.

The seriousness of this particular translation problem is amended in situations wherein

the source language culture and the target language culture are interconnected and hence the role

of translators will be restricted to transfer the meaning and not to look for equivalents that fit the

target language culture. Accordingly, the more the cultures of the source and the target language

are interrelated and hence more similar extra-linguistic situations exist in the two cultures, the

easiest will be the task of translators.

To conclude, The existence of some common cultural denominators between different

societies around the world resulted form our age of globalization would certainly make cultures

closer to each other and hence creating more and more similar extra-linguistic situations that help

translators to transfer the meaning smoothly and effortlessly from the source to the target

language.

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: ثبالضبفخ انٗ انقشاٌ انكشٚى انعشثٙ دسانًض

داس انًعبسف / انقبْشح . يضتٕٚبد انعشثٛخ انًعبطشِ فٙ يظش(: 1973)ثذٔ٘ انضٛذ


Reference # 50

Topic # 1

The perception of principals and teachers at the public secondary schools at

Irbid Governorate to apply Senge’s Disciplines in the learning organization Mohammed Ali Ashour [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This study aimed at identifying the perception of principals and teachers at the public secondary

schools at Irbid governorate to apply Senge‘s disciplines in the learning organization. It also aimed

at finding out any statistical significant differences due to gender, qualification, and years of

experience variables.

The study population consisted of all school principals and teachers at the public secondary

schools at Irbid Governorate for the year 2008/2009, which includes(5074), of which (274)

principals and (4800) teachers. A stratified random sample was chosen included (150) principals

with a percentage of (14.5%), and (700) teachers with a percentage of 60.7%) form the total

population, to represent the study sample. To achieve the goal of the study, the researcher

developed a questionnaire after assuring its validity and reliability consisted of (58) items

distributed into four domains: systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, building shared

vision, and team learning.

Introduction

Recent institutions, regardless their different types, face many challenges and risks

concerning achieving their goals and even existence. These challenges and risks appear because

of the vast and fast changes of the around environment and the technical and technological

revolution which distinguish the current millennium. Therefore, it is noticed that different types

of institutions started to search for suitable solutions for the problems they face and try to adjust

with the new global accelerating developments. Furthermore, the globalization and the

technological innovations forced new situations that made the institutions adopt new concepts

and administrative practices in order cope up with the new changes and developments like

―systems thinking‖ and ― learning organization‖. For example, many industrial institutions

started to transfer its efforts toward learning organizations, which are recognized mainly for

teamwork basing on the long life learning (Albakri, 2006).

The idea of ―learning organization‖ transferred from the industrial field to appear in the

educational institutions (schools, colleges, universities) to make them able to exist, compete and

adapt with the new global changes and challenges. In addition, to make them able to possess the

ability to develop their employees abilities toward team work through the system learning and

the constant supervised training.

The first suggested perception of the future school is the learning school, which focuses

on the idea of constant education, or in other words, long-life learning for all. Skribner and

others (Skribner et al,1999) pointed out that schools should possess a number of characteristics

in order to be ‗Learning Schools‖ like applying some common values, focusing on team efforts

in teaching students, paying attention to creative and inspiring discussions and putting aside the

personal aspects focusing on the general interests of the school.

In 1990 Peter Senge has made a revolution in the concept of ―Learning Organization‖

when he published his book‖ The Fifth Discipline: The art and Practice of the Learning‖. After

that, in 1994, Senge and Sparks wrote a book where they applied Senge‘s five principles in



administrative organization. Senge proposed another book ―schools that Learn‖ (Senge 1990,

2000) in which he applied the five principles on different schools. The five principles as Senge

proposed are:

1. Systems Thinking

2. Personal Mastery

3. Mental Models

4. Building shared Vision

5. Team Learning

Senge and his colleagues (Senge et al 2000) explained that these principles form a long-

term program that is practiced by individuals and teams at school in order to improve their

educational abilities. Senge pointed out that the ideal principled science could be achieved when

all employees at school do their best to improve their abilities to achieve their goals. He added

that school learning could be take place in classrooms, at schools and in the local society.

The learning organization

According to Peter Senge (1990: 3) learning organizations are:

…organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly

desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is

set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together.

The basic rationale for such organizations is that in situations of rapid change only those that are

flexible, adaptive and productive will excel. For this to happen, it is argued, organizations need to

‗discover how to tap people‘s commitment and capacity to learn at all levels‘ (ibid: 4).

While all people have the capacity to learn, the structures in which they have to function

are often not conducive to reflection and engagement. Furthermore, people may lack the tools

and guiding ideas to make sense of the situations they face. Organizations that are continually

expanding their capacity to create their future require a fundamental shift of mind among their

members.

When you ask people about what it is like being part of a great team, what is most

striking is the meaningfulness of the experience. People talk about being part of something larger

than they are, of being connected, of being generative. It becomes quite clear that, for many,

their experiences as part of truly great teams stand out as singular periods of life lived to the

fullest. Some spend the rest of their lives looking for ways to recapture that spirit. (Senge 1990:

13)

For Peter Senge, real learning gets to the heart of what it is to be human. We become able

to re-create ourselves. This applies to both individuals and organizations. Thus, for a ‗learning

organization it is not enough to survive. ‗―Survival learning‖ or what is more often termed

―adaptive learning‖ is important – indeed it is necessary. But for a learning organization,

―adaptive learning‖ must be joined by ―generative learning‖, learning that enhances our capacity

to create‘ (Senge 1990:14).

The dimension that distinguishes learning from more traditional organizations is the

mastery of certain basic disciplines or ‗component technologies‘. The five that Peter Senge

identifies are said to be converging to innovate learning organizations. They are:

http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-organization.htm

Ashour: Applying Senge‟s Disciplines in the learning organization


Systems thinking

Personal mastery

Mental models

Building shared vision

Team learning

He adds to this recognition that people are agents, able to act upon the structures and

systems of which they are a part. All the disciplines are, in this way, ‗concerned with a shift of

mind from seeing parts to seeing wholes, from seeing people as helpless reactors to seeing them

as active participants in shaping their reality, from reacting to the present to creating the future‘

(Senge 1990: 69). It is to the disciplines that we will now turn.

Systems thinking – the cornerstone of the learning organization

A great virtue of Peter Senge‘s work is the way in which he puts systems theory to work.

The Fifth Discipline introduces the basics and uses of such theory – and the way in which it can

be brought together with other theoretical devices in order to make sense of organizational

questions and issues. Systemic thinking is the conceptual cornerstone (‗The Fifth Discipline‘) of

his approach. It is the discipline that integrates the others, fusing them into a coherent body of

theory and practice (ibid: 12). Systems theory‘s ability to comprehend and address the whole and

to examine the interrelationship between the parts provides, for Peter Senge, both the incentive

and the means to integrate the disciplines.

Here is not the place to go into a detailed exploration of Senge‘s presentation of systems

theory (I have included some links to primers below). However, it is necessary to highlight one

or two elements of his argument. First, while the basic tools of systems theory are

straightforward they can build into sophisticated models. Peter Senge argues that one of the key

problems with much that is written about, and done in the name of management, is that rather

simplistic frameworks are applied to what are complex systems. We tend to focus on the parts

rather than seeing the whole, and to fail to see organization as a dynamic process. Thus, the

argument runs, a better appreciation of systems will lead to action that is more appropriate.

‗We learn best from our experience, but we never directly experience the consequences

of many of our most important decisions‘, Peter Senge (1990: 23) argues with regard to

organizations. We tend to think that cause and effect will be relatively near to one another. Thus

when faced with a problem, it is the ‗solutions‘ that are close by that we focus upon. Classically

we look to actions that produce improvements in a relatively short time span. However, when

viewed in systems terms short-term improvements often involve very significant long-term costs.

For example, cutting back on research and design can bring very quick cost savings, but can

severely damage the long-term viability of an organization. Part of the problem is the nature of

the feedback we receive. Some of the feedback will be reinforcing (or amplifying) – with small

changes building on themselves. ‗Whatever movement occurs is amplified, producing more

movement in the same direction. A small action snowballs, with more and more and still more of

the same, resembling compound interest‘ (Senge 1990: 81). Thus, we may cut our

Advertising budgets, see the benefits in terms of cost savings, and in turn further trim

spending in this area. In the short run, there may be little impact on people‘s demands for our

goods and services, but longer term the decline in visibility may have severe penalties. An



appreciation of systems will lead to recognition of the use of, and problems with, such

reinforcing feedback, and an understanding of the place of balancing (or stabilizing) feedback.

(See, also Kurt Lewin on feedback). A further key aspect of systems is the extent to which they

inevitably involve delays – ‗interruptions in the flow of influence which make the consequences

of an action occur gradually‘ (ibid: 90). Peter Senge (1990: 92) concludes:

The systems viewpoint is generally oriented toward the long-term view. That is why

delays and feedback loops are so important. In the short term, you can often ignore them; they

are inconsequential. They only come back to haunt you in the long term.

Peter Senge advocates the use of ‗systems maps‘ – diagrams that show the key elements

of systems and how they connect. However, people often have a problem ‗seeing‘ systems, and it

takes work to acquire the basic building blocks of systems theory, and to apply them to your

organization. On the other hand, failure to understand system dynamics can lead us into ‗cycles

of blaming and self-defense: the enemy is always out there, and problems are always caused by

someone else‘ Bolam and Deal 1997: 27; see, also, Senge 1990: 231).

The core disciplines

Alongside systems thinking, there stand four other ‗component technologies‘ or

disciplines. A ‗discipline‘ is viewed by Peter Senge as a series of principles and practices that we

study, master and integrate into our lives. The five disciplines can be approached at one of three

levels:

Practices: what you do.

Principles: guiding ideas and insights.

Essences: the state of being those with high levels of mastery in the discipline (Senge 1990: 373).

Each discipline provides a vital dimension. Each is necessary to the others if

organizations are to ‗learn‘.

Personal mastery

‗Organizations learn only through individuals who learn. Individual learning does not

guarantee organizational learning. Nevertheless, without it no organizational learning occurs‘

(Senge 1990: 139). Personal mastery is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our

personal vision, of focusing our energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality

objectively‘ (ibid.: 7). It goes beyond competence and skills, although it involves them. It goes

beyond spiritual opening, although it involves spiritual growth (ibid: 141). Mastery is seen as a

special kind of proficiency. It is not about dominance, but rather about calling. Vision is vocation

rather than simply just a good idea.

People with a high level of personal mastery live in a continual learning mode. They

never ‗arrive‘. Sometimes, language, such as the term ‗personal mastery‘ creates a misleading

sense of definiteness, of black and white. However, personal mastery is not something you

possess. It is a process. It is a lifelong discipline. People with a high level of personal mastery are

acutely aware of their ignorance, their incompetence, and their growth areas. In addition, they are

deeply self-confident. Paradoxical? Only for those who do not see the ‗journey is the reward‘.

(Senge 1990: 142)

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In writing such as this, we can see the appeal of Peter Senge‘s vision. It has deep echoes

in the concerns of writers such as M. Scott Peck (1990) and Erich Fromm (1979). The discipline

entails developing personal vision; holding creative tension (managing the gap between our

vision and reality); recognizing structural tensions and constraints, and our own power (or lack

of it) with regard to them; a commitment to truth; and using the sub-conscious (ibid: 147-167).

Mental models

These are ‗deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures and images

that influence how we understand the world and how we take action‘ (Senge 1990: 8). As such

they resemble what Donald A Schön talked about as a professional‘s ‗repertoire‘. We are often

not that aware of the impact of such assumptions etc. on our behaviour – and, thus, a

fundamental part of our task (as Schön would put it) is to develop the ability to reflect-in- and –

on-action. Schön‘s collaborator on a number of projects, Chris Argyris, also influences peter

Senge here.

The discipline of mental models starts with turning the mirror inward; learning to unearth

our internal pictures of the world, to bring them to the surface and hold them rigorously to

scrutiny. It also includes the ability to carry on ‗meaningful‘ conversations that balance inquiry

and advocacy, where people expose their own thinking effectively and make that thinking open

to the influence of others. (Senge 1990: 9)

If organizations are to develop a capacity to work with mental models then it will be

necessary for people to learn new skills and develop new orientations, and to be institutional

changes that foster such change. ‗Entrenched mental models… thwart changes that could come

from systems thinking‘ (ibid: 203). Moving the organization in the right direction entails

working to transcend the sorts of internal politics and game playing that dominates traditional

organizations. In other words, it means fostering openness (Senge 1990: 273-286). It also

involves seeking to distribute business responsibly far more widely while retaining coordination

and control. Learning organizations are localized organizations (ibid: 287-301).

Building shared vision

Peter Senge starts from the position that if any one idea about leadership inspires

organizations for thousands of years, ‗it‘s the capacity to hold a share picture of the future we

seek to create‘ (1990: 9). Such a vision has the power to be uplifting – and to encourage

experimentation and innovation. Crucially, it is argued, it can also foster a sense of the long-

term, something that is fundamental to the ‗fifth discipline‘.

When there is a genuine vision (as opposed to the all-to-familiar ‗vision statement‘),

people excel and learn, not because they are told to, but because they want to. Nevertheless,

many leaders have personal visions that never are translated into shared visions that galvanize an

organization… What has been lacking is a discipline for translating vision into shared vision -

not a ‗cookbook‘ but a set of principles and guiding practices.

The practice of shared vision involves the skills of unearthing shared ‗pictures of the

future‘ that foster genuine commitment and enrolment rather than compliance. In mastering this

discipline, leaders learn the counter-productiveness of trying to dictate a vision, no matter how

heartfelt. (Senge 1990: 9)

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Visions spread because of a reinforcing process. Increased clarity, enthusiasm and

commitment rub off on others in the organization. ‗As people talk, the vision grows clearer. As it

gets clearer, enthusiasm for its benefits grow‘ (ibid: 227). There are ‗limits to growth‘ in this

respect, but developing the sorts of mental models outlined above can significantly improve

matters. Where organizations can transcend linear and grasp system thinking, there is the

possibility of bringing vision to fruition.

Team learning

Such learning is viewed as ‗the process of aligning and developing the capacities of a

team to create the results its members truly desire‘ (Senge 1990: 236). It builds on personal

mastery and shared vision – but these are not enough. People need to be able to act together.

When teams learn together, Peter Senge suggests, not only can there be good results for the

organization; members will grow more rapidly than could have occurred otherwise.

The discipline of team learning starts with ‗dialogue‘, the capacity of members of a team

to suspend assumptions and enter into a genuine ‗thinking together‘. To the Greeks dia-logos

meant a free flowing if meaning through a group, allowing the group to discover insights not

attainable individually…. [It] also involves learning how to recognize the patterns of interaction

in teams that undermine learning. (Senge 1990: 10)

The notion of dialogue that flows through The Fifth Discipline is very heavily dependent

on the work of the physicist, David Bohm (where a group ‗becomes open to the flow of a larger

intelligence‘, and thought is approached largely as collective phenomenon). When dialogue is

joined with systems thinking, Senge argues, there is the possibility of creating a language more

suited for dealing with complexity, and of focusing on deep-seated structural issues and forces

rather than being diverted by questions of personality and leadership style. Indeed, such is the

emphasis on dialogue in his work that it could almost be put alongside systems thinking as a

central feature of his approach.

Leading the learning organization

Peter Senge argues that learning organizations require a new view of leadership. He sees

the traditional view of leaders (as special people who set the direction, make key decisions and

energize the troops as deriving from a deeply individualistic and non-systemic worldview (1990:

340). At its centre, the traditional view of leadership, ‗is based on assumptions of people‘s

powerlessness, their lack of personal vision and inability to master the forces of change, deficits

which can be remedied only by a few great leaders‘ (op. cit.). Against this traditional view, he

sets a ‗new‘ view of leadership that centers on ‗subtler and more important tasks‘.

In a learning organization, leaders are designers, stewards and teachers. They are

responsible for building organizations were people continually expand their capabilities to

understand complexity, clarify vision, and improve shared mental models – that is they are

responsible for learning…. Learning organizations will remain a ‗good idea‘… until people take

a stand for building such organizations. Taking this stand is the first leadership act, the start of

inspiring (literally ‗to breathe life into‘) the vision of the learning organization. (Senge 1990:

340)

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Many of the qualities that Peter Senge discusses with regard to leading the learning

organization can be found in the shared leadership model (discussed elsewhere on these pages).

For example, what Senge approaches as inspiration, can be approached as animation. Here we

will look at the three aspects of leadership that he identifies – and link his discussion with some

other writers on leadership.

Leader as designer

The functions of design are rarely visible, Peter Senge argues, yet no one has a more

sweeping influence than the designer does (1990: 341). The organization‘s policies, strategies

and ‗systems‘ are key area of design, but leadership goes beyond this. Integrating the five

component technologies is fundamental. However, the first task entails designing the governing

ideas – the purpose, vision and core values by which people should live. Building a shared vision

is crucial early on as it ‗fosters a long-term orientation and an imperative for learning‘ (ibid:

344). Other disciplines also need to be attended to, but just how they are to be approached is

dependent upon the situation faced. In essence, ‗the leaders‘ task is designing the learning

processes whereby people throughout the organization can deal productively with the critical

issues they face, and develop their mastery in the learning disciplines‘ (ibid: 345).

Leader as steward

While the notion of leader as steward is, perhaps, most commonly associated with writers

such as Peter Block (1993), Peter Senge has some interesting insights on this strand. His starting

point was the ‗purpose stories‘ that the managers he interviewed told about their organization.

He came to realize that the managers were doing more than telling stories, they were relating the

story: ‗the overarching explanation of why they do what they do, how their organization needs to

evolve, and how that evolution is part of something larger‘ (Senge 1990: 346). Such purpose

stories provide a single set of integrating ideas that give meaning to all aspects of the leader‘s

work – and not unexpectedly, ‗the leader develops a unique relationship to his or her own

personal vision. He or she becomes a steward of the vision‘ (op. cit.). One of the important

things to grasp here is that stewardship involves a commitment to, and responsibility for the

vision, but it does not mean that the leader owns it. It is not their possession. Leaders are

stewards of the vision, their task is to manage it for the benefit of others (hence the subtitle of

Block‘s book – ‗Choosing service over self-interest‘). Leaders learn to see their vision as part of

something larger. Purpose stories evolve as they are being told, ‗in fact, they are as a result of

being told‘ (Senge 1990: 351). Leaders have to learn to listen to other people‘s vision and to

change their own where necessary. Telling the story in this way allows others to be involved and

to help develop a vision that is both individual and shared.

Leader as teacher

Peter Senge starts here with Max de Pree‘s (1990) injunction that the first responsibility

of a leader is to define reality. While leaders may draw inspiration and spiritual reserves from

their sense of stewardship, ‗much of the leverage leaders can actually exert lies in helping people

achieve more accurate, more insightful and more empowering views of reality (Senge 1990:

353). Building on an existing ‗hierarchy of explanation‘ leaders, Peter Senge argues, can

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influence people‘s view of reality at four levels: events, patterns of behavior, systemic structures

and the ‗purpose story‘. Mostly most managers and leaders tend to focus on the first two of these

levels (and under their influence, organizations do likewise). Leaders in learning organizations

attend to all four, ‗but focus predominantly on purpose and systemic structure. Moreover they

―teach‖ people throughout the organization to do likewise‘ (Senge 1993: 353). This allows them

to see ‗the big picture‘ and to appreciate the structural forces that condition behavior. By

attending to purpose, leaders can cultivate an understanding of what the organization (and its

members) is seeking to become. One of the issues here is that leaders often have strengths in one

or two of the areas but are unable, for example, to develop systemic understanding. A key to

success is being able to conceptualize insights so that they become public knowledge, ‗open to

challenge and further improvement‘ (ibid. 356).

―Leader as teacher‖ is not about ―teaching‖ people how to achieve their vision. It is about

fostering learning, for everyone. Such leaders help people throughout the organization develop

systemic understandings. Accepting this responsibility is the antidote to one of the most common

downfalls of otherwise gifted teachers – losing their commitment to the truth. (Senge 1990: 356)

Leaders have to create and manage creative tension – especially around the gap between

vision and reality. Mastery of such tension allows for a fundamental shift. It enables the leader to

see the truth in changing situations.

Issues and problems

When making judgments about Peter Senge‘s work, and the ideas he promotes, we need

to place his contribution in context. This is not meant to be a definitive addition to the

‗academic‘ literature of organizational learning. Peter Senge writes for practicing and aspiring

managers and leaders. The concern is to identify how interventions can be made to turn

organizations into ‗learning organizations‘. Much of his, and similar theorists‘ efforts, have been

‗devoted to identifying templates, which real organizations could attempt to emulate‘ (Easterby-

Smith and Araujo 1999: 2). In this field some of the significant contributions have been based

around studies of organizational practice, others have ‗relied more on theoretical principles, such

as systems dynamics or psychological learning theory, from which implications for design and

implementation have been derived‘ (op. cit.). Peter Senge, while making use of individual case

studies, tends to the latter orientation.

The most appropriate question in respect of this contribution would seem to be whether it

fosters praxis – informed, committed action on the part of those it is aimed at. This is an

especially pertinent question as Peter Senge looks to promote a more holistic vision of

organizations and the lives of people within them. Here we focus on three aspects. We start with

the organization.

Organizational imperatives

Here the case against Peter Senge is simple. We can find very few organizations that

come close to the combination of characteristics that he identifies with the learning organization.

Within a capitalist system, his vision of companies and organizations turning wholehearted to the

cultivation of the learning of their members can only come into fruition in a limited number of

instances. While those in charge of organizations will usually look in some way to the long-term

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growth and sustainability of their enterprise, they may not focus on developing the human

resources that the organization houses. The focus may well be on enhancing brand recognition

and status (Klein 2001); developing intellectual capital and knowledge (Leadbeater 2000);

delivering product innovation; and ensuring that production and distribution costs are kept down.

As Will Hutton (1995: 8) has argued, British companies‘ priorities are overwhelmingly financial.

What is more, ‗the targets for profit are too high and time horizons too short‘ (1995: xi). Such

conditions are hardly conducive to building the sort of organization that Peter Senge proposes.

Here the case against Senge is that within capitalist organizations, where the bottom line is

profit, a fundamental concern with the learning and development of employees and associates is

simply too idealistic.

Yet there are some currents running in Peter Senge‘s favor. The need to focus on

knowledge generation within an increasingly globalized economy does bring us back in some

important respects to the people who have to create intellectual capital.

Productivity and competitiveness are, mostly, a function of knowledge generation and

information processing: firms and territories are organized in networks of production,

management and distribution; the core economic activities are global – that is they have the

capacity to work as a unit in real time, or chosen time, on a planetary scale. (Castells 2001: 52)

A failure to attend to the learning of groups and individuals in the organization spells

disaster in this context. As Leadbeater (2000: 70) has argued, companies need to invest not just

in new machinery to make production more efficient, but also in the flow of knowledge that will

sustain their business. Organizations need to be good at knowledge generation, appropriation and

exploitation. This process is not that easy:

Visible knowledge tends to be explicit, teachable, independent, detachable, it also easy

for competitors to imitate. Knowledge that is intangible, tacit, less teachable, unobservable, is

more complex but more difficult to detach from the person who created it or the context in which

it is embedded. Knowledge carried by an individual only realizes its commercial potential when

it is replicated by an organization and become organizational knowledge. (ibid: 71)

Here we have a very significant pressure for the fostering of ‗learning organizations‘. The

sort of knowledge that Leadbeater is talking about here cannot be simply transmitted. It has to be

engaged with, talking about and embedded in organizational structures and strategies. It has to

become people‘s own question of sophistication and disposition. One of the biggest problems

with Peter Senge‘s approach is nothing to do with the theory, its rightness, nor the way it is

presented. The issue here is that the people to whom it is addressed do not have the disposition or

theoretical tools to follow it through. One clue lies in his choice of ‗disciplines‘ to describe the

core of his approach. As we saw a discipline is a series of principles and practices that we study,

master and integrate into our lives. In other words, the approach entails significant effort on the

part of the practitioner. It also entails developing quite complicated mental models, and being

able to apply and adapt these to different situations – often on the hoof. Classically, the approach

involves a shift from product to process (and back again). The question then becomes whether

many people in organizations can handle this. All this has a direct parallel within formal

education. One of the reasons that product approaches to curriculum (as exemplified in the

concern for SATs tests, examination performance and school attendance) have assumed such

dominance is that alternative process approaches are much more difficult to do well. They may

be superior – but many teachers lack the sophistication to carry them forward. There are also

psychological and social barriers. As Lawrence Stenhouse put it some years ago: ‗The close

examination of one‘s professional performance is personally threatening; and the social climate

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in which teachers work generally offers little support to those who might be disposed to face that

threat‘ (1975: 159). We can make the same case for people in most organizations.

The process of exploring one‘s performance, personality and fundamental aims in life

(and this is what Peter Senge is proposing) is a daunting task for most people. To do it we need

considerable support, and the motivation to carry the task through some very uncomfortable

periods. It calls for the integration of different aspects of our lives and experiences. There is,

here, a straightforward question concerning the vision – will people want to sign up to it? To

make sense of the sorts of experiences generated and explored in a fully functioning ‗learning

organization‘ there needs to be ‗spiritual growth‘ and the ability to locate these within some sort

of framework of commitment. Thus, as employees, we are not simply asked to do our jobs and to

get paid. We are also requested to join in something bigger. Many of us may just want to earn a

living!

Politics and vision

Here we need to note two key problem areas. First, there is a question of how Peter Senge

applies systems theory. While he introduces all sorts of broader appreciations and attends to

values – his theory is not fully set in a political or moral framework. There is not a consideration

of questions of social justice, democracy and exclusion. His approach largely operates at the

level of organizational interests. This is would not be such a significant problem if there was a

more explicit vision of the sort of society that he would like to see attained, and attention to this

with regard to management and leadership. As a contrast, we might turn to Peter Drucker‘s

(1977: 36) elegant discussion of the dimensions of management. He argued that three tasks –

‗equally important but essentially different‘ – that face the management of every organization.

These are:

To think through and define the specific purpose and mission of the institution, whether business

enterprise, hospital, or university.

To make work productive and the worker achieving.

To manage social impacts and social responsibilities. (op. cit.)

He continues:

None of our institutions exists by itself and as an end in itself. Every one is an organ of society and

exists for the sake of society. Business is not exception. ‗Free enterprise‘ cannot be justified as

being good for business. It can only be justified as being good for society. (Drucker 1977: 40)

If Peter Senge had attempted greater connection between the notion of the ‗learning

organization‘ and the ‗learning society‘, and paid attention to the political and social impact of

organizational activity then this area of criticism would be limited to the question of the

particular vision of society and human flourishing involved.

Second, there is some question with regard to political processes concerning his emphasis

on dialogue and shared vision. While Peter Senge clearly recognizes the political dimensions of

organizational life, there is sneaking suspicion that he may want to transcend it. In some ways,

there is link here with the concerns and interests of communitarian thinkers like Amitai Etzioni

(1995, 1997). As Richard Sennett (1998: 143) argues with regard to political communitarians, it

‗falsely emphasizes unity as the source of strength in a community and mistakenly fears that

when conflicts arise in a community, social bonds are threatened‘. Within it (and arguably

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aspects of Peter Senge‘s vision of the learning organization) there seems, at times, to be a dislike

of politics and a tendency to see danger in plurality and difference. Here there is a tension

between the concern for dialogue and the interest in building a shared vision. An alternative

reading is that difference is good for democratic life (and organizational life) if we cultivate a

sense of reciprocity, and ways of working that encourage deliberation. The search is not for the

sort of common good that many communitarians seek (Guttman and Thompson 1996: 92) but

rather for ways in which people may share in a common life. Moral disagreement will persist –

the key is whether we can learn to respect and engage with each other‘s ideas, behaviors and

beliefs.

Conclusion

John van Maurik (2001: 201) has suggested that Peter Senge has been ahead of his time

and that his arguments are insightful and revolutionary. He goes on to say that it is a matter of

regret ‗that more organizations have not taken his advice and have remained geared to the quick

fix‘. As we have seen there are very deep-seated reasons why this may have been the case.

Beyond this, though, there is the question of whether Senge‘s vision of the learning organization

and the disciplines it requires has contributed to more informed and committed action with

regard to organizational life? Here we have little concrete evidence to go on. However, we can

make some judgments about the possibilities of his theories and proposed practices. We could

say that while there are some issues and problems with his conceptualization, at least it does

carry within it some questions around what might make for human flourishing. The emphases on

building a shared vision, team working, personal mastery and the development of more

sophisticated mental models and the way he runs the notion of dialogue through these does have

the potential of allowing workplaces to be more convivial and creative. The drawing together of

the elements via the Fifth Discipline of systemic thinking, while not being to everyone‘s taste,

also allows us to approach a more holistic understanding of organizational life (although Peter

Senge does himself stop short of asking some important questions in this respect). These are still

substantial achievements – and when linked to his popularizing of the notion of the ‗learning

organization‘ – it is understandable why Peter Senge has been recognized as a key thinker

In Jordan, the focus on the educational development in the educational institutions started

to emerge. In 1987, the first educational developmental concert was held. It focuses on different

educational developmental dimensions (like curriculum, assessment tools, teachers, school

building, school administration and financial supports) and on school as a basic unites for the

social and educational development. Furthermore, to cope up with the global technological

developments, the Ministry of Education in Jordan geared its focus on the developments of the

educational sector through revising the educational plans and programs in order to set a future

educational vision for the Jordanian educational system.

Questions:

This study aims at answering the following questions:

1. What are s of the study the perceptions the principals of Irbid high public schools with

regard to the application of Peter Senge‘s learning organization principles?



2. Are there any statistically significant differences at (α=0,05) in the perceptions of high public

schools principals and teachers in Irbid district regarding the application of Senge‘s learning

organization principles related to ( social type, qualification, and experience)?

3. What are the suggestions of the principals and teachers of high public schools in Irbid district

in order to apply Senge‘s learning organization principles?

Purpose of the study:

1. To be acquainted with the possibility of applying Senge‘s learning organization principles in

Irbid high public schools as seen by principals and teachers

2. To be acquainted with the individual differences of the participants about the possibility of

applying Senge‘s learning organization principles in Irbid high public schools related to the

social type, experience and qualification

3. To be acquainted with the suggestions presented by principals and teachers in Irbid high

public schools regarding the possibilities of applying Senge‘s learning organization

principles

Significance of the study:

The significant of the study is revealed through the following:

find out the available capacity of the high public schools in Ibid district to apply Senge‘s

learning organization principles

Highlighting the importance of applying Senge‘s learning organization principles in high

public schools in Jordan and using the findings of this study to help authoritative people in

the Ministry of Education in applying these concepts as they have positive reflection on the

schools‘ success to achieve their educational and social goals.

Limitations of the study:

This study is exclusive to (97) principals and teachers of high public schools in Irbid district

in the academic year (2008/2009).

This study is also exclusive to the despondence responses regarding to the possibility of

applying the principles of learning organization on Irbid high public schools in the fields

identified in the study instrument.

Hypothesis of the study:

Principals and teachers of high public schools do not have perceptions for applying Senge‘s

learning organization principles on Irbid high public schools.

The perceptions of applying Senge‘s learning organization principles on Irbid high public

schools do not change depending on the different variables of the study (social type,

qualifications, experience).



Definitions of terms:

Learning organization: stands for the computers, the internet and the websites and employing

them positively to achieve the different administrative and educational tasks of schools to

improve the educational process

Principals of high schools: the people who are appointed as principals of high public schools

and whose jobs are specified by the Jordanian Ministry of Education in accordance with

regulations and laws.

Method and Procedures:

Population and sample of the study:

The population of the study comprises all Irbid high school male and female principals

(247) and male and female teachers (4800) in the academic year (2008/ 2009). The sample

comprises (150) male and female principals (60.7%) and (700) male and female teachers (14.5).

table (1) shows the distribution of the participants in light of its variables.

Table (1)

The Number and Percentages of the Participants of the Study According to Gender, Qualification and Experience Variables

Variables Categories Frequency

Social type Principals Male 80

Female 70

total 150

Teachers Male 380

Female 320

total 700

qualification Principals Bachelor 0

Higher than BA 150

total 150

Teachers Bachelor 450

Higher than BA 250

total 700

experience Principals 1-5 years 30

More than 5-10 43

More than 10 87

total 150

Teachers 1-5 years 120

More than 5-10 320

More than 10 260

total 700

Sum total 850



Research Instrument:

The instrument of the study has been designed depending on related literature about

learning organization issue. The instrument has comprised (62) items. To ensure the validity and

reliability of the research instrument to be (58) items, the researcher has presented them to a

number of colleagues at the faculty of education at Yarmouk University, Jordan University and

Al- Elbeit University. Their attitudes regarding deletion, addition, modification of some items

and their relation to specific domains have been taken into account.

The researcher has met some referees to ask them about some items in the instrument.

Some items have been deleted or modified concerning the decisions of the referees. The items of

the instrument have been distributed over five domains: systems thinking (14) items, personal

mastery (15) items, mental models (11) items, building shared vision (8) items and team learning

(10) items.

The researcher has used a five-scale measurement regarding Likert scale

( very high degree, high degree, moderate degree, low degree, and very low degree) and

given the measurements(1,2,3,4,5), in order to find out the perceptions of Irbid high school male

and female principals with regard to the application of Senge‘s principles in learning

organizations

In order to ensure the reliability of the instrument, the researcher has applied it on (25)

principals from outside the sample. The application has been repeated after two weeks.

Correlation factor of each item has been measured. Cronbach α factor for internal consistency

has been measured as it appears in table (2).

Table (2)

Cronbach factor for internal consistency to All Study Domains

domain Test-retest reliability

(T test)

Internal consistency

(cronbach α)

Systems thinking 0.88 0.85

Personal mastery 0.82 0.85

Mental models 0.88 0.88

Building shared vision 0.88 0.78

Team learning 0.86 0.85

Total performance 0.95 0.94

It is noticed in table (2) that the total reliability measurements are high that the

correlation factor stands for (0.95). In addition, the internal consistency factor stands for (0.94),

which means that the instrument of

the study is valid and acceptable for conducting the study.

Variables of the Study

1. Independent variables:

social type(male/female)

Qualification (bachelor, higher than bachelor).

Experience (1-5 years, 5-10 years, more than 10 years).



Statistical Treatment:

The means and the standard deviations of each item of the questionnaire have been

measured. T test, alpha Cronbach, one way ANOVA and Tukey for post hoc comparisons have

been used in two independent samples.

Third:

Findings related to the third question of the study: What are the suggestions of the

principals and teachers of high public schools in Irbid district in order to apply Senge‘s learning

organization principles.

This question has been answered through the open question of the study instrument. The

most repeated suggestions have been gathered and sequenced according to their importance that

has occurred in the principals and teachers responds. They can be sum led as:

1. Educate and raise the awareness of the principals and teachers about learning organization

principles to view the possibilities of changing schools into learning ones regarding Senge‘s

principles.

2. Try to create suitable school environment and encourage teamwork in order to apply the

concept of learning school.

3. Find a clear technique to apply the learning organization at Jordanian schools and set a clear

plan to transfer the current schools into learning schools.

4. Develop the abilities and capacities of the current high schools in order to transfer them into

learning organizations through practicing systems learning and possessing skills and

techniques of learning school.

5. Conduct educational programs and workshops for principals and teachers in order to raise

their awareness about learning organizations and learning schools.

6. Try to change the trends and perceptions of principals and teachers toward administrative

practices and learning and teaching processes through electing strategies that transfer the

current schools into schools that apply learning organization principles.

7. Raise the awareness of principals and teachers about the importance of making the desired

changes and developing their abilities to cope up with the developments and the global

revolution and execute school re-educational projects through finding learning organizations.

References

Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978) Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective, Reading, Mass: Addison

Wesley.

Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1996) Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice, Reading, Mass: Addison

Wesley.

Bolman, L. G. and Deal, T. E. (1997) Reframing Organizations. Artistry, choice and leadership 2e, San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass. Four hundred and fifty pages.

Castells, M. (2001) ‗Information technology and global capitalism‘ in W. Hutton and A. Giddens (eds.) On the

Edge. Living with global capitalism, London: Vintage.

DePree, M. (1990) Leadership is an Art, New York: Dell.

Drucker, P. (1977) Management, London: Pan.



Easterby-Smith, M. and Araujo, L. ‗Current debates and opportunities‘ in M. Easterby-Smith, L. Araujo and J.

Burgoyne (eds.) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization, London: Sage.

Edmondson, A. and Moingeon, B. (1999) ‗Learning, trust and organizational change‘ in M. Easterby-Smith, L.

Araujo and J. Burgoyne (eds.) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization, London: Sage.

Etzioni, A. (1995) the Spirit of Community. Rights responsibilities and the communitarian agenda, London: Fontana

Press.

Etzioni, A. (1997) the New Golden Rule. Community and morality in a democratic society, London: Profile Books.

Finger, M. and Brand, S. B. (1999) ‗The concept of the ―learning organization‖ applied to the transformation of the

public sector‘ in M. Easterby-Smith, L. Araujo and J. Burgoyne (eds.) Organizational Learning and the

Learning Organization, London: Sage.

Fromm, E. (1979) To Have or To Be? London: Abacus.

Guttman, A. and Thompson, D. (1996) Democracy and Disagreement, Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press.

Hutton, W. (1995) The State We‘re In, London: Jonathan Cape.

Klein, N. (2001) No Logo, London: Flamingo.

Leadbeater, C. (2000) Living on Thin Air. The new economy, London: Penguin.

Van Maurik, J. (2001) Writers on Leadership, London: Penguin.

O‘Neill, J. (1995) ‗On schools as learning organizations. An interview with Peter Senge‘ Educational Leadership,

52(7) http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/edlead/9504/oneil.html

Peck, M. S. (1990) The Road Less Travelled, London: Arrow.

Schultz, J. R. (1999) ‗Peter Senge: Master of change‘ Executive Update Online,

http://www.gwsae.org/ExecutiveUpdate/1999/June_July/CoverStory2.htm

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http://pfdf.org/leaderbooks/l2l/summer98/senge.html

Senge, P. et. al. (1994) the Fifth Discipline Field book: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization

Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., Roth, G. and Smith, B. (1999) The Dance of Change: The Challenges

of Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations, New York: Doubleday/Currency).

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Discipline Fieldbook for Educators, Parents, and Everyone Who Cares About Education, New York:

Doubleday/Currency

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http://www.gwsae.org/ExecutiveUpdate/1999/June_July/CoverStory2.htm

http://pfdf.org/leaderbooks/l2l/summer98/senge.html


Reference # 51

Topic # 3

Proposal for upgrading the quality of outputs of Art Education Department,

SQU, through application of a model of field co-living Muna Ayid Alawadi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The current study seeks to propose a model for field co-living with students of Art Education

Department in actual work-sites in the various institutions, during the preparatory period in the

Baccalaureate program, to upgrade the quality of their outputs to face the challenges of our age

and build confidence of the institutions in the Department graduates. Rapid developments laid

many burdens upon the shoulders of the graduates and charged them with many responsibilities to

assume new roles imposed by the realities of the labor market.

:يقذيخ

الوٚجٌ ِطٕٛػس ؾى٠ىز، ٠فٍٞٙح ٚجلغ ْٛق جٌؼًّ، شْ جٌططٌٛ جٌّطٓحٌع ٠ٟغ جٌطحٌد أِحَ أػرحء وػ١ٍز، ِٚٓإ١ٌٚحأ

ضططٍد ِؼحٌف ؾى٠ىز، ِٚٙحٌجش، ٚوفح٠حش ١ِٕٙس، ٚجؾطّحػ١س، ٍْٚٛو١س، الذى ِٓ أوجتٙح ذٗىً ؾ١ى قطٝ ٠ىْٛ جٌه٠ٍؽ ذّٓطٜٛ

.غمس ذحٌؿحِؼس ٚذّهٍؾحضٙحجٌؿٛوز فٟ ِىحْ ػٍّٗ، ال١ّْح جْ جٌؿٛوز ضكمك جي

أْ جٌّٓؼس ٚجٌؿٛوز جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ضطكىو ج١ٌَٛ ػٍٝ أْحِ جٌّهٍؾحش، ٚأقىٜ ِؼح١٠ٍ ضٍض١د جٌّإْٓحش جٌّّطحَز ٘ٛ ٔؿحـ

ِهٍؾحضٙح جٌٛظ١فٟ، ٌٚغرس ْٛق جٌؼًّ ذحٌه٠ٍؿ١ٓ، ِٚٓ ِإٍٖجش جٌؿٛوز جٌّٓطهىِس ِٓ لرً جٌؿحِؼحش جألٌٚذ١س ٚؾحِؼحش

.ْرس جٌه٠ٍؿ١ٓ ج٠ًٌٓ قٍٛٛج ػٍٝ ٚظحتف وحٍِس ذؼى ضهٍؾُٙجالضكحو جٌٓٛف١طٟ ٟ٘ ْ

أْ ِؼٍفس ِططٍرحش ْٛق جٌؼًّ جقى ػٕحٍٚ جٌؿٛوز، ٚجْ جٌطؼحْٚ ذ١ٓ جٌؿحِؼس ِٚإْٓحش جٌّؿطّغ ذغ١س جٌطهط١١

.ج١ٌٍُٓ ٌٕٛػ١س جٌّهٍؾحش أٚرف ٌٍٞٚز قط١ّس ٌطكم١ك ؾٛوز جٌّهٍؾحش

:يشكهخ انذساصخ ٔأصئهتٓب

وجو جٌكحٌٟ فٟ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس، ال ٠هٍؼ ِٓ وٛٔٗ ذٍٔحِؽ ئػىجو ِؼٍُ فْٕٛ ضٗى١ٍ١س ٌٍؼًّ ذّح أْ ذٍٔحِؽ جإلع

ذّىجٌِ جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌؼحَ، ِمطٍٛج جٌطى٠ٌد ف١ٗ ػٍٝ جٌطٍذ١س جٌؼ١ٍّس فم١، وّح ٚجْ ِؿحي جٌؼًّ فٟ جٌطؼ١ٍُ ضىحو ضىْٛ ِكىوز

ْ فٟ ِإْٓحش نحٌؼ ٔطحق َٚجٌز جٌطٍذ١س ٚجٌطؼ١ٍُ، ؾحءش ِٚٓ جؾً ض١ْٛغ ِؿحالش ٚفٍ٘ جٌؼًّ ٌٍه٠ٍؿٟ. ذحٌّٓطمرً جٌم٠ٍد

ًٖ٘ جٌىٌجْس ٌطٟغ ضٌٛٛ ٠ؼ١ى جٌٕظٍ فٟ ذٍٔحِؽ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس، ٚجٌركع ػٓ آ١ٌحش ف١ٕس ٚػ١ٍّس ِٕحْرس ِطّػٍس ذأّٔٛيؼ جٌّؼح٠ٗس

جِؽ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس، ّٞٓ ج١ٌّىج١ٔس، ٚجًٌٞ ٠ٓؼٝ ئٌٝ ئ٠ؿحو لٕٛجش ٌذ١ ذ١ٓ جالقط١حؾحش جٌّؼحٍٚز ٌٓٛق جٌؼًّ ِٚكطٜٛ ذٍْ

.ذٍٔحِؽ ِططٌٛ ٠طؼحًِ ذىفحءز ِغ ؾ١ّغ جٌّؼط١حش ذٍٚـ ػ٠ٍٛس ِٕحْرس

: ِٓ ٕ٘ح ؾحءش ًٖ٘ جٌىٌجْس ٌإلؾحذس ػٍٝ جألْثٍس ج٢ض١س

ِح جالقط١حؾحش ج١ٌّٕٙس ٌٍطٍرس ٚفمح ٌطر١ؼس وً ِؿحي ِٓ ِؿحالش جٌؼًّ نحٌؼ ٔطحق جٌؼًّ جٌطٍذٛٞ، ِٓ ٚؾٙس -1

ج١ٍِٓ ف١ٙح؟ جٌغ ْٔظٍ جٌه٠ٍؿٟ

ِح جٌطٌٛٛ جٌّٓطمرٍٟ ألّٔٛيؼ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس جٌطٟ ضُٓٙ فٟ ٌفغ ؾٛوز ِهٍؾحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس؟ -2

:أًْٛخ انذساصخ

:ضطّػً أ١ّ٘س جٌىٌجْس ف١ّح ٠ٍٟ

ضٓحُ٘ فٟ ضكم١ك جالٌضمحء ذّٓطٜٛ ؾٛوز ِهٍؾحش جٌمُٓ ِٓ نالي ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس فٟ ِٛلغ جٌؼًّ -1

. أغٕحء فطٍز ئػىجو جٌطٍرس

٠ٓحُ٘ فٟ ئ٠ؿحو ؾٌٓٛ جٌطٛجًٚ ذ١ٓ ِهٍؾحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس ِٚإْٓحش جٌّؿطّغ جٌّك١ٍس ٚضؼ٠ُُ جٌػمس -2

. ذ١ّٕٙح، ذّح ٠ٓحػى جٌه٠ٍؿ١ٓ ػٍٝ ضكًّ أػرحء جٌؼًّ ِٚٓإ١ٌٚحضٗ

.زئفحوز ٚحٔؼٟ جٌمٍجٌجش فٟ جٌؿحِؼس ٚنحٚس و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س فٟ ضطر١ك جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٕ -3

. جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ ِمطٍقحش ضٓحػى فٟ ضط٠ٍٛ ذٍٔحِؽ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس ٌطكم١ك ؾٛوز جٌّهٍؾحش -4



:أْذاف انذساصخ

جٌطؼٍف ػٍٝ ٚجلغ جٌؼًّ جًٌٞ ضّحٌْٗ ِهٍؾحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس نحٌؼ ٔطحق جٌؼًّ فٟ َٚجٌز جٌطٍذ١س ٚجٌطؼ١ٍُ، -1

. ِٓ ٚؾٙس ٔظٍ جٌه٠ٍؿ١ٓ جٌؼح١ٍِٓ ف١ٙح

١ٌّٕٙس ٌٍطٍرس ٚفمح ٌطر١ؼس وً ِؿحي ِٓ ِؿحالش جٌؼًّ نحٌؼ ٔطحق جٌؼًّ جٌطٍذٛٞ، ِٓ ٚؾٙس ضكى٠ى جالقط١حؾحش ج -2

.ٔظٍ جٌه٠ٍؿ١ٓ جٌؼح١ٍِٓ ف١ٙح

.ٚٞغ ضٌٛٛ ِٓطمرٍٟ ألّٔٛيؼ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس ٠ٛظف فٟ ٌفغ ؾٛوز ِهٍؾحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس -3

:تحذٚذ انًظطهحبد

:انًعبٚشخ انًٛذاَٛخ

، ٠ط١ف ٌطحٌد جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس فٍٚس (جْحذ١غ6-2)ز، ضًّٗ ٔٗح٠ ِرٍِؽ ٠ٕؿُ ذرؼى َِٕٟ ِكىو ػ١ٍّس ضى٠ٌر١س ِٕظُ

أغٕحء فطٍز جإلػىجو ٌّؼح٠ٗس ٚجلغ جٌؼًّ فٟ جٌىٚجتٍ ٚجٌّإْٓحش نحٌؼ ٔطحق جٌطٍذ١س ٚجٌطؼ١ٍُ، وّح ٠ٚط١ف ٌٗ ِؿحي جٌّؼح٠ٗس ٌّؼظُ

فس قم١م١س ػٓ جٌؼًّ ٚظٍٚفٗ، فحٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس ضىٓد جٌطحٌد ِؿحالش جٌؼًّ، ٚجٌؼح١ٍِٓ ف١ٗ، ذٙىف ضؼ٠ٍف جٌطحٌد ذّؼٍ

ِؼحٌف ِٚٙحٌجش ٍْٚٛو١حش ؾى٠ىز ضُٓٙ فٟ ضط٠ٍٛ وفح٠حضٗ ج١ٌّٕٙس، ٠ٚىْٛ ٌى٠ٗ جضؿح٘حش ج٠ؿحذ١س ٔكٛ جٌؼًّ، ٚنالٚس يٌه

ٔكٛ جألفًٟ ٚٚٛال فحٔٗ ضى٠ٌد ضّٕٛٞ ،ِٕٟٙ ،فٕٟ، ئوجٌٞ، ٠ّٟٓ ضكم١ك جٌطغ١ٍجش جٌّطٍٛذس فٟ ٍْٛن ٚوفح٠حش جٌطحٌد

.ٌطكم١ك أ٘ىجف ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس

:عُٛخ انذساصخ

ٍّٖص ػ١ٕس جٌىٌجْس ن٠ٍؿٟ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس جٌؼح١ٍِٓ فٟ أِحوٓ نحٌؼ ٔطحق ِؿحي َٚجٌز جٌطٍذ١س ٚجٌطؼ١ٍُ، ٚجٌرحٌغ

:ػىوُ٘ نّٓس فم١، ٚجٌؼح١ٍِٓ فٟ

جٌؿّؼ١س جٌؼّح١ٔس ٌٍفْٕٛ جٌطٗى١ٍ١س -

ش جٌكٍف١سج١ٌٙثس جٌؼحِس ٌٍٕٛحػح -

َٚجٌز جٌطٍجظ ٚجٌػمحفس -

َٚجٌز جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌؼحٌٟ -

و٠ٛجْ جٌرال٠ جٌٍٓطحٟٔ -

:أداح انذساصخ

:جْطّحٌز ِمحذٍس ِفطٛقس، ٚضّٟٕص جألْثٍس جٌطح١ٌس

ِح ٔٛع جٌٛظ١فس جٌطٟ ضٗغٍٙح؟ -

ِح جٌّٙحَ جٌٛظ١ف١س جٌطٟ ضمَٛ ذٙح فٟ ِإْٓطه؟ -

ً٘ ضٗؼٍ ذحٌٍٞح ػّح ضمَٛ ذٗ؟ -

جْ لرً أْ ضؼًّ ذٗ؟ً٘ ػح٠ٗص ج١ٌّى -

ِح جٌهرٍجش ٚجٌّٙحٌجش جٌطٟ ٖؼٍش ئٔٙح ضٕمٛه ػٕى جٌّرحٍٖز فٟ ً٘ج جٌؼًّ؟ -

ً٘ ٕ٘حن ِٗحوً أنٍٜ ٔؿّص ػٕى جٌّرحٍٖز فٟ ً٘ج جٌؼًّ؟ -

ً٘ ضٍٜ أْ ِؼح٠ٗس ١ِىجْ جٌؼًّ ٚجٌطى٠ٌد ف١ٗ وحْ ٠ٌٍٚٞح لرً أْ ضرىأ ذؼًّ فٟ ًٖ٘ جٌّإْٓس؟ -

ج ن٠ٍؽ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس فٟ ًٖ٘ جٌّإْٓس؟ِح جٌٛظحتف جٌطٟ ٠ّىٓ أْ ٠ٗغٍٗ -

ِح جألٔٗطس جٌطٟ ٠ّىٓ أْ ٠طىٌخ ػ١ٍٙح جٌطحٌد فٟ فطٍز جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس فٟ ًٖ٘ جٌّإْٓس؟ -

ِح ػىو جٌطٍرس ج٠ًٌٓ ٠ّىٓ جْط١ؼحذُٙ فٟ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس ذًٖٙ جٌّإْٓس؟ -

ً٘ ضٛؾى أِحوٓ أنٍٜ ٠ّىٓ أْ ٠ؼًّ ذٙح ن٠ٍؽ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس؟ -

:خٛخ انذساصخيُّ

.ضُ جْطهىجَ جٌّٕٙؽ جٌٛٚفٟ إلؾٍجء جٌىٌجْس ِٓ نالي جألٍْٛخ جٌٕٛػٟ ٌطك١ًٍ جٌر١حٔحش جٌٛجٌوز فٟ جْطّحٌز جٌّمحذٍس

:َتبئح انذساصخ

انُتبئح انًتعهقخ ثبنضؤال األٔل ٔانًتضًٍ تحذٚذ االحتٛبخبد انًُٓٛخ نهطهجخ ٔفقب نطجٛعخ كم يدبل يٍ يدبالد : أٔال

.َطبق انعًم انتشثٕ٘، يٍ ٔخٓخ َظش انخشٚدٍٛ انعبيهٍٛ فّٛانعًم خبسج

Ayid Alawadi: Upgrading the quality of outputs of Art Education Department


يوٍش ؾ١ّغ ػ١ٕس جٌىٌجْس ذأُٔٙ ٖؼٍٚج ذحٌٕمٙ فٟ جٌهرٍجش ٚجٌّٙحٌجش، ػٕى ذىء ِرحٍٖضُٙ جٌؼًّ فٟ جٌّإْٓحش، ضّػٍص -1

:فٟ

لٌٛٛ فٟ جٌؿحٔد جٌفٕٟ ِطّػً ذؼىَ ِؼٍفس ذحٌطم١ٕحش جٌف١ٕس -

جٌجش جٌط١ُّٛٔمٙ فٟ ِٙحٌجش جٌٕٛحػحش جٌكٍف١س، ِٚٗ -

ػىَ ِؼٍفس ذحٌؿٛجٔد جإلوج٠ٌس ٚجإلػال١ِس ٌٍّٕٙس -

ػىَ ِؼٍفس ذاػىجو جٌٌٛٔ -

ػىَ ِؼٍفس ذطٕظ١ُ جٌّؼحٌٜ ٚضكى١ّٙح -

ْٕس 18ػىَ ِؼٍفس ذحٌطؼحًِ ِغ جٌٙٛجز ج٠ًٌٓ ض٠ُى أػّحٌُ٘ ػٓ -

ػىَ ِؼٍفس ذحٌطؼحًِ ِغ جٌفٕح١ٔٓ -

٠حء فٟ جٌؼًّ ٔط١ؿس ػىَ جٌّؼٍفس ذٕظحَ ٚٔمٙ جٌّؼٍفس ً٘ج ضٓرد ٌرؼٝ ُِٕٙ فٟ قىٚظ ئٌذحن ٚأل

جٌؼًّ ٚذّططٍرحش جٌٛظ١فس ٚج١ٌّىجْ أوش ئٌٝ ػىَ جضهحي جٌمٍجٌ جٌٛك١ف ٚجٌّٕحْد ٌٍّٛجلف،ًٚ٘ج ٔحؾُ ػٓ ػىَ

ٞؼف . )ِؼح٠ٗطُٙ ج١ٌّىجْ لرً جٌؼًّ ِّح أوٜ ئٌٝ ضٍوٞ ِٓطٜٛ أوجتُٙ ٚجٔهفحٜ ؾٛوضٗ فٟ ذىء ق١حضُٙ جٌؼ١ٍّس

(. َ جٌؼحٌٟ ذٓٛق جٌؼًّجٌضرح٠ ِهٍؾحش جٌطؼٍٟ

ظٍٙ أْ ؾ١ّغ أفٍجو جٌؼ١ٕس ٠ٍْٚ ٌٍٞٚز ِؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىجْ لرً جٌؼًّ -2

أْ ؾ١ّغ أفٍجو جٌؼ١ٕس ٠ٗؼٍٚج ذحٌٍٞح ػّح ٠مِْٛٛ ذٗ ِٓ أػّحي، : أِح قٛي جٌٍٞح جٌٛظ١فٟ فمى وٗفص ٔطحتؽ جٌىٌجْس -3

-6ضٟ ٍِٚج ذٙح نالي فطٍز ػٍُّٙ جٌطٟ ضٍجٚقص ذ١ٓ ٔط١ؿس ِح جوطٓرٖٛ ِٓ ِؼٍفس ٚنرٍجش نالي ُِجٌٚطُٙ جٌّٕٙس ٚجٌطؿحٌخ جي

. ْٕٛجش قممص ٌُٙ وفح٠حش ٖه١ٛس، ١ِٕٙٚس، ٚغمحف١س 11

أفٍجو ػ١ٕس )أِح ف١ّح ٠هٙ ذ١حْ ٚجلغ أِحوٓ جٌؼًّ جٌّٓطمر١ٍس ٌّهٍؾحش جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس، أوى ؾ١ّغ جٌه٠ٍؿ١ٓ -4

: جٌف١ٕس، ٚضّػٍص ف١ّح ٠ٍٟ ٚؾٛو أِحوٓ ػًّ ٠ٓطط١غ أْ ٠ؼًّ ف١ٙح ن٠ٍؽ جٌطٍذ١س( جٌىٌجْس

(ئوجٌٞ، ٚفٕحْ، ٚئػالِٟ) جٌؿّؼ١س جٌؼّح١ٔس ٌٍفْٕٛ جٌطٗى١ٍٟ -

أنٛحتٟ فْٕٛ ضٗى١ٍ١س ٠ؼٍُ جٌفٓ فٟ لُٓ جٌٍُْ، أٚ فٟ لُٓ جٌهُف، أٚ فٟ )لطحع جٌػمحفس -َٚجٌز جٌطٍجظ ٚجٌػمحفس -

(َ جٌىٍجف١ه، أٚ فٟ لُٓ جألػّحي جٌطٍو١ر١سلُٓ جٌٕكص، أٚ فٟ لُٓ جٌٕكص، أٚ فٟ لُٓ جٌه١ جٌؼٍذٟ، أٚ فٟ لّ

(ألٓحَ جإلػالَ ٚجٌط١ُّٛ) جٌٛقىجش جٌكى١ِٛس ٚجٌَٛجٌجش ٚج١ٌٙثحش ٚجٌٍٗوحش -

(فٕٟ / أنٛحتٟ ٔٗح٠ غمحفٟ ) َٚجٌز جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌؼحٌٟ

(لُٓ جٌّٗح٠ٌغ) جٌرٍى٠حش

(لُٓ جٌى٠ىٌٛ) جٌطٍف٠ُْٛ

يتضًٍ انتظٕس انًضتقجهٙ ألًَٕرج انًعبٚشخ انًٛذاَٛخ انتٙ تضٓى انُتبئح انًتعهقخ ثبنضؤال انثبَٙ ٔال -ثبَٛب

. فٙ سفع خٕدح يخشخبد قضى انتشثٛخ انفُٛخ

:ٚف١ّح ٠ٍٟ ػٍٜ ٌهطٛجش ض١ُّٛ ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس جٌّمطٍـ

جٌٓحوِ ، ٠ٍرس لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس ج٠ًٌٓ أٔٙٛج وٌجْس جٌفًٛ جٌىٌجْٟ: تحذٚذ طهجخ انًعبٚشخ انًٛذاَٛخ -أٔال

٠حٌد ٠ٚحٌرس، ٚيٌه ألُٔٙ ٠ىٛٔٛج لى أٔٙٛج وٌجْس جٌّمٌٍجش جٌطه١ٛٛس جألْح١ْس 27ئٌٝ ٠ٚ25طٍجٚـ ػىوُ٘ ِٓ

وحٌٍُْ ٚجٌط٠ٍٛٛ، ٚجٌط٠ٍٛٛ جٌكى٠ع، ٚجٌٕكص، ٚجٌهُف، ٚجٌط١ُّٛ، ٚجٌطرحػس، ٚج١ٌٕٓؽ ٚضىٛٔص ٌى٠ُٙ نٍف١س ػ١ٍّس

ٖس ؾُء ِٓ ِططٍرحش ذٍٔحِؽ جٌرىح٠ٌٌِٛٛ، ٠ٚىْٛ ذٓحػحش ِؼطّىز ٚضمطٍـ جٌرحقػس أْ ٠ىْٛ ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼحٞ. ٚف١ٕس

، ٠ٚٛٞغ ٌٗ ضمى٠ٍ ِٓطٛفٟ أٚ غ١ٍ ِٓطٛفٟ،(ٚفٍ)

ذؼى أْ ضٍٛٚص جٌرحقػس ئٌٝ ضكى٠ى ِؿحالش جٌؼًّ، ٚجٌطٟ ظٍٙش ّٞٓ : تحذٚذ االحتٛبخبد انًُٓٛخ -ثبَٛب

ف١س ٌىً ِؿحي، ٚجػطرحٌ جألوجء جٌٍّغٛخ ف١ٗ ٘ٛ ِؿحي، ذٛجلغ ْطس ِؿحالش ٌىً ػًّ، غُ ضك١ًٍ جٌّٙحَ جٌٛظٟ( 18)

فٟ ضكى٠ى جالقط١حؾحش جٌطى٠ٌر١س ( آ١ٌٓ ذ١ٍٔٓطح٠ٓ)جالقط١حؾحش ج١ٌّٕٙس، قٓد ّٔٛيؼ

االحتٛبخبد انًُٓٛخ ٔفقب نكم يدبل يٍ يدبالد انعًم



انًؤصش

ح

االحتٛبخبد انًُٓٛخ ٔفقب نكم يدبل يٍ يدبالد انعًم األقضبو

(ٔٔاخجبتٓب يٓبو األقضبو)

جٌؿّؼ١س

جٌؼّح١ٔس ٌٍفْٕٛ

جٌطٗى١ٍ١س

أْح١ٌد جإلوجٌز ٚجٌٍّجْالش ئوجٌز

ضهط١١ ٚضؿ١ُٙ ٚضٕظ١ُ جٌّؼحٌٜ، ٚجألٍٖجف ػ١ٍٙح، ٚضٕظ١ُ جٌفؼح١ٌحش جٌّؼحٌٜ

. جٌّٛحقرس ٌٍّؼحٌٜ

أٔٗطس ئػال١ِس ضٛجًٚ جٌؿّؼ١س ِغ ئيجػس ٚضٍف٠ُْٛ ٚٚكحفس ِك١ٍس ٚنحٌؾ١س جإلػالَ

ض١ُّٛ وط١رحش جٌؿّؼ١س ِٚطرٛػحضٙح ض١ُّٛ

.أْح١ٌد ج١ٌٛحٔس ٚضه٠ُٓ جألػّحي جٌف١ٕس ٚجألوٚجش جٌّهحَْ

ئلحِس جٌىٌٚجش ٚجٌٌٛٔ ٚئوجٌضٙح جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌطٍذٛٞ

ج١ٌٙثس

جٌؼحِس ٌٍٕٛحػحش

جٌكٍف١س

.جٌط١ُّٛ ذحٌكحْٛخ ٌّٕطؿحش قٍف١س ٚضٕف١ً جٌطٛح١ُِ ِٚطحذؼطٙح - جٌط١ُّٛ

ٜجٌّؼحٌ .ٚجٌط١ٕٓك إللحِس جٌّؼحٌٜ، ٚض٠ٛٓك جٌّٕطؿحش ٠جٌطهطٟ

جٌطهط١١

ٚجٌطى٠ٌد

جٌطهط١١ ٚجٌطٕف١ً ٌىٌٚجش ضأ١ٍ١٘س

أْح١ٌد ٠ٍٚق جٌهُْ ج١ٌٍُٓ ٌٍّٕطؿحش جٌكٍف١س جٌّهحَْ

جٌطط٠ٍٛ

ٚجٌىٌجْحش

ضط٠ٍٛ جٌّٕطؿحش جٌكٍف١س ٚجْطٍجض١ؿ١حش ضٕف١ً٘ح

ئٍٖجف جٌٌٛٔ

جٌطى٠ٌر١س

٠ٓ، ٚجٌطٛجًٚ ِؼُٙ، ٚضمى٠ُ جٌٌّٗٛز ٌط١ًًٌ جٌٛؼٛذحش جٌطٟ ِطحذؼس جٌكٍف

ضٛجؾُٙٙ ٚضمى٠ُ جٌّٓحػىز

َٚجٌز

-جٌطٍجظ ٚجٌػمحفس

لطحع جٌػمحفس

.أْح١ٌد جإلوجٌز ٚجٌٍّجْالش - ٌُْ

. ضٕظ١ُ ٌٚٔ ف١ٕس ٠ٛ٠ٍس جٌّىٜ أٚ ل١ٍٛز جٌّىٜ -

. ئلحِس جٌّؼحٌٜ-

.ضؼ١ٍُ جٌفْٕٛ ٌٍٙٛجز ذّهطٍف جألػّحٌ -

.٠ُ جٌّٓحذمحش جٌف١ٕس، ٚأّْ جنط١حٌ ٌؿحْ جٌطكى١ُضكه -

ٔكص

نُف

وٍجف١ه

ن١ ػٍذٟ

جألػّحي جٌطٍو١ر١س

٘ىفح ٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس جٌّمطٍـ، جْطٕرطص ِٓ لحتّس جالقط١حؾحش ( 13)ضُ ٚٞغ : أْذاف انجشَبيح -غحٌػح

: ج١ٌّٕٙس، ٟٚ٘ وّح ٠أضٟ

ِؼحٌف ٚض١ّٕس ِٙحٌجضُٙ جٌالَِس فٟ أْح١ٌد جإلوجٌز ٚأْح١ٌد جالضٛحي ذحٌّؿطّغ ض٠ُٚى ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس ذحي -1

(. وحٌٍّجْالش)

ض١ّٕس لىٌجش ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ِٚٙحٌضُٙ فٟ ِؿحي جٌطهط١١، جٌطٕف١ً، جٌطٕظ١ُ، جإلػالَ، جٌطكى١ُ، جٌط٠ٛٓك -2

.ٌٍّؼحٌٜ

. قحفس جٌّك١ٍس ٚجٌهحٌؾ١سض١ّٕس ِٙحٌجش جٌطٛجًٚ جإلػالِٟ ِغ جإليجػس ٚجٌطٍف٠ُْٛ ٚجٌٙ -3

ضؼ٠ٍف ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ذأ١ّ٘س جٌّكحفظس ػٍٝ جألػّحي جٌف١ٕس ٚجٌكٍف١س ٚجألوٚجش جٌف١ٕس، ٚضى٠ٌرُٙ ػٍٝ ػ١ٍّحش -4

. ج١ٌٛحٔس ٚجٌطه٠ُٓ ٚفك جألْح١ٌد جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌٛك١كس

.ٌكٍف١حشض١ّٕس لىٌجش ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ِٚٙحٌجضُٙ فٟ ِؿحي جٌط١ُّٛ ٌٍّطرٛػحش جٌف١ٕس ٚض١ُّٛ ج -5

.ض١ّٕس لىٌجش ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ِٚٙحٌجضُٙ فٟ ِؿحي ضؼ١ٍُ جٌفْٕٛ فٟ ٍِجُْ جٌفْٕٛ -6

.ضى٠ٌد ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ػٍٝ ئلحِس جٌٌٛٔ جٌف١ٕس، ٚجٌىٌٚجش جٌط٠ٍٛس جألِى، ٚل١ٍٛز جألِى، ٚئوجٌضٙح -7

ز، ٚئلحِس ػاللحش ١٠رس ض١ّٕس لىٌجش ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ػٍٝ جٌطٛجًٚ ِغ ِهطٍف ٍٖجتف جٌّؿطّغ، ِٚغ جٌُِالء جٌّٙٓ -8

.ذ١ٓ أػٟحء جٌّإْٓس

.ضؼ٠ٍف ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ذأ١ّ٘س جٌطط٠ٍٛ ٚجالذطىحٌ فٟ جٌّٕطؿحش جٌكٍف١س ٚضّى١ُٕٙ ِٓ جْطٍجض١ؿ١حش ضٕف١ً٘ح -9

ض١ّٕس لىٌجش قً جٌّٗىالش ٌىٜ ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ِٓ نالي ضى٠ٌرُٙ ػٍٝ جٌم١حَ ذّٙحَ جٌطٛجًٚ ِغ جٌكٍف١ٓ، -10

. ٚضمى٠ُ جٌٌّٗٛز ٌط١ًًٌ جٌٛؼٛذحش جٌطٟ ضٛجؾُِٙٙٚطحذؼطُٙ، ِٚٓحػىضُٙ،

ض١ّٕس جضؿح٘حش ج٠ؿحذ١س ٌىٜ جٌطٍرس ٔكٛ أ١ّ٘س جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس فٟ ض١ّٕس وفح٠حضُٙ جٌٗه١ٛس ٚج١ٌّٕٙس ٚجألوحو١ّ٠س -11

.ٚجٌػمحف١س ٚجإلوج٠ٌس ٌٍفغ ِٓطٜٛ ؾٛوز أوجتُٙ

جلغ جٌطى٠ٌد، ٚجْطهىجَ وحفس جإلِىح١ٔحش جٌّطٛفٍز ضٗؿ١غ ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ػٍٝ جٌّٗحٌوس جٌفؼحٌس فٟ ؾ١ّغ أٔٗطس ِٛ -12

.ف١ٗ

ضؼ٠ٍف ٠ٍرس جٌّؼح٠ٗس ذمٛج١ٔٓ جٌؼًّ جٌّطرمس فٟ ِىحْ جٌطى٠ٌد، ذأ١ّ٘س جقطٍجِٙح، ٚجقطٍجَ جإل٠حٌ أٌم١ّٟ ٌٍّإْٓس -13

(. ِىحْ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس)



ج ضى٠ٌر١ح، ٠ٍضر١ ذٙىف أٚ أوػٍ ِٓ ِٛٞٛع( 33)ٚٞؼص جٌرحقػس : يٕضٕعبد ثشَبيح انًعبٚشخ انًٛذاَٛخ -ساثعب

جأل٘ىجف جٌطٟ ضّٟٕٙح ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس، ٚذؼى يٌه قىوش جٌٓحػحش جٌطى٠ٌر١س جٌالَِس ٌىً ِٕٙح، ٚأٚرف ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس

: ْحػس ِؼح٠ٗس، ٠ٛٞكٙح جٌؿىٚي جألضٟ( 90)ِٛٞٛػح ضّٟٕص ( 33)ج١ٌّىج١ٔس جٌّمطٍـ ٠طىْٛ ِٓ

ج٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس جٌّمطٍـ ٚػىو ِفٍوجضٙح ٚجٌٓحػحش جٌّهٛٛس ٌٙح٠ر١ٓ ِٛٞٛػحش ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّغ

جٌؿّؼ١س جٌؼّح١ٔس ٌٍفْٕٛ جٌطٗى١ٍ١س

جأل٠حَ ػىو جٌٓحػحش جٌّٛٞٛع ش

1 5 جإلوجٌز ٚجٌٍّجْالش جإلوج٠ٌس ج

جالضٛحالش ج١ٌٍّْس 2

(ئيجػس ٚضٍف٠ُْٛ ٚٚكحفس ِك١ٍس ٚنحٌؾ١س)

جٌّطرٛػحش 3

(أ١ّ٘طٙح ٚأٔٛجػٙح ٚأّْ ض١ّّٛٙح ٚػٕحٍٚ٘ح)

5 2

ض١ُّٛ ّٔحيؼ ِٓ وط١رحش جٌؿّؼ١س، ٚذطحلحش جٌىػٛجش، ٚض١ُّٛ ٍٔٗجش ٠ٍٖٙس جٌؿّؼ١س، ض١ُّٛ 4

ِط٠ٛحش، ٚجٌرْٛطٍجش، ٚجٌّطرٛػحش جٌّٛحقرس ٌٍّؼحٌٜ

5 3

جٌطهط١١ ٚجإلػىجو ٌٍّؼحٌٜ 5

ش جٌٍٛقحش، أٔٛجع جٌّؼحٌٜ، ٠ٍق جٌؼٍٜ، ضؿ١ُٙ ٚضٕظ١ُ قفً ضؿ١ُٙ جٌٍٛقحش، جنط١حٌ ئ٠حٌج)

(جفططحـ ٚضٕظ١ُ جٌفؼح١ٌحش جٌّٛحقرس

5 4

ضٕظ١ُ جٌّؼٍٜ ٚجإلٍٖجف ػ١ٍٗ 6

( جْطالَ جٌٍٛقحش، ٚفٍَ٘ح، ضٍو١د جٌٍٛقحش، ٚجإلٍٖجف ػٍٝ جٌّؼٍٜ)

5 5

ضكى١ُ جٌّؼٍٜ 7

( و١ُأّْ ٚلٛجػى جٌطكى١ُ ٠ٍٖٚٚٗ، أّْ جنط١حٌ ٌؿحْ جٌطف)

5 6

7 5 ١ٚحٔس ٚضه٠ُٓ جألػّحي جٌف١ٕس، ٚجإل٠حٌجش 8

١ٚحٔس ٚضه٠ُٓ ٚجألوٚجش جٌف١ٕس، ٠ٍٚق ضم١ّٓٙح ، ٚض١ٕٛفٙح 9

8 5 ضٕف١ً ٌٖٚس ٌطٍرس جٌّىجٌِ ذٙىف جٌىٗف ػٓ جٌّٛ٘ٛذ١ٓ أ٘ىجف جٌٌٖٛس، ْرً ضٕف١ً٘ح، وجٌضٙح 10

9 5 ضٕف١ً وٌٚز ضهط١١ ٌٍٙٛجز 11

جٌىٌٚزضكى١ُ أػّحي 12 5 10

10 30 جٌّؿّٛع 12

ج١ٌٙثس جٌؼحِس ٌٍٕٛحػحش جٌكٍف١س

ػىو جٌّٛٞٛع ش

جٌٓحػحش

جأل٠حَ

1 5 ئْطٍجض١ؿ١س ضط٠ٍٛ جٌّٕطؿحش جٌكٍف١س 1

2 5 جذطىحٌ ضٛح١ُِ قى٠ػس ذحْطهىجَ جٌكحْٛخ 2

3 5 ضٕف١ً ِٕطؿحش قٍف١س ذطٛح١ُِ قى٠ػس 3

جٌكٍف١س جٌطهط١١ ٚجٌطؿ١ُٙ ٌّؼٍٜ جٌٕٛحػحش 4 5 4

5 5 ضٕظ١ُ جٌّؼٍٜ ٚضكى١ّٗ 5

6 5 ض٠ٛٓك جألػّحي جٌكٍف١س 6

7 5 أْح١ٌد نُْ جألػّحي جٌكٍف١س 7

8 5 ٠َحٌز ٍِوُ جٌٕٛحػحش جٌكٍف١س 8

ضٕف١ً وٌٚز ضأ١ٍ١٘س 9

9 5 ضم١١ُ جػًّ جٌىٌٚز ضأ١ٍ١٘س 10

ٌمحء ِغ جٌكٍف١١ٓ 11

ِٕحلٗس ِٗحوً جٌكٍف ْٚرً ِؼحٌؿطٙح

5 10

10 30 جٌّؿّٛع 11

لطحع جٌػمحفس -َٚجٌز جٌطٍجظ ٚجٌػمحفس

جأل٠حَ ػىو جٌٓحػحش جٌّٛٞٛع ش

1 5 أْح١ٌد جإلوجٌز ٚجٌٍّجْالش ٚجألػالَ 1

ٌٚٔ ف١ٕس 2

ضٕظ١ُ ٌٖٚس ل١ٍٛز جٌّىٜ فٟ جٌٍُْ

5 2

3 5 ضٕظ١ُ ٌٖٚس ل١ٍٛز جٌّىٜ ذحٌٕكص 3

4 5 ئوجٌز ٍُِْ جٌهُف 4

جٌىٍجف١ه ئوجٌز ٍُِْ 5 5 5

6 5 ئوجٌز ٍُِْ جٌٕكص 6

7 5 ئوجٌز ٍُِْ جألػّحي جٌطٍو١ر١س 7



أٍْٛخ جٌّكحٍٞز، أٍْٛخ جٌّٕحلٗس : حذدد انجبحثخ أصبنٛت انًعبٚشخ اٜتٛخ: أصبنٛت يعبٚشخ انًٛذاٌ -خبيضب

ش ج١ٌّىج١ٔس، أٍْٛخ جٌّّحٌْس ٚجٌكٛجٌ، وٌجْس جٌكحٌس، ٌٚٔ جٌؼًّ، جألٔٗطس جٌططٛػ١س، ، جٌٍّٗٚػحش، ،أٍْٛخ ج٠ٌُحٌج

، جألػّحي جٌططر١م١س، فٍق جٌؼًّ، ضّػ١ً جألوٚجٌ، جٌؼٛف جًٌٕٟ٘، جٌطى٠ٌد جًٌجضٟ، جٌطمح٠ٌٍ ٚجٌركٛظ، (جٌطؿٍذس)جٌؼ١ٍّس

. أٍْٛخ( 14)ٌطٛرف جألْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌر١س جٌّؼطّىز

الْطفحوز ِٕٙح ٚجْطهىجِٙح فٟ ضٕف١ً ذٍٔحِؽ ِٛجو ضى٠ٌر١س ٠ّىٓ ج( 14)قىوش جٌرحقػس : يٕاد يعبٚشخ انًٛذاٌ -صبدصب

: جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس جٌّمطٍـ ، ٟٚ٘

فٛضٛ )جٌٓرٌٛز، وٍجْحش، وٍجْحش ٌُْ، جألفالَ جٌطى٠ٌر١س، أفالَ ٚغحتم١س، أؾُٙز جٌكحْٛخ، ذٍجِؽ ض١ُّٛ وٍجف١ىٟ -

جٌف١ٕس ّٚٔحيؼ ِٓ ئ٠حٌجضٙح، ، ٠حذؼس ٍِٛٔس، ّٔحيؼ ِٓ جٌّطرٛػحش، ّٔحيؼ ِٓ جألػّحي(ٖٛخ، وٌٛي وٌٚ، غٍٞ وِىّ

.نحِحش ٚأوٚجش ض٠ٍٛٛ، نحِحش ٚأوٚجش ٔكص ٚنُف

٠ؼطّى ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس جػطّحوج ٌت١ٓ١ح ػٍٝ جٌططر١محش جٌؼ١ٍّس فٟال ػٓ جٌٕٗح٠حش : األَشطخ يعبٚشخ انًٛذاٌ -صبثعب

:جٌطى٠ٌر١س ج٢ض١س

. ضم٠ٍٍ ػٓ ج٠ٌُحٌجش، ٌمحءجش ِغ قٍف١١ٓوطحذس ذكع ١ِىجٟٔ، ٠َحٌز ٌرؼٝ ٍِجوُ جٌطى٠ٌد جٌكٍف١س، ضمى٠ُ

ِٛظفٛج جأللٓحَ جٌّؼ١ٕس ذحٌّؼح٠ٗس فٟ جٌؿّؼ١س جٌؼّح١ٔس ٌٍفْٕٛ : حذدد انجبحثخ انفئبد اٜتٛخ: انًذسثٌٕ -ثبيُب

. جٌطٗى١ٍ١س، ٚج١ٌٙثس جٌؼحِس ٌٍٕٛحػحش جٌكٍف١س، َٚٚجٌز جٌطٍجظ ٚجٌػمحفس، ِٓ ج٠ًٌٓ ٌُٙ نرٍز ػ١ٍّس فٟ جٌّؿحي

:٠ىجٌ جٌرٍٔحِؽ ِٓ لرً لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس فٟ و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ٚجٌّطّػً: إداسح انجشَبيح -تبصعب

أػٟحء، ٚجٔطهحخ ػٟٛ ١٘ثس ضى٠ٌّ ِٓثٛي ػٓ ضٕف١ً ذٍٔحِؽ / ٍِٗفح، ٚأػٟحء ١٘ثس جٌطى٠ٌّ/ ذٍت١ّ جٌمُٓ

. ػٟٛج/ضطر١ك ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔسػٟٛج، ِٚٓثٛي جٌطى٠ٌد فٟ ِٛجلغ جٌؼًّ جٌطٟ ٠طُ ف١ٙح / جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس ِٚطحذؼطٗ

ذك١ع . جلطٍقص جٌرحقػس ٠ٕفً ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس جٌّمطٍـ نالي فطٍز جٌؼطٍس ج١ٌٛف١س،: يذح انجشَبيح ٔٔقتّ -عبششا

ج٠ٗس ْحػحش ١ِٛ٠ح ِٓ جٌٓحػس جٌطحْؼس ٚرحقح ئٌٝ جٌٓحػس جٌٛجقىز ظٍٙج، ػٍٝ أْ ضٕفً جٌّغ( 5)ضىْٛ ْحػحش جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس

.ذّؼىي نّٓس أ٠حَ فٟ جألْرٛع

٠مُٓ جٌطٍرس جٌّطىٌذ١ٓ ئٌٝ غالغس ِؿح١ِغ وً ِؿّٛػس ٠هٛٙ ٌٙح أْرٛػ١ٓ ٌٍّؼح٠ٗس فٟ ِإْٓس، غُ ضٕطمً ذؼى يٌه

ٌٍطى٠ٌد فٟ جٌّإْٓس جألنٍٜ ٌّٚىز أْرٛػ١ٓ أ٠ٟح، ٚذٕظحَ ضرحوي جٌّٛجلغ ِغ جٌّؿح١ِغ جألنٍٜ، ٚذحٌطحٌٟ ضىْٛ ؾ١ّغ

ذؿ١ّغ جٌهرٍجش، ٚفٟ جٌّإْٓحش جٌػالغس ٔفٓٙح، ذك١ع فٟ جٌٕٙح٠س ضىْٛ وً جٌّؿح١ِغ لى أٔؿُش ِؿّٛع جٌّؿّٛػحش ٍِش

أْحذ١غ ( 6)٠ِٛح َِٛػس ػٍٝ ( 30)ٚذًٌه ضىْٛ أ٠حَ ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس جٌفؼ١ٍس . أْحذ١غ ِؼح٠ٗس وً أْرٛػ١ٓ ِٕٙح فٟ ِٛلغ( 6)

. ػًّ

ػح٠ٗس فٟ ١ِىجْ جٌؼًّ جٌطٟ ضُ ضك١ًٍ ِٙحِٙح ٚٚجؾرحضٙح، ٚجٌطٟ ٠ؼًّ ذٙح ضطُ جٌُ: يكبٌ تُفٛز انجشَبيح -انحبد٘ عشش

:، ٚأٖحٌٚج ذٛؾٛو ئِىح١ٔس ضى٠ٌد ػٍٗز ٠ٍرس فٟ وً ٚجقىج ِٕٙح، ٚجٌطٟ ضطّػً(ػ١ٕس جٌىٌجْس)ن٠ٍؿٟ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس

جٌؿّؼ١س جٌؼّح١ٔس ٌٍفْٕٛ جٌطٗى١ٍ١سـ

ج١ٌٙثس جٌؼحِس ٌٍٕٛحػحش جٌكٍف١س -

.ٌطٍجظ ٚجٌػمحفسَٚجٌز ج -

:أصبنٛت انتقٕٚى -انثبَٙ عشش

جْطرحٔٗ ضَٛع ػٍٝ جٌطٍرس جٌّٗحٌو١ٓ فٟ ذٍٔحِؽ جٌّؼح٠ٗس فٟ ٔٙح٠س جٌرٍٔحِؽ ٌٍطؼٍف ػٍٝ وٌؾس ٌٞحُ٘ ػّح -

. قممٗ جٌرٍٔحِؽ

جْطرحٔٗ نحٚس ذّؼح٠ٗس وً ِإْٓس، ٌٍطؼٍف ػٍٝ ِىٜ ضكم١ك جٌرٍٔحِؽ أ٘ىجفٗ -

ػى٘ح جٌّٗحٌوْٛضم٠ُٛ جألذكحظ ٚجٌطمح٠ٌٍ جٌطٟ ٞ -

. ضم٠ُٛ ضفحػً جٌّٗحٌو١ٓ أغٕحء فطٍز جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس -

:انتٕطٛبد ٔانًقتشحبد

:ذؼى جْطؼٍجٜ ٔطحتؽ جٌىٌجْس ِٕٚحلٗطٙح ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ ِح ٠ٍٟ



ٌفغ ئػطحء ِٛٞٛع جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس أ١ّ٘س نحٚس، ٚوػّح ِٓ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس، ألٔٗ ٠ّػً جقى جألْح١ٌد جٌٍت١ٓ١س ي -1

ؾٛوز ِهٍؾحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس ذٓى جٌٕمٙ جٌكحًٚ فٟ ئػىجوُ٘، ٚضكم١ك وفح٠حش ٖه١ٛس ١ِٕٙٚس ٚأوحو١ّ٠س ٚغمحف١س

. ٚئوج٠ٌس، ٚئوٓحذُٙ جضؿح٘حش ج٠ؿحذ١س ٔكٛ جٌّٕٙس، ٚجٌطٟ ضؼى ِٓ أْح١ْحش ضكم١ك ؾٛوز جٌمُٓ ٚؾٛوز جٌى١ٍس

جٌركع، ٠ٚٛٞغ ِٛٞغ جٌطٕف١ً أل١ّ٘طٗ فٟ ٌذ١ ِٕح٘ؽ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس أْ ٠طٌٛ أّٔٛيؼ جٌّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس جٌّمطٍـ فٟ ً٘ج -2

ذٛجلغ جالقط١حؾحش جٌّؼحٍٚز ٌٓٛق جٌؼًّ، ِّح ٠ٓحُ٘ فٟ ضط٠ٍٛ ذٍٔحِؽ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس جٌكحٌٟ، ٠ٚهٍؾٗ ِٓ أقحو٠س

. جٌطٛؾٗ جٌٛظ١فٟ ٚجٌّطّػً ذاػىجو ِؼٍُ فْٕٛ ضٗى١ٍ١س

ل٠ٛس جٌضرح٠ٗ ذحقط١حؾحش جٌط١ّٕس ِٓ نالي جٌط١ٕٓك ِغ ِإْٓحش جٌّؿطّغ ٚضهط١١ ِٕح٘ؿٗ فٟ ٠مَٛ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س جٌف١ٕس ذص أْ -3

ٞٛء ِططٍرحش جٌؿٛوز، ذٛٞغ نطس ٠ْٕٛس ٌٍّؼح٠ٗس ج١ٌّىج١ٔس ٌطٍرس جٌمُٓ، ِر١ٕس ػٍٝ وٌجْحش فؼ١ٍس ٌطؼٍف جٌكحؾحش

. ّٞٓ ذٍٔحِؿٗ إلوٌجؾٙحجٌطى٠ٌر١س ٚج١ٌّٕٙس ٌٍطٍرس


Reference # 52

Topic # 4

Study of the relationship between the usage of Information Technology and

students’ satisfaction in the colleges and faculties of Urmia University of Iran Bahareh Azizi Nejad [email protected], University of Urmia, Iran

Mir Mohammad Abbaszadeh, University of Urmia, Iran

IT development is at top priority in all of the organizations including educational institutions. All

the personnel and students in the universities, alike other educational institutions, should be able to

take the benefits of the IT, towards their academic achievements, and therefore have to be satisfied

of that. The present study is aimed at investigating the relationship between the extend of IT

application and student satisfaction, in the university. The study has been drawn descriptively by

the use of questionnaire, analyzing the collected date and drawing conclusions. The result showed

relative dissatisfaction of the IT in the university, along with some weaknesses which are

discussed in the paper.

Introduction / Statement of the problem

Nowadays, technology as a means of growth and development of the governments, has

been replaced by Information Technology (IT) as a pole of development. Developing of the

scientific system design of the country means that of the expected outcomes, globalization,

scientific advancement, reconsideration and modification of Higher Education and Research

systems can be mentioned. One of the practical aspects of these plans is embedding the

infrastructures of information technology at universities. Development of information

technology and means of communication in societies has developed to the extent that the amount

of consideration it receives can be considered as a criterion for advancement in developing

countries. It is also believed that in the present era the world would be a totally different one,

which would be guided by information technology. Increase of competition, constant decrease

of scales on sizes, high levels of function, globalization and freedom are some examples of vast

changes that most organizations face and would need to reform and reorganize themselves.

However, they must be changed from responsive positions to a network of organizations with

flexibility and high level of function. In order to deal with these struggles, the organization need

to consider information technology as a determinant factor which must be used not only to

increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the functions, but also to meet the customers needs

quickly and constantly and the competition pressures and more pleasant distribution through

various distribution channels and the increase of the ability in communicating with customers

distributors and other stock holders (Shohrestanaki, 2007). During the latest half a century,

modern organizations have increased the amount of investigation on Information Technology,

because it is believed that information technology has got a positive effect on organizational

functions (Shahrestanaki, 2007) and effective organizational function influences customers

consent. Finally, it must be mentioned that nowadays the application of information technology

is a common feature of organizational structures and has expressed itself as a vital factor for the

success in lots of organizations (Prem Kumar, 2002).

As universities are considered the most important centers for Science & Research and

students are assumed as the customers of the higher education centers. The students‘ satisfaction

about the application of IT system and the way it can be used, would be an appropriate reflection



of the existing condition to university managers in order to make them aware of the weak and

strong pointes, and enable them to choose the best methods to win students‘ satisfaction and

provide them with excellent scientific facilities. As a result, conducting various researches in the

field, and analysis of the effects of IT application on individuals‘ satisfaction to develop

organizational functions and to reduce the potential unpleasant outcomes of blindly

implementation of the modern technology in organizations seems necessary. Accordingly the

present research has been an effort to express the practical aspect of this necessity.

The bases of management are built upon open information. Nowadays, all organizational

staff, in some way is involved in collecting, storing, processing and using the information in

order to meet the needs of internal and external customers. Undoubtedly, the most important

role of IT in organizations is to remove the obstacles through simple instant, inexpensive

broadband connections and to increase the value of communication. IT yields a more practical,

effective and competitive organization and plays an important role in managements‘ relationship

with customers through providing quick and correct information for making decision about

needs, preferences and satisfaction of them (Alagheband, 2006). Now that in the world

economy, the survival of organizations is determined by customers, and they cannot be

indifferent about the expectation and needs of their customers. They must direct all their

activities and potentials to the satisfaction of their customers, because the first principle in the

world of work and income is producing values appealing to customers. Clearly, knowing the

mental picture and perception of the customers about the services provided is of great importance

and not only expresses the weak and strong points of an organization, but also provides ground

for the application of appropriate methods and the promotion of function level. Katler defines

customer satisfaction as degree with which the real function of a company meets the customers‘

expectations. According to Katler, if a company s function meets customers‘ expectations, they

feel satisfied otherwise they would be dissatisfied (Divandary and Delkhah, 2006, p.188 and

Tadbir Monthly periodical, p.182).

Figure1. The model of Customers Satisfaction formation (Divandary and Delkhah, 2006, p.189)

Bill Gates, Microsoft Manager, believes that dissatisfaction of customers is the main

source of lesson and learning for organizations. In order to study and provide functional and

executive methods about betterment and development of management, communication sectors

and creating uniformity in execution must follow and supervise the renewal affairs of offices in

the state including universities. The issued responsibilities from Communication and

Information Technology Ministry about IT and organizational modification must be considered

in which the management of IT affairs in working out modification and revolution in

Quality Pe

Expectations

Customers‘ satisfaction

Azizi Nejad & Abbaszadeh: Relationship between IT usage and student satisfaction


management and organization affairs, providing essential fields and capabilities are emphasized

(pointing out the responsibilities of Communication and Information Technology Ministry).

Nowadays, the managers must consider special value for their customers, products and services,

which are their most valuable capitals in order to develop and enhance their functions in work

place (Prem Kumar, 2002).

In today‘s competitive world, there has been an end to rule over customers and the

success of organizations depend highly on winning the customers‘ satisfaction and respect

towards them. Therefore, creation and implementation of appropriate systems capable of

producing and increasing customers‘ satisfaction, in order to enhance function, is the essential

need for all organizations have realized that customers‘ satisfaction promises their survival. It is

considered as the most important factor in quality models and even in the discussions related to

the reengineering of business process (Abdous and He, 2008). As Manager of Wall-Mart

mentions a customer is the only one who can fire all even the manager or employees. Peter

Drucker says: ″ every business is intended to create and keep customers″. Now that customer

determine the survival of organizations in world economy, the organizations cannot be

indifferent about the expectations and needs of their customers. They need to direct all their

activities and potentials to the customers‘ satisfaction and it is the only source for returning their

capitals.

The Importance of Customers‘ Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction, in this research means the creation of a condition for students in

Urmia University in which they can have a positive view the way they are provided with the

services after receiving the desirable service or product (Yarahmadi Khorasani, 2007). Why

should the organizations seek for the customers‘ satisfaction? How important is the customers‘

satisfaction to the organizations? In order to address these questions first it must be determined

what happens if customers are not satisfied with an organization. Accordingly what benefits

satisfied customers have loving to the organizations and how organizations can satisfy the

customers needs? The research shows that 96% of the customers do not complain about the

behavior and low quality of the services or goods and 90% of the dissatisfied customers try at

least not to attend those organizations anymore. Every dissatisfied customer expressed his

dissatisfaction at least to 9 persons and 13% of the dissatisfied at least to 20 persons. Haiz and

Dredge‘s research indicates that maintaining the existing customers and attendees is much more

in expensive than finding new customers, which would be a complicated process. The existing

customers are familiar to the organizations and it would be easy to communicate with them.

A loyal customer may maintain his relationship with an organization through years,

especially when he was encouraged through receiving a service or goods of high quality

promised by the organization. Therefore, having relationship with the existing customers is

easier and more advantageous than finding the new ones (Yarahmadi Khorasani, 2007).

Scientists believe that the concepts of organizational success and customers‘ satisfaction of an

organization are very similar. Since customers‘ satisfaction is one of the key factors for success,

it is important that organizations have satisfied customers and attendees (Moro Egido and

Panudes, 2008). An organization that loses its customers‘ dissatisfaction resembles a perforated

bucket, which instantly loses its water. In this case, the company experiences continuous

declination. This inclination would be delicate and probably its outcomes would inhibit



promotion and development of organizations in the near future (the water we have to return to

the bucket). It is crystal clear that this process would be highly expensive. However, if an

organization applies appropriate methods to: a) prevent customers dissatisfaction and to; b)

increase their satisfaction to the optimum level, and it gains an appropriate level of promotion

and growth, expected (Dunkle and Danziger, 2004). Researches show that maintaining 5% of

the customers brings about an interest of 25% to 95% (Yarahmadi Khorasani, 2007). As the

government in Hong Kong, one of the greatest users of IT, there have been several researches

conducted on IT in this country, such as: Midgram, Braun, Hu, Greenfield and lawoo. For

instances, Lawoo carried out a research on the investigation of the effects of IT on the

organizational structure and culture in Hong Kong through studying small companies.

Research Hypotheses

Main Hypothesis

There is a statistically significant relationship between students‘ satisfaction and the

implementation of IT system.

Minor Hypotheses

1. There is a statistically significant relationship between online course, ICT and students‘

satisfaction.

2. There is a statistically meaningful relationship between using Internet and ICT to create

relationships between different sectors and students‘ satisfaction.

3. There is a statistically meaningful relationship between existing facilities at universities and

using IT and students‘ satisfaction.

4. There is a statistically meaningful relationship between financial support the universities

providing and equipping the system with IT and students satisfaction.

5. There is a significant difference between students‘ education level based on their use of IT.

6. There is a statistically significant difference between students‘ education level and their

familiarity with different sites related to their needs.


familiarity with computer.


familiarity with Internet and the way they work with it.


knowledge of English language.


satisfaction of preparation, reinstruction, facilities and professional support of the staff based

on ICT education.

Methodology

Based on the purpose, the present research is practical in nature, because the applied

research is directed towards practical application of science (Sarmad, Bazargan and Hajjari,

2003, p.79), and contribute to the betterment of the products and efficiency of execution



methods. One of the goals of the present research is introducing methods of inquiring about

students‘ satisfactions of IT application. Based on the data collection method, this research is

descriptive and practical in nature, because its main purpose is describing the conditions

analyzed phenomena. Its implementation can be done only for gaining more knowledge of the

existing conciliations and /or contributing to the process of decision-making (Sarmad and

Bazargan, 1998, p.81), and as it has been used questionnaires to evaluate the properties of the

sample selected from the population and individuals beliefs, it is a survey (Seiied Abbaszadeh,

2007, p.139). To test the hypotheses and achieving the research goals, analytical and statistical

package for social sciences (SPSS) version 13 has been used. In order to investigate the

relationship between using IT and students‘ satisfaction, correlation and regression have been

used. To compare the variable of satisfaction in various education levels, analysis of variance or

ANOVA was also applied.

Participants

The participants in this research include all students in Agriculture, Science, Technology,

Veterinary Literature and Human Sciences Faculties of Urmia University. Urmia University

includes 4 complexes that are situated in 3 different locations. Literature and Human Science

Faculty is in city center but Agriculture, science Technology faculties are located out of the city

(Bagherpoor, 2007). This research was limited to Urmia University and the students in the

above-mentioned faculties were chosen for data collection and analysis.

Sample

Due to the great number of students in different Faculties of Urmia University, cluster

sampling was used, and the sample selected randomly (n=130; Cochran Formula). Ten students

from veterinary, 20 Technology and engineering, 30 from Agriculture, 30 from Literature and

humanities and 40 from Science Faculties were selected randomly.

Data Collection Materials

In order to collect data from the sample to test the proposed hypotheses, questionnaires

were distributed. It was designed by the researcher including 28 questions with five choices in

Likert scale. Its reliability and validity were calculated (Kronbakh &=0.837) and then it was

distributed among students. It included two types of questions. The first type was a

demographic one to enquire information about gender, age and university degree and the second

type was from 1 to 5 in the questionnaire in Likert scale. Therefore based on the independent

variable on the analysis of existing facilities and services related to IT as input and satisfaction as

dependent variable was coded as output (IT facilities such as software and hardware and their

increase and development, Internet and digital Library, education and reinstruction, financial

resources dedicated to IT, sites and English language and the factors related to existing

conditions of IT and those relevant to students satisfaction are explained in details in the

hypothesis). The results are interpreted as lower and higher than mean respectively to low-

satisfaction and high-satisfaction.



Findings

The findings in the research indicate that among the students of Urmia University, 130

students were selected which were included 40 males and 40 females that their distribution were

as following: The greatest portion of the sample, was males. The highest and the lowest

university degrees were (86 B.A./B.S.) and (5 M.A./M.S.), and 30.8% were sophomore and 2.3%

were graduate students. Compared to females, males belonged to different education levels and

even higher levels. The tables and diagrams below describe the condition of sample in details:

Table 1. Distribution of data on students’ education, gender and year of education

frequency percent Frequency

percent

Frequency

percent

Male

Female

Total

90

40

130

69.2

30.8

100

69.2

30.8

100

69.2

100

level

of education


percent

Frequency

percent

Under graduate

Graduate

Post graduate

Ph.d.

total

24

86

5

15

130

18.5

66.2

3.8

11.5

100

18.5

66.2

3.8

11.5

100

18.5

84.6

88.5

100

Year

of education


percent

Frequency

percent

First year

Second year

Third year

Forth year

Sixth year

total

28

40

33

26

3

130

21.5

30.8

25.4

20.0

2.3

100

21.5

30.8

25.4

20.0

2.3

100

21.5

52.3

77.7

97.7

100

The diagrams below represent the figures dedicated to subjects based on gender,

university degree and the years they had been studying and also gender based on the years of

being at the university and the amount of education they had received:

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0

Under graduate

graduate

Post graduate

Phd

femalemale

gender

Fre

qu

en

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0

Under graduate

graduate

Post graduate

Phd

femalemale

gender

Fre

qu

en

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

gender

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0femalemale

First year

Second year

Third year

Fourth year

Sixth year(p

erc

en

t)

Fre

que

ncy

ye

ar

of e

du

catio

n

gender

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0femalemale

First year

Second year

Third year

Fourth year

Sixth year(p

erc

en

t)

Fre

que

ncy

ye

ar

of e

du

catio

n

Diagram 1. The percentage of the

participants based on gender and the level

of education.

Diagram 2. The percentage of

participants based on gender and the years

they had studied at the university.



-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0femalemale

Fre

qu

en

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

gender

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0femalemale

Fre

qu

en

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

gender

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0

ّfr

eq

uen

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

amount of education

phd post graduate graduate under graduate

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

-0

ّfr

eq

uen

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

amount of education

phd post graduate graduate under graduate


subjects based on gender.


subjects based on the level of education.

-40

-30

-20

-10

-0

amount of education

Fre

qu

en

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

Sixth year fourth year third year second year first year

-40

-30

-20

-10

-0

amount of education

Fre

qu

en

cy

(p

erc

en

t)

Sixth year fourth year third year second year first year

Diagram 5. Percentage of subjects

based on the years of being at university.

Diagram 1 indicates the education level of male and female students. In this diagram, the

percentage of males‘ education level is higher than females. Diagram 2 shows different years of

being at university for males and females. In this diagram males belong to higher levels of

education than females. Diagram 3 shows that 64.2% of the subjects are male and 38.8% of

them are female. Diagram 4 indicates that 18.5% of those who answered the questionnaires had

below B.A./B.S., 3.8% had M.A./M.S. and 11.5% were Ph.D. students. Diagram 5 shows that

21.5% of the participants were freshmen, 30.8% were sophomores, 25.4% were juniors, and 20%

seniors and 3% were the sixth year.

In order to investigate the impact of existing IT facilities on students‘ satisfaction to

quick advancement of scientific work, multiple regression and ANOVA were used. The

following tables are interpreted for the hypotheses respectively.

Table 2: results of first hypothesis

model sum of squares df mean square F Sig.

Regression

Remain

total

7.623

132.253

139.876

4

124

128

1.906

1.067

1.787 0.136a

Table 3: results of first hypothesis


Regression

Remain

total

3.177

165.846

169.023

4

124

128

0.794

1.337

0.594 0.668a



Table 4: results of second hypothesis


Regression

Remain

total

15.848

102.958

118.806

2

126

128

7.924

0.817

9.698 0.000a

Table 5: results of third hypothesis


Regression

Remain

total

22.394

173.203

195.597

9

119

128

2.488

1.455

1.710 0.094a



Regression

Remain

total

5.780

134.096

139.876

9

119

128

0.642

1.127

0.0570 0.819a



Regression

Remain

Total

11.757

157.266

169.023

9

119

128

1.306

1.322

0.988 0.453a

Table 8: results of fourth hypothesis


Regression

Remain

Total

26.566

62.365

88.831

2

127

129

13.283

0.491

27.050 0.000a

Results of hypotheses‘ tests

Tables 2 and 3 represent for hypothesis 1: there is no statistically significant difference

between having online courses and ICT and students satisfaction.

Table 4 indicates for hypothesis 2: there is a statistically meaningful relationship between

the amount of using Internet and ICT to connect different sectors and students‘ satisfaction.

Table 5, 6, and 7 represent for hypothesis 3: there is no statistically meaningful

relationship between using IT at universities and students satisfaction. However, the existence of

the facilities and using IT at universities increased professors experience level and brought about

students satisfaction about studying and shows that students are interested in equipping different

units with advanced facilities.

Table 8 indicates for hypothesis 4: there is a statistically meaningful relationship between

universities financial support of equipping the systems with IT and students satisfaction. The

essential financial sources for purchasing equipment and computer services and financial support

for buying software and hardware brought about 100% satisfaction among the students based on

their use of ICT. Financial support of officials is also essential to implement ICT at universities.

Thus the first and third hypotheses were rejected and the second and fourth ones were accepted.



Table 9: statistic description related to fifth hypothesis

N mean S S.E 95% mean

High limit Low limit

Undergraduate

Graduate

Post graduate

PhD

total

24

86

5

15

130

2.17

2.69

2.80

2.27

2.55

0.868

1.043

0.837

1.223

1.043

1.77

0.113

0.374

0.316

0.091

1.80

2.46

1.76

1.59

2.37

2.53

2.91

3.84

2.94

2.73

Table 10: ANOVA related to fifth hypothesis

Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.

Between Groups

Within Groups

total

6.633

133.590

140.223

3

126

129

2.211

1.060

2.085 0.105

Table 11: statistic description related to sixth hypothesis



Undergraduate

Graduate

Post graduate

PhD

total

24

86

5

15

130

2.79

2.97

2.80

3.60

3.00

1.062

1.023

1.095

1.183

1.064

0.217

0.110

0.490

0.306

0.093

2.34

2.75

1.44

2.94

2.82

3.24

3.18

4.16

4.26

3.18

Table12: ANOVA related to fifth hypothesis


Between Groups

Within Groups

total

6.746

139.254

146.000

3

126

129

2.249

1.105

2.035 0.112

Table13: statistic description related to sixth hypothesis



Undergraduate

Graduate

Post graduate

PhD

total

24

86

5

15

130

3.13

3.27

2.80

3.67

3.27

0.992

1.089

1.095

1.113

1.077

0.202

0.117

0.490

0.287

0.094

2.71

3.03

1.44

3.05

3.08

3.54

3.50

4.16

4.28

3.46

Table 14: ANOVA related to seventh hypothesis


Between Groups

Within Groups

total

3.970

145.607

149.577

3

126

129

1.323

1.156

1.145 0.334



Table 15: statistic description related to eighth hypothesis



Undergraduate

Graduate

Post graduate

PhD

total

24

86

5

15

130

2.83

3.00

2.00

3.27

2.96

0.816

1.029

1.000

1.387

1.052

0.167

0.111

0.447

0.358

0.092

2.49

2.78

0.76

2.50

2.78

3.18

3.22

3.24

4.03

3.14

Table 16: ANOVA related to eighth hypothesis


Between Groups

Within Groups

total

6.541

136.287

142.828

3

126

129

2.180

1.081

2.016 0.115

Table 17: statistic description related to ninth hypothesis



Undergraduate

Graduate

Post graduate

PhD

total

24

86

5

15

130

3.00

2.91

1.80

3.40

2.94

0.780

1.047

0.837

1.298

1.055

0.159

0.113

0.374

0.335

0.093

2.67

2.68

0.76

2.68

2.76

3.33

3.13

2.84

4.12

3.12

Table 18: ANOVA related to ninth hypothesis


Between Groups

Within Groups

total

9.852

133.656

143.508

3

126

129

3.284

1.061

3.096 0.029

Table 19: statistic description related to tenth hypothesis



Undergraduate

Graduate

Post graduate

PhD

total

24

86

5

15

130

3.63

3.88

3.00

3.67

3.78

0.875

1.142

1.871

1.291

1.150

0.179

0.123

0.837

0.333

0.101

3.26

3.640

0.68

2.95

3.58

3.99

4.13

5.32

4.38

3.98

Table 20: ANOVA related to tenth hypothesis


Between Groups

Within Groups

total

4.735

165.796

170.531

3

126

129

2.578

1.316

1.200 0.313

Table 10 indicates that there is no meaningful difference between students‘ educational

level and their use of IT (hypothesis 5).

Table 12 shows that there is no significant difference between the amount of students‘

familiarity with different sites and different education levels (hypothesis 6). According to 1-5



system, familiarity with different sites was higher than mean for Ph.D. students but for other

levels it was lower than mean.

Table 14 shows that those in no significant difference between students education level

and their knowledge of computer software (hypothesis 7). According to 1-5 system the amount

of familiarity with computer for students was lower than B.A./B.S. B.A./B.S. and Ph.D. was

higher than the mean for those with M.A./M.S. which was low.

Table 16 indicates that there is no significant difference between students education level

and their familiarity with and use of the net (hypothesis 8). The familiarity with B.A./B.S. and

lower and M.A./M.S. it is lower than the mean.

Table 18 indicates that there is a significant difference between students familiarity with

English language in different education levels (hypothesis 9). According to 1-5 system,

students‘ familiarity with English language was higher than the mean for Ph.D. degrees and

lower than B.A./B.S. but for other education level it was lower than the mean.

Table 20 indicates that there is no significant difference between student education level

and their satisfaction of preparation, reinstruction of facilities, professional support of the staff

based on learning ICT (hypothesis 10).

Summary of the findings and suggestions

IT is a new arena that has influenced all aspects of social life. Higher education is

considered one of these important branches whose findings and functions are used to meet

society‘s needs. According to the main university members (students) ideas and their satisfaction

of the existing technological and digital educational activities and doing the official affairs

provides an appropriate ground for preparation of the foundation of facilities and works in

accordance with students‘ needs to help managers introduce suitable methods. The most

important findings of the research are as follows: 1) Using IT and officials‘ support for its use,

having reinstruction courses and professional support for staff at universities, ICT facilities for

students and official correspondence, providing essential financial sources for purchasing

facilities and computer services and financial support for providing software and hardware and

using ICT. 2) Having online courses and using ICT facilities and computer services (net,

software, etc) have not satisfied the students, but the development of basic activities about IT at

the university and equipping different parts with advanced systems have satisfied the students.

Using the Internet, computer services, IT and Email students refer to directives and to do

correspondence. This is in accordance with research findings. 3) Using computer services such

as net, software Internet, etc and the existing relevant sources of IT and communication; using

online courses for professional progress of the staff and supporting students to use ICT;

providing the equipment and computer services and training the staff about using ICT, and the

vast world of Internet to be used digital library have not satisfied the students based on

preparation reinstruction of the staff about IT and facilities and professional support. The

amount of financial support provided by universities and equipping the system with IT have

satisfied students. Students‘ familiarity with computer skills, various sites and communication



channels among different education levels had no impact on their satisfaction of using IT

facilities. Therefore it can be concluded that using IT is not affected by education level of

students. Knowing English language in different education levels has been effective on

students‘ satisfaction of using ICT. Students at different education levels were not satisfied with

reinstruction of ICT and professional support of the staff at universities. As a result, all in all

existing facilities and using IT at universities and the present condition did not satisfy students.

Suggestions

Practical suggestions: Considering the findings of the present research, equipping the

system with IT to increase satisfaction is essential. In this study, suggestions are proposed for

two purposes: using IT and equipping the system with its facilities. The existence of

reinstruction courses and professional support of the staff at universities, IT facilities, especially

for official correspondence of students‘ financial support of officials to implement ICT at

universities are essential for students.

A. Suggestions in accordance with the research:

1. Informing about communication systems at universities: It is important to provide enough

information through sites and brochures to facilitate students works, because in that case it

would be easier to get services with less confusion.

2. Electronic survey of students: Considering the importance of satisfaction in order to be aware

of their needs and ideas on one hand, and providing a mechanism for the attendees to register

their ideas after receiving electronic questionnaires on the hand is important for the

betterment of the system.

B. According to the results presented, it is realized that students are not satisfied with the

use of information technology (Internet, Web, software, etc.) at universities, therefore it is

recommended that the following points to be considered:

1. Increasing and developing the existing resources and facilities of IT.

2. Conducting more and better reinstruction courses and professional support of the university

staff and essential cruises for using ICT.

3. Providing the IT resources at universities according to students needs.

4. Increasing the fundament structure and the width of Internet scope to use digital library.

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Reference # 53

Topic # 2

Generating interest and motivation for continuing professional development Aisha Ba‘Abood [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Shadia Al Belushi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Suaad Al Busaidi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Victoria Tuzlukova [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This presentation shares the experience of professional development in the Language Centre of

Sultan Qaboos University and highlights its effects on teaching-learning practices. Thus it reviews

some significant achievements of the forum that has provided a framework for setting and

achieving developmental goals for the faculty. Moreover, the presentation summarizes the first

findings of the project based on the analysis of the centre-wide survey that systematically

categorized expertise, needs, and wants of the Language Centre community. These findings are

considered through the prism of their importance for sustaining interest, motivation and achieving

higher standards in the profession.

Introduction

Professional development is traditionally considered as an essential component of

achieving high standards of professionalism and high-quality education (Scribner, 2003). As

revealed in the educational research, teachers‘ professional skills, competence, and teaching

practice have a strong influence on the learning environment and students‘ achievements

(Guskey, 2000; Kirkpatrick, 1998). But how is it better to implement and organize professional

development for it to serve as an efficient tool for enhancing knowledge, skills, attitudes and

professional beliefs of the teachers? What efforts should be undertaken for professional

development to become a critical factor in teaching rather than a shoddy and limited issue in

educational setting (Scribner, 1999)?

To answer these questions the authors of the paper focus on the effects of professional

development on the teaching community at the Language Centre of Sultan Qaboos University

and current teaching-learning practices. Therefore it exemplifies and describes some significant

accomplishments of the professional development forum that has provided a broad framework

for setting and achieving developmental goals for the faculty. These findings are supported by

the analysis of the feedback of the teachers and findings of the analysis of the centre-wide survey

which was conducted in 2009.

The major findings of the survey indicated that on-going monitoring of the expertise,

needs and wants of the faculties, evaluation and analysis of the impact of professional

development on effective teaching-learning practices are important for sustaining interest. They

also demonstrated sufficient influence on motivating teachers and achieving higher standards in

the profession. The findings further indicated that active engagement of the faculties in

developmental training events; effective use of ―in-house‖ professional expertise and bridging it

with best external knowledge, expertise and resources have a powerful impact towards the

attainment of quality teaching practice and provide sustainable continuing professional

development. Moreover offering developmental training and events which are familiar to the

members of the community, correlate with everyday professional needs and address typical

teaching challenges can be essential for changing teaching practices and improving education.



Understanding Professional Development

and its Role in Educational Environment

Educational research has revealed that professional development plays an essential role in

the educational settings since teachers‘ professional skills, competence, and teaching practice

have a strong influence on both learning environment and achievements of the students (Borko,

2004; Guskey, 2000; Kirkpatrick, 1998; Bybee & Loucks- Horsley, 2000). Having a direct

impact on all the stakeholders of the educational process and pedagogical philosophy of the

whole teaching community, professional development is perceived as a permanent process. This

process is aimed at extending and updating the professional knowledge and beliefs of teachers in

the context of their work (Driel et al., 2000). Therefore professional development can create

better opportunities to fashion and construct new methods and techniques, borrow and tailor to

their needs those approaches that have been successfully implemented in other educational

scenarios. It can also initiate formal and informal means of helping teachers with acquiring new

skills, developing new insights into pedagogy (Grant, 1994) and promoting the increased

responsibility for excellence in teaching (Frye, 2008). Moreover, given the importance of

professional development, collegial learning (Huberman, 1995) and other types of in-service

training, which have recently emerged as ways to promote professional development, can help

teachers develop pedagogical content knowledge and provide additional opportunities for them

to reflect critically on their own practice and to address the new knowledge and beliefs.

Allowing teachers to struggle with vagueness that accompanies their roles in professional

development as both educators and learners (Darling et al., 1995), effective professional

development must first and foremost consider their needs.

The needs of the teachers to achieve high standards in the profession, as reported in

Bybee and Loucks - Hosley (2000), include but are not limited to such needs as need to learn

about and develop skills related to teaching; need to deepen content knowledge; need to learn

about how to teach and combine content knowledge with what is already known about learning

and teaching in a particular setting; need to utilise tools which are helpful in contributing to

acquisition of new knowledge and skills by each individual teacher. In addition to these needs

many teachers perceive that to be motivated and to be actively engaged in professional

development (Bybee and Loucks- Hosley, 1998) they want their personal and professional

interests to be considered. They also feel the need of meaningful integration of ground realities

of the sociocultural context in which they teach with general and specific ideas of

developmental training.

Professional Development of University Teachers:

Addressing Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

Clair and Adger (1999) contend that the elements of effective professional development

for teachers incorporate the principles of adult learning. These teachers, according to Knowles

(1980), need to be self-directed; display readiness to learn when they have a perceived need; and

desire for immediate application of new skills and knowledge (cited in Clair and Adger, 1999).

He further elaborates that effective professional development fosters critical reflection and

meaningful collaboration. Moreover, it is internally coherent and rigorous, and it is sustained

Ba‟Abood, et al.: Generating interest and motivation for professional development


over the long term (Little, 1993; Renyi, 1996; Sparks and Hirsch, 1997, citied in Clair and

Adger, 1999).

Clair and Adger (1999) rightly observe that the above mentioned principles are very

important for effective teachers‘ professional development. Nevertheless they seem to be

insufficient in the educational contexts which are non-native or culturally diverse. To put it more

clearly, in these contexts, for example, many English language teachers now realize the

importance of representing the culture of the learners in the curricula and teaching them in a

context that is familiar to them and that they can relate to (Tuzlukova and Al-Mahrooqi, 2009).

This understanding is aligned with the teachers‘ own personal attitudes and beliefs about the

language and culture, specific knowledge of other languages and cultures, individual educational,

cultural, social and linguistic histories.

Even in case of all the conditions being very conducive to the effective integration of

culture into learning, there still remains a challenge. This challenge lies in finding an effective

and balanced approach that acknowledges both learners and people who help them to learn

(Jaaffar, 2002) as essential human elements of the instructional process. Therefore one of the

current crucial principles in professional development of the teachers, which is a clear vision of

the role of the native language and local culture of the students in learning and teaching (Clair et

al., 1998; Gonzalez and Darling-Hammond, 1997, cited in Clair and Adger, 1999) should be

combined with the representation of the culturally diverse background and educational

experiences of the teaching community.

Possible Effects of the Professional Development on Teaching-Learning Practices

Carey and Frechtling (1997) believe that professional development programs of different

reform type, for example, forums, associations, committees, organizations, projects, teachers‘

resource centers, can have a huge and visible influence on the educational process and eventually

lead to increase of the achievements of the students.

Professional development programs focused on general pedagogy and management

strategies as well as the programs with specific content and focus on students‘ learning strategies

can have a strong effect on the classroom teaching and learning process (Elmore and Burney,

1999; Guskey, 1997). Meanwhile interesting content knowledge offered at stimulating

educational training sessions would have more effective impact if it is supported by such factors

as intensity and duration, for example, contact hours that participants spend in the activity and

the span of time over which the activity takes place(Elmore and Burney, 1999; Guskey, 1997).

In spite of positive attitude to professional development, recent research has indicated

some difficulty and complexity of evaluating direct effects of professional development

programs that are targeted at enhancement of teaching and learning process and increase of the

students‘ achievement, even if these programs are specially designed for these purposes (Birman

et al., 2000 & Birman et al., 1998). To overcome this difficulty through various ways such as

surveys and observations, researchers have suggested some characteristics that can be useful in

describing the most effective professional development programs. Among these are such

characteristics as reform type, duration, collective participation, active learning, coherence and

content focus understood as a degree to which the activity is focused on improving and

deepening teachers‘ content knowledge in teaching the language (Garet et al., 2001).



According to Garet et al. (2001) ―high standard‖ or ―high quality professional

development programs, which have one or some of these characteristics, can lead to changes in

the teacher classroom activities and to the improvement in teacher capabilities and confidence in

implementing certain teaching techniques. Moreover they can increase teachers‘ self-reported

knowledge and skills, and positively affect teaching - learning practices. Among these effects are

more frequent use of effective teaching strategies in the classroom and improvement of the

achievements of the students.

Though the collective participation and the substance of suggested activities (Garet et al.,

2001) can have a very positive influence, research on the effects of the professional development

programs on the teaching - learning process reveals that different teachers are affected by

professional development programs in different ways. Some of them grab any skill-enrichment

opportunities, improve their teaching practices, substantially improve and deepen their content

knowledge in teaching. Others are not easily engaged in any type of professional development

program or, though actively participating in some of them, do not become engaged in the others

in spite of the offered opportunities for meaningful learning and further incorporating acquired

knowledge in practice (Little, 1993; Porter et al., 2000). In other words, to implement effective

professional development programs it is very essential to understand background, content

knowledge, previous experiences and current teaching practices of the teachers.

Professional Development: Transferring Knowledge Into Practice

The establishment of the Professional Development Committee at the Language Centre

of Sultan Qaboos University in 2008 was one of the institutional initiatives aimed at increasing

responsibility for excellence in teaching and implementing high quality teacher professional

development. Though professional development for personal growth and career advancement of

every faculty had always been one of the priority strategies of the Language Centre and the

integral part of its overall improvement plan, professional development was not wide-spread and

faced many challenges. Therefore the Professional Development Committee was established to

become an influential forum that offers and implements a variety of professional development

opportunities, including hands-on workshops, seminars, short courses, formal and informal

presentations and round-table discussions.

From its very start the Professional Development Committee focused on the tasks to

provide effective and high-quality training events, adequate in-service training, individual

support and continuous professional development. To cater for the needs of culturally and

educationally diverse teaching community, which represents more than 30 countries, it initiated a

number of formal and informal activities, including presentations, sessions and workshops on

various issues of foreign language teaching, including computer-mediated methods and

techniques, classroom/applied research methods and techniques, ergonomics of workplace and

teaching process, design of syllabus/curricula/materials that integrate developmental ideas with

specific classroom context and others. For this purpose the voluntary support of both the

Language Centre faculties and external experts was utilized.

As a rule the events which were offered by Professional Development Committee

attached good participation and positive feedback. As the providers of the professional

development sessions were mainly Language Centre faculties, this allowed them to share their

knowledge as well as improve their own presentation skills. There were also speakers from other



Omani educational institutions and people from outside Oman who gave interesting and

stimulating talks and lectures and added to professional discussions on many teaching-learning

issues. Apart from providing a variety of developmental training opportunities the Professional

Development Committee has also disseminated information on local and international

professional events through Language Centre webpage, e-mail and postings on the Professional

Development Note board.

Though the committee was following a very efficient road map in achieving its goals, it

often faced different challenges, for example, to accommodate the best time of the events as

faculties have different teaching schedules and different work locations on the premises of the

university. To gain a complete scope of the challenges and to capture an overall picture of

professional development needs, wants and areas of expertise, the Professional Development

Committee launched a centre-wide survey, which items were generated from a general workshop

for all Language Centre community. The survey was also aimed at soliciting the opinions of the

faculties about the potential areas for developmental training and current professional

development initiatives. The results of the survey were summarized to identify challenges, to

correlate the ascertained interests, needs, expertise and individual initiatives, and to customize

future training.

The scope of the challenges, which were identified, included budgeting time and

resources for professional development events; addressing the diverse teaching community with

various educational, cultural background and teaching experience, including different experience

of teaching in Oman; identifying in-house and external professional development opportunities

and expertise; ensuring equality of opportunity and access to training and development to all

faculties; making professional development high on the faculties‘ list; developing new insights to

motivate teachers and actively engage them in responsive professional development programs

and events which were consistent with the priorities of the Language Centre, need and wants of

the faculties. The list of priority types of training included leadership seminars, sessions on

classroom/applied research methods and procedures, lectures on common health problems and

training for teaching students with special needs.

It was evident from the survey that success factors of the Language Centre Professional

Development Committee can be attributed to task-specific approach that was considered

essential for high-quality professional development. This approach was applied to offer

professional development sessions, which focused on effective teaching approaches and

methodologies; innovative technologies and computer-mediated learning environments.

Therefore the offered sessions and professional development events served both

teaching/curricular and administrative goals; provided teachers with interesting

ideas/insights/expertise. They also encouraged them to use what they learnt in a variety of ways

appropriate to their individual situations; gave the opportunity to the faculties not only to

participate in the events but also to give stimulating and educational presentations and to share

their knowledge, experience, talents as well as proficiency in modeling effective teaching

practices.

Consequently, most of the professional development events, organized by the

Professional Development Committee actively engaged in-house expertise and fitted perfectly

with the task to enhance job-related skills. In fact there have been and still are more people

willing to present than there is time, and the enthusiasm for giving seminars and workshops by

the faculties is overwhelming. For example, between January and end of May 2009, there were



eleven professional development sessions that were described in the feedback forms as

particularly informative, useful, and given by knowledgeable presenters.

Training, professional development events and initiatives of the Professional

Development Committee have been different in form, focus and content. However, they

highlight systemic and on-going developmental opportunities and a lot of investment which have

been offered to the faculties of the Language Centre.

At the time of continuous change and challenge it is important to ensure equality of

opportunity and access to training which nurtures their intellectual and professional capacity to

help all students achieve high standards of development and learning. To achieve this goal

professional development should not only reflect best developmental practices, but also monitor

and accurately access its impact. Findings of measurement and ultimate evaluation of the

professional development on the basis of the impact of this endeavor on teacher effectiveness

and students learning can be helpful for institutional and individual improvement. They can also

serve as a perfect guide for future professional development efforts.

Future Perspectives:

Improvement of Ways to Monitor Professional Development Effects

There is a growing consensus among researchers that since professional development can

take many different forms from a corridor chat with other teachers to a structured programme

(Desimone, 2009); to monitor its impact and to choose the right instruments for performing this

task can be very challenging.

The problem with relevant instruments, which can be mostly effectively used for

monitoring and describing effective developmental training that leads to successful teaching

practice and enhancement of students‘ achievement, is partially embedded in insufficiency of

research of these instruments and their application in different contexts and levels of education.

According to Wayne et al. (2008) very little is known about coherent long-term professional

development in different settings in regard to its effectiveness in case it is offered by same

trainers or different trainers. It is also not easy to evaluate the effects of professional

development on teachers who regularly attend all the events, volunteer and on those who do not.

To facilitate the task of monitoring the effects of professional development and choosing

or developing relevant instruments for doing so, it is first and foremost important to understand

how the professional development works. In other words, the focus should be on what makes

them effective. Desimone (2009) advocates that such features as content focus, active learning,

coherence, duration and collaborative participation create ―a conceptual framework‖ that will

contribute to offering an effective professional development program. If these characteristics are

taken into account when designing training programs and these programs are successful in

bridging the content to how students learn; relating to teachers‘ knowledge and beliefs; involving

teachers in learning, then the critical features of monitoring and best instruments are easy to

identify.

Desimone (2009) proposes a ―path model‖ that allows to test both the ―theory of change

and theory of instruction‖. This model incorporates a ―series of chains‖ or elements which are

interconnected and affect each other elements. These elements are described in Desimone (2009)

as the availability of core features; increased teacher‘s knowledge; change in instruction and

improved student learning.



Among those instruments that are suggested by the researchers are such instruments as

observation, interviews (face-to-face and telephone), surveys and self-reports (Desimone, 2009).

Each instrument has its advantages and disadvantages. For instance, Desimone (2009) contends

that interview and telephone or written surveys obtain the same information. However, if the

behaviour change is measured, then all three forms will elicit the same information. Observations

and interviews are better for measuring specific tasks and are the most appropriate ones for

collecting data. The observations give us specific details that are not offered by the surveys.

Although surveys lack detail, their results can help collect reliable data on a large scale and

produce quantitative, systemic numerical statistics.

Desimone (2009) further elaborates that it is important to consider ―fatal flows‖ of the

evaluation techniques and instruments at the level of their essential characteristics. For instance,

characteristics of design; characteristics and features of evaluation techniques implementation

(obtaining responses, data collection, description, explanation, analysis). Therefore there are

evident reasons for choosing ―multiple instruments that are more or less closely aligned with the

specific focus of the professional development‖ (Wayne et al, 2008).

Recent research on evaluation techniques also suggests that these instruments should be

well designed and precise. Moreover, the instruments should be used systematically (daily,

weekly, and monthly) and consider teachers‘ beliefs and knowledge (Desimone, 2009). For

example, when administering a questionnaire for evaluating purposes, questionnaire used for the

teacher and observer should be similar. Given high validity of the teachers‘ self-reports, high

correlation between observations and self reports, it is important to be very specific about the

tasks of these reports and observations, define the duration of the task performance and to be

very focused on asking to report on something concrete.

Desimone (2009) clearly states that bias depends on the quality of the instrument and the

type of judgement being made. But there are ways to decrease that. Since little is known about

the effects of professional development whether structured or in different forms, delivered by the

same trainers or by different trainers, the future concern of the Professional Development

Committee is the quest for the answers to these questions. It is clear that the investigation is

important especially in the context of the Language Centre. The ―nature of this institute‖

(Desimone, 2009) is very different from other educational contexts as faculties come from

various cultural and educational settings. This allows for more professional development

interactions but at the same time allows for more variations in measurement and evaluation.

It is clear that measuring teachers‘ knowledge is the most difficult area, and to overcome

this difficulty the use of non-volunteers would be very helpful in gaining more insights into the

effectiveness of professional development. It is also very important to have a consistent set of

instruments to be used for measurement purposes and to link the professional development with

to students‘ achievements.

Conclusions

As on-the-job professional development and all training endeavors are audited and

judged by all the stakeholders of the educational process, creativity and novelty both in the

initiatives and their implementation should be prerequisites of successful developmental

programs. Instead of short-term and random events there should be long-term, systematic and

well-planned programs. These programs are most likely to utilize both voluntary and involuntary



support of internal and external experts. The content knowledge of training should be aimed at

developing new insights into teaching and gaining advanced understanding of the educational

context and other essential elements of teaching to high standards.

The satisfaction of the teachers with the professional development program and the

impact they make towards the attainment of quality education is grounded in their own control

over the professional development, effective use of ―in-house‖ professional expertise, support of

events that correlate with everyday needs, typical teaching challenges in local educational

environment and help them to build relationships with the broader community of peers.

Professional development can bring excellence and lead to visible improvement in

teaching-learning practice. This improvement can be insured by generating continuing interest

and motivation of the faculties as target audience, providing events of excellent quality, focusing

on measurable developments of skills and content knowledge of faculties and students‘

achievements each of whom deserves to be taught by highly qualified teachers.

Professional development can ensure significant improvement all ideas and initiatives are

integrated with context and realities of teaching-learning practices. Building on this integration,

all developmental initiatives would be relevant to the needs and wants of the stakeholders and to

the goal of achieving high standards in the profession.

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Reference # 56

Topic # 3

The impact of token reinforcers on the learning of speech

in the severely mentally retarded pupils Charity Mbolela Bwalya [email protected], Ministry of Education, Zambia

Betty Mzumara [email protected], Ministry of Education, Zambia

Most severely mentally retarded pupils have speech disorders which hinders them from

performing like other pupils academically and socially. Learning is difficult because they are

unable to put their views across. Findings of the study confirm some of the literature cited that

children with speech disorder need to be given instruction on how to make speech sounds, how to

say words and be given opportunities to hear and use language to communicate. Tokens initiated a

positive response and once the speech disorder was overcome; learning was maintained.

However, tokens should be used for a certain time only and thereafter, gradually be faded.

Perspective(s) or theoretical framework

Theories discussed in this paper will help readers to interpret, illustrate and understand

the experiences of severely mentally retarded with speech disorders and the impact of token

reinforcers in the process of teaching and learning. The application of these theories may help to

improve in the teaching and learning of mentally retarded pupils with speech disorders. Children

with speech disorders find learning very difficult. This is because they are unable to put their

views across to other pupils and teachers. Communication is mostly one sided as they are able to

understand what other people are saying but fail to make other people understand what they are

trying to put across.

This hinders them from playing with their peers as well as participating in other activities

in which their friends are participating. This limits their social interaction. Speech is very

important for every person as it is a tool of communication, wherever a person may be. It is

production of sound for communication of oral language. Oral language is expression of messages

by speaking as well as reception of messages by listening. There is a view propounded by Van

Riper and Erickson (1996) state that ‗a person with an articulation disorder is one who fails to

master the speech sound of a language. Some mentally retarded children have speech disorders.

Such children face a lot of problems as they cannot express their emotions except by screaming or

acting out their conflict‘ .As already mentioned they also face social problems.

Many authorities have referred to mental retardation as sub average general intellectual

functioning. Gearheart, et. al. (1984) considered mental retardation to be significant sub-average

general intellectual functioning which is accompanied by deficits in adaptive behaviour and

manifested during the developmental period. This has become the generally accepted definition

and was first arrived at by the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR).According to

Shear and Bailer A.M.( 1996 : 351), ―Mental retardation is fully defined only when adaptive

functioning, including independent self-care behaviour, language development, self-direction and

socialisation are considered‖. A very important aspect of this definition by the AAMR is that a

person must be well below average in both measured intelligence and adaptive behaviour in order for

him/her to be classified as mentally retarded. Whereas at one time it was common practice to

diagnose individuals as retarded solely on the basis of IQ below 85, today, they must have deficit

behaviour and an IQ below 75 or 70. What is important is to distinguish between incidence and



prevalence when determining how frequently mental retardation occurs as well as when considering

other factors such as severity and age.

However, Mental retardation is classified according to the degree of disability. Myers

(1918) classified it in the following way:

Mildly mentally retarded - may learn academic skills; adults may with assistance achieve

self-supporting social and vocational skills.

Moderately mentally retarded - may progress to second grade level, adults may contribute to

their own welfare by being in employment and finding their own shelter.

Severely mentally retarded - may perform simple tasks under close supervision but are

generally untrainable. Profoundly mentally retarded - require constant aid and supervision.

These last two categories are the worst affected and require a lot of attention and

assistance from their families. The main essential features are significantly general sub average

intellectual functioning, resulting in, or associated with deficits or impairment in adaptive

behaviour; with onset before the age of 18 years. (The American Psychiatric Association). There are

times when mental retardation is accompanied by speech disorders. This can be caused by failure or

delay in speech development in the child during the developmental period. When this occurs, the

family and the teacher must make an effort to assist the child to develop some speech so that she/he

can also participate actively in the learning process.

Mentally retarded children need special education services in order for them to benefit from

the provision of education, like other children do. Most of the severely mentally retarded children in

the Special Education Units at Neemtree Basic School and Mwashi Basic School, in Kabwe have

speech problem. When parents take their children to these Units, they expect to see a lot of

improvement in the speech of the children. Even those whose children start school with completely no

speech expect these schools to equip their children with some speech. The development of language in a

child gives a reflection of how language is constructed. Crystal (1987) states that language is a purely

human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of

voluntarily produced symbols. It is acquired in stages and develops from simple to complex. The stage

attained by one child may differ from that attained by another of the same age. Speech is production of

sound for communication of oral language. Oral language is expression of messages by speaking as

well as reception of language by listening. Van Riper (in Doorlag 1987) believes that speech is

considered abnormal when it deviates so far from the speech of other people that it calls for attention

to itself, interferes with communication or causes the speaker or his listener to be distressed.

Studies have shown that the most common speech disorders among pupils with mental

retardation are articulation disorders or difficulty with production of sound. Mentally retarded pupils

with speech disorders may experience problems with either speech or listening or both areas. This

makes them fail to learn as their peers do. Elliot (1971) says if a pupil can not speak or clearly

understand, he/she is deprived of human ability and it is important to make every effort to enable

him/her possess this right. Such a pupil is unable to learn because almost all skills or knowledge are

learned through language. Van Riper and Erickson (1996) state that every worker in the field of

special education as well as speech Pathologists often encounters language problems. The type of

neural dysfunction and degree of mental retardation greatly determine the type and degree of speech

and language disorders.

The rate at which mentally retarded children acquire speech differs from that of normal

children. In a normal child, cooing, moving and sighing start around the age of six months. These

are followed by babbling sounds that may contain some vowels and consonants. According to

Bwalya & Mzumara: Impact of token reinforcers in severely mentally retarded pupils


Heward and Orlansley (1998), the child may respond to loud and soft sounds or voices by moving

his/her heard and eyes in the direction of sound. The mentally retarded children, however, delay and

may start to babble at nine months or later, (Crystal 1987).

Babbling utterances are not linguistic but are regarded as preparatory stages for speech

development. They play a role in preparing articulatory, respiratory and phonological organs for

speech production. Bangs (in Patton et. al. 1987) states that some children do not develop receptive

and/or expressive language by the age of three years, like the majority of children do. According to

Patton et al (1987), these children need to be given direction instruction on how to make speech

sounds and how to say words and to be given opportunities to hear and use language. The more severe

the retardation, the more a child is likely to have speech problems.

In certain cases, mentally retarded children will not have developed speech by the time they

are of school going age. Parents who are enlightened may take their children for speech therapy as

early as possible while others may not do so.

When teaching speech to these pupils, it is important to select the approach carefully.

Gearheart (1986) proposes that abstract concepts be utilised at elementary levels of spoken language.

These include comparisons of size, spatial concepts, ordinal concepts and directional concepts. Some

pupils may have difficulties in the correct usage of abstract concepts. In such a case, teachers

should use concrete visual aids as much as possible. A variety of objects of different sizes may be

compared. When the child begins to understand these concepts, this understanding should be

transferred to a wide variety of objects and situations in the real world, (Gearheart 1986).

Halliday (in Gearheart 1986) lists some functions of oral language which may be helpful to the

teacher for him/her to have a planning base for increasing motivation to use spoken language. The

teacher needs to identify the most effective ways to encourage each individual pupil to

communicate orally. Gearheart (1986) states that if a teacher knows the motivators of oral language, it

will be easy for him/her to find ways of encouraging individual pupils to utilise spoken language

functions, this may be of great value in building intent to communicate (motivation).

Methods, techniques, or modes of inquiry

The researchers used a case study strategy of qualitative methodology, while the sampling

procedure was convenience sampling. All the pupils enrolled at Neem Tree Basic School in

special unit with speech disorder were selected for the study.

Out of 9 pupils‘ with mental retardness in the speech, 3 were identified to have severely

speech disorder.

The pupil age ranged from 9 to 14 years and all were boys. It was difficult to have sizeable

group of children with similar severe disorder.

Data sources or evidence

Both secondary and primary data were used.

Questionnaires which had 13 items, Focus Group discussion, Informal Observation and oral spot

interviews were used in the collection of data.



Table showing the distribution of respondents

S/NO TYPE OF RESPONDENTS REPONDENTS

1 Parent 3

2 Special education Teacher 2

3 Pupils 3

4 Total 8

Research Results and conclusions

Limited words were read prior to the introduction of token reinforcers.

More words were properly pronounced when the token reinforcers was given.

The pronunciation was consolidated when varied token reinforcers were used to motivate the

learners more.

From the findings the researchers concluded that tokens had a positive impact on learning of speech

in several mentally retarded pupils. The tokens were vital, in initiating speech with different pupils

preferring different tokens. Further more, the more tokens used the better the response from the

pupils.

Educational importance of the study

The study has also made reference to the fact that achieving the EFA goals and the

Millenium Development Goals by 2015 remain a challenge.

The education of children with speech disorders is seen as providing the key to securing

happiness for them. It is vital that token reinforcers are used in the teaching of severely

mentally retarded pupils to reinforce speech articulation.

The use of tokens can be viewed as being both an experiential and a reflective process in the

learning of the child with severely speech disorders.

Some educators have observed that the methodology used in teaching various concepts by

teachers is not appropriate. This issue calls for serious examination of teacher practices. One

way to contribute to the solution to these problems is to embark on motivating mentally

retard children. This research was, therefore, done with full awareness by the researchers, of

its contributory role to the problem solving at Neemtree Basic School Unit.

The children with speech disorder are seen to have a problem-centred approach to learning

and are, therefore, motivated to learn by external factors rather than internal factors.

It is important for all education programmes especially at basic school level to use token

reinforcers in the teaching and learning process.

The token reinforcers should be included in the strategy and be part and parcel of the

education policy and programme development implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

The token reinforcers will empower and motivate pupils with severely speech disorders to

learn numeracy and literacy, and survival skills which will help in alleviating poverty.

As we implement token reinforcers in the teaching and learning of severely mentally retarded

pupils with severely speech disorders there is need to sufficiently articulate and analyse the

communities in which we are delivering these programmes. Otherwise we cannot be alone

on this unique journey.



Furthermore, as special education initiatives are being implemented, we need also to

understand the underlying causes of low enrolments rates for children with special education

needs in Zambia.

References

Crystal, D., (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, New York, University of Cambridge Press

Doorlag D.H. and Lewis, R.B, (1987), Teaching Special Students in the Mallinstreaming 2nd Edition, Melbourne;

Merrill Publishing Company.

Elliot, L., (1971) Life and Leisure for the Physically Handicapped, London; Elek Books Limited

Gearheart, B.R. (1986) Learning Disabilities, 2nd Education, Melbourne; Merril Publishing Company.

Gearheart, B.R. and, Weishahn M., (1988), The Exceptional Student in Regular Classroom, 4th Edition, Melbourne;

Merril Publishing Company.

Heward W.L. and Orlansky M.D., (1988), Exceptional Children, 3rd ..... Edition, Melbourne; Merrill Publishing

Company

Martin, G. and Pear, J. (1996) Behaviour Modification: what it is and how to do it, 5th Edition, New Jersey; prentice

–Hall, INC

Myers, D.G., (1989) Psychology, 2ndd Edition, New York, Worth Publishers, Inc.

Patton, J.R. et al (1987) Exceptional Children in Focus, 4th Edition, Ohio; Merrill Publishing Company.

Shea, T.M. and Bailer, A.M. (1996), Learning with Disabilities: a Social Systems Perspective of Special Education,

10 WA WCB; Brown and Benchmark Publishers.

Van Riper, C and Erickson, R.L. (1996) Speech Corrections, 9th Edition, Singapore, Alyn and Bacon


Reference # 57

Topic # 6

Implications of leadership on the school curricular dynamics

as perceived by the administrative staff and the faculty Cléia de Freitas Capanema [email protected], Jacira da Silva Câmara [email protected],

Gabriela Sousa Rego Pimentel [email protected],

Catholic University of Brasilia - UCB, Brazil

This paper shows the results of a qualitative research aimed to analyze the development of

leadership at the school and in the classroom and to identify the conception of leadership among

the school´s administrative staff and the faculty. It was carried out at a middle school in Bahia´s

public school system, in Brazil. Questionnaires were used to gather data. The results suggest the

implications of leadership, both at the school and in the classroom, and show incoherence between

the conception presented by the respondents and the mechanisms used to develop it.

Introduction

This paper presents the results of an exploratory, qualitative research, whose objective

was to analyze the development of leadership at the school and in the classroom. The research

sought to identify the conception of leadership among the administrative staff and among the

teaching staff of a public school in the town of Barreiras, State of Bahia – Brazil.

In addition to identifying the mechanisms of leadership developed by the school‘s

director in the exercise of curriculum dynamics in the classroom, the research strove to establish

relations between the leadership mechanisms used at the school and in the classroom and the

premises presented in the literature.

The study started from the principle that being a leader was to have a shared view of

things, educating and teaching others how to act. The true learning of leadership happens with

daily life experiences, their diversity, conflicts and consensus. Leaders should be agents of

change, placing themselves ahead of the process. Given that people are not identical, it is up to

the leader to regulate their practices, making them able to react to pressures from the

conjuncture, i.e. to a competitive environment with new variables, in a society full of

uncertainties, complexity and a lot of pressure.

Leaders must show ways and seek solutions, listening to people. Hierarchy does exist to

divide roles and responsibilities, not people. The leader‘s role is to unite, reach conciliation and

show ways. The leader is in charge of establishing an atmosphere of enthusiasm, effort and

commitment towards reaching the objectives aimed at. The leader has to be committed with the

school‘s main objective, which is student learning, developed by means of the curriculum

dynamics.

Eighty teachers participated in the research, representing thirteen subject matters selected

according to the pre-established objectives, and there were seven members of the administrative

staff – one director, three vice-directors and three pedagogical coordinators. The data were

gathered by means of questionnaires. The results obtained suggest that the development of

leadership, both at the school and in the classroom, bear several administrative and didactic-

pedagogical implications. The difficulty of leadership between the administrative staff and the

teachers, as well as between the teachers and the students became evident, which demonstrated

the complexity of the process.





Conception of Leadership

In the literature, leadership is considered the core of the educational process. Leadership

may be exercised on two levels: the administrative one and the didactic-pedagogical one. Even

on the administrative level, leadership at school differs from entrepreneurial leadership for its

specific condition of dealing with people, communities and values (SERGIOVANNI, 2004b). On

the didactic-pedagogical level, this specificity is translated into curriculum dynamics, with

prevalence of interactive communication, collaboration, participation and autonomy of the

people involved in the process.

Leadership is an important component of the tripod that influences learning, given that its

function is complemented by way of a well-developed curriculum and a qualified teaching staff.

It is up to the leader to lead the school staff to make up a learning community and to

redistribute the leadership tasks all the way down to the level of the classroom.

As a historical-social phenomenon that encompasses all the human being‘s existence,

education is realized in the relations established throughout time between the people of the

natural, physical, social, technological and spiritual worlds.

The school leadership proposed, referring to Capanema (1996, p94), seeks

a releasing education, which cannot help being democratic and, hence, participatory, having for

goal the school‘s autonomy. Educational management faces, itself, specific challenges. Post-

modern education only becomes reality starting from a type of management that, in addition to the

issues of the teaching systems, will face those issues related to this entity called school, which

must be redesigned with regard to the types of people that act in it – students, teachers, support

personnel – concerning the curriculum experience it develops, its insertion in the community and

its autonomy to plan and manage its pedagogical project.

Leadership must be in tune with the role of the school, which is to foster the harmonious

development of the individual, the development of a set of skills and abilities necessary for the

student‘s personal and social actualization, constructing the citizen and the professional capable

of influencing in the transformation of society.

According to Câmara (1995), these attributions of the manager are necessary in view of

the new challenges of modern society.

… the school‘s director, for the position of leadership he/she has, is responsible for different, but

no less important, actions than those carried out by the teacher. Among other responsibilities, he

is in charge of establishing an environment fully conducive to the development of the educational

process and of participatory work, establishing mutual commitment between the administrative

management and his/her school‘s teachers, thus contributing for interaction among subjects with

the same objective. This partnership process creates a collective space and contributes for more

realistic decisions to be made with regard to the planning of curriculum activities. (CÂMARA,

1995, p16)

It is essential that the leader focus on the aspects of the school‘s curriculum dynamics and

on those developed in the classroom. The leader and the led ones should be committed to the

construction of scientific knowledge, but, mainly, to the development of the student as the

subject of the process.

The main objective of the school leader should be a commitment with the school‘s

specific goal: the students‘ actual learning. For Libâneo (2003, p 294), ―the organization and

management of a school correspond, therefore, to the need that the school institution have at its

Capanema, et al.: Implications of leadership on the school curricular dynamics


disposal the conditions and the means to make its specific objectives come true.‖ Among such

objectives, the author goes on: ―are to ensure that learning will occur for all the students‖(p 294).

It is a complex task that Tedesco (2001, p 15) translates as a crisis ―which does not

originate, any more, from the deficient manner by which education performs the social roles it is

given, (…), but from the fact that it does not know what results to achieve or where to direct its

actions.‖

In a quick review of the pertinent literature, it seems that the defense of a leadership for

values is consensual (DpV), that Trigo and Costa (2008), p 371) summarize as: Management with people; resounding leaders; transformational leadership; ethics in leadership;

moral leadership; moral objective; primacy of values over facts; pedagogical leadership; school

leadership; polyphonic organization; management with quality assurance – those are all different

forms of translating that the idea that current organizations, also the school organization, need a

leadership that will place, in the heart of their activities, ethics, moral, values, people,

communication and the relations amongst people, adaptability to change, organizational

development, quality. (…) These are also some of the main concerns of Direction by Values.

In conclusion, this is the paradigm of leadership that we argue for, and that is different

from other traditional paradigms, according to Trigo and Costa (2008, p 573) as presented very

illustratively in the chart that follows.

Chart 1 – Differences between Management by Instructions, Management by Objectives, and Management by Values

Dpl DpO DpV

Preferential application

situation.

Routine or emergency. Moderate complexity.

Relatively standardized

production.

Need of creativity to solve

complex problems.

Average professional

level of the

organization‘s

members.

Low schooling

(management of

laborers).

Medium professional

skills (management of

employees).

High level professional skills

(management of

professionals).

Autonomy and

responsibility

Low Medium High

Type of audience Buyer Client Judicious client with freedom

of choice.

Type of product offer Monopolist, standardized. Segmented. Highly diversified and

changeable.

Tolerance of ambiguity. Low Medium High

Context stability Stable context. Moderately changeable

context.

Highly changeable context.

Social organization Capitalist - industrial Capitalist- post-industrial Post-capitalist

Type of leadership Traditional directive Resources administrator Legitimizer of

transformations

Type of organizational

structure

Multi-level pyramid Pyramid with few levels Network, functional

alliances, project team-

structure

Control philosophy Descending supervision

control

Control by incentive to

professional results

Maximization of people‘s

self-control

Scope of strategic view Short term Medium range Long term

Essential cultural values Quantitative production,

faithfulness, conformity,

compliance, discipline.

Rationalization,

motivation, efficiency,

measures of results

Development, participation,

ongoing learning, creativity,

mutual trust, commitment

Source: adapted from Garcia and Dolan (1997, p 30-31).



Field Research

Bahia has an estimated population of 14,080,654 (IBGE, 2007) distributed by 417 towns

and the state contributes with 36% of the Northeastern Region‘s GNP. The research was carried

out in one of the public school system‘s schools of the town of Barreiras, extreme-West of the

state of Bahia – Brazil, about 900 km from Salvador and 600 km from the country‘s capital of

Brasilia – DF. The school offers the community the middle school course program. According to

the director of the school, the managing staff was elected democratically. The pedagogical

coordinators and the teachers are members of the state‘s permanent staff of teachers. The total

number of students registered up to the second semester of 2009 is 2,600 young people, between

15 and 40 years old. The school has classes in three shifts: morning, afternoon and evening.

The information obtained in the research was contextualized by way of the interactions

held, to construct a group identity for a later case analysis. The research process worked on the

content of the teachers and administrative staff group interactions based on the data obtained

from the questionnaire, endeavoring to achieve an impersonal and broad perspective of the data

gathering. Another important point was the anonymity of the questionnaires for the subjects to

feel free to express opinions, transmit knowledge and/or show attitudes about the issue.

The data were analyzed on the basis of the response to the questionnaires answered by

the school‘s administrative staff and its teachers. The researched population was comprised

mostly of females. Among the members of the administrative staff, six are female and only one

is male. As to the teachers, sixty-two are female and eighteen are male.

Chart 2 – Distribution of the participants by sex

Sex Administrative Staff Teachers

Female 6 86% 62 91%

Male 1 14% 18 9%

Total 7 100% 80 100%

Source: Research questionnaire

These data express a proven reality with regard to the predominance of the female sex in

the area of education.

As concerns the age of the participants, the research shows that, in the administrative

staff, most (45%) are between 31 and 40 years old. As for the teachers, the age bracket between

20 and 30 is higher. Considering schooling of the administrative staff, the emphasis is on

Specialization, with 71% of the participants, versus 39% of the teachers in this category.

The second part of the questionnaire, made up of conceptual aspects, identifies the

conception of leadership by some of the administrative staff as the capability to lead, share

decisions and responsibilities among people towards a common goal. Those same abilities are

also presented by the teachers, so to speak.

However, it can be observed that the latter showed greater concern with regard to the

subject‘s professional development, when they highlight aspects such as: incentive, participation,

respect, commitment and team performance, without, however, ignoring issues related to

command, management, speech skills and ability to conduct activities. It is important to stress

that some of the teachers presented a mistaken conception, emphasizing the traditional features

of the action, portraying a leader as someone who acts like a coach, indicating ways and making

decisions in isolation.

Capanema, et al.: Implications of leadership on the school curricular dynamics


These conceptions match the concept of leadership with an emphasis on values,

previously mentioned in this paper. Added to this is a concern with the subjective, axiological

aspects of education, considered a priority in today‘s world.

According to Pimentel (2008), the interaction between the habitus, values of the

individuals involved in the process, reflects directly or indirectly upon the behaviors of people,

influencing the style of leadership in the organization.

As was observed, the conception of leadership expressed by the participants is in perfect

synchronicity with the premises presented in the literature.

Analyzing the mechanisms of leadership developed, be it in the school, be it as a result of

the curriculum dynamics practiced in the classroom, the insertion of subjective and axiological

issues was once more evident in the development of the educational process. These were the data

presented in the chart that follows:

Chart 3 – Mechanisms of leadership used by the participants.

Administrative staff Teacher

Creativity, criticism, autonomy, persuasion,

communicative, able to listen.

Able to listen, empathy, criticism, perceptive, clarity

of ideas and initiative.

Participation, sense of justice, decision- making and

commitment.

Democracy, honesty, security and impartiality.

Responsibility and participation. Articulation, argumentation, authority, observation

and influence.

Diversity and communication. Flexibility, sensitiveness and charisma.

Team work. Conciliation, humbleness, self-control, dynamism,

competence, ability, aptitude.

Having good strategies. Commitment, responsibility, able to communicate

interactively, determination, enthusiasm, example,

discipline and influence.

Source: Research questionnaire.

Conclusion

The objective of this paper was to analyze the development of leadership at the school

and in the classroom. From this perspective, we sought to identify the conception of leadership

that the administrative staff and the teachers of a public school in Barreiras, state of Bahia -

Brazil had. The choice of the school was due to several factors but mainly for its being a public

school that had been active in the region for 50 years, developing and consolidating knowledge

and, above all, acting directly on the background development of teachers, as a teachers‘ school.

The conception of leadership present in the perceptions of the administrative staff and of

the teachers is in agreement with the literature researched, especially in the decision-making

close to the scope of action.

According to the teachers, the administrative staff of the school recognizes and shares

victories with the team and the manager, as a leader of the process, tries to seek ways to meet the

needs and interests of the group as much as possible. The teachers pointed out some difficulties

for them to practice leadership in the classroom, such as: the students‘ lack of interest, full

classrooms, indiscipline and the traditional teaching methods.

According to the administrative staff, the greatest difficulties for leadership to become

effective in the daily school life is the accumulation of bureaucratic responsibilities. Other



aspects were pointed out, like divergence of interests and needs, individualism of some people,

lack of commitment and lack of support personnel to carry out daily activities.

It is behooving to stress that those difficulties listed did not interfere with the school‘s

pedagogical work and there were no administrative or didactic-pedagogical implications, either.

According to Capanema and Pimentel (2009), the expansion of democratic participation by all in

the decision-making process should be progressive and conscious for those involved and requires

a commitment of the management with the social problems and the exercise of the local

educational policy. Hence, the greater the degree of information and knowledge that people have

of the government actions, the better will be the result of the public management collegiate

practices.

As a consequence, the current reality reveals that the practice of leadership in the

educational process is a fundamental exercise for school managers and teachers. The

mobilization of the individuals is important for the collective good, significant actions and open

and flexible attitudes.

Bibliography

BRASIL. Ministério do Planejamento, Orçamento e Gestão. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística – IBGE.

Disponível em: http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2009.( Ministry of Planning, Budget and

Management. IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics). Available at

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home. Accessed on 10/14/2009.)

CÂMARA,J. Pode o currículo da escola desenvolver valores em educação? Trabalho apresentado na 42ª World

Assembly-International Council on Education for Teaching, Bandar Siri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam, 3-7 de

julho de 1995 (―Can the school curriculum develop values in education?‖ Paper presented at the 42nd World

Assembly – International Council on Education and Teaching, Bandar Siri Begawan, Brunei, Darussalam, July

3-7, 1995.)

CAPANEMA, C. Educação e pós-modernidade: os desafios para a formulação de uma política pública, Epistéme:

São Paulo: Universidade Bandeirante, v. 1, n. 2. (julho/dezembro de 1996). (Education and post-modernity: the

challenges for the development of a public policy, Episteme: Sao Paulo: Universidade Bandeirante, v. 1,n. 2.)

CAPANEMA, Clélia de Freitas; PIMENTEL, Gabriela Sousa Rego. Um olhar transformador sobre a gestão

democrática e clima organizacional: um saldo positivo?

In: XXIV Simpósio Brasileiro e III Congresso Interamericano de Política e Administração da Educação, 2009,

Vitória, ES, RS, Brasil. Cadernos ANPAE no. 7 – 2009 – ISSN 1677-3802 (―A changing look upon

democratic management and organizational climate: a positive balance?‖ XXIV Brazilian Simposium and III

Interamerican Congress on Education Policy and Administration, 2009, Vitoria, ES, RS, Brazil.)

LIBÂNEO, J. C. & outros. Educação Escolar: Políticas, Estrutura e Organização. Coleção: Docência em Formação,

Saberes Pedagógicos. São Paulo: Cortez, 2003.( School Education: Policies, Structure and Organization.

Collection: Developing Faculty, Pedagogical Knowledge. Sao Paulo: Cortez, 2003.)

PIMENTEL, Gabriela Sousa Rêgo. Clima organizacional e gestão democrática no contexto de uma universidade

pública. Brasília, 2008. 112 p. Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Católica de Brasília. (Organizational

climate and democratic management in the context of a public university. Brasilia, 2008. 112 p Master‘s

Dissertation – Catholic University of Brasilia.)

TEDESCO, Juan Carlos. O Novo Pacto Educativo. Educação, Competitividade e Cidadania na Sociedade Moderna.

São Paulo: Ática, 2001. (The new Educational Pact. Competitiveness and Citizenship in Modern Society.)

TRIGO, João Ribeiro e COSTA, Jorge Adelino. Liderança nas organizações educativas: a direcção por valores.

Ensaio: avaliação e políticas públicas em educação: revista da Fundação Cesgranrio, Rio de Janeiro, v. 16, n.

61. out./dez.2008 (Leadership in educational organizations: direction by values. Essay: evaluation and public

policies on education: journal of Cesgranrio Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, v. 16, n. 61, oct./dec. 2008.)

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home.%20Accessed%20on%2010/14/2009


Reference # 59

Topic # 3

The use of transformational decision making in secondary schools

as perceived by school principals in Jordan Kamal Dawani [email protected], Middle East University for Graduate Studies, Jordan

Abbas Al-Shareefi [email protected], Middle East University for Graduate Studies

(MEU), Jordan

School leaders are confronted daily with many decisions that must be made to ensure

organizational survival. Researchers who have investigated school reform and educational change

agreed that school leaders and the decisions they make have a powerful impact on processes

related to school improvement and school effectiveness. Expert opinion indicates that schools in

Jordan are mainly bureaucratically structured, and because ties that connect people to their work

are built up in a bureaucratic manner, people in the school are motivated to work by self interest.

Given the importance of the transformational leadership in today‘s school, it would seem

important to know more about what specific leader attributes the school leader must have to be

effective in the current school environment. This study is concerned to know about school leader

attributes related to transformational decision making.

Problem background

When leaders make decisions based on what is good for the institution, guided by respect

and dignity for the individuals that comprise the institution, they become transformational

thinkers, and the institutions they lead will flourish as a result. On the opposite, it is impossible

for a leader to make good decisions if he or she is not trustworthy. Being a trustworthy on a

personal level is very essential for a great leadership, and the leader will gain trust on an

interpersonal level.

The unethical or illegal practices of making decisions will soon erode trustworthiness,

and will eventually lead to the downfall of the leader (Covey, 1990).

In making decisions, a leader should have a certain amount of flexibility when looking at

input data. However transformational leader must strive to use facts, empirical proof, and

objective criteria whenever reasonably appropriate to do so. Brower and Balch (2005) indicate

that transformational thinking requires leaders to look at situations in ways that remove the

leader from the personal level of decision making. A consistent problem with decision making

has been the subjective nature used to make decisions. ―The ―me first‖ mentality has further

eroded effective decision making‖.

Along with the subjective nature, literature shows that transformational leaders should

resist input from individuals that rely heavily on opinion and faith as criteria for decision

making, and should think seriously to remove themselves from the personal aspects of decision

making. (Brower & Balch, 2005).

Leaders sometimes listen to people empathically and with their hearts, which may affect

the decision making pedagogy of the leader. Making decisions primarily from their hearts,

leaders might feel good, but it may destroy the institutions they lead when decision fails to be

effective.



Problem of the study

Organizational leaders are confronted daily with many decisions that must be made to

ensure organizational survival.

Much has been written about the leadership role of a school principal, and the importance

of the decisions he has made, concerning students, teachers, teaching, and subject matter, in

addition to the strategic planning for change and for future schooling…etc. Researchers who

have investigated school reform and educational change agreed that school leaders and the

decisions they make have a powerful impact on

processes related to school improvement and school effectiveness. (Reinhartz & Beach,

2004).

Expert opinion shows that schools in Jordan are mainly hierarchical and bureaucratically

structured in which power is exercised from top-down.

Schools as an organization need ties that connect people to their work and connect them

to each other. In this case, it is realized that because these ties and connections are built up in a

bureaucratic manner, people in the school are motivated to work by self interest.

Given the importance of the transformational leadership in today‘s school, it would seem

important to know more about what specific leader attributes the school leader must have to be

effective in the current school environment.

This study is concerned to know about school leader attributes related to transformational

decision making. The study will address the following problem: The use of transformational

decision making in Jordanian secondary schools as perceived by school principals.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to explore the extent to which secondary school principals in

Jordan are using attributes of transformational leadership theory in making decisions. The study

will also seek out who is more transformational in making decisions, the public secondary school

principal or the private secondary school principal. Therefore, the study will answer the

following specific research questions.

1. To what extent is the transformational decision making used by public secondary school

principals as perceived by the principals themselves?

2. To what extent is the transformational decision making used by the private secondary school


3. Are there statistical significant differences between principals in using transformational

decision making due to kind of school (public or private)?

Review of related literature

Leadership of today is defined as the art, act, or function of going before or showing the

way. It is the concept of guiding and providing direction. The term ―Leadership‖ is usually

associated with the concept of innovation. Similarly, Jim Collins, who describes a hierarchy of

five levels in leadership, he said that leadership of level 5 can only move an institution from

Dawani & Al-Shareefi: The use of transformational decision making in secondary schools


good to great. He attributes level 5 to a leader who ―builds enduring greatness through a

paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will‖. (Collins, 2001).

The view of transformational leadership has almost the same goal. Weinstein indicates

that transformational leadership is directed toward significant goals and enduring greatness.

Thus, he defines transformational leadership as a ―process of inspiring others to act in a

concerted way to build enduring, value-based organizations while achieving significant shared

aspirations‖. (Weinstein, 2004). Transformational leadership occurs when leaders broaden and

elevate the interests of their followers, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the

purposes and mission of the group, and when they move their employees to look beyond their

own self-interests for the good of the group (Vecchio, 1997).

For the organization to be significant and enduring, its mission must remain focused on

the greatest needs of the society; and to be values-based, the organization is deemed to be shared

values and dedicated to creating value.

To create value, the nonprofit organization must be well organized and capable of raising

its resources. The nonprofit organization, must be able to demonstrate to the philanthropic

community that it uses its resources in the best way possible.

Transformational leadership theories were strongly influenced by the work of

Burns(1978)on leadership. James MacGregor Burns was the first to contrast transforming

leadership with transactional leadership. He saw transactional leaders approach followers to

exchanging one thing for another: Jobs for votes or other personal benefits, while Burns‘

transforming leadership is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts

followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents. (Burns, 1978).

Transactional leadership purposes are related to the extent that the purposes stand within

the bargaining process, but beyond this the relationship does not go. A leadership act took place,

but it was not one that binds leader and follower together in a mutual and continuing pursuit of a

higher purpose.

Result of a Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) showed that managers who

behave like transformational leaders are more likely to be seen by their colleagues, employees,

and supervisors as satisfying and effective leaders than are those who behave like transactional

leaders (Vecchio, 1997).

Burns‘ focus on the interaction of leader and follower as each seeks to transform the

other to higher levels of conduct has fundamentally influenced our perception of leadership. The

transforming leader, as described by Burns, shapes, alters, and elevates the motives and values

and goals of followers, and achieves significant changes.

The transformational leadership that was advanced by Bernard Bass in (1985) has the

most empirical research completed. (Yukl, 2002).

In differentiating between transactional and transformational leadership, Bass argues that

transactional leaders recognize what subordinates want from their work and they try to provide

for those needs if the subordinate‘s performance warrants it. Bass views the task of the

transformational leaders is to upgrade the needs of their followers which result in subordinates

becoming ―self-directing and self-reinforcing‖ but not to convert them into leaders. Bass thinks

that transformational leaders raise the awareness of the followers, and this awareness ―requires a

leader with vision, self-confidence, and inner strength to argue successfully for what he sees is

right or good, not for what is popular or acceptable according to the established wisdom of the

time‖ (Bass, 1985).



However, Bass, unlike Burns has developed the concept of leadership in a different way.

He uses the term ―transformational‖ leadership rather than ―transforming‖ leadership. Since

Bass, transformational leadership is more often used in leadership literature than transforming

leadership. Bass suggested the adjective form of a noun, ―transformation‖, to define a condition

or a state. Burns suggested the adjective form of a verb, ―transform‖, to indicate a process.

According to Bass, transformational leaders can transform followers, but the direction of

influence is one-way; unlike Burns who thinks that followers can transform leaders by the

interaction of leaders and followers. Bass‘s research on transformational leadership is conducted

primarily in formal organizations. So Bass deals with leadership within formal organizations and

Burns deals with leadership within social movements and politics.

The test of transforming leadership, for Burns, comes from social movements, where

significant change entails the abolition of some fixed social restrictions that impaired the

recognition of the human worth of a group of people and the public expression of their values

and needs. ―Such change is likely to come from outside of formal organizations and institutions,

and thus entails involuntary changes of an organization, because these changes depend on causal

factors that transforming leaders do not create or control‖.

The test of transformational leadership, for Bass, comes from management goals.

―Performance beyond expectation‖ entails the creation of an environment that enables followers

to recognize and realize an organization goal that exceeds past accomplishments. ―This change is

likely to come from inside formal organizations and institutions, and thus entails voluntary

changes of an organization, because these changes depend on causal factors and conditions that

transformational leaders create and control‖. (Wren, 1995, p.106).

Transformational Decision Making

Decisions in organizations and institutions should be made as an interrelated and dynamic

process. There are various views on the process of decision making. Herbert Simon suggested

three elements to the process:

a. Finding occasions for making a decision.

b. Finding possible courses of action.

c. Choosing among courses of action.

The decision making process proposed by schrenk focuses on three elements:-

a. Problem recognition.

b. Problem diagnosis.

c. Action selection.

Mintsburg and his associates offer a complex formal structure derived from twenty-five

unstructured decision-making processes that are then organized into a general model of

interrelated strategic processes. (Wren, 1995).

Bernard Bass thinks that the functions of decision making are highly interrelated within

the decision-making process. He explains that decision making is an orderly process beginning

with the discovery by the decision maker of a discrepancy between the perceived state of affairs

and the desired state. This desired state is usually between an ideal and a realistically attainable



state. Alternative actions are selected or invented. One of these alternatives emerges as the action

of choice followed by justification for it. Then comes its authorization and implementation. If the

resulted action does not show any movement toward the desired state, a new cycle is likely to

commence (Bass, 1983).

One can envision a number of possible decision-making processes that could be

employed. A leader could make the decision by himself and announces it to his followers; he

could obtain additional information from his subordinates and then makes the decision; he could

consult his subordinates, individually or collectively before making the decision; or he could

convene them as a group, share the problem and attempt to reach an agreement on the solution.

(Vroom & Yetton, 1973).

Transformational decision making is a pedagogy based on what is in the best interest of

the institution, rather than what is in the best interest of the individual within the institution. In

making transformational decisions, leaders should think and act in ways that reflect the common

good rather than the individual good. Therefore, school leaders should embrace a common

pedagogy immersed in transformational laws. The following is a list of pedagogical constructs

called laws that guide decision making: (Brower& Balch, 2005).

1. Leaders understand and practice consistent decision making pedagogy.

2. Leaders are aware of internal and external obstacles to decision making.

3. Leaders align decision-making practices with their mission.

4. Leaders know the fundamental laws of human nature.

5. Leaders appreciate the value of empowerment and delegation.

6. Leaders recognize the destructive pitfalls in decision making.

7. Leaders comprehend educational change.

Institutional vision and mission are a must for a school leader. They are the road map to

guide the leader toward the institutional dream. When leaders depend on chances or

circumstances to guide them, they risk uncertainty and even failure.

Although shared vision and collaborative mission are necessary for the leader to achieve

cohesion and understanding in any institution, but still the leader is responsible for implementing

them, and for keeping the stockholders focused on the road map to achieve the goals.

Method and Procedures

This Study was concerned with collecting data through questionnaire survey to

investigate the extent to which transformational decision making was used in the secondary

school as perceived by school principals in Jordan. A descriptive method of research is usually

adopted for such a study so that researchers would be able to measure what already exists.

Population of the study comprises all public and private secondary school principals in

Amman Governorate in the academic year 2008/2009.

Sample of the Study

A stratified random sample was drawn from the population of the study and was

consisted of 25 public school principals and 25 private school principals.

For data collecting, the research tool was used by the name: ―Decision making self-

Assessment Questionnaire‖ which was developed by Robert Brower& Bradley Balch, (2005).



The Questionnaire was distributed to the Subjects of the sample after it has been

translated into Arabic; validity and reliability of the Arabic version of the questionnaire was

obtained as follows:

Validity

Validity of the questionnaire was established by giving it to a group of experts and

university professors to judge its suitability to the Jordanian situation.

For the purpose of validating the Arabic version of the questionnaire, the same group of

judges were also asked to judge its validity concurrently by comparing the Arabic version of the

questionnaire with the original English one.

The final result in both cases was positive and quite acceptable for the purpose of the

study.

Reliability

Test reliability means that a test is consistent, and thus the consistency of the

questionnaire was determined by using split-half reliability. So Pearson coefficient correlation

was used, and the resulting reliability coefficient was (0.40). Since split-half reliability

represents the reliability of a test only half as long as the actual test, a correction formula must be

applied to the coefficient. Therefore, Spearman-Brown prophecy formula was used as follows:

2r split half = r total test

1+r split half

2(0.40) = 0.57

1+0.40

The value of (0.57) is statistically significant at ( ≤0.01) level.

(Ferguson, 1976, P.494)

Levels of implementing transformational Decisions:

Three levels were determined by using the following formula:

1 – 5 =

4 = 1.33

3 3

Low level = 1 2.33

Medium level = 2.34 3.67

High level = 3.68 5



Findings

The research findings presented in this section contain the descriptive statistics testing

results of 50 participant survey responses, as shown in each of the following research questions.

Question one:

To what extent is the transformational decision making used by public secondary school


Means and standard deviations were used for this purpose. Means of the forty

questionnaire items ranged between (2.64-3.24).The total mean of the tool items was (2.94) with

a standard deviation of (1.03).

Question two:

To what extent is the transformational decision making used by the private secondary

school principals as perceived by the principals themselves?

Means and standard deviations were used: means of the forty tool items ranged between

(2.00-4.76). ).The total mean of the tool items was (3.07) with a standard deviation of (1.41).

Question three:

Are there statistically significant differences between principals in using transformational

decision making, due to kind of school (public or private)?

Research findings revealed no significant differences between public and private school

principals in using transformational decision making, though the total mean of each showed a

slight difference between the two for the benefit of private school principals. The following table

shows total means, total standard deviation, and t-test value of public and private school

principals‘ responses.

Table (1)

Total mean, standard deviation and t-test value

Kind of school Number of

principals Total mean

Total

St. deviation t-test

Public 25 2.94 1.03 0.372

Private 25 3.07 1.41

0.372 has no statistical significance at ( ≤0.05) level.

In general, survey respondents reported that the use of transformational decision making

by both public and private school principals was lower medium (2.99).

Concluding thoughts

It can be concluded that respondents of the study showed low transformational leadership

which most likely means that traditional and transactional manners of making decisions are still

prevailing among secondary school principals.

Simply stated, these principals, who are supposed to be school leaders, are rarely aware

pedagogically of how decisions are made in an effective way, and they have not enough

knowledge or skills of how transformational decision are made



It seems also that their decision making is mainly based on personal opinion and

sometimes on faith. Transformational thinkers believe that the most destructive and fatal input to

decision making is that formed by opinion (Brower & Blach, 2005). They also think that opinion

is considered subjective, personal, and internally motivated. Faith also is personal and

introspective. Both, opinion and faith are highly subjective and may lead to erroneous decision

making.

It is recommended, therefore, that new training programs based on transformational

leadership culture, and focused on the skills of transformational decision making should be given

extensively to secondary school principals in Jordan.

References

Bass, Bernard (1985), Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, New York: The Free Press.

Bass, Bernard (1983), Organizational Decision Making, Homewood, Ill: Richard D. Irwin.

Brower R. & Balch, B. (2005), Transformational Leadership and Decision Making: Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press,

A sage Publications Company.

Burns, J.M. (1978), Leadership, New York: Harper and Row.

Collins, J. (2001), Good to Great, New York: Harper Collins.

Covey, S. (1990), Principle- Centered Leadership, New York: Simon & Schuster.

Ferguson, George A. (1976), Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Reinhartz, J. & Beach, D. (2004). Educational Leadership: Changing Schools, Changing Roles, Boston , MA.: Allyn

& Bacon /Longman Publishers.

Vecchio, Robert. (Ed.) (1997), Leadership, Notre Dame: University of Notre dame Press, Indiana.

Vroom,V.H & Yetton, P.W. (1973), Leadership and Decision Making, Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press.

Weinstein, Stanley (Ed.) (2004), Transformational Leadership, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Company.

Wren, Thomas (1995), Leadership‘s Companion, New York: The Free Press.

Yukl, G. (2002), Leadership in Organizations, 5th ed. N.J.: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.


Reference # 61

Topic # 4

Assessing reflection in EFL student teachers’ e-portfolios Mohamed El-Okda [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The present paper reports an attempt to develop a framework for assessing reflection in EFL

student teachers‘ e-portfolios during a Moodle supported practicum at Sultan Qaboos University

(SQU). First, a case is made for developing such a framework based on theories of teacher

learning and studies of teaching expertise as a process. It is argued that student teachers‘

assessment should not be confined to traditional observation of their classroom performance.

Then, many attempts to assess reflection are critically reviewed. Finally, a framework for

assessing reflection is outlined. Since student teachers are required to perform generic reflection

enhancing task types online, the proposed framework consists of a set of criteria that are task-type

specific and another set of criteria for assessing reflection as a thought process.

Introduction

Traditionally, assessing teachers has always been confined to classroom performance

observation and student achievement. These too tools have got a number of limitations. First, in

most cases, criteria of performance assessment were, more often than not, left to the assessor‘s

own perception of what constitutes effective teaching. General categories such as instructional

procedure, feedback and correction, classroom management, lesson planning and co-operation

with school administration were each given a mark depending on undeclared criteria. In some

cases, attempts are made to work out criteria for each of those dimensions. Such criteria are

usually derived from the received theories of language teaching and learning that are currently in

vogue. Even when teachers are made aware of such criteria, they will always provide the

observer with a special performance rather than an ordinary class. Demonstrating a teacher

behavior that is believed to be valued by the observer does not mean that its underlying rationale

has been incorporated in his/ her theory-in-action. Second, having to perform publicly in the

presence of a visitor is usually associated with what educators call ―teaching anxiety‖. Third,

teachers are rarely involved in working out those criteria. Fourth, such prescriptivism can stifle

teacher creativity and willingness to explore teaching. Fifth, many educators have argued that

teacher behavior can never be considered the only determinant of student achievement. Finally,

and perhaps the most important argument, if reflection is currently viewed as the chief means of

professional development, its assessment should be given the utmost priority. If teachers/

student teachers are required to perform generic reflection enhancing task types each of which

leads to a set of artifacts that are included in their e-portfolios (see El-Okda, 2008), then

assessing reflection constitutes the chief form of alternative teacher assessment. The notion of

test impact in the educational literature and test washback effect in the literature on language

teaching can be brought to bear in this respect. A test, can have a detrimental or beneficial

washback effect on teaching and learning processes. In the mainstream of educational thought

test impact can lead to ―narrowing the curriculum‖, i.e. aspects of the curriculum that are not

included in the test will never be given due care by both teachers and learners. Similarly, if

student teachers‘ performance of the reflection enhancing tasks is not assessed, they will not care

to perform them.



In a paper presented at the last ICET Assembly in Portugal, El-Okda (2008) described a

model for developing EFL student teacher reflection in a Moodle supported practicum. Using

camel-casing, a Moodle Wiki is developed into an e-portfolio. Seven reflection enhancing task

types are regularly performed online. These are task based lesson planning, working out personal

teaching philosophy in terms of a set of principles that are both justifiable and applicable,

collaborative design of peer observation sheets, use of practical reasoning in peer feedback

conferences, keeping reflective journals, writing a teaching autobiography and task based/

exploratory practice teacher research. Criteria for selecting those task types are discussed in

detail. Over the last five years at least, the researcher has been attempting to work out a

framework for student teachers reflection assessment. To assess reflection in performing those

generic task types, the present writer has developed a set of task-type specific criteria that are

mentioned in El-Okda (2008). The present paper focuses exclusively on developing this

framework.

Challenges to assessment of reflection

A number of issues need to be discussed before attempting to develop a framework for

the assessment of reflection in EFL student teachers‘ portfolios. First, although the literature

teems with attempts to develop reflection, the paucity of reflection assessment tools is often

dwelt upon. Attempts to work out frameworks for the systematic assessment of reflection are

very rare. . Kember et al (2000, p.382) note that ―What is surprising, given the number of courses

which aim to produce reflective practitioners, is how little attention has been paid to methods for

assessing whether students do engage in reflective thinking and if so to what extent. There are

many papers that describe courses, which aim to promote reflection upon practice, but few which

explain how to determine whether the aim has been met.‖ Second, coding schemes produced in

the few studies in which attempts were made to assess reflection may be too much time

consuming for practical use involving no data analysis that is usually required in research. All

those coding schemes have been produced for research purposes and not for the normal use by

overburdened instructors or supervisors in similar professional courses. The only exception may

be that of Kember et al (2000). Third, There is no general agreement on defining and

characterizing reflection or how to assess it. Indeed, it has become customary for writers on

reflection to list definitions and characterizations of the notion of reflection by people like

Dewey and Schon although these are usually differently interpreted by different people. Lee

(2005) provides an extensive review of the different conceptualizations of reflection asserting

that despite the general agreement that reflection is an essential tool for professional

development, there seems to be no agreement on a definition of reflection or how to assess it. In

nursing education, reflection is always recommended as an effective way of professional

development. However, Steward and Richardson (2000) argue that assessing reflection in

nursing education should be confined to self assessment and that it is better to be left unassessed.

Reviewing 221 research papers on reflection, Marcos, Miguel, and Tillema (2009), conclude that

there is no match between theoretical accounts of reflection, attempts to develop teacher

reflection and teachers‘ practice of reflection. They assert that the notion of reflection continues

to be in flux to date. Fourth, accountability demands pose challenges to the value of developing

reflection. Ward and McCotter (2004, P. 255) assert ―The standards movement poses several

challenges to the value of meaningful reflection‖. Even at the department level, attempts are

frequently made to develop checklists of competencies for supervisors to use in assessing student

El-Okda: Assessing reflection in EFL student teachers‟ portfolios


teachers‘ performance. It is true that such checklists may include one item about reflection

ability. However, this item is both evaluative in nature and is overshadowed by the evaluative

nature of so many evaluative items related to aspects of performance. Dimovaa and

Loughranb(2009, p. 216) argue that

―As practice settings become pressured by increasing bureaucratic and political demands of

accountability, practice itself tends to suffer. The desire to develop checklists of competencies

proliferates as the push toward capturing and measuring skills serves to respond to accountability

in ways that minimizes (or ignores) the qualities and expertise of the reflective practitioner.‖

Fifth, several difficulties involved in the development and assessment of reflection were

highlighted in El-Okda (2008). A major challenge to the development and assessment of

reflection lies in the dominant conceptualization of teaching practice not only by student

teachers, but also by policy makers and teacher educators. Both parties continue think of

teaching practice as an opportunity for the application of received theory during which student

teachers are supposed to master a set of technical skills that can be observed and assessed rather

than an opportunity for learning how to explore teaching. That is why Hatton and Smith (1995,

P37) that an emphasis on reflection in teacher preparation, ―….can become difficult to sustain,

for student teachers may see it as a rather esoteric and useless diversion from mastering the

technical skills and content of teaching which they regard as essential, especially early in their

training.‖ They further point out that student teachers may experience feelings of

―….vulnerability which follow from exposing one‘s perceptions and beliefs to others…‖

Rationale for developing and assessing reflection

With all the above mentioned challenges, a few attempts have been made to assess

reflection in teacher education. In addition to the reasons enumerated above in making a case for

the assessment of reflection in teacher education, current theories of teacher learning and

teaching expertise (as a process, not as a product consider teacher/ student teacher reflection

for/in/on practice as the chief way of learning how to teach in teaching. Studies of teacher

expertise as a process distinguish between teaching experience and teaching expertise. The

former refers to the period of time a teacher has spent in the teaching profession. It is often

argued that a long experience may be just one year repeated a number of time. Teaching

expertise refers to what expert teachers do. Conceptualizing expertise as a product, some

researchers attempted to compare novices and experienced teachers. This line of though sheds

vey little light on what expert teachers do to become experts. Researchers who conceptualize

teaching expertise as a process have revealed that expert teachers, unlike experienced non-expert

teachers, always use the time and effort saved by routinzing certain teaching practices in order to

problematize other unproblematic routinized teaching practices. This essentially means that they

practice reflection in teaching (Tissue, 2003, 2004). Similarly, theories of teacher learning

particularly those which are based on Mezirow‘s (1991) adult learning theory stress the role of

reflection both as knowing-in-practice and knowledge-in-practice (Borko, 2004). If we do

subscribe to a theory of teacher learning in which reflection is the means to that end, challenges

to reflection assessment do not have to deter us from taking risks in our search for a systematic

framework for assessing reflection. Such theories of teacher learning reinforce the frequently

made claim that it is not engagement in professional experiences that brings about knowing-in-

action. It is reflection for/in/on experience that is responsible for this learning.



Reflection the illusive construct

As pointed out above, one of the major challenges in assessing reflection is that it

continues to be an illusive construct that poses problems in interpreting earlier attempts to define

and characterize it by its originators John Dewey and Donald Schon (Dimovaa and Loughranb,

2009, El-Dib, 2007, El-Okda, 2008, Farrell, 2007, Fox, 1999, Hatton and Smith, 1995, Kember

et al, 200, 1999, Lee, 2004, Luk, 2008, Mena Marcos, Miguel and Tillema, 2009, Sparks-Langer

et al, 1990, Ward and McCotter, 2004). Multi-interpretations of the original proposals by Dewey

and Schon are usually determined by the ideological or theoretical orientation of each writer.

Reviewing such interpretations is beyond the scope of this paper. Nor is it really desirable as the

present writer has frequently noticed that a lot of these conceptualizations are by no means

convincing or logical and that may of them aggravate the vagueness of the construct and make it

look like a myth. Instead of wasting the reader‘s time in reviewing those interpretations, I prefer

to focus on what seems to be features which are consistent with the simple interpretation of the

present writer expressed in El-Okda (2008). Reflection may be defined as a special type of

thought that is associated with professional practice and in which the practitioner tries to de-

routinize it and uncover the tacit beliefs and assumptions underlying it.

Underlying this conceptualization is the assumption that student teachers of English come

to teacher education courses with a set of tacit beliefs about what constitutes effective foreign

language teaching that have been formed through their experience as learners. Studies of EFL

teacher cognition (El-Okda, 2005, Borg, 2006) have already yielded enough evidence supporting

this assumption. Those tacit beliefs, it is believed are hard to change, but they are changeable

only through reflection. They act like a filter for received theory. They also act like blinkers

which prevent teachers/ student teachers from detecting alternative routes that are available to

the teacher at every moment in class time. That is why, they tend to teach as they were taught.

Even when received theory is tried out in class in special performances, the attempts will not be

sustainable. Very soon the student teacher/ teacher will have a relapse to habitual/ routinized

practices. It is the contention of the present writer that helping student teachers to uncover those

tacit beliefs is a prerequisite to changing their behaviors/ practices.

Based on this assumption, the present writer looks upon reflection as a special type of

thought process that has the following characteristics:

1. It is always associated with professional action.

2. It constitutes the means of knowing-in-practice.

3. It involves problematizing the unproblematic/ routinized practices

4. It involves multi-reasoning of actions, detecting multi-alternative routes and considering

multi-consequences of each route.

5. It involves inferring the tacit beliefs/assumptions embedded in practical reasons and actions

and weighing them against conscious principles of received theory.

6. It is usually associated with open-mindedness, whole-heartedness, and responsibility

manifested in the ability to view multi-reasons, multi-routes, multi-consequences

7. It does not overlap with what Mizerow calls thoughtful action that involves the use of

Bloom‘s cognitive processes.

8. Although thought is not teachable, student teachers and teachers can be taught to systematize

their reflection for/in/on action. This presupposes that student teachers and teachers need



scaffolding in practicing reflection that can be provided either by the supervisor/ facilitator or

their peers. El-Dib (2007, p.33) notes

―The crucial conclusion, however, from the findings of this study is that reflective thinking does

not take care of itself. It does not seem to develop on its own or even develop with experience.

Exposing prospective teachers to more teaching practice in schools or simply requiring them to

conduct action research may pressure them to go through the motions but may not motivate them

nor help them become more reflective. ……… Scaffolding and mentoring are required in order to

develop prospective teachers‘ reflective abilities given the rather complicated and difficult nature

of this process.‖

Designing the framework

1. Rubrics developed for assessing reflection in reflective writing (mostly diaries, end-of-course

essays) were developed for research purposes and not for normal assessment in courses. All

these rubrics are designed in terms of levels; each of which is characterized as a separate

type. Those labels are usually derived from the theoretical/ ideological bases of each of those

frameworks. They are coding schemes rather than rating rubrics. These include Sparks

Langer et al (1990) seven category system, Hatton and Smith (1995) four level system,

Kember et al (1999) seven category system that are classified into three levels, Ward and

McCotter (2004) four level system, El-Dib (2007) four level system and Luk (2008) seven

discourse based categories system.

2. All researchers who have tried to develop schemes for assessing reflection have attempted to

delineate different hierarchical categories known as levels. Whereas the present writer

attempts to identify different levels of reflection, the underlying rationale and descriptors for

each level are not exactly the same. The present writer views levels of reflection not in terms

of different types, but rather in terms of degrees of one and the same type and nature.

Without having to subscribe to a critical view of a political nature, the present writer still

believes that attempts to uncover the tacit beliefs embodied in one‘s own practices and

practical reasoning to be the cornerstone of ―transformative‖ reflection. For a teacher/ student

teacher to transform practice, s/he should be able to uncover those beliefs and weigh them

against conscious principles of his/ her current stage teaching philosophy.

3. Three general levels/ degrees of reflection may be identified:

a. Low level: Inadequate description of puzzles of practice, their alternatives, rationale, and

their possible consequences

b. Moderate level: Adequate description of puzzles of practice, their alternatives, rationale

and their possible consequences

c. High level: In addition to B, attempting to infer tacit beliefs and assumptions embedded

in practices and practical reasons and ability to weigh those tacit beliefs against principles

of current stage teaching philosophy. This may also include moral implications.

Adequacy here is to be understood in terms of thickness, and number of alternatives and

whether tacit beliefs/ assumptions are explored or not.

Self assessment of reflection should include both thought processes and reflective written

documents. Familiarizing student teachers with the use of the final framework is to be considered

part and parcel of learning how to reflect.

Such degrees need to be operationally defined with regard to each reflection enhancing task type. Rubric for Assessing Reflection in EFL Student Teachers’ e-Portfolios



task Type Levels

Low Moderate High

Task analysis Inadequate description of

components without being able

to distinguish between a task

outcome and a learning outcome

or identify the type of the

learning experience or suggest

ways of modifying non-tasks

into tasks

Full description of

components, able to identify

the type of the learning

experience, able to modify

non-tasks into tasks,

provides rationale for his

decisions

Suggests different ways for

modifying non-tasks into

tasks and/or proposes

alternative more well-

designed tasks and justifies

such decisions

Planning for

peer

observation

Collaboratively design a

relevant observation sheet that

captures very few possible

descriptors that can be derived

from principles of teaching

philosophy or common practices

without justification.

Collaboratively design a

relevant observation sheet

that captures many

alternative descriptors

derived from both principles

of teaching philosophy or

common practices with

reasonable justification

Shows full awareness of

the reasons for including

different types of

descriptors and possible

alternatives for the design

of relevant observation

sheets and the implied tacit

beliefs/ moral values

Practical

reasoning

Can justify a given practice with

very few practical reasons and

sometimes derives reasons from

received theory. No attempt

made to infer beliefs embedded

in practical reasons

Can justify a given practice

with many practical reasons

without attempting to infer

embedded tacit beliefs/

assumptions

Can infer tacit beliefs/

assumptions embedded in

practical reasons and

suggest alternative

practices that may be

consistent with current

stage teaching philosophy

Journals Can briefly describe a teaching

practice/ event/ situation and

think of very few alternatives,

possible reasons or

consequences

Can adequately describe a

teaching practice/ event/

situation/ critical incident

and consider multi-reasons

and consequences without

considering the implicit

assumptions/ beliefs or

moral issues

Can consider the tacit

beliefs/ assumptions

underlying a fully

described teaching practice/

event/ situation , its

consequences and moral

implications

Teaching

Philosophy

Can derive a principle of EFL

teaching without being able to

justify it or consider all possible

teaching behaviors entailed by it

Can derive a principle of

EFL teaching, justify it and

consider possible alternative

teaching behaviors entailed

by it

Can use a principle of the

teaching philosophy to

weigh tacit beliefs/

assumptions implied in

practical reasons

Teacher

Research

Briefly describes the teaching

puzzle without considering its

reasons, considers one possible

action without a rationale and

implements it, reports possible

positive consequences with no

consideration of limitations/

future plans/ underlying beliefs

Considers multi-causes of

teaching puzzles, alternative

actions and rationale for

each, considers multi-

consequences of

implemented solution/

future plans

Considers the tacit beliefs/

assumptions underlying

actions implemented

including moral

implications, and weighs

those beliefs against current

stage teaching philosophy

Autobiography Briefly describes relevant life

experience with very little

consideration of its possible

causes, reasons for his/ her

reaction and the tacit beliefs

embedded in those reactions.

Gives full description of a

relevant life experience

considering its multi-causes,

his/her reaction to it, multi-

reasons for that reaction

Considers the tacit beliefs

and assumptions embedded

in his/ her reaction to each

life experience and its

moral implications.

A Checklist for self assessment of reflection as a thinking process



In our teaching practice course, a decision was made to provide EFL student teachers with a

very simple checklist to be used by student teachers in assessing the degree to which they

have become competent reflective practitioners. The checklist is intended to be a user-

friendly checklist that is free of all technical terms. The statements included are derived from

our own conceptualization of reflection.

How often do/ can you ………..?

U

4

O

3

S

2

R

1

1 Detect alternatives available to you at every moment of class time?

2 Think of the practical reasons for using a certain teaching practice?

3 Consider the tacit/implied beliefs/ assumptions/ moral values embedded in those

practical reasons?

4 Consider the consequences of what you have done in class?

5 Weigh your practical reasons against principles of your current teaching philosophy?

Conclusion

This is a highly tentative and embryonic attempt to design a framework for assessing

EFL student teachers‘ reflection in performing seven generic reflection enhancing task types in

their e-portfolios. It is intended to be used by both student teachers for self assessment and

course instructors for course assessment and not for research purposes. That is why an attempt

was intentionally made to avoid overusing technical terms that the literature on reflection teems

with. The levels identified do not constitute different types of reflection as it is usually the case

in most schemes developed for research purposes. Trying out the proposed framework is still in

progress and its validity and reliability will be established.

References

Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice. London: Continuum.

Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher,

33(8), 3-15.

Dimovaa, Y. and Loughranb, J. (2009). Developing a big picture understanding of reflection in pedagogical

practice. Reflective Practice, 10(2), 205–217.

EL-Dib, M. (2007). Levels of reflection in action research: An overview and an assessment tool. Teaching and

Teacher Education, 23 (1), 24-35.

El-Okda, M. (2008). Reflection in a Moodle supported practicum for Omani EFL student teachers. Paper Presented

at ICET International Assembly held in Madrid, July, 2008.

El-Okda, M. (2005). EFL student teachers‘ cognition about reading instruction. The Reading Matrix, 5(2), 43-60,

can be retrieved from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/okda/article.pdf

Farrell, T. (2007). Reflective language teaching: From research to practice. UK: Continuum.

Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching

and Teacher Education. 11(1), 33-49.

Kember, D. (1999). Determining the level of reflective thinking from students‘ written journals using a coding

scheme based on the work of Mezirow. International Journal of Life-long Education, 18 (1), 18-30.

Kember, D., Leung, D., Jones, A., Loke, A., Mckay, J., Sinclair, K. Tse, H., Webb, C., Wong, F., Wong, M., Yeung,

E. (2000).Developing a questionnaire to measure the level of reflective thinking. Assessment and Evaluation

in Higher Education, 25 (4), 381-395.

Lee, H. (2004). Understanding and assessing pre-service teachers‘ reflective thinking. Teaching and Teacher

Education, 21, 699-715.

http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/okda/article.pdf



Luk, J. (2008). Assessing teaching practicum reflections: Distinguishing discourse features of the ―high‖ and ―low‖

grade reports. System, 36, 624-641.

Mena Marcos, J., Miguel, E. and Tillema, H. (2009). Teacher reflection on action: what is said (in research) and

what is done (in teaching). Reflective Practice, 10(2), 191- 204

Peltier, J., Hay, A. and Dargo, W. (2005). The reflective learning continuum: Reflection on reflection. Journal of

Marketing Education, 27 (3), 250-263.

Sparks-Langer, G., Simmons, J., Pasch, M., Colton A.., and Starko, A. (1990). Reflective Pedagogical Thinking:

How Can We Promote It and Measure It? Journal of Teacher Education, 41(5), 23-32 .

Smith, K. and Tillema, H. (2007). Use of criteria for Assessing teaching portfolios: Judgmental practices in

summative evaluation. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 51 (1), 103-117.

Stewart, S. and Richardson, B. (2000). Reflection and its place of a curriculum of an undergraduate course: Should it

be assessed?. Assessment and evaluation in higher education, 25 (4), 369-380.

Ward, J, and McCotter, S. (2004). Reflection as a visible outcome for pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher

Education, 20, 243-257.


Reference # 67

Topic # 3

An introduction to simulation in Nursing Education Jahara Hayudini [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The introduction of simulation in nursing education requires adaptation to be effective in this 21st

century and should be evaluated for its effectiveness. This innovative strategy describes the new

clinical skill training paradigm, the educational tool required simulation to work effectively.

Simulation is defined as a replication of the ― real world‖ setting to model the environment,

resources needed, and people involved in the real working clinical setting. Using simulation as an

educational tool has significant impact to improve quality of nursing care, skill competency, and

safety for both the client and the health care provider. Nursing education is captivated with

technology and generally credits the integration of technology with simulation in improving

effectiveness, efficiency and cost of training clinical nursing skills. In reality, such integration of

technology with simulation cannot be assumed.

Introduction: Definition and purpose

Creating an effective educational tool is not an easy task to undertake in today‘s

educational nursing programs. Today, nurse educators are challenged to recognize different

learning styles and teaching methods that faculty and students bring to the learning environment.

Towards the 21st century, nursing is currently undergoing a paradigm shift in the way that

clinical nursing skills are trained. Educational programs and clinical forces have been identifying

skill training as a key area that must be tackled to impact positively on the problem of nursing

errors. This is significantly important for nursing profession where the delivery and quality of

nursing care is dependent on the technical skills of the nursing staff. The introduction of

simulation in nursing education requires adaptation to be effective in this 21st century and should

be evaluated for its effectiveness.

This innovative solution describes the new clinical skill training paradigm, the

educational tool required simulation to work effectively. Simulation is defined as a replication of

the ― real world‖ setting to model the environment, resources needed, and people involved in the

real working clinical setting. Using simulation as an educational tool has significant impact to

improve quality of nursing care, skill competency, and safety for both the client and the health

care provider. Nursing education is captivated with technology and generally credits the

integration of technology with simulation in improving effectiveness, efficiency and cost of

training clinical nursing skills. In reality, such integration of technology with simulation cannot

be assumed.

Educational Framework

The two key components of the dominant paradigm for health care education in the 20th

century were a university-based scientific curriculum coupled with a clinical practicum

(Martha,J.B & Arlene, J.L, 2007 ). Historically, the university-based scientific curriculum

utilized a lecture- based instruction in which the students were more on passive recipients of

cognitive, psychomotor skills and affective learning domains . All types of learning domains



were delivered by an expert of specific discipline according to a pre-planned course syllabi. The

lectured format of instruction delivered all the required educational materials to all students,

however, the inactive/ passive involvement of the students in the learning activities might not

allow the students to acquire the conceptual links required for effective, deeper learning. On the

other hand, the clinical practicum allowed the student to engage actively in the process of patient

care wherein the learning experiences are more or less hands-on activities. Such learning

experiences allow the students to gain knowledge, nursing skills and professional attitudes that

links for effective, long-term learning. Due to the fact that the clinical learning experiences of the

students could not be structured, it is impossible for the clinical educators of specific discipline

of patient care to provide the students the required type of patient‘s conditions on a timetabled

manner. Unfortunately, the unpredictable learning experiences of patient‘s care by the students

would not allow them to gain knowledge, nursing skills and professional attitudes across the

broad spectrum of nursing educational activities.

Achieving a successful balance between the academic and clinical education has been a

challenge for nurse educators as health care institutions demand graduates for both broad-based

knowledge and improved clinical skills ( Manuel & Sorensen. 1995). The gap between the

classroom learning and clinical experiences with one major component of nursing specialty has

been continuously an educational issue.

One educational solution to bridge the gap between the classroom instruction and the

clinical experience of nursing students is to design an educational tool wherein the instructor can

control the educational information to be disseminated, yet engaging the students on full active

participation in the learning experience. Educational tool that can be implemented within this

conceptual format include problem-based learning and fidelity simulation. According to Brown,

Collins, & Duguid ( 1989 ) both of these methods emphasize the central tenet of situated

cognitive, specifically that information is most useful when it is learned in contextual schema .

Tripp ( 1996 ) noted that the teacher often was used as a coach rather than as master teacher and

that some content is taught effectively in a classroom setting than in what he said as on-the-job

training. However, the fidelity simulation can promote the role of the teacher as an active

participant and role model in the learning situations. The clinical scenarios can be repeated as

required in the teaching-learning activities wherein the clinical instructor would initially act the

role and then allow the students to role play the demonstration of the nursing performance

integrating the required cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains in a safe learning

environment. The simulated learning scenarios can be well-constructed so that the untimely

clinical bedside experience can be assigned to the student and this would reinforced what has

been learned in the classroom or skill laboratory .The simulated learning scenarios must be

constructed with level of difficulty to match the level of the student across the nursing

curriculum. Towards the 21st century, the nurse educators are challenge to recreate an active

learning environment that will simulate the real clinical setting and the real nursing performance

at the bedside of specific client care.

Using the Method

Simulation and technology provide an innovative educational tool for health

professionals. It places the student into a realistic simulation environment that allow the

application of knowledge, skill and attitude for problem solving of a real life scenarios.

Simulation allows the educators to create a customized learning scenario in a wide variety of

Hayudini: An introduction to simulation in Nursing Education


clinical situations for all types of students across the nursing curriculum. Simulated learning

scenarios can precede, complement, or even replace actual bedside clinical experiences for all

levels of students in a specific health care disciplines. Simulation can be applied for unit

orientation and staffing allocation prior to the clinical rotation of the students before exposing

them to unfamiliar unit and management in the real clinical setting. As supported by literature

review, simulation as educational tool was applied to physical therapy students to orient them to

the unit and type of care prior to their critical care rotation ( Chatto,C & Dennise, J.K, 1997 ).

The simulated skill laboratory was structured to resemble the critical care unit displaying the

advanced medical equipments, supplies and monitoring devices and students were oriented to all

of these as what expected in the clinical setting. When the students performed their intervention

on the simulators in their laboratory, common clinical events were simulated like changes in the

vital signs, cardiac monitoring alarms, the gradual increase of ICP or CVP and malfunction of

the ventilators. During their actual clinical rotation in the critical care, the students and the

faculty collaborate to implement safe and effective intervention, identified unique clinical

problems to the critical care unit and provide a team approach of patient management.

Simulation can be also used to practice nursing skills, critical thinking, decision making and

communication skills prior to their actual clinical rotation. In reference to Lupien,1998; Monti,

Wren, Haas & Lupien (1998), a nurse anesthetist student can have an accrue number of hours up

to 100 of simulation practicing sequence of technical skills and decision making prior to their

first clinical experience as a nurse anesthetist. According to Martha, J.B & Arlene, J.L, ( 2007 ),

students who have practiced using simulation prior to real clinical situations may be received

more positively by clinical preceptors and the students receive more efficient and constructive

clinical education.

Simulation technology is an innovative educational tool of disseminating information

about the real world of nursing. It integrates various teaching strategies based on sound

educational experiences which includes role playing of case scenario and debriefing using

recorded video of the nursing performance identical to bedside clinical situations. Role playing

in simulation creates opportunity for the students to become immersed in a realistic simulated

clinical environment. The immersion into the role of another person through acting allows the

student to participate actively in the learning process of the real performance of a nurse in a real

clinical situation. Simulation could bring the students‘ learning across the nursing curriculum

course content in the development of cognitive, technical and behavioral skills. The simulation

as an educational tool enable the students to analyze and apply in practice, concepts and

principles acquired across all nursing course modules. In linking the theoretical components with

practice, learning become more meaningful and relevant for students. The debriefing session of

the simulated learning activities has a significant impact on the learning outcome of the students.

During debriefing activity, the expert encourages reflective learning by using questioning

techniques and reviewing the recorded videotaping of the learning sessions for significant events

that will link the student for deeper learning. Students‘ testimonials supported the positive impact

of simulation in their learning outcome as to their active participation in the learning activities,

the effect of video-recording of their nursing performance that links to their reflective learning

and the enhancement of their decision-making, critical thinking and communication skills as they

immersed in the scripted clinical scenarios.

The impact of the Introduction of simulation in the foundation courses at the College of

Nursing, SQU has established the value at its most basic level. The teaching team of the

foundation courses were able to participate in running a script of preparing a preoperative



nursing care to surgical client, transferring to Operating room and transferring back the client to

her unit in the surgical ward, which took place in our skill lab., during the summer break as our

innovative teaching strategy in teaching the basic nursing skills for Fall Semester of this

academic year. The focus of the real life practice of simulating the preparation of surgical client

during the simulation were: Nursing reports between the OR and the surgical ward, between

nurses from different units, the completion of pre-operative checklist, the follow-up of NPO

instructions, the physical and psychological preparation of the client, the timing of the premeds,

the body mechanics during moving & transfer of surgical client and the significant of debriefing

sessions with all the participants. There were lessons learned during simulation in teaching these

nursing procedures by linking the connectivity in doing them in the real world of nursing

practice. Another simulation that the faculty did was the admission and discharge nursing

procedures, though the active participants were the faculty members, the students‘ feedback was

significantly very positive in terms of various skills being merged during the whole performance

and it appeared to them as fun while learning the nursing procedures. Our nursing skill lab. had

been designed to be a replica of the clinical setting of our teaching hospital, the SQUH. The end

results of the faculty active role playing in the scripted simulation was very empathic on the

expected learning outcome that we anticipate for our students. It was an added value to our

educational innovative solutions of linking the classroom to the skill lab. and eventually to the

real clinical setting. Both the faculty members and the students were acclimatized to the learning

environment as well as to simulation process as if there were in the SQUH setting. More so, we

have initiated the active visit of our faculty for hands-on practice to our PDA simulator which

can simulate a real clinical situation of clients with abnormal heart and lung sounds as well as

different arrhythmias and abnormal respiratory rate. Our PDA simulator can also offer higher

level of skills like interpretation of different ECG tracings which can be learned and exposed the

students to manage such pre-determined patients‘ clinical conditions. During this Fall Semester,

we were able to enlist about 21 % of our faculty members for active practice with our PDA

simulator. Though it is a slow rate, but we are moving towards an awareness of this new

phenomenon of providing instruction through simulation across the nursing program. Our next

moved would be the translation of our simulation strategy into the active role playing of our

students, adoption of our high fidelity simulators and to determine what goals are important to

the teaching team to achieve, what measures to identify to show if the goals are achievable and

then be able to measure the outcome as to students‘ acquisition of knowledge, skill competency,

level of self-confidence and satisfaction and foremost the level of safe practice for patient safety.

Conclusion

The educational tool using simulation in the foundation courses at the College of Nursing

in SQU is an innovative approach to bridge the classroom and the clinical nursing education.

Used correctly along with technology can effectively links the theoretical concepts learned in the

classroom to the skill lab. and eventually to bedside patient care. The used of high fidelity

simulation in an undergraduate curriculum will initiate a paradigm shift of pure clinical practice

to simulation-based practice in the years to come. By then assessment of students‘ practice will

not be difficult because of lack of clinical cases. Conclusively, the impact of the Introduction of

simulation in the foundation courses at the College of Nursing, SQU has established the added

Hayudini: An introduction to simulation in Nursing Education


value at its most basic level and be translated evenly across the nursing curriculum. This will be

our vision, to move forward, to the new trends facing the 21st century educational arena.

References

Audrey, N. ( 2007 ). Using Simulation to Design and Integrate Technology for Safer and More Efficient Practice

Environments. Retrieved January 30, 2007 from http://www.nursingworld.org

Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. ( 1989 ). Situated cognition in the culture of learning. Educational

Researcher; 18, 32-42.

Chatto, C., & Dennis, J.K. ( 1997 ). Intensive care unit training for physical therapy students. Use of an innovative

patient simulator. Acute care Perspectives, 5 ( 4 ), 7-12 .

Fletcher, J. L. ( 1995 ). Anesthesia simulation: A tool for learning and research. AANA Journal, 63, 61-67.

Fox-Robichaud, AE, Nimmo, GR. ( 2007 ). Education and simulation techniques for improving reliability of care.

Critical Care, 13(6); 737-741.

Gaba, D. M., Howard, S.K., Flanagan, B., Smith, B. E., Fish, K.J., & Botney, R. ( 1998 ). Assessment of clinical

performance during simulated crises using both technical and behavioral ratings. Anesthesiology, 89, 8-18.

Graham, R.N., Shippey, B., & Fluit,L., ( 2008 ). Intensive care and simulation___a guide. Care of the Critically Ill.

Vol. 224 NO 1 , 4 – 8.

Jeffries, P.R. ( 2006 ). A Framework for designing, implementing and evaluating simulation used as teaching

strategies in nursing. Nursing Education Perspective, 26, 96-103.

Kneebone, RL., Scott, W., Darzi, A.,& Horrocks, M., ( 2004 ). Simulation and clinical practice: strengthening the

relationship. Medical Education.38, 1095-1102.

Loyd, G. E., Lake, C. L., & Greenberg, R, B. (2001 ) Practical Health Care Simulation. Philadelphia; Elsevier,

Mosby.

Manuel, P., & Sorenssen, L. ( 1995 ). Changing trends in healthcare: Implications for baccalaureate education,

practice, and employment. Journal of Nursing education, 34, 248-253.

Martha, J.B & Arlene, J.L ( 2007 ) Innovative Teaching Startegies in Nursing and related Health Professions. Jones

and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury MA. Palloff, R.M., & Pratt, K. ( 2003 ). The virtual student. San Francisco;

Jossey-Bass.

Monti, E.J., Wren, K., Haas, R., & Lupien, A.E., ( 1998 ) . The use of an anesthesia simulator in graduate and

undergraduate education. CRNA: The Clinical Forum for Nurse Anesthetists, 9, 59-66.

Savoldelli, G., Naik, V., Park,J., Joo, H., Chow, R., Houston, P., et al ( 2006 ) The value of debriefing in simulation

– based education: Oral versus video-based feedback. Simulation in Health care 1 (2), 93-103.

Seropian, M.A., Brown, K., Samuelson,G.J., & Driggers, B., ( 2004 ). Simulation: Not just a manikin. Journal of

Nursing Education, 43, 164-169.

Spunt, D., Foster, D., & Adams, K., ( 2004 ). Mock code : A clinical simulation module. Nurse Educator, 29, 192-

194.

Tanner, C.A. ( 2006 ). Thinking like a nurse: A research-based model of clinical judgment in nursing. Journal of

Nursing Education, 454 ( 6), 204-211.

Tripp, S. D., ( 1996 ). Theories, traditions and situated learning. In H. Mclellan ( Ed ), Situated learning

perspectives ( pp. 155-165 ). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications

Wilson, M., Shepherd, I., Kelly, C., & Pitzner, J. ( 2004 ). Assessment of a low fidelity human patient simulator for

the acquisition of nursing skills. Nurse Education Today. 25, 56-67.

http://www.nursingworld.org/


Reference # 68

Topic # 4

Integrating educational technologies into instruction in Chemistry:

Technological Pedagogy Content Knowledge development and implications

for teacher education Annette Hilton [email protected], The University of Queensland, Australia

Christina Gitsaki [email protected], UNESCO Chair in Applied Research in

Education, Sharjah Higher Colleges of Technology, UAE

This paper presents the results of a classroom study into the efficacious use of digital technologies

to enhance students‘ learning outcomes in high school chemistry. It focuses on how the

experiences and reflections of the teacher-researcher during the study have been used as a model

for educating teachers in and about the implementation of digital technologies in their classroom

practice. Finally, the paper presents some implications and recommendations for the education of

in-service and pre-service teachers in terms of their development of Technological Pedagogical

Content Knowledge.

Introduction

It is well known that chemistry students, and indeed students in many areas of science,

experience difficulties because the concepts are abstract and complex and the phenomena about

which students learn are unobservable at the molecular level. This requires a variety of

representations, some of which are symbolic or visual, in order for these concepts to be

understood. This classroom study investigated the integration of a range of educational

technologies for improving students‘ understanding and their ability to use and communicate

with multiple representations. The difficulties faced by students in chemistry also present

challenges for teachers because utilising digital technologies in ways that help students to

overcome these difficulties requires an understanding of content, pedagogy, and technology. In

response to these challenges, the goals of the study were two-fold. First, the study examined how

using digital technologies as instructional tools might help students to overcome their

misconceptions and enhance their understanding of multiple representations in chemistry.

Second, the study sought to describe the process of instructional design that this required. This

paper presents an overview of these aspects of the study with a focus on describing the

experience from the teacher-researcher‘s perspective. It also describes how the experiences of

the teacher-researcher have been used to inform pre-service and in-service teacher education, and

considers implications for further developing these educational approaches.

Background to the Study

Chemistry is the study of the nature of materials and the properties and interactions of the

substances from which they are composed. When learning chemistry, students encounter

complex concepts, entities, and phenomena and they are required to understand and use a range

of representations to comprehend and communicate about chemistry on three levels. These levels

are known as macro – representations of observable phenomena, submicro – representations that

show the structure or behaviour of particles, such as molecules and ions, and symbolic – signs

http://icet-online.org:2095/3rdparty/squirrelmail/src/compose.php?send_to=christina.gitsaki%40hct.ac.ae



and symbols used to represent particles and their behaviour, such as chemical equations (Gabel,

1999; Gilbert & Treagust, 2009; Johnstone, 1996; Lemke, 2000). Together these levels are

known as the triplet relationship (Gilbert & Treagust, 2009). Gaining an understanding of the

triplet relationship has proven challenging for students. Students have difficulty representing

chemical phenomena on the submicro and symbolic levels (Ben-Zvi, Eylon, & Silberstein, 1986)

and it is difficult for students to move between the representational levels. For example, a student

may be able to interpret symbolic chemical equations but not understand their submicro meaning

(Kozma & Russell, 1997; Krajcik, 1991). Translation between modes and sub-modes of a given

representation is problematic for students (Keig & Rubba, 1993) and some concepts can only be

understood through the integration of multiple representations, often in more than one mode

(Lemke, 2000). Finally, students experience difficulties when asked to make links between the

laboratory data they observe and the chemical concepts they learn in the classroom (Nakhleh,

Polles, & Malina, 2002). In light of these challenges, it follows that if students‘ ability to

visualise and represent chemical phenomena on the three levels using multiple representations

could be enhanced, so too would their understanding and competence in the triplet relationship.

Research shows that students experience these difficulties primarily because teachers use

symbolic representations and move between the macro and symbolic levels, often neglecting to

include the submicro level, and without making the transition between representational levels

explicit to students (Chittleborough & Treagust, 2008; Gabel, 1999). Research also suggests that

many of the alternative conceptions held by chemistry students are the result of previous

teaching and that if attention was given to the ways in which teachers used representations, this

might be avoided (Levy Nahum, Mamlok-Naaman, Hofstein, & Krajcik, 2007). The

development of pedagogies to address these concerns can be challenging for teachers because it

requires more than knowledge of chemistry concepts. It requires what Shulman (1986) called

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). Shulman suggested that PCK involves teacher

knowledge of the ways that explanations, illustrations, and representations of the subject can be

employed to make content more comprehensible for students. According to Mishra and Koehler

(2006), ―PCK represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how

aspects of subject matter are organised, adapted, and represented for instruction‖ (p. 1021). This

implies that teachers need to be able to present chemistry in ways that allow students to develop

an understanding of not only its concepts, but also of how those concepts are represented and

understood using multiple representations.

Much research has focused on how chemistry students should be taught and ways to

scaffold students‘ development of conceptual understanding and representational competence to

allow them to interpret and communicate chemistry on its multiple levels (e.g., Ben-Zvi, Eylon,

& Silberstein, 1986; Chiu & Wu, 2009; Kozma & Russell, 1997, 2005; Wu, 2003). Findings of

this research suggest that students‘ learning outcomes are enhanced through instruction that

utilises digital technologies. Many studies have identified effective applications of computer-

based visualisation tools that have enhanced learning outcomes (see Schank & Kozma, 2002;

Wu, Krajcik, & Soloway, 2001; Xie & Tinker, 2006); however, these studies were limited to the

use of single software applications. In addition, limited research has been conducted on the ways

that teachers might be educated to implement these educational technologies in their practice.

While educational technologies have the potential to support students‘ learning through

their capacity to allow students to create, transform, and interact with multiple representations,

this has added a new layer of complexity to the work of teachers. The implementation of

educational technologies into the teaching of subject-specific concepts and representations

Hilton & Gitsaki: Integrating educational technologies into Chemistry instruction


requires skills beyond technological skills. Although these are important, according to Koehler,

Mishra, and Yahya (2007), effective teaching with technology requires the teacher to have an

understanding of content, pedagogy, and technology combined into a situated form of knowledge

they have labelled Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). Angeli and

Valanides (2009) added that this requires teachers to have an understanding of how topics that

students find difficult to understand and teachers find difficult to teach can be ―transformed and

taught more effectively with technology‖ (p. 154).

The classroom study described in this paper examined the efficacy of integrating a range

of digital technologies into a program of instruction. It focused on the students‘ learning

outcomes as a means of showing that this approach was effective and recorded the processes

undertaken by the teacher-researcher so that the experiences could be used as a basis for

informing teacher education. Since conducting the study, the resources and approaches used have

been shared with classroom teachers through hands-on workshops and seminars, as well as

through pre-service instruction. This paper will describe the outcomes of these educational

programs and present implications for further development of teacher education in this area.

Overview

The study was conducted in Australia in a large metropolitan public high school, both

ethnically and socio-economically diverse. Two chemistry classes (N = 22, N = 27) participated

in the study over a ten-week term at the beginning of Year 11, the first year in which chemistry is

studied as a separate discipline. Students attended three 70-minute lessons per week. Both

classes had similar distributions of gender, ability, and cultural backgrounds.

The study involved two phases. The overview of the study design is shown in Figure 1.

Digital technologies utilised

Figure 1. Study design, timing of phases, and digital technologies used.

Phase 1 employed a pretest–posttest design and was conducted over six weeks. Students‘

alternative conceptions, prior knowledge, and representational competence around chemical

bonding, structure, and the properties of different kinds of materials were established so that

instruction could focus on building on students‘ understanding and address their alternative

conceptions. The scaffolding resources used throughout the study were digital in nature and the

Phase 2 Investigation 2: Biofuels (2 weeks)

Class A Laboratory report Class B Digital poster

Bonding posttest Week

6

Phase 1 (6 weeks) Teach chemical bonding concepts Develop laboratory, technology, and

representational skills Learn concepts within biomaterials context

Phase 2 Investigation 1: Bioplastics (2 weeks)

Class A Digital poster Class B Laboratory report

Pretest Week 1

Biopolymers Posttest

Week 8

Biofuels Posttest Week

10

Interactive whiteboard, computers, and internet-based digital materials

Guided computer-based inquiry, group tasks using molecular modelling and simulation software

Digital resources – CD-ROM o Visualisation tools o Multimodal texts with

hyperlinks to websites o Genre templates

Molecular modelling software

Simulations

Data collation, interpretation, and analysis software

Publishing software



materials used in Phase 1 were designed to develop students‘ skills in both digital technology use

through their learning experiences. The digital technologies used included self-paced simulations

adapted from the Molecular Workbench® series (Xie & Tinker, 2006), ChemSketch® molecular

modelling software (ACD Labs, 2006), interactive whiteboard presentations that utilised video-

recordings, animations, and Internet-based resources. All software used in the study was free for

download by teachers and students and was user-friendly in terms of tutorial and online support

and its intuitive nature. These resources were used to help students develop an understanding of

the concepts on a submicro level as well as to establish their knowledge about the information

inherent in different representations across the three levels. Each time a new concept was

introduced, students‘ alternative conceptions were discussed with them and macro, submicro,

and symbolic representations were used to help them to adjust their understanding of the

concept. Lessons involved a combination of student-centred laboratory and computer-based

activities with whole class and group discussions. Teacher-led discussions were used to

introduce or develop concepts, address alternative conceptions, or to demonstrate computer-

based activities. Computer-based inquiries were guided using worksheets or through on-screen

questions.

During Phase 2, which employed a crossover design in which each class participated in

two laboratory-based inquiries into the chemistry of biomaterials, students completed two

investigative laboratory inquiries, which allowed students to transfer their learning and skills

from Phase 1 to new contexts and to solve new problems. This phase was conducted over four

weeks and required students to design experimental procedures, collect, present, analyse, and

explain experimental findings through the production of two multimodal texts, as shown in

Figure 1. The students worked in groups of three or four (of mixed ability and gender) to conduct

the inquiries and analyse the data. After each investigation, students spent five 70-minute lessons

in the school computer laboratory creating their texts individually, although students were seated

in their original groups so that they could collaborate if they chose to do so. Throughout Phase 2,

scaffolding was provided in the form of digital materials, including visual representations

provided on CD-ROM, multimodal background information sheets, and genre templates.

Students also used visualisation tools such as simulations and molecular modelling software.

Data Collection and Analysis

The Classroom Study

Data related to students‘ learning outcomes were collected using a pretest and three

posttests, audio and video recordings, semi-structured interviews, and an evaluation

questionnaire. The interviews and questionnaire were also used to investigate students‘

perceptions of their learning experiences. The video and audio data and a teacher reflection

journal were used to describe the instructional approaches and to gain an insight into the TPCK

required of the teacher in this type of instructional setting.

The scores of conceptual understanding items on the pretest and posttest were analysed

using t tests. The representational competence and alternative conceptions items were coded and

the results for each class were compared using the Wilcoxin Signed Rank Test. Thematic

analysis was used to identify the key themes and sub-themes emerging from the students‘

responses to the semi-structured interview questions. Interview responses were transcribed,

coded, and grouped into themes. The responses within each theme were further examined to

identify sub-themes. Video-recordings were transcribed and interactions were coded to identify



themes in a similar manner to the analysis used for the interview responses. Content analysis of

the students‘ texts was used to examine the students‘ use of appropriate representations, their use

of multilevel explanations of data, and the types of information students chose to include. This

provided evidence of the students‘ ability to transfer their knowledge, generate appropriate new

meaning, critically select information, and make connections between data and underlying

molecular behaviour.

At the end of each lesson, observations, reflections, and descriptions of actions, incidents,

and responses were recorded by the teacher-researcher in a reflection journal. The purpose of this

was to maintain a record of the approaches and strategies employed on a daily basis and to

record the ways and reasons that technologies and scaffolding resources were deployed.

Impromptu responses to students‘ needs that required changing plans or by implementing

different resources were also noted. The video recordings were reviewed at the end of each day

and additional comments, observations, and reflections were added.

Teacher Education Following the Study

Throughout the course of the study, a large bank of resources was developed. It is well

known that students hold a number of alternative conceptions about chemical bonding (Özmen,

2004) and it was felt that the experiences of the teacher-researcher and the resources that had

been developed would be of use to other teachers. Workshops have been developed and

presented at a number of science teacher conferences and in-service professional development

days. These workshops include activities that place the teachers in the role of the student,

provide examples of outcomes of the study, and allow teachers to have hands-on experiences

with the digital technologies used in the study. Teachers receive copies of some of the resources,

both hardcopy and electronic, and spend time collaborating on activities, or devising their own

classroom action plans. In addition, the processes and activities used in the study have been used

with pre-service teachers in two graduate education classes. The researcher has also spent time in

science classrooms presenting lessons that utilised the activities developed in the study. This

allowed approaches to be modelled for the classroom teachers and so acted as an alternative form

of in-service teacher education. Finally, some of the resources have been included on a CD-ROM

for distribution to chemistry teachers across government schools.

Feedback from participating teachers has been collected through anecdotal evidence and

evaluation forms, which require teachers to rate the workshop as very useful, useful, somewhat

useful, or not useful, as well as asking for further written comment. In several cases, teachers

who have attended workshops have contacted the researcher to provide feedback on how they

have been implementing the resources and approaches and on the outcomes they have seen in

their own classrooms. Teachers who attended workshops at consecutive annual conferences have

made presentations to explain how they have utilised the materials and ideas gained in the

previous year. Pre-service teachers have integrated the approaches into their unit planning,

practicum lessons, and have reported the outcomes of their experiences informally through

email.



Results

Classroom Outcomes

The pretest–posttest comparisons for Phase 1 and each of the inquiries in Phase 2 showed

significant improvements for both classes on all item types, which indicated that the use of

educational technologies was effective for learning about chemistry concepts, addressing

alternative conceptions, and for developing students‘ representational competence. Thematic

analysis of interview responses and video data indicated that students engaged in higher order

thinking and collaboration during the production of their multimodal texts, particularly the

digital posters. During the study, students successfully utilised databases, spreadsheets, graphing

software, multimedia publishing tools, simulations, molecular modelling tools, web browsers,

and digital cameras. They used digital resources and educational technologies for a range of

purposes, including planning, drafting, research, data analysis and presentation, design, and

selection, modification, and production of representations and production of multimodal texts.

When collaborating, students were observed discussing the information inherent in particular

representations, identifying the best ways to integrate representations into explanations, and

debating the underlying meanings and explanations of data. The video data showed that students

were able to select critically relevant data and information from the digital resources provided

and connect experimental data with prior conceptual knowledge. Content analysis of student

texts showed that students created appropriate representations of data and could select, generate,

and integrate appropriate visual and symbolic representations to illustrate and explain their data

in terms of the underlying submicro-level processes. Students generated new knowledge and

inferences from the data, used a range of representations to illustrate, support, and complement

their written explanations and inferences, and made appropriate links between evidence and

claims. Students reported that using digital technologies to produce multimodal texts allowed

them to make multilevel explanations and supported their understanding of chemistry on a

submicro level. They also suggested that it promoted critical thinking and problem solving by

engaging them in analysing, representing, and explaining the data multimodally.

Analysis of the teacher reflection journal and video data from the teacher‘s perspective

revealed a number of strategies that indicated TPCK in practice. These included

identification of challenging topics and selection of appropriate technologies in response,

use of technologies as cognitive tools with which students learned through reasoning and

problem solving as distinct from simple tools for information delivery,

use of a range of representations to illustrate the triplet relationship, with a focus on their

translation using digital technologies, and

use of technology to support and complement other learning experiences such as laboratory

work and class discussion.

It also suggested that TPCK developed through the course of the unit, with more frequent

utilisation of various technologies in response to students‘ difficulties or in response to the level

of difficulty of particular concepts, as the unit progressed.

Teacher Education Outcomes

Feedback from teachers who attended the workshops show that around 67% rate the

workshops as ―very useful‖ and a further 29% rate them as ―useful‖. Common written comments



relate to the usefulness of the resources as learning tools, the immediate application to classroom

practice, the relevance to current curriculum, and the free access to the software and activities.

Several teachers have commented that they would use the resources in their own classroom or

that they felt confident that they could adapt them for their own purposes.

The varied learning opportunities in the workshops have elicited a number of common

responses. The activities that place teachers in the role of student by asking questions, such as

What information do each of these representations provide? or What representations would you

use to explain . . . ?, have allowed teachers to develop a clearer understanding of the challenges

faced by students in chemistry. An example of a common response is, ―I never realised before,

but this is really hard and we ask kids to do this every day.‖ These activities have also served to

illustrate what is meant by representational competence and how it should be developed

intentionally, rather than assumed. They have also drawn attention to the need to make explicit

reference to individual and multiple representations and to ensure that students experience a

range of representations of concepts on each of the three levels.

The hands-on activities that involve digital technologies such as simulations and

molecular-modelling software have increased teachers‘ awareness of the technologies

themselves as well as helping them to develop some rudimentary skills in accessing and using

the software, increasing their confidence in using it in planning and in the classroom. These

activities have also been accompanied by worksheets used in the study to model the ways that

the technology can be employed for particular purposes or for guiding students‘ thinking or

inquiry activities. Some teachers have reported that these activities have ―been just what I‘ve

been looking for‖, meaning that the teachers recognise the need to utilise digital technologies,

but perhaps because of lack of time or resources have been unaware of the possibilities.

Discussion and Conclusion

This paper focuses on the implications of the study for teacher education and this section

centres on the outcomes for the teacher-researcher and the outcomes of the approaches to teacher

education to this point. It is sufficient to note that the integration of digital technologies

employed in the classroom study was effective from the students‘ perspective, resulting in many

positive outcomes including increased conceptual understanding, enhanced competence in the

triplet relationship, promotion of higher order thinking, support for collaboration, and high levels

of motivation and interest. From the teacher-researcher‘s perspective, the process of developing

TPCK began long before the classroom study commenced. It required preparation including

literature research about students‘ common misconceptions, locating and trialling available

technologies (including a pilot study), designing a unit of study, developing classroom resources

that employed technologies for specific purposes to enhance learning opportunities, editing

simulations to adapt them to the concepts being covered, and considering the training students

would need to use the different technologies. Suffice to say that the luxury of time to undertake

such tasks is not available to classroom teachers, and this was one of the major motivating

factors behind the development of the teacher workshops. Indeed one of the most common

comments from teacher participants is that they have appreciated hearing and seeing what works

in a real classroom because they would never have the time to find and evaluate these resources

or develop the activities themselves without the knowledge and models provided. This is a

strength of this form of teacher education. On the other hand, this type of workshop can only



contribute to raising teachers‘ awareness and perhaps provide some materials and motivation as a

starting point for their own journey to developing TPCK.

From the perspective of the teacher-researcher in the study, it has become clear that the

best way for teachers to develop TPCK is through a process of action research, designing

learning experiences that integrate technologies in their own classrooms as teachers-as-

researchers. This approach is aligned with the process developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006),

which they called learning technology by design. The approach advocated in this paper,

however, differs from that of Mishra and Koehler in that it calls for teachers to design

pedagogical strategies and learning experiences that integrate technologies rather than designing

specific technologies for learning. This approach allows the teacher to consider their own context

and students and to devise activities to integrate technologies in ways that best suit students‘

needs, the concepts being studied, and the school‘s access to digital resources. It is important to

note that this developmental process requires changes to the teacher‘s pedagogy and few of

today‘s teachers have been taught how to teach their subjects with technology (Neiss, 2005). In

addition, as noted by Ertmer (2005), the level of use of high-level technologies such as

simulations and modelling software in chemistry teaching is surprisingly low. It is also

acknowledged in the literature that when teachers have new technologies in their classrooms,

they often use them without changing pedagogical practices and fail to utilise the affordances of

the technologies or to realise their learning potential for students (Webb & Cox, 2004).

According to Mishra and Koehler (2005), the focus of teacher education about

technologies must shift from what teachers need to know about the technology to how to use

technologies and to this end, they argued against traditional technology workshops that train

teachers in the technology without consideration of the associated content or pedagogical

knowledge. The workshops described in this paper differ from those against which Mishra and

Koehler advocated, because they place the technological applications at the centre of the content

and pedagogical approaches necessary for their successful implementation. However, as noted

previously, single workshops cannot succeed in developing TPCK, only prolonged classroom-

based practice and a willingness to change pedagogies and reconsider how content is represented

can achieve these goals. Evidence from the study suggests that increasing teachers‘ awareness of

the potential affordances of technologies for teaching concepts and the pedagogical strategies for

integrating them is a valuable first step in the process. Teachers who have attended annual

conferences and who have built on these experiences in their classrooms over a year have

reported that they have had success in implementing the technologies, have changed their

teaching approaches, and have noted a range of positive learning outcomes for students. They

have been so enthusiastic about their experiences that they have presented their experiences in

other workshops to inform other teachers about how they have integrated the technologies and

why the process has been so useful.

The focus of the discussion thus far has been on addressing the need to enhance current

classroom teachers‘ TPCK. Of equal importance is ensuring that pre-service teacher education

attends to this need. Few teachers are taught how to teach with technology and given that few

teachers are using high-level technologies in their classrooms, pre-service teachers are unlikely

to have been taught with these technologies when they were in school. Further, during practicum

sessions in schools, pre-service teachers may not have supervising teachers who are utilising

technologies for the purposes outlined in this paper. Indeed, one student in the first author‘s class

returned from practicum with the feedback from his supervising teacher that he ―used too much

technology‖. These observations provide a clear argument for the need to ensure that pre-service



teacher education incorporates opportunities for the development of TPCK. Recommended

strategies include but are not limited to:

raising pre-service teachers‘ awareness of the potential uses of educational technologies for

teaching particular concepts;

challenging pre-service teachers to develop ways of teaching content with technologies and

to consider how to integrate them into their teaching;

focusing on the pedagogies and content representations that will support effective teaching

and learning with technologies;

modelling and requiring students to develop curriculum materials such as lesson and unit

plans and learning activities that integrate selected technologies to enhance teaching of

challenging concepts; and

practising pedagogical approaches that involve technologies, for example, by providing

workshops for their peers to demonstrate appropriate pedagogies and learning activities that

utilise the affordances of the chosen technologies.

This paper has argued that it is important that teachers utilise digital technologies to help

students to overcome challenges in learning abstract concepts and develop representational

competence in chemistry; however, other subject areas within and beyond the disciplines of

science have equally challenging concepts, the teaching and learning of which could be enhanced

through the application of appropriate educational technologies. It is important that teacher

educators recognise the importance of developing TPCK in pre-service and in-service teachers

and continue to develop new approaches to helping teachers to achieve this important goal.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant for several reasons. It has shown that using educational

technologies in a range of learning activities is effective for improving students‘ ability to

construct new knowledge, develop representational competence, and make multilevel

explanations using appropriate representations. Indeed, it could be argued that these outcomes

can only be realised through the effective use of technologies. The study allowed the

development of the teacher-researcher‘s TPCK to be described and this experience has been

adapted, leading to the development and successful implementation of teacher education

workshops to disseminate the findings, promoting the use of digital technologies to enhance

learning. Further, the study has implications for the ways in which teacher educators encourage

teachers to engage with digital technologies in their classrooms and in so doing, develop their

own TPCK. The study also has practical implications for the ways that pre-service teachers are

prepared to become teachers who utilise the full range of affordances of educational technologies

in ways that enhance their pedagogies and promote deeper understanding in their students.

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Reference # 70

Topic # 4

Using an electronic portfolio to improve field work

in educational administration Gary Hoban [email protected], National University, USA

Clifford Tyler [email protected], National University, USA

The purpose of this paper is to describe the National University Educational Administration

Preliminary Credential Portfolio Fieldwork program, translating theory into practice. This paper

will also trace the lengthy developmental process from the traditional hardcopy fieldwork portfolio

that candidates have traditionally assembled over the past 20 year to the newly-developed E-

Portfolio. The E-Portfolio will be described in detail, where candidates post their fieldwork

activities and documentation online, which has encouraged more student/faculty interaction

throughout the entire fieldwork process, and has provided more consistent instructor grading from

a rubric, and more complete data reporting for the university accrediting agencies.

A brief Overview of National University‘s Educational Administration Program

National University is headquartered in San Diego, California, and has 28 campuses

throughout the state and one in Nevada. It was founded in 1971, so it is a relatively young

university. Its mission, then as now, is to serve the needs of the adult learner. Today the

University enrolls 22,000 full-time equivalent students, with an average age of 34. Nearly 60

percent of the students are in the School of Education and nearly 1500 each year prepare to

become licensed school administrators not only in California but also throughout the United

States. There is a small but growing number of students completing their Master of Science

degree in Educational Administration while residing in other countries as well. From its

beginning, National University developed an instructional delivery format that has students take

one course a month for two nights a week, with one Saturday class. This format is replicated in

online courses as well. (Hoban and Castle, 2007)

National University, according to statistics provided by the California Commission on

Teacher Credentialing (October 24, 2007), which is responsible for overseeing certification in

California, has prepared the largest number of certified school leaders/administrators in the state,

approximately 300 a year, for the past several years. In 2006, to serve these students and its large

online enrollment, faculty moved from an administrative/management based curriculum to a

leadership/instruction based curriculum. This move came as the result of several years of

department discussion, reflection on leadership research, assessing the needs of students, and,

above all, responding to the national and international calls as well as new state mandated

accreditation directions for developing standards based school leadership preparation programs.

(Hoban and Tyler, 2008)

The Field Experience Component---Translating Theory Into Practice

In the National University Educational Administration Preliminary Credential Program,

candidates complete project based field work requiring they finish twenty-two (22) significant

administrative activities in eleven (11) program categories. These activities are designed to apply

theoretical concepts studied in core credential classes to practical settings. Each candidate



addresses the major duties and responsibilities authorized by the administrative services

certificate in a variety of realistic settings. Field experiences include intensive experiences both

in the day-to-day functions of administrators and in longer term policy design and

implementation. Field experiences have been and are conducted in schools with a culturally and

linguistically diverse student population.

To complete field work requirements in the past, students submitted a traditional two to

four inch hard copy loose leaf portfolio binder, organized into the 22 separate activities, each

with documentation, along with the necessary signed field experiences agreement, field

experiences plan worksheet, candidate contact log with his or her university supervisor,

candidate self-evaluation, evaluation of candidate, and evaluation of program by candidate. (The

E-Portfolio Manual, National University, 2009).

The Traditional Portfolio—Issues and Concerns

While the traditional portfolio (hard copy loose leaf binder) satisfactorily met the

fieldwork course outcomes and requirements, it fell short in several areas, especially inadequate

and infrequent contact between the student and university supervisor for providing formative

feedback and evaluation of completed activities until the final submission of the portfolio binder

at the end of the course. Using the traditional portfolio, university supervisor/student

communications were usually limited to an initial meeting between the university supervisor and

student; a second meeting with the student, his or her site supervisor/mentor, university

supervisor; and a final meeting among the university supervisor, student and site

supervisor/mentor when all of the activities were signed off for completion.

Another concern regarding the use of the traditional, hard copy portfolio has been lack of

storage space for student-competed multiple loose leaf portfolio binders at the University‘s

regional academic centers. Often the binders would disappear or get lost over time and were not

maintained or properly stored for easy access in the event of accreditation visits. Other concerns

included the absence of a rubric for evaluating the quality of the students‘ completed activities

and inconsistent data collection from the loose leaf binders when preparing internal and

external program assessments. This inconsistency occurred because there are a large number of

instructors teaching this fieldwork course who submitted incomplete data or no data at all.

Why an Electronic Portfolio for the National University

Educational Administration Program: A Rationale

National University‘s Educational Administration program, leading to the California and

other states‘ equivalent preliminary administrative services credentials, has utilized a portfolio to

capture student responses to field work experiences for over 20 years. To complete their field

work part of the program, students, as noted immediately above, have been required to complete

a portfolio that addresses 11 administrative competencies which today align with the California

Professional School Educational Leadership Standards (CPSELS) and the ISSLIC (Interstate

School Licensure Consortium) standards. Students complete two administrative activities per

category, or 22 activities, then produce a self-evaluation and request a site mentor/ supervisor to

evaluate them in terms of these standards. These requirements are summarized and outlined in a

published Portfolio Manual. Until recently , students created voluminous notebooks that

Hoban & Tyler: Using an electronic portfolio to improve fieldwork


described the activities, what happened during the activities, and what they thought of the

activities—reflections of sorts.

Over the years, however, this approach to portfolio construction was lacking, with faculty

consistently recognizing that the student reflection/evaluation piece, especially, was weak.

Students typically dismissed the evaluation component with exceptionally brief and often almost

meaningless comments. That motivated faculty to find a better way to address this concern. To

start, they began with an examination of the theoretical underpinnings of portfolio development.

The literature regarding the construction of student portfolios is consistent. For the most

part, it addresses student teacher portfolios and rarely field work completed by candidates

seeking to become school administrators. And what can be usually found for administrative

candidates is a portfolio approach that archives student projects from completed courses, not

actual field work itself.

Helen Barrett in a keynote address to the Eifel Conference in London, 2009, observes that

―reflection is the heart and soul of a portfolio.‖ Barrett, in another venue, recalls the history of

portfolio development when she writes:

The use of ―portfolio assessment‖ in education emerged in the late 1980s, primarily in college

writing classrooms (Belanoff, Elbow, 1991), to address the needs for accountability: the emphasis

on portfolio assessment. In K-12 classrooms, the emphasis was more on portfolios as a showcase

of learning, as a counterpoint to traditional forms of assessment or to illuminate capabilities not

covered by standardized testing. the emphasis on portfolio assessment. According to Kathleen

Blake Yancey and Irwin Weiser (1997), those purposes are becoming reversed, with post

secondary institutions exploring the wide varieties of purposes for portfolios (learning, advising,

employment) and with state departments of educations (Kentucky, Vermont, Connecticut)

designing statewide models of student portfolios for statewide assessment.

It is to this latter aspect of using portfolios—not the archival/showcase process –that

educational administration faculty at National University began to turn, especially learning and

advising. More specifically, the faculty wanted to redesign the existing portfolio approach from

just documenting student progress in completing field work to providing administrative

candidates with greater opportunities to reflect upon and to evaluate their actual work and to

explore how the field experience might impact their future career performance. In other words,

the portfolio was not to be a volume collecting past history of things done, but an interactive tool

to be used with faculty in giving meaning to field work experiences and to consider what the

Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning (2002) explored in its Folio Thinking Project,

noting that ― the reflective practice of creating portfolios enables students to document and track

their learning, develop an integrated , coherent picture of their learning experiences, and enhance

their self understanding.‖

By definition, an e-portfolio or digital portfolio is a collection of electronic evidence

compiled and organized by a user, i.e. student. Such electronic evidence may include inputted

text, electronic files, images, multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. E-portfolios can be a

user‘s self-expression or a demonstration of student‘s abilities, which is maintained over a period

of time. Some e-portfolio applications permit varying degrees of audience access, so the same

portfolio might be used for multiple purposes. An e-portfolio can be seen as a type of learning

record that provides actual evidence of achievement. Learning records are closely related to an

individual student learning plan, an ingenious way for individuals to manage their learning

independently.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink



Students can communicate their learning for understanding to an instructor or others

through an electronic portfolio. E-portfolios, like traditional portfolios, can facilitate students‘

reflection on their own learning and can lead to more awareness of learning strategies and needs.

Results of a comparative research between paper based portfolios and electronic portfolios in the

same setting, suggest use of an electronic portfolio leads to better learning outcomes.

There are three main types of e-portfolios, although they may be referred to using different terms:

developmental (e.g., working), reflective (e.g., learning), and representational (e.g., showcase). A

developmental e-portfolio is a record of things that the owner has done over a period of time, and

may be directly tied to learner outcomes or rubrics. A reflective e-portfolio includes personal

reflection on the content and what it means for the owner‘s development. A representational e-

portfolio shows the owner‘s achievements in relation to particular work or developmental goals

and is, therefore, selective. When it is used for job application it is sometimes called Career

portfolio. The three main types may be mixed to achieve different learning, personal, or work-

related outcomes with the e-portfolio owner usually being the person who determines access levels

(Wikipedia, 2009).

In addition to allowing for administrative candidates to reflect on their field work

experiences, moving to an electronic portfolio, as opposed to having students prepare a hard

copy print version, engages candidates in advancing their own technical skills, something

necessary for a school leader these days and well stated in a paper ―Applying Learning Pattern

Theory to Electronic Portfolio Development: Navigating On-Going Programmatic Evaluation.‖

As technology continues to be integrated into schools and classrooms, the principal is viewed as

the technology leader (Creighton, 2003). Leadership candidates need to develop sufficient comfort

with technology in order to assume the responsibility inherent in the position of principal. An

assignment to create an e-folio, thereby, offers leadership candidates the opportunity to develop

expertise in multiple software environments. Students‘ technological skills are important factors

in the construction of e-folios and the success of an assessment system (Montgomery and Wiley,

2004)

And there is another aspect to portfolio development that needed to be considered—the

assessment of student work, not only for the student‘s benefit but also to meet the needs of state,

regional, and national accrediting bodies. For some time NCATE has required substantive,

documented assessment data as it reviews programs. These data are to be from a variety of

sources, including signature assignments in courses, comprehensive program exit examination

results, candidate evaluations by site supervisors, and assessments of field work by university

supervisors. These data points are also essential in meeting internal University annual program

assessments and state accreditation requirements such as those required by the California

Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC) and the Western Association of Schools and

Colleges (WASC), both accreditors of National University‘s educational programs. Capturing

these data in the past had been somewhat of a chore, with heavy reliance on individual faculty

reporting of scores and affirmation of field work portfolio assessment being indicated by a

―Pass—Fail‖ designation without individualized discrimination regarding the qualitative

accomplishment of students on the competencies/standards addressed in the field work.

Developing and implementing an electronic portfolio would enable university supervisors not

only to assess individual work using a scoring rubric but also would allow for an efficient data

collection process to be designed that would not rely on manual tabulation and faculty reporting.

This would expedite the assessment process considerably as Wetzel and Strudler, Addis and Luz

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_portfolio

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubric_(academic)





(March, 2009) discovered in their study of Board of Examiner Reports submitted to NCATE in

2007 which showed that more and more universities were using the electronic format.

The Journey to an Electronic Portfolio

While the National University Educational Administration Department introduced the

electronic portfolio as a requirement for completing fieldwork in January, 2009, the journey to

develop a usable, student and faculty friendly instrument which addressed the concerns noted

above was long and hard.

The Educational Administration Department faculty began exploring the development of

an electronic portfolio almost ten years ago. A first effort began with an outside vendor that had

difficulty in conceptualizing what an electronic portfolio was expected to provide, and perhaps,

not the clearest directions from the faculty who wanted to have an exact replicate of the hard

copy version. And, unfortunately on the part of the external development team, most of the

concern was for the technical side of development, with a team being sent from Barcelona to the

University to make a presentation on the technology and the mathematical formulae being used

to build an electronic portfolio. While well meaning, the presentation only confused efforts and

the project was abandoned. Shortly after, another attempt to develop an electronic portfolio was

also undertaken with another company which did get involved with department faculty and did

listen to their needs. However, this attempt quickly failed as the owner of the company did not

ever produce a prototype to be reviewed and there was a dispute over the costs of development,

with actual costs substantively overrunning projected costs.

As an interim measure and in attempt to move beyond hard copy three ring binders with

portfolio write ups and selected artifacts, the department decided to require that all student

materials and artifacts , as formatted in the original hardcopy Portfolio Manual, be presented on a

CD which then would be reviewed by university field work supervisors and archived for later

manual data retrieval for assessment purposes .This approach solved the storage problem

presented by keeping hundreds of hard copies, but it did not address the faculty‘s inability to

interact with students electronically while they were building their portfolios during their field

work.

In 2006, as observed earlier, the Educational Administration Department revised its

educational administration program to meet new California standards mandated by CCTC. While

developing an electronic portfolio was not required or even suggested, the department began to

seriously reconsider moving in this direction again. This time, however, the process was more

deliberate and precise. A faculty committee was formed to develop the specifications for an

electronic portfolio, with attention being given to the ability to interact with students as they

were completing their field work. This had become an even more critical component of the

design as the majority of students were completing the program online, often in other parts of the

country or abroad and thus could not be visited personally during the field work experiences.

And the assessment needs had grown, with a strong university need to retrieve evaluation data

from employers regarding student performance on competencies/standards and the dispositions

and skills needed to become a school leader. Also, there was the need for graded, qualitative

assessment of student field work using a rubric, something that had been lacking in the past.

The faculty committee met regularly and explored several e-portfolio approaches and

companies that provide a platform for this kind of endeavor. In the end, the committee decided



to work with Folio-Tech which is affiliated with E-College which provides the platform for the

University‘s extensive online degree programs. The committee worked on a regular basis with a

design team from E-College headquarters in Denver, using the internet for long distance

meetings, and a local University technology expert affiliated with E-College. Several

presentations of the emerging project were made to the entire department faculty, which is

spread throughout the state of California, at twice a year in-person faculty assemblies in San

Diego, the headquarters of the University, and through specially arranged electronic meetings

using the internet. Several prototypes were presented and tested and once most of the issues had

been discussed by all faculty, it was decided to ―go live‖ on January 1, 2009, with all new

students and continuing students who had not begun their field work being required to use the

electronic portfolio as they progressed through their field work.

Now that the electronic portfolio for field work is in place, students and faculty are using

it with relative success, although there has been some resistance on the part of some faculty who

preferred the hard copy print version or the CDs. This was especially so for some adjunct faculty

who served as field work supervisors, with some resigning because they did not want to learn the

new technology, even after a number of training sessions led by the in house e-portfolio expert

and a colleague from the department who is well versed in this approach.

The Final Product

Perhaps the best way to present the final product is to share an example. Following is a

response to one of the categories/competencies required of the student. For each category there is

a template that is completed by the students and submitted to the instructor/university supervisor.

As the activity is being completed, the student sends a copy to the instructor who provides

feedback. When the final version is ready, the student submits the write-up and the

documentation for evaluation. What follows is a sample write up, the rubric, the score, and the

final comment of the instructor—in this case short because there was more lengthy commentary

provided earlier in the process. In the opinion of the instructor, the student has done well and has

been given a score of three on the three point rubric. It is apparent that the student has thought

through the activity and has learned from it—the goal of the field experience activity in the first

place. Also, this scoring information, including the site mentor‘s evaluation of the student, is

automatically entered electronically into the University‘s assessment system.

Student Name Category 6. Human Resource Administration National University

Activity Title: Mock Evaluation

Date Completed: August 1, 2009 Identify the activity: I will conduct a mock evaluation of a fellow teacher using the union approved evaluation tool. The evaluation will be done on a teacher who agreed to volunteer to let me evaluate them for the purpose of this class. I will hold a post conference just as an administrator would. Explain the implementation: I used the union approved evaluation tool to evaluate a fellow teacher just as an administrator would in my district. I observed the teacher for one whole period just as an administrator would during a real evaluation. I tried to conduct my self just as an administrator would for a real evaluation. The teacher who volunteered was aware that I would be coming in to conduct an evaluation, but would only be using the results to fulfill the requirements for this class. The volunteer also agreed to the post conference after the mock evaluation was completed. Examine the process: I have had experience being evaluated with our approved evaluation tool. Four domains are examined during an evaluation in our district:



Domain A - Organizing Content Knowledge for Student Learning Domain B – Creating an Environment for Student Learning Domain C – Teaching for Student Learning D Domain D – Teacher Professionalism

However only two of the domains are used when a teacher is being observed in the classroom: Domain B- Classroom Environment and Domain C- Instruction. The other two domains A and D are discussed towards the end of the year during a summative evaluation along with the three classroom evaluations that were completed during the year. For the purposes of this class I used the “Teacher Observation Instrument” which focuses on domains B and C. There are 5 performance ratings that are used during a classroom evaluation for each of the subsections in the two domains: U: Unsatisfactory NI: Needs Improvement S: Satisfactory E: Excellent Not Obs.: Not Observed. As part of our CIP (Continuous Improvement Plan), I had to observe fellow teachers to see if they had an engaging classroom with engaging activities, so when I went to conduct my mock evaluation I was not too nervous. I sat down in the back of the room with my Teacher Observation Instrument and began to take notes. I briefly scanned the 10 items that are to be observed and evaluated. The classroom I observed was a science class and the teacher’s lesson was a water lab. After a while I decided to get up and actively engage myself in the classroom (my administrator does this quite often when he observes). Doing this was the best thing that I could have done. Walking around and being engaged allowed me to get a better feel for evaluating the classroom environment and instruction. It helped me to reassure myself that the subsections for each domain were being met. Is seemed like before I knew it the class was over and I had ratings and notes taken for each subsection. I never had to use the Not Obs. rating. The teacher displayed to me every subsection; all with S or E ratings. I gave an E rating for B5: Making the physical environment as safe and conducive to learning as possible and C4: Monitoring understanding, providing feedback, and adjusting learning activities as the situation demands. These are two very important things that a science teacher must do during a lab. Students seemed to know the lab rules and everyone stayed dry. The teacher also walked around the room giving “teacher checks” as students completed each phase of the lab. I did give an S for C5: Using instructional time effectively, because when the bell rang not all of the students were ready to be dismissed and were still cleaning up. I did not feel that this merited an NI or U since it was a lab and time can sometimes be hard to plan for. Later that day the teacher came to my administrator’s office to meet with me for the post conference. I discussed what I had observed and explained my notes to the teacher. I explained to the teacher how I thought the lesson was a great lesson and pointed out the things that I thought were excellent. Then we discussed ways the teacher would improve even more the next time the lab was done. At the end of the conference both of us signed off on the “Teacher Observation Instrument” and just as an administrator would, I made a copy for the teacher to take back with them. This was a great experience for me. Being on the other end of an evaluation really showed me how thorough only 10 items can be. I not only have gained new respect for my administrator, but also for the union sub-committee that developed the observation tool. Category 6, Student Activity 2:

Student Activity Form

BTLSD Observation Form

Rubric

3 A clearly written, reflective and fully developed three part response to the activity. The response demonstrates content mastery and provides substantial

documentation.

2 An acceptably written, reflective three part response to the activity. The

response demonstrates content mastery and provides adequate documentation.

1 An unacceptable response with limited or no documentation.

Results 3:

Comments : I am glad that you had such a successful experience. I thought you would.

Some Final Thoughts

Now that the e-portfolio for National University‘ educational administration has been

implemented, there are a number of students who have completed their work using it. While it is

most likely too soon to provide any definitive reactions to it, some conclusions can be drawn.

The e-portfolio does require more student – instructor interaction time than was usually the case

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when the old portfolio was presented at the end of the process—taking almost a year—as an

almost exclusively summative document. The capability of interaction keeps the students and

instructors in touch throughout the process. Also, as the sample shows, the quality of responses

and reflections is improving, with current instructor observations indicating that the quality of

reflections and responses to be significantly better than those found in the older, hard copy/CD

approach. The field work has now become a true learning and reflective process and is

considerably more than a chronicle of activities.

Things, however, are far from perfect. Faculty resistance does remain in some quarters,

perhaps because of the added time required to interact or perhaps because of discomfort with the

technology. To address this issue, there is continuous faculty mentoring for the process and the

University representative of Folio-Tech continues to work closely with selected faculty to trouble

shoot all problems and to assist individual faculty members as they become more proficient in e-

portfolio use. Also needed in the future is the development of a brief online orientation to help

acquaint and navigate faculty members, school site mentors and students with E-Portfolio and its

operations.

At this point in the implementation of the e-portfolio at National University, the

educational administration faculty is, for the most part, quite pleased with the result and looks

forward to continually improving the process and enhancing the learning opportunities for future

school leaders.

References

Barrett, Helen (2009). Keynote Address, Eifel, 7th

International e-Portfolio Conference, London

Barrett, Helen (2003). The Research on Portfolios in Education. http://electronic Portfolios.org/ALI/research.html

Blake Yancey, K and Weiser, I (1997). Situating portfolios. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, Cited in

Barrett, Helen (2003). The Research on Portfolios in Education.

http://electronicPortfolios.org/ALI/research.html

Belanoff, P, Peter Elbow, and Sheryl I. Fontaine eds. (1991). Nothing Begins with N: New Investigations of

Freewriting. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois Univ. Press,. Cited in Barrett, Helen (2003). The

Research on Portfolios in Education. http://electronicPortfolios.org/ALI/research.html

Creighton, T. (2003). The principal as technology leader. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Cited in Applying Learning

Pattern Theory to Electronic Portfolios. www.letmelearn.org/wp-content/uploads/electronic_portfolio.pdf.

Electronic Portfolios. Electronic E- portfolio.org.

Electronic portfolios. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_portfolio

Hoban, G. and Tyler, C. (2009). Meeting the challenge of preparing tomorrow‘s school leaders in a standards based

era of change. A paper presented at the International Conference on Educational Leadership, Bangalore, India,

January, 5-7, 2009

Hoban, G, and Castle, S. (2007). Preparing school leaders in the electronic age. A paper presented at the ACEL

ASCD AJCTPA Conference, Sydney, Australia; October 11, 2007.

Montgomery, K. and Wiley, D. (2004). Creating e-portfolios using Power Point. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications, Inc. Cited in Applying Learning Pattern Theory to Electronic Portfolios.

www.letmelearn.org/wp-content/uploads/electronic_portfolio.pdf

Rickards, W.; Diez, M.; Ehlely, L.;Guilbault, L.; Loacker, G. ; Reissetter Hart, J; and Smith, P. (2008). Learning,

Reflections, and Electronic Portfolios: Stepping Toward an Assessment Practice. The Journal of general

education. Volume 57, Number 1, 2008.

Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning (2002a). Folio thinking: Personal learning portfolios.

http://scil.stanford.edu_research/foliothinking/index_more.html. (March 16, 2006). Cited in Rickards, W.;

Diez, M.; Ehlely, L.;Guilbault, L.; Loacker, G. ; Reissetter Hart, J; and Smith, P. (2008). Learning,

Reflections, and Electronic Portfolios: Stepping Toward an Assessment Practice. The Journal of general

education. Volume 57, Number 1, 2008.

The E-Portfolio Manual. San Diego, CA: National University School of Education. March, 2009.

http://electronic/

http://electronicportfolios.org/ALI/research.html

http://electronicportfolios.org/ALI/research.html

http://www.letmelearn.org/wp-content/uploads/electronic_portfolio.pdf

http://www.letmelearn.org/wp-content/uploads/electronic_portfolio.pdf

http://scil.stanford.edu_research/foliothinking/index_more.html


Reference # 71

Topic # 3

Assuring quality teaching when addressing students in a diversified classroom Jan Horck [email protected], World Maritime University, Sweden

This paper is about professors‘ understanding and perception in addressing a diversified adult

student complement. The example is taken from a study at the World Maritime University. A total

of 17 semi-structured conversations were conducted with the university‘s permanent and visiting

professors. The study is based on the Bronfenbrenner‘s theory Ecology of Human Development.

The analysis of collected data basically stems from two inductive strategies: Marton‘s

phenomenography and Potter‘s discourse analysis. The study concludes that a different pedagogic

understanding is required in order to meet students‘ different cognitive styles and to handle

diversity. This study will give a voice to the teachers. The study also suggests that both students

and professors should take short courses in cultural awareness and undertake sensitivity training.

Introduction

The professor‘s (teacher‘s) role in a classroom with students from many different

cultures, possibly, requires a special approach in class that has, occurred very little in practice.

The problem is emphasised in the following words formulated by Hargreaves (2003, p.1): ―The

world in which teachers do their work is changing profoundly‖ and ―all teaching can be a high-

skill, creative, life-shaping mission because the knowledge society requires nothing less‖. This

might sound obvious but as scholars have argued; it is high time to do something about it.

Probably, a genuine rethinking on the role of teaching is required when practised in a

multicultural context. ―A teacher‘s identity is contextual and a constructed process‖ Jönsson et al

(2006, p. 72). A new professor identity should be constructed to suit a multicultural school

context; an identity that gives meaning on how an individual‘s professional identity is adapted to

this new environment.

This study examines experiences, various constraints and challenges that professors meet

in multicultural maritime classroom contexts. The assumption is that experienced professors‘

pedagogic knowledge can be a valuable and a useful source of practical encounters with students

that should be passed on to other professors. ―Tried experience is something more than

experience …‖ Franck (2001, p. 25).

Within this study, the informants‘ experience together with the students‘ remarks could

be an asset to other professors. It could even be a recommendation on professor performance in

the classrooms of the future.

World Maritime University (WMU); an MSc in Maritime Affairs

In 1983 the UN Special Agency the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) initiated

the university. Today, it is not that all UN agencies incorporate into resolutions, codes and

regulations etc. a model-course on how such instruments should be implemented and executed.

Part of the WMU mandate is to promulgate IMO instruments.

The academic staff of the WMU consists of permanent professors and visiting professors

from the maritime industry. The word professor is used here to mean a person who has been



appointed a professor because of his or her knowledge of a certain subject; a general approach in

USA. At the WMU all contacts in class is conducted in the English language. It is noteworthy

that both the visiting professors and the permanent professors are mostly men. The knowledge

amalgamation is built on managerial subject-modules.

The students come from all over the world to study for 17 months (to be reduced to 14

months) to acquire an MSc in Maritime Affairs. About 20 per cent of the students are women.

The maritime classroom is not anymore mono-cultural on any side of the rostrum and it is not

anymore traditionally male dominated.

Theoretical approach

Various environmental impacts on human development have been extensively identified

and discussed by Bronfenbrenner (1977). He formulated four basic concepts in his theoretical

system and proposed his Ecological Systems Theory.

Drakenberg (2004) and Engler (2007) have added environmental systems to

Bronfenbrenner‘s. Of special interest is Engler‘s resilience system. Bronfenbrenner is not

considering that many people have a resilience ability making them harden against influences; to

thrive in this life and withstand mental illness. Working in a multicultural setting almost requires

such ability which includes social competence (SC). The latter being a competency often valued

more than intelligence (IQ).

To understand developmental changes the above systems helps when simplifying

observations for analysis.

An important development of human beings and their surrounding environment derives

from the fact that it involves a change of role. These role changes have an impact on how people

are treated and how people act and react. Automatically, a change follows in peoples‘ thinking;

physiological reactions and feelings. Therefore, what matters, in development and behaviour, is

how the environment, where personal actions take place, is perceived. As expressed by

Bronfenbrenner (1979, p. 4) ―… rather than as it may exist in ‗objective‘ reality‖. Furthermore

Bronfenbrenner has shown that a person‘s changes and/or changes in that person‘s environment

will not result in the same changes in another person in that same environment.

The study involves an identification of forces and environments having an impact on

learning and transferring knowledge.

The informants

The staff showed a great interest in participating in the study. Notwithstanding, two

persons from the cadre of permanent academic staff did not participate: one had no wish to

participate and the other person found an excuse in professing a heavy workload.

The conversation topics were not known to the informants in advance. The reason for this

was to get a direct and spontaneous response.

The data used in the analyses originated from transcriptions of conversations with 17

persons from the academic staff during autumn 2008. The national/cultural backgrounds of the

informants are from: America, Asia and Europe. However, there is a disproportional balance

between the genders due to the gender imbalance of staff at the WMU. Only three persons, out of

17 persons, are women. Furthermore, the visiting professors list, in the university 2008 yearbook,

show 56 persons and it includes three women (5 per cent).

Horck: Assuring quality teaching in a diversified classroom


The average professor‘s university employment varies from half a year to 24 years. Seven

of the interviewees had a past seafaring experience. The rest of the permanent staff had various

academic qualifications; from PhD to MSc or equivalent.

The conversations have been conducted in the interviewees‘ office. This was so arranged

in order to keep the interviewees in their own comfort zones. In situ studies are recognised as

bringing better validity to studies of human behaviour and are aimed at an interpreting meaning

of thought. Thus, the study was conducted in a real-life setting and the collected data were based

on experiences and contexts of everyday life. This is essential for the theory used in the study; a

study on people at their respective working environment and not in laboratories.

Discourse psychology

The analysis was based on a concentrated interpretation of the latent meaning of a set of

questions asked to the professors. The questions were presented to the informants during an

individual and unceremonious conversation. The average time for the conversations was 47

minutes. The conversations were then transcribed and analysed.

The analysing method was based on discourse psychology as presented by Jonathan

Potter. This strategy has been used by me in similar studies and proved to be well applicable on

the study undertaken.

I have tried to be open to variation but at the same time systematic in order to give the

analysis good sustainable academic buoyancy. An effort was to make the interpretations

communicable in an understandable way. The reason for this is that in the process of creating

meaning there must be room to discuss dilemmas and variance from what the sample/informants

express.

The strategy also involves finding out what the sample fails to describe, what is ignored

or left out. Inevitably a lot is left out which makes the analytic identification of things potentially

difficult or contentious. Potter (2004, p. 200) writes that ―Through using particular categoriza-

tions, speakers … may sustain or undermine particular inferences about themselves …‖.

Phenomenography

In addition to a discourse psychological approach to viewing spoken sentences a

phenomenographic research strategy, as presented by Ference Marton, was also applied. This

strategy also has been used by me in similar studies and proved to work very well when applied

together with discourse psychology.

Another reason for introducing a phenomenographic approach is to create the professor‘s

awareness of students and their situations. The strategy is applied in order to understand how

teachers think about the way they are in contact with students. Marton (1995) emphasises that it

never will be possible to reach a final description of a phenomenon because the descriptions that

a human being tells are always influenced by goals and intentions. Therefore, all varieties of

analysis become incomplete. This is why Marton talks about the sample (the object of the

research) as giving different ways of experience rather than different opinions. The act of

thinking becomes an experience. This is why phenomenography also becomes a strategy

focusing on descriptions.



Culture

For the purpose of this study the two expressions multiculture and interculture were

interpreted in the following way.

With multicultural in this context I follow Lorentz (2007, p. 98, my translation) saying

that it denotes ―… a condition, a situation, a position‖. Intercultural is similarly defined as an

action and movement between individuals. Lorentz (2007) notes that one can discuss an

intercultural pedagogy in a multicultural classroom. From several studies on the multicultural it

can be found that thoughts and theories on how to conduct a pedagogic activity that recognise

learning, knowledge and development as universal is totally misleading (Lorentz, 2007). A

different pedagogy is definitely needed in a cultural student mixture.

A person‘s own reality is conceptualised while he/she grows and matures and therefore is

linked to his/her culture. It follows that the uniqueness of a person who is not sharing with

his/her culture makes it impossible for him/her to speak about it with exactly the same aspect as

others who belong to the same culture (Uljens, 1989). Patton (1990, p. 338) has underlined that

―… cross-cultural interviewing is intriguing, challenging, rewarding, and not a little precarious‖.

Misconceptions are a possible consequence of this. Thus, the weakness in the methodology,

because of this, is acknowledged.

Analysis of conversations

The professors were keen to give their observations and opinions on the issues of the

agenda. From the 14 provided discussion topics the following information was observed. I have

included my analytical remarks to the answers of each question. These remarks should be seen as

giving a holistic view on the issue as I naturally became part of the study.

The observations have been grouped into: adjustment, communication and behaviour.

Adjustment

The questions related to adjustment comprise: A) Preparation before an activity bearing

in mind that the students: 1) Come from many different cultures, 2) Have different mother

tongues, 3) Some are seafarers and some are pure academics, 4) Students‘ English knowledge

varies, 5) There are few women in the class, 6) The age span is rather big (all grown-ups), 7)

Have different beliefs. B) Modifications in meeting class.

About 53 per cent of the interviewees answered that they prepare themselves differently

because of the mixture of students. The remaining 47 per cent of the professors do not do any

special preparation because of the composition of the students that they are meeting.

Prof B: I am able to gauge the level fairly quickly.

Prof I: I go into the class the same as if it was 15 high scholars/professors or if it was a group of

children from the elementary school.

It appears that the professors work out the way to tackle their activity in class during the

first contact. The inaugural presentation of a certain subject for learning is often influenced by

students‘ reaction and by students‘ body-signals that usually provide good feedback on their



reception. Semi-verbal responses constitute an important dimension of a dialogue throughout the

contact with the students and a professor needs to be observant on these phenomena.

About 31 per cent of the professors do not adjust their general activity in class in

response to the class composition. The rest, 69 per cent, adjust their activity and it is exemplified

with expressions such as: not to be too normative, never ever ask an Asian student to comment

unless the student has volunteered, be neutral, talk slowly, repeat a lot, be sensitive to different

cultures especially religious backgrounds, do not be provocative, adjust yourself, be careful with

some jokes that can be offensive, do not talk ironically or sarcastically because it will be

understood exactly as being said, do not touch on political issues, your attitude and gestures can

be an insult and it is better not to have any hidden meaning in what is said, etc.

To adjust ones behaviour becomes a natural way to show the audience respect. Normally,

the human being adjusts to whom they talk; the art of human dissimulation has been practised

from time immemorial.

Prof H: Declare objectives, keep language simple, speak slowly, always review, and provide time

for asking questions; be interactive.

It has been observed that the professors change after a trial and error process. The need

for changing could also be explained by lack of cultural awareness.

About 25 per cent of the professors adjust their activity/behaviour/vocabulary because

they address a class with few women or think that the women in class need extra attention. The

arguments for adjusting are exemplified with expressions like: design lectures so that you are not

showing any bias, or favours mentally towards male arguments and issues, be sensitive to

women, be careful telling jokes, do not crack sexist yokes, girls [female students] coming from

Islamic backgrounds need to be met with certain respects, there might be things I would not

mention because there are women in the class, etc.

The professors, 75 per cent, who favour no special attention because of the presence of

women, make this clear with utterances like:

Prof K: … they have to learn to assert themselves as equals and they should not get special

treatment.

Prof G: In front of me there are no women and no men only brains.

A surprisingly high per cent of the professors do not take on any special measures in their

approach to the class because of the presence of women.

In time 14 per cent had not changed their activity/behaviour/vocabulary in the classroom.

Professors that have changed, 86 per cent, have done so for the following reasons: I had to

change the impression of respect, I teach more about finding out, I have become more sensitive,

my English is better; my vocabulary is wider, I try to stay more focused and I do not try to be the

guru, my language has come down to earth, I know better how to behave, I avoid the one way

lecture, I now know how to act, etc.

Adjustment is often reasoned by the change of the students‘ pre-practical knowledge.

This made the professors return to lecturing i.e. addressing the students the traditional way and

meaning.

Prof J: I have realized that the students like to hear about my own experiences



Probably, the reason why the professors find it necessary to change their pitch in class is

because they do not have previous teaching knowledge.

It also appears that the professors are keen to satisfy students‘ wishes more than to follow

a prescribed curriculum. The aims of knowledge transfer are high, and the capacity to keep them

high is there, but the conditions and the reality makes the outcome lower on the knowledge scale.

Such policy might hamper the university‘s credibility.

Communication

The questions related to communication comprise: the exchange of knowledge both from

the rostrum and from the students and the females‘ possibilities to voice their knowledge and

opinions.

About 40 per cent of the professors think that women express themselves differently to

the men. The professors who see this difference have articulated this with: the women are a little

more careful and apologetic, it takes a bit longer before they get to the question, female students

from Asia are hesitant to ask questions, voices are a lot lower, they feel shy, women are a bit

more reticent, etc.

The low number of women in class could be a reason for neglecting their-needs. One

professor said that the women in many situations are super-respectful and therefore do not make

themselves stand out in class by asking questions but rather are reticent so that their marks

should not be affected. When the marks are based on written exams it does not matter how active

you are in class. In exams the women clearly show that they also understand.

If it is the male students who hinder the female students from showing their knowledge in

class the professors should interfere because some women‘s seclusion habits can be culturally

controlled. Of course, the academic performance of anyone should not suffer because of this

behaviour. Horck (2006) has shown that female students often take the back seat in group work

etc. The professors should be observant about such strategies so that it does not become a habit.

It is reasonably correct to assume that the women are silent also in their respective work

environments and that this habit is kept at the university. At WMU there are less cultural barriers

imposing restrictions. Though, if more than about three students from the same country/culture

are in a class, the culture barrier might assert itself - the women take the back seat.

A remarkable number of the sample confessed that they have problems in understanding

what the students say and mean both orally and in writing. Visiting professors, in general, have

difficulties in understanding the students in this way. Often this problem is explained in form of

students‘ weak English and the way they articulate. Other reasons for miscommunication have

been identified as: not understanding or knowing the subject terminology, the topic is too alien,

and that the students blend things together, etc.

Behaviour

The questions related to behaviour comprise: classroom gender neutrality, group work,

assessments and professors dissimulation.

The majority of the professors, 62 per cent, believe that the class is gender neutral. A few

professors said that they have experienced seafarers and students with a coastguard or navy

background who tend to dominate but when doing that it is often in a positive way; a helping

way.



Most professors use group work to give the students a different mode to grasp

knowledge. About 13 per cent of the professors decide the group composition and this is in order

to have the learners cooperate with people of different backgrounds, different nationalities and

gender. This means that about 87 per cent of the sample allows the students to form their own

groups or compose the groups by the use of a lottery system. This automatically will not

contribute to an intercultural exchange. Once the group structure has been established 13 per cent

of the academic staff keeps the structure during their entire course; not building up cultural

awareness.

Several professors expressed a wish to do more group work but this has become less

practicable due to the amount of lectures that have to be given. Another hindrance for group

work is that the time allocated for one subject normally is of one week duration and equal to one

credit. This means a total of 10 times 90 minutes contact time per week. Naturally, it becomes

un-workable to include group work. The professors who have been given more than a week to

cover a certain subject find it easier to have group work and as well are able to see the rewarding

result of this type of learning.

In general, the professors are not happy in the way the students are assessed at WMU.

The professors have expressed the following issues as problematic: I have to disappoint

somebody, the biggest dilemma is that I have to tell a student to go home, students‘ handwriting

is difficult to understand, the quality in the students‘ writing, the students often misunderstand

the questions, English is a problem with the students, I have difficulties to understand what they

mean, plagiarism and memorizing is terrible, and some students write very basic answers, etc.

One other issue that was discussed on this question was the difficulties in requiring the

students to demonstrate integrated knowledge when answering exam questions or when writing

assignments. Particularly, students from the Far East appear to have difficulties with a horizontal

alignment of specific phenomena.

Prof E: The ones [students] with good English and less substance they can create a good

impression.

A major reason why the professors recognise many challenges in assessing the students,

perhaps, had its explanation in the following remark:

Prof L: In other cultures, totally different systems exist to assess and here they [the students] do

not know what is expected from them.

The professors are of the opinion that assessments should be an integration of theory and

practice. This is a complicated wish to achieve. An educational policy is needed to establish

harmony in assessing; marking criteria exist, but perhaps they are not enough.

A grade B is regarded as a reasonable and good mark at many universities. For some

WMU students this is a horrifying grade because in their home countries a good student expects,

at least, an A. The university needs a strict policy on mark-setting otherwise the professors,

willingly or unwillingly, will be inclined to inflate the grades.

The majority of the respondents consider themselves as teachers in the meaning of

passing on knowledge to students; lecturing takes more than 60 per cent of time in class. In time,

the professors realise that their activity in class is best rewarded by giving the students

information on their own experiences and adding practical examples. Some professors indicated

that their contact with the students is not always at the master‘s level and this in order for all

students to be able to follow the message/knowledge that he or she wishes to pass on.



Next to being a teacher that lectures is to be a facilitator of knowledge, 36 per cent.

Some professors insisted that to be a teacher means to be a good facilitator which might alter this

a little. Other professors recognise themselves to be either: interpreters, resource persons,

encouragers or guides.

Prof Q: I am a resource person. I try to explain the areas of confusion.

Prof P: I am a facilitator. I tell the students where to get the knowledge.

The majority of the professors use the majority of their time together with the students, to

explain elementary knowledge. This is explained by the span in the students‘ academic and

practical background and that the classes are not homogeneous in the composition of students‘

pre-knowledge. This is a reason why the study period has to be longer than studies with a

homogeneous student body. Students need to familiarize themselves with the new study

environment, pedagogy, new colleagues, etc.

Discussion of results from an educational perspective

The observations from this study coincide with the theories by Bronfenbrenner on some

of his relevant systems. The environmental impact on the professors‘ behaviour in class,

according to Bronfenbrenner‘s theories, are to some extent shown to be realistic in the sense that

the professors generally do adjust (a micro-system significance). It is noted that some professors

are resilient to outside forces and behold their own maverick‘s attitude. Bronfenbrenner‘s meso-

system appears not to be relevant because the professors‘ more or less work in isolation with

little cooperation with management and other colleagues. In summary it would indicate that the

professors are individualists and this is not a new thing among teachers in general. What seems

to drive the professors is a subculture within the macro-system. The driving force is the

excitement of meeting the students being able to promote a better understanding of best work

practice. However, in modern education the academic staff should be part of a team and have a

common work-policy formulated by the management.

Andersson (1989, p. 53) writes that ―What happens at a specific time is not independent

on what has happened before this time and what will happen in the future…‖. This is an

observation passable for WMU long-serving professors. To get rid of past impressions

contaminates their view of today and is mirrored in the way they adapt to new thinking. Bi-

directional influences are strong and have greatest impact on the human being. A university

councillor can be assisted by Bronfenbrenner‘s systems to understand how the world surrounding

a person helps or hinders that person‘s continued development (Paquette, 2001). Using the

Bronfenbrenner model ―… we as a society together are influencing the lives of all people that we

interact with and knowing this hopefully we can try to become a better …[university]‖ (Yukti,

2008, my bracket).

At WMU the knowledge potential is strong but not efficiently used. An explanation could

partly be the milieu that does not encourage social contacts nor value initiatives, and partly the

rules of management.

In this study, teaching is the same as lecturing, which is passing knowledge on to

students. My impression is that lecturing is not what the sample really wishes to do but to

control, lead and inspire an interesting discussion with the students. The latter is believed not to

be possible because of: 1) students lack knowledge, 2) many students‘ verbal capacity is not

sufficient, and 3) the difficulties for professors to understand what students say and mean.



At WMU the students certainly get contact with the academic staff but at the cost of an

unhappy professor who wishes to do scholarly writings. The WMU Faculty Manual in paragraph

one states under the heading general expectations that ―… faculty members should be regularly

available for individual consultation with students …‖ (Ma, 2004, p. 3).

In line with efforts from several American and European universities, that are aiming to

help the developing world, courses in the maritime field of expertise and where the class

complement is diversified should focus and establish efforts to help developing countries.

This study shows that to generate an activity in class in a multicultural setting, with an

emphasis on multi, is apparently not that self evident. At WMU one can definitely say that the

activity and learning environment is far from mono-cultural. The students and the academic staff

are both multicultural. But to say that the education is intercultural would be misleading because

there is a lack of intercultural pedagogic thinking.

It has become important for the educators, in cooperation with the students, to be active

in different information and learning processes. Practical pedagogy is more about recognising

learning as a process and a movement. Such metaphors are rather common in a pedagogic

discourse on learning and its meaning. In order for a professor to operate like this, he or she has

to understand how people today seek knowledge, construct identities and create meaning in life.

Learning has to be recognised as a dialog that contains a negotiation of meaning. Learning

contains a lot of variations giving both a social and intercultural competence that is necessary to

be able to communicate in a globalised world.

One professor expressed the role and work in a multicultural setting by stating that the

pedagogy is the same and independent of the cultural mixture. The difference is the longer time

it takes.

Prof H: The teacher must be able to listen and respect students. The teacher understands the

students by listening. The teacher must teach by examples and not by textbook and relate

everything to the students‟ environment. It is the same for mixed and a homogeneous

student body. The difference at the end of the day is the time it takes. There are more

barriers in the way to relate to examples, more quickly. It takes longer time.

Professors and all other workers in a multicultural setting must realise the importance of

recognition, that is, pay attention to the other; show empathy. Recognition means to give

acceptance and understanding by minimising a European provenance.

Conclusion

To address students in academic teaching can be considered a privilege because you get

an opportunity to influence and change minds. Therefore it must be done with the utmost care

and according to a set policy by the institution from where such messages are promulgated.

In order to be assured that students are not hurt when being addressed in a diversified

learning environment, both students and professors should take a course in cultural awareness.

This study shows a great variety of perceptions to the conversation questions and this underlines

that an awakening on the situation is necessary in order to establish harmony in the passing on of

knowledge; an educational policy to avoid confusion.



References

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Reference # 75

Topic # 3

Strategies and roadmap for effective higher education reform in Jordan Fakhri Khader [email protected], Petra University, Jordan

This paper sheds some light on the obstacles that hamper the ability of higher education to meet

the needs of the Jordanian society. It is trying to draw attention to some salient features and

growth points of higher education in Jordan and to put forward a roadmap and some introspection,

in front of those who are concerned with and involved in higher education, about the present and

future development of higher education. Recommendations will be suggested to all partners for

possible improvements in all aspects of higher education in Jordan, especially in the areas of:

access, relevance, quality, staff development, governance and finance. The major outcome will be

a ―blue print‖ for a new higher education. This will be taken as a point of departure for

envisioning the future.

Introduction:

Higher Education includes all types of studies at the postsecondary level, provided by

universities that are approved as institutions of higher education by the competent state

authorities. *

In Jordan, higher education refers to a level of education that is provided by universities

and community colleges. Reform in its broadest view is the modification of existing conditions

in response to present forces or future needs. Specifically, reform in education is a plan which

attempts to bring about a systematic change in educational theory and practice across a nation. It

cannot be achieved piecemeal. A holistic vision should exist. It must be understood as a system

(Mauch, 1995). A critical set of reforms must all be implemented simultaneously; otherwise they are

bound to fail. (Landgraf,2002).Indeed, limiting the scope of reform makes the result fragmented

and temporary (El-Khawas,2002). The overall aims of reform policies should focus on achieving quality in teaching,

research, community service, management, finance, access, student assessment, accreditation,

accountability, relevance, and conceptual framework.

Heraclitus once said ―Every thing changes except the law of change… you cannot step

into the same river twice.

Change in Jordan is overdue. Other countries are passing us by at a time when education

is more important to our collective prosperity than ever. There is therefore a pressing need to set

up strategies and draw a roadmap to further develop the higher education system. The current

trends and new challenges facing the system entail the need to rethink its vision, mission,

approaches, and priorities for future development.

Despite countless reform efforts stretching back over the last two decades, Jordan has

missed many spotlights on the road to educational excellence.

Walid Almaani* once said ―If all the experts in education and the magicians in the world

meet in order to save the higher education system in Jordan, they will not be able to do so

without a genuine support from the government…. the higher education system in Jordan is in

*

Definition approved by the General Conference of UNESCO at its 27th

session (Nov. 1993) * Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Jordan.



the intensive care unit and it needs major surgeries… it needs two types of capitals: one is

financial and the other is human.

It should be noted that some international and local organizations as well as a number of

senior officials, voiced concern in many reports about the state of higher education in Jordan.

Although there are some points of strength that need to be preserved in the system, but there are

some practices that need to be discarded, and others have to be invented. Universities are under

intense scrutiny and subject to frequent calls for reform.

This paper tries to discuss the following topics:

1. The reality of higher education in Jordan.

2. The challenges and obstacles that hamper the improvement of higher education.

3. Strategies that will set the stage for quality reform in higher education.

The purpose of this paper is to draw the attention to some salient features and prominent

characteristics in order to set up a ―blue print‖ or a ―roadmap‖ for quality higher education in

Jordan. The roadmap will, specifically, tackle the following issues:

1. Quality and Accountability.

2. Relevance.

3. Access.

4. Management.

5. Teaching.

6. Finance.

Higher Education in Jordan:

The era of higher education in Jordan began in the second half of the twentieth century. It

started during the nineteen sixties, with the setting up of several teachers‘ colleges and the

University of Jordan.

In the years between 2001 and 2007 Jordan has seen an increasing demand for higher

education with enrollments growing at annual rate of 14 percent from 77.841 to 218.900

students. Projection for the number of students entering university is 92.000 per year by 2013 up

from 50.469 in 2005. In the academic year 2009/ 2010, the higher education system carries

almost 218,900 students distributed in 10 public universities and 16 private universities. This is

in addition to almost 26.000 students studying in 50 community colleges.

As a result of the explosion of students, public universities were unable to absorb the

growing numbers with regard space and faculty members.

In Jordan, there are two levels of higher education:

1. Two year intermediate level programs at public and private community colleges leading to

diploma degree.

2. Public and private universities offer Bachelor, Master, and Ph.D degrees.

Khader: Strategies for higher education reform in Jordan


Institutions of higher education in Jordan are faced with a host of great challenges and

difficulties related to inter alia relevance, management, finance, access, professional

development, quality of teaching, research, community service, accountability, autonomy and

academic freedom. These challenges have been affecting the vision, mission, processes, and

outcomes of the higher education system. The system must therefore proceed to the most radical

change it has ever been required to undertake.

Adnan Badran * once stated ―The major challenges faced by higher education in Jordan

are: quality, relevance, and lack of creativity‖.

Also,Marouf Albakheet* noted ―Higher education in Jordan faces persistent and serious

problems that need to be solved… cosmetic surgery will not do‖.

Although the history of higher education in Jordan reveals a continuing stream of reform

that has affected all the facets, the scope of reform is still narrow.

I know from my experience as a faculty member and chairman of an academic

department and dean of a college, that there has been no fundamental or concrete changes in the

higher education system in Jordan over the last two decades.

Tackling the following issues may help us put things in proper perspectives:

Quality and Accountability:

The starting point in any reform is to focus on quality, and on the components of a system

that would guarantee that quality (Westerheijden, 2007). Jordanians have always valued the

importance of quality education. Throughout the years, the significance of receiving meaningful

education has increased exponentially.

Quality refers to standards of inputs, processes, and outputs of a system (Fry &

Ketteridge, 2003). It is a multidimensional concept that embraces all the functions and activities.

It is seen as an objective to be reached in all processes of reform (Jaschik, 2005). Quality

mechanisms are implemented through continuous assessments and comparisons between

observed and intended processes (Bok, 2003). They require constant search for the sources of

dysfunctions and means of correcting them. Transparent self-evaluation and external review are

vital components of any well developed quality assurance system. In Jordan, we have no

measure of performance. Universities cannot prove that their students are learning anything. The

development of an outcome – based approach to quality assurance, is still a matter of contention

in most universities.

The issue of quality cannot be dissociated from the quest for excellence. It is judged

mainly by the strength of the ethical and pedagogical principles it embodies (Burke, 2005).

However, no new institutions, public or private, should be created unless they can offer high

standard of quality.

A major element in quality assurance system is the conceptual framework (Ramsden,

2003). Many of the higher education institutions in Jordan have their conceptual framework only

on papers. In reality, none of them is using it for describing its philosophy and standards which

distinguish graduates of one institution from those of another.

Most universities have no direction for their programs, courses, candidate competencies,

community service, accountability, assessment system, field experiences and knowledge base.

*

President of Petra University and former Prime Minister of Jordan. * Former Prime Minister of Jordan.



Conceptual framework captures the shared vision of the institution or the program and

becomes the vehicle through which the institution goals are articulated to the broader

community. Therefore, universities should develop their conceptual framework from ―ground

zero‖. It should be used as a guide by which vision and mission are translated into the structure

of the program. In the United States, for example, each department seeking accreditation for the

first time is required to submit its conceptual framework as a precondition for establishing

eligibility for accreditation. The board of examiner teams will look for evidence of the

conceptual framework and report their findings. After submitting the conceptual framework, the

institution will be eligible for on-site visit.

In Jordan, when accrediting the higher education institution, the Accreditation

Commission does not take into account the conceptual framework of a particular college or

department to ensure that the candidates are prepared as defined by the conceptual framework.

Without quality higher education, Jordan cannot assure genuine and sustainable

development. A powerful shakeup to improve quality is highly needed. Standards have to be set

up, indicators have to be clarified, and quality assurance system should be implemented. The

search for quality is indispensable for a policy based on merit.

In brief, the picture of higher education is not as rosy as it may seem. We need to change

the picture dramatically from one based on reputation to one based on performance. Many

attempts for reforms did little but restate the obvious and recycle the devious.

As for the concept of accountability, it is closely allied to quality. Universities should

establish accountability measures proper to achieve stated goals, and ensure quality of inputs,

processes, and outputs. They should be accountable in various ways to government, students,

parents, employers, and the general public.However, accountability does not mean subservience.

Higher education in Jordan tends to avoid conducting performance reviews of its product.

Without those reviews, higher education goes without any form of accountability for all its

programs. A survey should measure what the students learn and rank the universities based on its

performance in educating students.

It is time to measure the outcome of higher education on our campuses on a recurring and

comprehensive basis, and to make it available to those people who can hold colleges and

universities accountable, such as legislators, boards of trustees, business community, parents,

students and others.

Relevance:

Relevance in higher education refers to the matching between what higher education

institutions provide and what society expects from them. It requires higher education to make an

enhanced contribution to the development of the society as a whole (Eggins,2003; Newman,

2004).

In a keynote address, Marwan Muasher* said, ―The quality of education in the region has

not kept up with the needs of the economy; education systems do not support adequately the

development of analytical skills, problem solving skills, critical thinking and innovation (Hindi,

2008).

*

World Bank Senior Vice President for External Affairs.



His Royal Highness Prince Hassan once noted ―The problem does not lie in transferring

knowledge or information from Tokyo to Amman but rather transferring knowledge from

Amman to the field‖.

Consequently, our graduates find themselves at an increasing disadvantage as they seek

entry into the respective labor markets, where their skills often do not match the needs of the

marketplace. Therefore, higher education institutions do not properly prepare students to be

successful in a highly competitive world.

Higher education institutions have failed to cope with emerging changes and evolution of

the labor market. Universities are producing students ill-equipped to participate in the rapidly

evolving global market. Employers expect better outcomes and continually look for products

tailored to their needs. Universities should go out to the field and orient themselves to the

realities for the sake of working out solutions for the problems that face the society.

Universities and community colleges in Amman and in remote areas have done almost

nothing to serve their local communities.

In addition, the numbers of graduates have far exceeded the labor market needs. Graduate

unemployment is rampant. Today 29% of the unemployed have a university degree, whereas in

2000 the figure was still below 15% (Jongsma, 2008). The Jordanian economy does not have the

capacity to absorb the annual inflow of job seekers.

Higher education can no longer be confined to an ivory tower. Universities should take

all necessary measures to reinforce their service to the community, especially their activities

aimed at eliminating poverty, illiteracy, violence, hunger, nepotism, narrow mindedness, and

disease (Light & Cox, 2005; Bok,2006).

Access:

Education is a fundamental pillar of human rights, sustainable development and peace. It

should be accessible to all throughout life on the basis of merit. No discrimination can be

accepted. The unique criterion for access or non-access must be merit. Access must be

guaranteed for all in a spirit of equality and social justice (Timpane & white, 1998).

In keeping with article 26-1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, admission to

higher education will depend on the merit, capacity, effort, perseverance and devotion, showed

by those seeking access to it (Fallows, 2005).

There is a widespread support for the idea that every student is important and yet, in

practice, higher education system in Jordan is set up to favor few at the expense of the many.

Generally speaking, students are admitted to the universities on the basis of their grades

in the Tawjihi (The General Secondary School Certificate Examination) or its equivalent.

The enrollment cap enforced by the Higher Education Council on the private universities

restricts the ability of the universities to absorb increasing number of students.

About 25000 Jordanians study abroad each year, effecting a short-term economic drain as

well as some subsequent contribution to the brain drain (Buke & Alwaked, 1997).

Admission policies applied by Jordanian public universities are not fair and constitute

social injustice among the Jordanian people. In accepting students to the public universities,

there are two major problems facing the general public in Jordan. These two problems, in my

opinion, are:

1. The parallel programs.

2. The quotas given to certain sectors of the society.



Public universities created the parallel programs where students with lower grades have

access to the university at a higher cost. These programs allow the financially able students to

enroll at the expense of others. Public universities leave thousands of seats every year vacant for

those financially able students.

The Higher Education Council decided this academic year to accept 12670 students in the

parallel program to be admitted at the public universities; this number constitutes almost 30% of

the total number which is 31,415. This prevailing situation has resulted in problems regarding

quality and mismatching of graduate profiles.

In the regular program, where students compete for the limited seats, the Higher

Education Council, for example, allocated 2970 seats at the University of Jordan which has 1270

faculty members, whereas it allocated 4200 seats at Al-Hussein bin Talal University which has

only 158 faculty members. This procedure will give the University of Jordan the liberty to

accommodate more students in the parallel program.

In addition to this unfair practice, there are certain sectors in the Jordanian society that

have a better chance to be accepted at the public universities. They are given quotas for their

advantage. For example, 20% of all students accepted in the public universities are the sons and

daughters of the armed forces personnel. Other quotas are given to the sons and daughters of the

school teachers, the public universities personnel, the tribes, and the Palestinian refugees.

Exceptions are also given to students from the less privileged areas or areas with special

circumstances to be admitted to public universities regardless of their relatively lower grades in

the General Secondary Examination. Schools in these areas should be encouraged to enhance

their quality in the near future by providing their students a quality educational service.

If we add the number of students admitted in the parallel programs to the number of

students admitted under the quota system, the percentage of students admitted on competitive

basis does not exceed 40% under the best possible circumstances.

This formula is unacceptable under the human rights law and needs to be altered as soon

as possible. A new entry criteria should be used for admission.

My ideas may sound a little too radical for most people to accept or even to consider, but

with all due respect, I believe it is the right thing to do if we seek quality, integrity and social

justice.

The inability of public universities to attract bright minds only serve to undermine the

capacity of the higher education institutions to produce well-qualified graduates. Universities

should attract the keenest minds, the finest personalities, and the most humane people.

Management:

The ultimate goal of management must be to enhance the institutional mission by

ensuring high–quality teaching, research, and services to the community (Zemsky, 2009).

Management of higher education institutions in Jordan is still heavily centralized. The

Higher Education Council has significant power over private universities (Burke & Alwaked,

1998).

Decentralizing higher education will make our institutions more competitive. No longer

will a college have to wait 5-7 months for the establishment of a new major.

The involvement of all key stakeholders in decision making in higher education

institutions is of utmost importance (Eggins, 2003). Experience has demonstrated the value of

such participation in enlightening the visions necessary for decision making.



Accordingly, university top officials, including the president, should be chosen via

transparent methods with participation of stakeholders, and they should be held accountable

against tasks and objectives. In Jordan, appointment of the president of the university must be

approved by the prime minister on the recommendation of the board of trustees.

Appointment of the presidents as well as the deans should be based on merit and selected

by independent search committees. Appointment of a new president or dean should be advertised

in the local and regional newspapers and refereed academic Journals. This procedure will inspire

confidence among academics and students. It will make them feel that competent scholars are

leading them. The universities should be managed by individuals who are recognized for the

quality of their integrity, scholarship and administration.

University autonomy shapes the relationship between government, society, and the

university. It upholds freedom from arbitrary intervention. Autonomy is related to institutional

self management. Without self-management, faculty members will become a subordinate body

with a diminished sense of public responsibility. University autonomy does not mean in any way

that the government must relinquish its responsibility to back higher education. The government

should continue to be the main paymaster to guarantee a publicly accountable higher education

system. Private funds should complement rather than replace public funds, but the government

should not have too much say in how universities run their own affairs. It must lessen its control

over university administration and curricula to allow for greater academic freedom (Hettleman,

2009). Faculty members can only teach effectively and maintain their creativity in an atmosphere

of academic freedom, is needed in order to create diversity and to avoid uniformity. Individual

capacity will blossom only in a supportive environment.

The autonomy of the universities must be respected and fostered, and it should be

accompanied by a high level of responsibility and accountability (Eisemon & Holm-Nielson,

1995). Autonomy to manage internal affairs is necessary, but with transparent accountability to

society. Without institutional integrity, no true excellence could be expected or achieved, neither

in teaching nor in research.

Teaching:

Most of the universities in Jordan adopt traditional education based on rote memorization

of material without enabling students to be innovative. Students are not encouraged to take a

critical or an analytical approach towards numerous problems in society. Too much emphasis is

placed on the memory and recall of descriptive knowledge. Not enough is done to test higher–

level cognitive skills. The three critical determinants of effective teaching are: Subject matter,

educational knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge. All available evidence indicate teacher

inadequacies in at least two of the three areas.

Network services such as e-mail and web access are not part of the infrastructure that

students and faculty routinely use. Within Jordan‘s higher education system, there has been

minimal penetration of information technology (IT), and less communication and networking

that is so much a factor in global education and global employment.

Faculty members are not trained in integrating technology into pedagogy, and discipline

related software has not been made available. They teach the way they were taught.

Also, there is over–reliance on set lectures and there is virtually no moderation to ensure

the fairness and transparency of marking. Faculty members are not very good at measuring



learning outcomes. Because the value prestige is very high, they try not to show evidence on

students‘ learning.

In fact, most faculty members are very poorly trained in teaching; most have no

preparation for teaching at all. They need more help in deepening their own content knowledge

and in understanding more about how the brain works. As a result, universities must adopt

appropriate strategies for the recruitment and training of teaching personnel. Effective programs

should be implemented to improve the capabilities of faculty and staff (Hettleman, 2009;

Zemsky, 2009). If we want to give our university students the best education and training

possible, we must first provide the best education and training to those who will teach them. The

university is worth precisely what the faculty member is worth.

Tenure and sabbatical leaves should be granted to faculty members with exceptional

performance (Timpane & white, 1998).

The curricula, especially in the humanities and the social sciences, are mostly theoretical

and philosophical, creating a tendency to lack harmony between the students, learned skills and

the needs and problems of society. This mismatch of skills taught and skills required by the

employers leads to high unemployment.

Curricula must express the goals and mission of individual institution and address the

needs of the students (Allen, 2003). They must be flexible enough to allow for the incorporation

of new technologies with a constant focus on quality (El-Baz, 2007; Westerheijden, 2007).

Finance:

All public universities receive subsidies from the government. The financial burden of

public higher education rests on the shoulders of the government.

Transfers to universities have declined from JD 60.4 million in 2004 to JD 52.6

million in 2007 and 45 million in 2008. Higher education spending, as a share of Gross Domestic

Product (GDP), has declined by roughly 20%.

Limited public funding is one of the main constraints on the process of change and

development in higher education. The government spending on higher education needs to

increase to cater to the rising demand for higher education.

Funding of higher education should be considered as an investment, the return of it being

as much important as investment in all sectors (Giannakou, 2006). The real issue is not how

much education costs, but how much it is worth.

Public support for higher education remains essential, but higher education institutions

need to engage in an earnest search for alternative funding sources (Eisemon & Holm-Nielsen,

1995).

Under the current system, often regardless of performance, universities receive an

allocation of funds from the government based on number of students.

Funding the university should be directly related to the university ratings, world class

research activities, community service, quality of teaching, and number of students (Eggins,

2003). In Jordan, the universities that work hard to improve performance and strive for

improvements in quality, are treated no differently from those universities that do nothing in

these areas.

There is no significant differentiation made between poor service and excellent service.

Both excellent and poor universities teach, but it is only the excellent ones that lead and



accomplish change in their surroundings. Government must therefore pay heed to quality when

allocating resources.

Recommendations:

The higher education system in Jordan lacks a sense of efficacy. Improving the quality

and vitality of our system will determine the health of our societies for the foreseeable future.

I suggest the following recommendations for possible consideration and implementation

by all parties involved in the area of higher education at a time that concern for higher education

is increasingly becoming more and more serious.

1. Allowing all potential students to compete for enrollment on the basis of merit A new entry

criteria should be used for admission.

2. Abolishing the parallel program and the quota system.

3. Developing a culture in which awareness of and commitment to quality insurance and

conceptual framework is a norm.

4. Providing for modern communication technology in order to ensure unconditional access to

accumulated human knowledge.

5. Placing stakeholders and their needs at the center of the decision maker‘s concern.

6. Expanding student capabilities focusing on analytical skills, team – based activity and

computer literacy in order to enhance the quality of higher education.

7. Establishing a center for the professional development of teaching staff.

8. Creation of a robust culture of accountability and transparency throughout higher education.

9. Introducing a new form of management which strengthens collective responsibility.

10. Calling for greater institutional autonomy and mitigating government constraints.

11. Putting in place effective methods for the assessment of the acquisition of higher – level

skills.

12. Introducing measures to evaluate the outcome of higher education on campuses on a

recurring and comprehensive basis.

13. Developing adequate programs to serve local communities.

14. Setting up programs to produce well–equipped graduates to participate in the rapidly

evolving global market.

15. Introducing a system whereby presidents and deans are appointed through independent

search committees based on merit.

16. Allocation of government funds to the universities earmarked to quality of service.

I hope that implementing the recommendations will make higher education more

accessible, manageable, and accountable to the community as a whole. Now the question is: Can

we improve the quality of higher education and find a respectable place in the community of

nations? I think it all depends on the political support and social will power.

Bibliography

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meeting. www.oecd.org/ edumin 2006.

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Chapman Publishing Ltd.

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publishing Inc.

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Risks of the Market. Jossey- Bass.

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& Transformation. Springer.

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University Press.

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How could physical educators contribute to the Omani society? Hashem Kilani [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

The sedentary lifestyle in the Omani society has been associated with an increase in non-

communicable diseases (NCDs). Physical activity is one avenue to control the increase of NCDs.

This paper examines the health and physical needs of the Omanis and the obstacles they face in

engaging in systematic physical activity. Undergraduate programs in Physical Education (PE)

could address those needs by offering quality and diverse programs. Those programs should

account for international standards, national needs, and developments in the field of sport sciences.

Introduction

Oman is located in the southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula and is one of the

Gulf countries. The Omani population in 2007 was 1,999.697 and composed as follows: Under 5

(11.58%), between 5 and less than 15 (24.62%), between 15 and 49 (56.44%), between 50 and

59 (3.70%), and more than 60 years old (3.7%) (MOH, 2009). In terms of health profile, Oman

has moved from a country dominated by infectious diseases to a country burdened by non

communicable diseases (NCDs). In 2005, NCDs accounted for 75% of the diseases and

cardiovascular disease was the leading cause of death. The NCDs were distributed among

diabetes (12%), overweight (30%), obesity (20%), high cholesterol (41%), and metabolic

syndrome (21%) (Al-Lawati, Marby, and Mohammed, 2008). People living in urban areas were

more obese than those living in rural areas. Obesity and overweight combined were more

prevalent in the Southern part of Oman. In 1991, more women than men were obese and

overweight. The trend was reversed in 2000 with a decrease in the prevalence of overweight and

obesity among women and an increase among men (Al-Lawati and Jousilahti, 2004). An increase

of 6-fold in the elderly population is expected over the next 25 years. Unless attended to, NCDs

are a major threat to the country‘s human and financial resources. This paper provides an

overview of studies that explored the status of health and physical education in Oman. Physical

educators play a major role in imparting the importance of physical activity through schools,

clubs, and sport organizations. Currently, two national universities, the Sultan Qaboos University

and Sohar University offer undergraduate programs in physical education (PE). It is expected

that PE graduates of both programs fulfill their roles. This paper examines the health and

physical needs of the Omani society and the role that universities could play in addressing those

needs by offering quality undergraduate PE programs with diverse options. International

standards and new developments in the field of sport sciences including the principles of

biomechanics are considered.

We suggest that a systematic plan of integrating physical education in the curriculum

starting with basic education would help in establishing a lifestyle that would decrease the

percentage of NCDs. This would also entail the provision of effective teacher preparation

programs and targeting the families and communities by providing comprehensive programs.



Health and Physical Education Status

Many strategies could be tried to curb the expansion of NCDs. These strategies would

have to target the lifestyle and behaviors of the population.

A search to locate studies on health and physical education status in Oman revealed that

there were very few studies and most were conducted in recent years. The findings reflect an

alarming picture.

With regards to the health status of Omani children, three studies were found. One study

examined the body weight of a cohort of 400 boys and 150 girls in Seeb, Muscat, Oman at 6-7,

12-13, and 15-16 years. A routine health examination was required of all students at entry to

primary, preparatory, and secondary levels. The authors computed the Body Mass Index which is

weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters at the three ages corresponding

to the entry at the three levels. They found that obesity (BMI 30 or above) and overweight (BMI

between 25 and 30) combined increased from 7.3% to 16% and to 23.3% at 6-7, 12-13, and 15-

16 years of age respectively. Obese and overweight children at 6-7 years had a higher risk of

maintaining their body weight status at 15-16 years. The longer children retained a normal body

weight, the less likely they would be overweight or obese at 15-16 years old (Osman, Muscati,

Ganguly, Khan, and Al-Sharji, 2004).

The second study examined heights, weights, maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), and

activities during leisure time. Two classes were randomly selected from two secondary schools

in Muscat, one for girls, and the other for boys. The sample was composed of 83 girls and 64

boys, aged 15-16 years, which corresponded to a participation rate of 85%. Students were asked

to fill out a questionnaire detailing their activities during leisure time for the past week. The

heights, weights, and maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) levels were measured. Analyses

showed that boys spent more hours on leisure activities than girls. They spent more time

engaging in leisure physical activity and on TV viewing, computer games and internet than girls.

They also had higher VO2max and lower BMI than girls. It is plausible that the reason for the

lesser hours spent by girls in leisure time is that they spend more hours on household chores than

boys (Al Barwani, Al Abri, Al Hashmi, Al Shukeiry, Tahlilkar, et al 2001).

The third study involved Grade 3 and 4 boys participating in a summer camp in the

Muscat area. They were asked to complete a 1.6 km run/walk. They also filled out a student and

parent questionnaire reporting on the family‘s lifestyle and health status. A total of 109 boys,

equivalent to a response rate of 96%, completed the questionnaire.

Sixty eight percent completed the distance running; the others combined running and

walking. Parents reported that children watched TV or played computer/video games for an

average of 3.2 hours per day. As for the data on the parents, 32.5% of the fathers and 8% of the

mothers exercised at least twice weekly. A high father‘s exercise score was correlated with better

child‘s performance and leanness while mother‘s obesity had a negative correlation (Hassan, and

Al-Kharusy, 2000).

Children‘s attitudes towards physical education and actual involvement in activities were

the foci of two studies. The first involved newly enrolled students at Sultan Qaboos University

(SQU) and the second involved 12 to 15 year-old children enrolled in a summer camp at SQU.

The participants in the first study were 352 newly enrolled students at SQU. The study

investigated the students‘ attitudes towards physical activity and their perceived values of six sub

domains of physical activity, namely, the social, health, competing, aesthetic, catharsis, and

ascetic. Students were selected at random and represented 14% of accepted students. The

Kilani: How could physical educators contribute to Omani society?


findings showed that both males (62% of the sample) and females (38% of the sample) exhibited

positive attitudes toward physical activity with 91% engaging in regular weekly physical activity

varying from less than two hours to more than 6 hours. Students had highly positive attitudes

toward the health sub domain, positive attitudes toward the social, catharsis, aesthetic, and

competing sub domains, and slightly unfavorable attitudes toward the ascetic sub domain

(Zayed, Jebali, and Shoeili, 2004)].

The second study involved approximately 50% of children between 12 and 15 years old

participating in the Summer Club at SQU. Results showed that the 147 children held positive

attitudes towards physical activity as an avenue to promote health, socialization, and

competitiveness. However, this study also found that participants had negative attitudes to the

ascetic sub domain of physical activity. They were not comfortable with physical activity as an

avenue for adventure. They did not want to take risks that could lead to injuries or involve

dangers (Zayed, Hassan, and Siddiq, 2005).

At the country level, a total of 2979 students in grades 7 to 10 participated in the 2005

Global School-Based Student Health Survey (GSHS) Results. They answered questions

regarding their health and physical practices.

Among the participants in GSHS, 74% were physically active during the past 7 days for a

total of at least 60 minutes per day. The rest were active mostly one or two days of the week.

They sat for less than one hour per day (34.2%), one to two hours per day (31.4%), or 3 or more

hours per day (34.3%). They walked or rode a bicycle to school (37%). Among the students who

walked or rode a bicycle to school, 79% took 29 minutes or less per day (WHO, 2009). NASPE

position statement: All children birth to age five should engage in daily physical activity that

promotes health-related fitness and movement skills.(NASPE, 2009). The guidelines reflect the

best thinking of motor development, movement education, kinesiology‘s specialists, and exercise

physiology‘s specialists about the physical activity needs of young children during the first years

of life. Five guidelines are listed for each of three age categories: infants (birth to 12 months

old), toddlers (12 to 36 months old), and preschoolers (ages 3 to 5 years). The guidelines answer

questions about kinds of physical activity, the environment for the physical activity, and the

individuals responsible for facilitating the physical activity.

1. Children should accumulate at least 60 minutes, and up to several hours, of age-appropriate

physical activity on all, or most days of the week. This daily accumulation should include

moderate and vigorous physical activity with the majority of the time being spent in activity

that is intermittent in nature.

2. Children should participate in several bouts of physical activity lasting 15 minutes or more

each day.

3. Children should participate each day in a variety of age-appropriate physical activities

designed to achieve optimal health, wellness, fitness, and performance benefits.

4. Extended periods (periods of two hours or more) of inactivity are discouraged for children,

especially during the daytime hours.

Reviewed studies portray a rough profile of Omani children. They have a positive attitude

towards physical activity but don‘t engage in physical activities for long periods, with girls

engaging less than boys.



The Basic Education Curriculum

With the shortage of public places for physical education for boys and girls and scarcity

of extra curricular programs, it seems logical as was concluded by the NHLP study to use

schools as centers for implementing a solid plan to address risk factors.

Given that the schooling system spans over 12 years, the concepts of a healthy lifestyle

throughout the school years could be delivered in a systematic manner. There is no reason to

wait for the adulthood period to address the issue with the new generation. The ideal is to start at

the basic education level.

According to the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE),

children should accumulate at least 60 minutes of physical activity on all if not most of the days.

The activity lasting at least 15 minutes should be spread out throughout the day and include

different types of moderate and vigorous activities. The children should be active every couple

hours if not earlier. The logical way to do so is to integrate physical concepts and activities in all

subjects (NASPE, 2004). A study in New Zealand gives one example of an initiative to include

physical activity and to motivate children to develop habitual physical activity (Oliver,

Schofield, and McEvoy, 2006).

Physical education should offer opportunities for competitive sports but more important, it

should expose children to a variety of physical activities or sports that could engage children

in habitual physical activity throughout life [16]. Physical activity is critical to the

development and maintenance of good health. The goal of physical education is to develop

physically educated individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a

lifetime of healthful physical activity.

An examination of the Omani educational system reveals that the first stage of basic

education includes Grade 1 to 4. The subjects include Islamic Education, Arabic, English,

Mathematics, Sciences, Social Studies, Physical Education, Artistic Education, Music Education,

Environmental Life Skills, and Technology. The total is about 40 periods per week. The subjects

are delivered using a variety of teaching methods to meet the needs of diverse learners. There is

also integration among certain subjects but physical education is not one of them. It occupies 2

periods at each grade level (Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman, 2009).

The Ministry of Education is also implementing an experimental integrative approach in

a limited number of schools with a potential for expansion to more schools. Physical Education

occupies 3 periods (2 hours and 15 minutes) in grades 1 and 2 but it decreases to 2 periods (1

hours and 30 minutes) in grades 3 and 4. The subject remains non-integrated with other subjects

(Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman, 2009). National Association of Sport and Physical

Education (NASPE) standards (2007) demonstrates competency in motor skills and movement

patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.

Demonstrates understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies and tactics as they

apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.

Participates regularly in physical activity.

Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.

Exhibits responsible personal behavior and social behavior that respects self and others in

physical activity settings.



Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social

interaction.

The allocated time is less than the recommended NASPE guidelines. It could be that

physical activity is viewed as achieved at the expense of academic performance. However, a

study investigated the relationships of school-based physical education and activity to academic

performance and found otherwise. The authors researched studies published from 1966 to 2007

via MEDLINE, PSYCHINFO, SCHOLAR.GOOGLE.COM, and ERIC Databases. They

analyzed studies that used quasi-experimental, cross-sectional, and experimental designs. They

found that physical education hours could be increased up to an additional hour per day without

affecting academic performance. Responsive classroom behavior, positive self-esteem, and

school satisfaction were positively correlated with increased physical activity levels. However,

taking away time from physical education classes did not improve academic achievement and

could be associated with development of health risk factors later in life (Trudeau and Shephard,

2009)

Teacher Preparation Programs

What a student should know and be able to do

as result of a quality physical education program?

A framework for developing realistic and achievable expectations for student

performance at every grade level was established. These expectations are the first step in

designing an instructionally aligned program.

National Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers

Content Knowledge. Understand physical education content and disciplinary concepts

related to the development of a physically educated person.

Growth and Development. Understand how individuals learn and develop, and provide

opportunities that support physical, cognitive, social and emotional development.

Diverse Learners. Understand how individuals differ in their approaches to learning and

create appropriate instruction adapted to these differences.

Management and Motivation. Use and have an understanding of individual and group

motivation and behavior to create a safe learning environment that encourages positive social

interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

Communication. Use knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media

communication techniques to enhance learning and engagement in physical education settings.

Planning and Instruction. Understand the importance of planning developmentally

appropriate instructional units to foster the development of a physically educated person.

Student Assessment. Understand and use the varied types of assessment and their

contribution to overall program and the development of the physical, cognitive, social, and

emotional domains.

Reflection. Understand the importance of being a reflective practitioner and its

contribution to overall professional development and actively seek opportunities to sustain

professional growth.



Technology. Use information technology to enhance learning and personal and

professional productivity.

Collaboration. Understand the necessity of fostering collaborative relationships with

colleagues, parents/guardians, and community agencies to support the development of a

physically educated person.

Thus, the preparation of sound physical education teacher program needs assessment,

evaluation, coaching, and collaboration to meet these standards.

The information on the current health status of Omani children needs to be imparted to

university students graduating in physical education and to health professionals in the field

through inservice training. Teacher Preparation Programs should include among other things

Content knowledge (e.g. Biomechanics) about physical education, planning developmentally

appropriate units, using teaching methods that involve diverse learners, and assessing physical

education and its contributions to the physical, social, cognitive, and emotional domains

(NASPE, USA, 2009). Biomechanics is Important to physical education teacher (PET) it

considered as a medium of physical activities is the goal.

Recommendations

The physical activity level of the Omani child is dependent on the availability of

opportunities to engage in such activities. Given the shortage in facilities, schools present the

most appropriate medium to reach the highest percentage of the new generation and their

families. Starting with basic education is ideal. This suggestion is supported by the fact that

around 25% of the population is between 5 and 15 years old and their parents would be among

the 56% of the population between 15 and 49 years old. Steps are recommended as follows: first,

there is a need to analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of the available physical education

lessons in basic education; second, to include physical education in an integrative manner in the

curriculum wherever possible; third, to combine nutrition, health, and physical information in a

meaningful manner; and fourth, to conduct studies on the effectiveness of adding sports

components to the curriculum.

Future work

Assessing real time of the students movement in PE class using pedometer

Computing the average heart rate of students during activity within PE class

Analyzing and comparing content curriculum with real application in the PE class.

Conduct research on nutrition at school and its effect on health and sport participation

Construct PE graduate program that meet the NASPE and Omani society standards.

References

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[18] Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman, ―Integrative Approach‖, Oman Educational Portal, Oman.

http://www.moe.gov.om/Portal/sitebuilder/Sites/EPS/English/MOE//integrative%20approach.aspx. Accessed

July 8, 2009.

[19] F. Trudeau and R.J. Shephard, ―Physical Education and School Physical Activity and School Sports and

Academic Performance‖, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, BioMed Central,

2008, Feb. 25, 5(10), 12 pages. http://www.ijbnpa.org/content/5/1/10. Accessed July 11, 2009.

[20] National Association for Sport and Physical Education, ―The National Standards for Beginning Physical

Education Teachers‖, 2nd ed., NASPE, USA, 2009.

http://www.aapherd.org/naspe/template.cfm?template=ns_beginning.html. Accessed June 8, 2009.

http://www.who.int/chp/gshs/OMH2005_public_use_codebook.pdf.%20Accessed%20July%2011

http://www.who.int/chp/gshs/OMH2005_public_use_codebook.pdf.%20Accessed%20July%2011

http://www.un.org/ecosoc/newfunct/pdf/Doha.P2d.ppt.%20Accessed%20July%2013

http://www.bibalex.org/supercourse/supercourseppt/32011-33001/32691.ppt

http://www.moe.gov.om/portal/sitebuilder/sites/EPS/English/MOE/BasicEducation.aspx.%20Accessed%20July%208

http://www.moe.gov.om/Portal/sitebuilder/Sites/EPS/English/MOE/integrative%20approach.aspx

http://www.ijbnpa.org/content/5/1/10.%20Accessed%20July%2011

http://www.aapherd.org/naspe/template.cfm?template=ns_beginning.html


Reference # 77

Topic # 3

It is time to internationalize teacher education Craig Kissock [email protected], EducatorsAbroad Ltd., USA

Paula Richardson [email protected], EducatorsAbroad Ltd., England

Building on an extensive review of literature the case is made that teacher educators must embrace

a global perspective, adopt and achieve global standards, modernize instructional processes, serve

our global village, and broaden student perspective to fulfill our profession‘s responsibilities for

the future of our global village.

It is Time to Internationalize Teacher Education

Teacher educators must acknowledge that education is a global profession; recognize

they are preparing teachers for their future, not our past; and think and act globally in designing

and implementing pre and in-service professional development programs.

As teacher educators we do not act on the need to prepare our graduates for the globally

interdependent world in which they will work and their students will live. It is time that we heed

the extensive literature calling on us to internationalize our teacher education programs and bring

a global perspective to education decision making in order to prepare globally minded

professionals who can effectively teach any child from, or living in, any part of the world.

The best approach to achieving this goal is to integrate a global perspective throughout all

components of an educator‘s professional preparation through cooperative effort by arts, sciences

and education faculty. Alternatively – and seemingly more realistically – is to do what we can to

impact components of the curriculum that we have control over including expectations

associated with coursework and school based practicum and student teaching requirements.

The conclusions of this paper are based on our twenty year study of and experience

arranging student teaching placements through the EducatorsAbroad Global Student Teaching

program. Since 1989 we, along with professional educators and colleagues in host countries,

have offered professional support and supervision for over 1900 student teachers from 87

colleges and universities in Canada, the UK, and USA through three to eighteen week

individualized student teaching placements in 669 state, private, church and secular host schools

in 57 countries (www.educatorsabroad.org).

Education in Globalization

‗Globalisation is a process whereby events, decisions and activities in one part of the

world come to have significant consequences for individuals and communities in distant

locations....‘ (Huckle, 1996). At the core of this definition is recognition of the fact that

education, in terms of knowledge development and transfer, is at the epicenter of the

globalization process that impacts everyone‘s life.

An outcome of globalization, the introduction of new technologies, nearly universal

access to knowledge and education, and new groupings of countries (e.g. the European Union) is

awareness that the world‘s citizens are now members of a global village through which we share

a common belonging that previously was limited in scale and scope (Jarvis 2004; Bajunid 2000).



At the same time the very developments which bring people and nations closer together

also make apparent the tremendous differences which exist in access to basic needs. The UN

report (2000) identifies that, ‗More than a quarter of the 4.5 billion people in developing

countries still do not have some of life‘s most basic choices - survival beyond 40, access to

knowledge and minimum basic services … and one in every seven children of primary school

age is out of school…‘.

With broader access to information and ease of communication, educational processes are

becoming more varied requiring new approaches to teaching and learning. Teacher education

graduates must be prepared to use these tools and compete with other forms of access to

information including on-line and self directed learning options that are gaining respect and

bringing equity and access to educational opportunity.

Educators can no longer rely on replicating what they remember of their school

experience in designing and implementing instruction. The world – and the world of education –

has and will continue to change. Prospective teachers must be assisted in critically reflecting on

their memories of what it is like to be in the learning process in order to not merely reproduce

their own experiences but adapt them to meet the needs of the next generation of students

(Steiner, 1996).

While Brighouse (1996) talks of the urgency of global education for UK teachers and

Steiner (1996) advocates strongly for Initial Teacher Education programmes to demonstrate a

deep commitment to organising and offering courses which allow reflective consideration of the

concepts and ideas which underpin global citizenship Tye (1999) in reviewing a study of global

education practices in 52 countries formed a conclusion that remains accurate today, ‗In teacher

training, global education is in large measure unknown. Global education does not appear in

lesson plans in teacher training programs…it does not constitute a priority for professional

teacher training...with the exception of intercultural understanding‘.

Responsibilities of teacher educators

As teacher educators we continue to ignore global change and decades of professional

literature that make clear the need to internationalize teacher education such as presented by

(Cogan, 1982; Ochoa, 1982; Schneider, 2003). As a result we continue to focus on preparing

teachers for schools in communities near our institutions ignoring the reality that we live in a

globally interdependent world, are part of the global (not local) professions of teaching and

teacher education, and are preparing educators to educate young people who will live past the

year 2100.

The global reality of teacher education is that our students/prospective teachers come to

us from the 60 mile/100 kilometer service area of our institutions believing they will live their

lives and teach young people as they were taught in the same communities. As professionals

responsible for the preparation of primary/secondary school teachers who are expected to prepare

their students for the 22nd

century should we recommend individuals with such limited life

experience for entry into the profession?

If the answer is no – or even a qualified yes - then we must act on our responsibility and

cause our students to broaden their life experience so they can prepare their students with the

higher order thinking and performance skills they will need for the world in which they will live.

Internationalizing the teacher education curriculum and use of school based placements in other

countries/cultures are ways of fulfilling this responsibility.

Kissock & Richardson: It is time to internationalize teacher education


A global perspective in teacher education

Within the current narrow framework of the standards movement the internationalization

of teacher education is essentially non-existent. There is no example of a global perspective

being integrated throughout the arts, science, and pedagogical course requirements in any teacher

education program. But this need not be the case if we focus attention on a set of globally

defined and accepted standards– such as reflective practice - and understand the processes

required to achieve them.

All teacher educators would accept as a standard that teachers must be able to reflect on

past experience and continually integrate new insights in order to increase their effectiveness

throughout their career. But reflection and improvement does not take place in a vacuum. To

develop this ability, educators must move beyond their comfort zone to see their world from a

different perspective, discover alternative solutions to problems they face, and create new

approaches or integrate appropriate ideas into their setting.

Living and working in schools and communities different from those which we know –

within and beyond our own national boundaries – is a valuable strategy to achieve this and other

global standards in education and for more broadly integrating a global perspective throughout

the process of teacher education.

Questioning international experience in education

To date, access to study abroad has been limited offering relatively few university

students opportunity to study in another country (Eduventures, 2008). One of the reasons for this

limited development is a level of academic arrogance on some campuses which questions the

value of overseas experience for students. As a result, study abroad is often viewed as time away

from ‗real learning‘ (Goodwin and Nacht 1991) .

While these negative perspectives on study abroad do not speak to teacher education

practica or student teaching they are used by teacher education colleagues who, by offering

uninformed opinions and through a virtual ‗wall of silence‘ of in-action, prevent

international/cross-cultural experience from becoming part of the preparation of teachers.

Without crafting a considered rationale against international/cross-cultural experience

teacher education faculty rely on presumptions to block this initiative by declaring that only their

standards are worthwhile, that others cannot guide students in meeting standards of prospective

teachers, that student teaching abroad would be too different and would not prepare graduates for

teaching in local schools, that professional abilities and dispositions cannot be developed in other

cultural settings, that students are at additional personal risk while in another country/culture,

that they will have more difficulty finding employment, and that state licensing bodies and

accreditation agencies would not be supportive. They act as if they forget that they come from a

generation which works with students who will live and teach in a very different world from

their own (Peretz, 2001).

There is no scholarly study or experience to support these or similar statements, but

plenty of past participant reports to contradict them. For example, a follow-up study of

EducatorsAbroad Ltd. Global Student Teaching program graduates (1993 – 2005) asked: ‗Would

you recommend the Global Student Teaching program to others?‘ Of the 232 respondents 225

(97%) reported they would recommend GST to others. When asked why, they first referenced

how it helped them become better educators; secondly how it fostered their personal



development; and thirdly how participating provided direct benefit when they sought a teaching

position (Kissock, 2005).

‗The borderless world‘ (Ceglowski, 1998) is not easily encompassed by teacher

education. It seems as if teacher education is seen as a distinctive identity to be preserved from

within. Fernandez (2000) sums it well, ‗The culture of teaching, long characterised by

conservatism, presentism, privatism and individualism, may prove to be one of the major barriers

to change and improvement in schools…there is stability in the old ways of doing things…‘

Valuing study abroad in teacher education

Structured instructional living/learning experiences in national/international cultural

settings different from that of the student have significant positive effects on a student‘s personal

and professional development and, as affirmed by research in education, traits identified as

necessary for teachers now and in the future are developed through both study abroad programs

and student teaching overseas.

(Cushner & Mahon 2002; Mahon & Stachowski, 1992; Kaufmann, 1983) demonstrate

that study abroad promotes significant growth in a range of personal qualities that are important

for educators: self esteem, independence, and increased awareness of the need to know more

about others in the world outside the US. (Sumka, 2005; Wilson-Flournay, 2007) show that

through studying abroad significant gains are made in understanding cultural differences and

developing a greater awareness of different ways of seeing and reflecting on issues which assist

in challenging students existing views, beliefs and assumptions. While (Bradley, Quinn, &

Morton, 2009) affirm these results noting a growing sense of professionalism and understanding

of cultural differences in their review of student teacher reflections throughout a one month

international school based internship.

There is also evidence of returning students being able to cope well with the diverse

range and needs of society experienced in subsequent jobs (Mahon, 2002); flexibility and

openness (Kealey, 1989); and ability to apply creative solutions to classroom conflicts while

promoting intercultural interdependence in their classrooms (Hargreaves & Goodson, 1996).

Student teachers also gain a better understanding of the broader nature of teaching as a global

profession and begin to realize that the basic skills and qualities of an effective teacher are

universal (Kissock, 2002).

Dahan (2001) supports the notion of teacher educators and faculty having a personal

opportunity to work abroad which will not only give them experience of encountering ‗the other‘

but will also give them a greater credibility with those whom they teach and work. It would also

allow them to gain confidence in developing international dimensions on their own campuses.

However this is not always the reality as Weisenstein (2003) found little or no room given to

international education in most state colleges and their accreditation standards, which he

identifies as being in direct conflict with the declared philosophy of national bodies and

education organizations. This is a clear case of national perspectives failing to result in the

development of policies at the state level, which in turn have a major influence on the way

teacher preparation is carried out.



Student teaching abroad

School based practicum and student teaching placements in other countries/cultures is a

tested and proven approach to assuring prospective educators have a foundation of experience

and insight on which to base their initial actions and to refine their global perspective of life and

teaching throughout their career.

Student teaching abroad has been the least well developed type of study abroad

programme in terms of numbers undertaking it. There have been some small but nevertheless

valid examples of students undertaking student teaching abroad over the last few decades

(Kuechle, O‘Brien & Ferguson 1995; Willard- Holt, 2001; Brennan & Cleary 2007). These have

often been developed by interested lecturers who have either personally undergone the

experience themselves or those who have expressed the vision needed to prepare teachers for the

future (Roberts, 2005).

Even though a small minority of teacher education students are currently offered and/or

take this opportunity a www search brings up at least 60 USA college based international student

teaching programs and others that serve students from multiple institutions such as the

Consortium for Overseas Student Teaching, EducatorsAbroad Ltd. Global Student Teaching

program, Foundation for International Education, University of Northern Iowa, and the former

Moorhead State Student Teaching Abroad program. International student teaching opportunities

are also available to students at institutions in other countries such as in Australia, the EU, and

UK.

Cushner and Brennan (2007) conclude that placing students as individuals (as with

student teaching) rather than with a group brings much better results in terms of a worthwhile

experience. Mahon and Cushner (2002) affirm this conclusion through their assessment of the

impact of an international student teaching experience on the personal and professional

development of student teachers participating in the Consortium for Overseas Student Teaching

program. These students achieved a greater level of self efficacy and belief in the importance of

multi-cultural education and came to recognize that ‗the overseas experience can be the catalyst

that starts teachers on a new path of learning…‘

Teacher educators plan for action

As teacher educators we help select individuals for entry to the global profession of

teaching and begin the process of preparing educators who can effectively guide learning for any

student. These are critical responsibilities in part because it is within the framework we set that

educators approach their further professional development and career long exploration of the

teaching/learning process.

We fail in fulfilling our responsibilities if we focus on preparing teachers to meet present

needs of schools in our local/regional communities and do not open the world of education to pre

and in-service teachers. By thinking and acting locally we effectively place blinders on

beginning educators limiting their ability as reflective practitioners.

Alternatively, by acting on the fact that for 30+ years our graduates will teach students

who will live another 70+ years and assuring our students gain a global perspective on

common issues, decision making processes, and alternative solutions we can set a foundation



that helps assure our graduates will be able to continue to grow in effectiveness throughout their

careers.

A changing world requires changing procedures in the education of teachers. Teacher

educators must develop a global perspective on issues, decision making, and solutions within our

own profession of teacher education; re-consider our approach to standards and instructional

processes; broaden our definition of communities we serve; and broaden the perspective of

educators in response to needs of schools and our global village.

Embrace a global perspective

Globally minded educators recognize the commonality of educational issues and

solutions throughout the world, understand the value of learning from colleagues working in

other national/cultural settings, and use experience of these colleagues to improve their

effectiveness. These individuals also recognize the importance of integrating a global perspective

throughout education decision making, offer valuable insights to guide institutional and

curricular reform, and make possible opportunities for others to learn through international

experience.

Adopt and achieve global standards

Teacher licensing bodies, teacher education institutions, and teacher educators around the

world use standards to guide practice and assessment of teacher performance. These statements

are thought to be unique and only applicable to the setting in which they have been developed.

Affirming our experience in working with universities in Canada, the UK and USA, recent

research by the Scottish General Teaching Council and government departments of Ireland and

the UK (2007), has shown ‗...a considerable convergence in terms of what is required of teacher

trainees. Areas of divergence are on a more cosmetic level...[and suggests that]...standardisation

of the ways that the standards are presented…would reduce system difference and encourage

swifter mutual recognition of teaching qualifications...‘

This conclusion was tested by asking colleagues attending the 2007 International Seminar

on Teacher Education to read through a list of the English, Scottish, Swedish, and USA national

standards for beginning teachers and asked to select those that would not be appropriate for their

society. These colleagues, representing a wide range of cultural/economic settings, unanimously

agreed that all listed standards would apply in their setting. Based on these experiences teacher

educators from at least 50 countries have begun sharing standards used in their society with a

goal of formulating a globally accepted set of standards that teacher educators can use for the

initial preparation of teachers.

Currently though, teacher educators rely on long lists of standards, trivial assignments,

tick boxes of activities being checked off, and statistics to demonstrate their accountability and

‗prove‘ their students have abilities associated with effective teaching. This has led to trivializing

the use of standards and assessment processes, implementation of lock step instruction, loss of

flexibility and opportunity to test new ideas, and the segregation of teacher education programs

from each other and from the needs of schools.

Hoffa (2005) speaks to these faults by noting that the impact of the standards movement

and the perceived pressing need to fulfill these, weighs heavily on those involved in the decision

making processes on whether or not to support student teaching overseas. As a result, study



abroad/international student teaching programs are now organized against a backdrop of

institutional concern about students‘ ability to complete written assignments associated with

detailed standards rather than demonstrating holistic traits and abilities expected of those who are

qualified to be licensed to teach.

Teacher educators must – and will out of necessity - come to recognize that standards of

effective teaching are universal and transferable and that our current use of narrow standards in

assessing prospective educators belies the reality that the talent of master educators is in the

ability to seamlessly integrate objective and subjective understandings to create the magic of

learning.

Modernize instructional processes

Communication is both at the very core of our work as teacher educators and central to

developments in our global village. It is imperative that we embrace the very developments in

communications technology that have changed our world and integrate them into our strategies

for preparing the next generation of teachers for our schools. By utilizing these tools, such as

interactive video conferencing, www database interfaces, and micro camera video recording we

will bring the world to ourselves and ourselves to the world of our students.

Using readily available and inexpensive technologies it is fair to say that anything that

can be accomplished through classroom based pedagogical instruction can be achieved through

use of on-line instructional tools. Consider the possibilities:

a. An on-line course – Introduction to Education in a Global Context – with students living in

different cultural and geographical locations and sections of the course offered by teacher

educators living in various countries.

b. Team teaching a general or subject matter instructional methods course with a colleague in

another country for students in both countries.

c. Assisting student teachers in preparing their lesson plans and then guiding them through a

joint analysis of a video recording of parts or the entire lesson in on-line video conferences

without traveling to the school that can be anywhere in the world.

d. Offering all aspects of pedagogical instruction through on-line course delivery and school

based placements to a cohort of students living in different regions and countries.

These and other strategies can be implemented today as on-line coursework becomes the

norm and we prepare to use unheard of instructional tools that will be at our disposal tomorrow.

Serve our global village

Schools are like families - each is unique and plays an important role in forming the local

and global communities in which we live. While the culture of every school is unique,

experience working in schools around the world affirms the truism that schools are schools,

teachers are teachers, and students are students.

We live in a mobile world where families move across national/cultural boundaries and

enroll their children in schools expecting an education - wherever it is offered - that prepares

them for their future. Similarly teachers migrate around the world living their lives in various

communities, employing their talents, and serving students as members of our global village.



This movement of people around the world fundamentally changes the nature of our local

communities and requires teachers who have an understanding of the world that can only be

gained from personal experience living and working in different cultural settings. It is these

educators who will bring alternative approaches to achieve goals and assure their legacy is an

educated citizenry capable of guiding the future of our planet.

As teacher educators we must assure that our students, as part of their professional

development, experience life outside their comfort zone through practicum and student teaching

experiences in other cultures/societies. Today these opportunities are limited to the few; in the

future they will be required for all.

Broaden student perspective

Employers recognize their schools need educators who can relate instruction to the

cultural background, learning styles, and personal and future needs of their students. They will

employ teachers who have demonstrated a willingness to develop a broader understanding of

themselves and our global village. Teaching candidates who have learned from and demonstrated

talent in different cultural settings and recognize that all students expect and have a right to

education that acknowledges their knowledge and builds on their cultural experience will be

employed. Employers will be increasingly reluctant to hire individuals whose life experience and

understanding of themselves and others is limited.

As a result, teacher education programs that can demonstrate their graduates are prepared

to teach in today‘s global village and able to adapt to the world of tomorrow will grow in respect.

Those that remain wedded to preparing teachers for their local community without a world view

will decline as it becomes known that their graduates fail to find employment.

Conclusion

The world is acting globally and so too must teacher educators act globally if their

programs are to prepare teachers for the future. Inaction is not an option given the nature of our

global village and current/future needs of the world‘s citizens.

References

Resources for internationalizing teacher education including www links to agencies offering services for

internationalizing education and student teaching abroad programs, along with a bibliography of research and

resources from 1980 to the present are available at: http://globalst.org/gst.aspx?zid=62&pid=68

Bajunid, I. (2000). Rethinking the work of teachers and school leaders in an age of change. In C. Day & A.

Fernandez (Eds.), The Life and Work of Teachers: International Perspectives in Changing Times. London:

Falmer Press.

Bradley, R., Quinn, S., Morton, M.L. (2009). Consonance and dissonance in a study abroad program as a catalyst for

professional development of pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 525-532.

Brennan, S. & Cleary, J. (2007). Promoting reflection during overseas student teaching experiences: one university‘s

story. In K. Cushner & S. Brennan (Eds.), Intercultural Student Teaching: A Bridge to Global Competence.

Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Brighouse, T. (1996). Developing the global teacher: Theory and practice in initial teacher education. Stoke on

Trent: Trentham Books.



Ceglowski, J. (1998). Has globalization created a borderless world? Business Review Federal Reserve bank of

Philadelphia, March, 17-27.

Cogan, J. (1982). Training teachers for a global age: a critical challenge. Paper presented at Oxford University,

England.

Cushner, K., & Brennan, S. (2007). The value of learning to teach in another culture. In K. Cushner & S. Brennan

(Eds.), Intercultural Student Teaching: A Bridge to Global Competence. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield

Education.

Cushner, K., & Mahon, J. (2002). Overseas student teaching: affecting personal, professional and global

competences in an age of globalization. Journal of Studies in International Education Vol. 6 No.1, 44-58.

Dahan, L. (2001). Remaining credible: international educators require international experience. Transitions Abroad.

Retrieved April 26, 2009 from Http://www. transitionsabroad.

com/publications/magazine/9907/international_educators_ require_international_experience.shtml.

Eduventures (2008). Strategies to internationalize schools of education. Unpublished manuscript. Boston:

Eduventures Inc.

Fernandez, A. (2000). Leadership in an era of change: breaking down the barriers of the culture of teaching. In C.

Day, & A. Fernandez, A. (Eds). The Life and Work of Teachers – International Perspectives. London: Falmer

Press.

Goodwin, C. and Nacht, M. (1991). Missing the boat: the failure to internationalise American higher education.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hargreaves, A. Goodson, I. (1996). Teachers professional lives: aspirations and actualities. London: Falmer Press.

Hoffa, B. Know your enemy: confronting the case against study abroad. Transitions Abroad. Retrieved April 26,

2009 from http://www.transitionsabroad.com/publications/

magazine/9605/confronting_the_case_against_study_abroad.shtml.

Huckle, J. (1996). Globalisation, postmodernity and citizenship. In M. Steiner (Ed) Developing the Global Teacher:

Theory and Practice in Initial Teacher Education. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books.

Jarvis, P. (2004). Globalisation, the learning society and comparative education. In S. Ball (Ed.). The Routledge

Falmer Reader in Sociology of Education. London: Routledge Farmer.

Kauffman, N. (1983). The impact of study abroad on personality change (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University

Bloomington.

Kealey, DJ. (1989). A study of cross cultural effectiveness: theoretical issues, practical applications. International

Journal of Intercultural Relations No 13, 387-428.

Kissock, C. (2002, January). An international perspective: professionalization through globalization. Paper

presented at the conference on Global Challenges and U.S. Higher Education, Duke University, Virginia.

Kissock, C. (2005). Feedback from past participants. Retrieved April 26, 2009 from http://www.globalst.org.

Kuechle, J. P Ferguson, & R. O‘Brien (1995). A collaborative student teaching program in Australia, New Zealand,

and the United States. Action in Teacher Education 17 (2), 36-39.

Mahon, J., & Cushner, K. (2002). The overseas student teaching experience: creating optimal culture learning.

Multicultural Perspectives Vol. 4 Issue 3 July, 3-8.

Mahon, J. M., & Stachowski, L. (1990). New horizons: student teaching abroad to enrich diversity. Action in

Teacher Education 12 (3), 13-21.

Ochoa, A. (1982). Globalizing the professional component of teacher education: considerations for reform. Global

Perspectives in Education: New York.

Peretz, M. (2001). The impossible role of teacher educators in a changing world. Journal of Teacher Education Vol.

52 No.1 48-56.

Roberts, A. (In press). Meaningful endeavors: themes and insights of international student teachers. Central America

in Journal of Teacher Education (submitted).

Schneider, A. (2003). Internationalizing teacher education what can be done? Unpublished report, Washington D.C.

Scottish General Teaching Council. (2007). Retrieved April 26, 2009 from http://www.gtcs.org.uk.

Steiner, M. (1996). ‗I prefer to see myself as a global citizen‘: how student teachers can learn to teach for justice. In

M. Steiner (Ed) Developing the Global Teacher. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books.

Sumka, S. (2005). The impact of study abroad: educational travel as a model for responsible tourism. Transitions

Abroad. Retrieved April 26, 2009 from

http://www.transitionsabroad.com/listings/study/articles/studymay1.shtml.

Tye, K. (1999). Global education: a worldwide movement with preview of a study of global education practices in

52 countries. Global Education. Issue No. 150 Section 6, 1. Retrieved April 26, 2009 from

http://www.globaled.org/issues/150/index.html.



United Nations (2000). Annual Report, 3. New York, author.

Weisenstein, G. Baker, L. (2003) International education as a component of teacher preparation in the United

States. Paper presented at the meeting of the AACTE, Dallas, Texas.

Willard-Holt, C. (2001).The impact of a short term international experience for pre-service teachers. Teaching and

Teacher Education Vol. 17, 505-517.

Wilson, A., & Flournoy, MA (2007). Preparing students for the intercultural experience: orientation and training. In

K. Cushner & S. Brennan (Eds.), Intercultural Student Teaching: A Bridge to Global Competence. Maryland:

Rowman & Littlefield Education.


Reference # 78

Topic # 3

Designing effective programs for late-entrant low-literacy students Natalia Kissock [email protected], Edina High School, USA

This presentation outlines a comprehensive program that meets the unique needs of late-entrant

low-literacy immigrant students. Developed at Edina High School, Minnesota, USA this program

prepares immigrant students, who have limited or no prior formal education and may be 6 to 11

years behind their peers, to cope with high school level academic work and successfully transition

to the work force or other educational programs.

Introduction

In 1998, nearly 10 million students in American schools were children for whom English

was not their first language (Davis, 2002). Some of these students are enrolled in American

schools at the middle or high school level even though they have no prior formal schooling.

These late-entrant low-literacy immigrant students face real challenges as young adults adapting

to life in the unfamiliar societal and academic environment in which they are thrown.

They may start 6 to 11 years behind their English speaking peers in academic skills and

knowledge but must, to obtain a high school diploma, catch up to their peers in only two to three

years, earn required course credits and pass state standardized tests in writing, reading, and math.

At the same time, these students must adjust to the physical, social, and cultural environment of

their new community and school while learning to read, write, understand, and speak English,

and become able to simultaneously demonstrate academic proficiency across subjects in English.

This is the story of one school‘s ability to utilize current research on effective instruction

of English as a Second Language to design and implement a comprehensive program that meets

the unique needs of late-entrant low-literacy immigrant students and offers them opportunity for,

and demonstrated success in, further education and employment.

Background

Edina Senior High School, Minnesota, USA is a large, predominantly mono-cultural,

suburban school that has been consistently recognized as one of the best schools in the country.

A comprehensive curriculum of 140+ courses emphasizes preparation for college. Of the 115

certified faculty members, 75 percent have earned master‘s, specialists or doctoral degrees.

In October 2000, four Somali students who had just arrived from a refugee camp in

Kenya enrolled in the school. These students, 16 to 18 years of age, had never attended school,

were illiterate in their first language, and did not speak, read or write any English.

The school was not prepared to serve them. There had never been students with such

unique needs in the school, no program was in place for them, there were no materials that

addressed their needs, and the staff had no experience in working with such students.

―Emergency‖ steps were taken. An extra ESL teacher and paraprofessional to help the

teacher were hired to work with these students one hour a day. These students were placed in

grades 10 and 11mainstream classes including physical education, American History (where the

teacher gave them the same assignments as all other students), a computer class, typing, and a

work experience class led by a school counselor. The students quickly became frustrated with



their school life and the teachers were equally frustrated with the fact that the needs of these

students were not being met.

Faced with this situation, we realized that we had to implement a comprehensive program

that would meet the unique needs of these students. It has been a challenging task. Mistakes have

been made in the process, like taking the idea of content-based second language instruction to the

extreme: Over several years ESL in our school was only taught through science and math content

with a focus on subject matter and not the language. The students were failing these and other

classes as their reading and writing skills remained very poor.

Currently, there are about 50 students of different cultural, linguistic (17 languages are

spoken by our ESL students), and academic backgrounds in the Edina High School ESL program

of which late-entrant low-literacy students comprise the majority. This program is still a work in

progress as we assess it and revise its aspects as we better understand the needs of our students.

Vision

Dr. Bruce Locklear, the principal of our school writes, ―To ensure the success of all

learners is often viewed as a vacant statement, a theoretical juxtaposition adorning empty vision

statement plaques that collect dust in the far recesses of the school‘s main office. At Edina High

School we attach meaning to our vision to reach and teach all learners. Over the past several

years, we have aligned programming to our vision statement to create successful experiences for

all learners in our school; experiences that will serve our learners in their chosen path following

high school in a personalized manner.” (2009, unpublished)

To fulfill this vision within the ESL program we have learned that coordination –

assuring that all available resources and support are aligned for each student – is a vital element.

We are fortunate that the school administration understands and supports this through provision

of an ESL coordinator whose assignment includes five hours each week developing individual

plans, working with individual students, and communicating with school staff. Now in the fourth

year of the program, the work of the ESL coordinator has resulted in improved communication

with school staff and administrators. Mainstream teachers are happy to have a ―point person‖ for

questions and concerns regarding individual students and are comfortable interacting with ESL

staff. Most importantly, we are able to offer individual attention to each of our 50 ESL students.

Program Components

Through studying research in the field and reflecting on our experience we (the ESL

faculty) have determined several components that are critical to the design of an effective ESL

program for late-entrant low-literacy immigrant students.

1. Teachers must begin with and build on a thorough understanding of each students‘ culture,

language, and skills. Developing this understanding is a beginning point in our program.

2. Identify all students who need ESL help on timely basis. We work in conjunction with the

school district Welcoming Center and the main office of the high school to make sure that we

interview and assess all students whose first language is not English. We meet with

prospective students in the summer before the start of school so, once assessed, the

counselors have time to arrange workable class schedules for these students.

Kissock: Designing effective programs for late entrant low-literacy students


3. Develop a graduation plan for each student who is placed in the ESL program. Walsh (1991)

suggests that an effective program for low literacy immigrant students should include an

ungraded course structure and individual learning plans that enable students to learn at their

own pace and will lead to high school diploma. Based on the concept of personalized

learning, Edina High ESL teachers and counselors work with families and school

administrators to develop a specific graduation ‗road map‘ for each ESL student.

This ‗road map‘ includes a flow chart that guides school counselors, administrators, the

ESL coordinator and faculty in making appropriate scheduling decisions that lead the student

through the ESL program and on to graduation. The ‗road map‘ also gives students and

mainstream teachers a general idea of what their progression in school will look like, and

how they will get to graduation with the right amount of credits and at the appropriate

language levels. For example, a newcomer student in the 10th

grade who enters with no

secondary credits will likely have a path that is a bit longer than a student who enters the

program with some secondary credits.

4. Amanda Schutz, ESL coordinator, warns, ―Expectations in the ‗road map‘ need to be made

obvious to students from the very beginning. If a student understands from the start that he or

she might need an extra semester or year of school because of language and/or credit needs,

the student is more likely to complete all the needed requirements. If information regarding a

lack of credits or language needed to graduate on time is not communicated until later, he or

she will be more likely to drop out or switch to a less academically rigorous school in an

effort to graduate sooner.‖ (2009, unpublished)

5. A review of the literature finds that it is imperative not only to inform students, but also to

inform and provide access to information for their families. Unless immigrant students and

their families understand the rules and practices of their school, they cannot succeed in it.

Based on this awareness we meet with each student and his/her parents/guardians to discuss

graduation plans and help them understand the American school system - or even the idea of

school – as they may never have attended school.

One of the suggested ways this can be achieved is to conduct workshops and seminars to

inform families about schools rules, procedures, grading, extra-curricular activities, support

services, expectations regarding attendance, home work, and family involvement (Lucas,

2000). In Edina, we organize a family night for parents and students. Interpreters are hired to

help the counselors, administrators, and our cultural liaison communicate desired

understandings to parents. If it is impossible to hire an interpreter, the Language Line

(telephone interpretation service) is used. Where it is possible, school documents and

orientation materials are translated into the native languages of the students.

6. Involvement of other students in the school is an important feature of our success in working

with late-entrant low-literacy students. At the beginning of each school year the Student

Council organizes student run informal meetings for all newcomers and arranges student

‗mentors‘ (volunteer students) to partner with new students and help them through the

process of becoming oriented to and becoming a part of the school.

7. An effective program for immigrant adolescents should provide opportunities to learn about

their new environment from school to community to the nation. Successful newcomer

programs provide courses in cultural orientation and supplement classroom work with field

trips, cultural activities, and special events (Short & Boyson, 1996-97). To address this need,

newcomers in Edina High school receive two hours of ESL instruction a day that focuses on

social communication skills. In this class, students learn, among other things, about the



school physical layout (cafeteria and lockers, media center and labs, counselors and nurses,

etc.), go on short (1 -2 hour) field trips in the community (to a grocery or department store,

fast food restaurant, post office) where they practice social communication and ―survival‖

skills. Field trips to museums and the State Capitol are also included. And, these students are

introduced to basic concepts of American history and geography.

8. Create a balance of instruction in English and in subject content. Creating the right

combination of ESL and literacy classes, sheltered courses, and mainstream classes is of vital

importance, but also challenging to accomplish.

One important criterion for designing an effective program for late-entrant low-literacy

immigrant students is to offer explicit ESL instruction. In Edina High School we group students

in 4 levels of ESL classes based on their language skills (classes are small, 3-15 students,

allowing us to better meet each students‘ needs).

a. Level 1 students (newcomer) receive 4 hours of ESL instruction a day, 2 hours of which they

work in a Level 2 class which focuses on developing their academic English, literacy, and

critical thinking skills.

b. Level 2 students (beginner) have 2 hours of ESL instruction a day.

c. Level 3 students (intermediate) have one hour of ESL skills class and one hour of reading

class which directs the students‘ attention to their own reading processes and introduces them

to a variety of reading strategies.

d. Level 4 students (advanced/transitional) have one hour of ESL Skills class.

We implement a strong ESL curriculum based on literature, language, and content using

the four-level English language development program Visions published by Thomson/Heinle.

The course structure incorporates a variety of reading strategies, word study, text structure,

elements of literature, and study of grammar that enables ESL teachers to teach English in a

systematic way. This curriculum incorporates many principles for success described in the

literature such as cyclical reintroduction of concepts that leads to a natural growth (Walqui,

2000) and using students‘ prior knowledge (Irvin, Buehl, & Klemp, 2007). Students engage in

activities that involve critical thinking. And, a variety of thinking maps and graphic organizers

are used to encourage students to use metacognitive strategies (Irvin, Buehl, & Klemp, 2007).

Research shows that, ―a child who doesn‘t learn to read early and well will not easily

master other skills and knowledge, and is unlikely to ever flourish in school or in life.‖ and the

rate of reading failure for limited-English proficient students is 60-79% (AFT, 1999, 5). Further,

Thomas and Collier predict that ―for older language minority students failure to attain grade-

level competence in reading persists well beyond high school.‖ (Thomas & Collier, 1997 quoted

in Grant & Wong, 2003).

Recognizing that reading is fundamental for student success in school and life, the

development of reading skills is a central part of our ESL program which nicely compliments the

commitment of the whole school to student literacy. We realize that the process of acquiring

reading skills is prolonged and gradual, and have set realistic expectations for the achievement

level of our students including knowing that they will most probably be unable to read at the

same level as their mainstream peers by the time of graduation.



Teaching language through subject content is also important. Yvonne and David Freeman

consider teaching language through content one of the major principles for success by noting,

―The contexts for second language teaching may vary, but from sociopsycholinguistic

orientation, the best way to teach language in any context is through content.‖ (Freeman &

Freeman, 1998, 31). Krashen (1991) observes that if students focus on subject matter, it

―encourages a focus on meaning, not form, and results in more comprehensible input, and thus

more language acquisition.‖ (37). Research conducted by the Center for Research on Education,

Diversity & Excellence (CREDE) emphasizes the importance of developing students‘ language

and literacy skills throughout all instructional activities (Tharp, 1998). Tharp (quoted in Davis,

2002) suggests that language and literacy should be incorporated across the curriculum.

From the beginning we realized that one of the most difficult subjects for our students,

and where the gap is the most significant, is math. At first, we placed ESL students in regular

algebra classes as we had no other workable option, but student skills were too low to cope

with course expectations. In response, a teacher was hired to teach a sheltered ESL math

class and a ‗Edina-math class‘ taught by a mainstream math teacher was introduced. There

are students of different levels in these classes.

Instruction in mathematics is now adapted to the specific needs of each student. This

instruction is differentiated through the use of Plato software so that each student can work at

his or her pace to, at least minimally, pass the state standardized math test which is required

to graduate from high school. Currently this graduation requirement says students can take

the test three times, get 4 to 6 weeks of extra help after each unsuccessful attempt, and

graduate even if they fail the test all 3 times.

Mainstream chemistry, biology, and social studies classes are co-taught by

mainstream and ESL teachers. Content teachers determine the core knowledge and skills that

these students need to master and share this with ESL teachers and ESL teachers bring the

knowledge of ESL teaching strategies. Cooperation between ESL and content teachers is a

very important principle for the success of this approach. Mark Harelstad, Edina biology

teacher, says, ―Mainstream and ELL students work together from the beginning of the year,

so there isn‘t an ‗us‘ and ‗them‘ mentality. I like the teamwork I‘ve had with the ESL teacher

and all students benefit from this kind of teaching.‖

We also make sure that our students receive foundations of computer literacy as

technology is widely used at school and required for success in society (many teachers use

Edline for homework assignments, materials, and announcements and often teachers require

students to blog or use Wiki).

A final part of our effective program for late-entrant low-literacy students is assuring that help is

within easy reach for each student. This support starts with a resource hour where students get

help with their homework or projects during the school day and ends with after school study

support in all subjects. Our students do make use of this help along with using other resources

offered by Edina High school such as paraprofessional help in many classrooms.

Ultimately, program success depends on all participants having and acting upon a fundamental

respect of each other‘s culture. We realize that educators should be extremely sensitive about

cultural issues. They should try to understand the backgrounds of their students. Unfortunately,

some teachers and mainstream students still have very vague ideas about the culture, beliefs,

experiences, and needs of immigrant students. As one response, the Edina ESL coordinator sends

information about students‘ cultures to all teachers who work with them, and we celebrate

cultures at the very popular annual school diversity show.



Professional Development

Lucas, Henze and Donato (1990) identified a number of characteristics of effective

programs for immigrant students: professionalism of teachers, their knowledge of ESL teaching

strategies, and ongoing professional development of all teachers and support specialists who

work with immigrant students. Other important factors are teachers‘ commitment to the success

of immigrant students and high expectations for these students.

Each year, ESL teachers in Edina High School conduct professional development

sessions for teachers and paraprofessional staff in the school on best practices in working with

ESL students. Also, groups of teachers work on ESL related issues throughout the year in their

Community of Practice program. This year school leadership team was organized to work with

staff on culturally responsive teaching strategies. Their work resulted in several, well received,

professional development sessions being presented. There are numerous other opportunities

available that teachers in our school district take advantage of to increase their knowledge of

working with low-literacy ESL students.

Results

The effectiveness of the Edina High School ESL program for late-entrant low-literacy

students has been demonstrated by students successfully graduating from high school. Not a

single ESL student has dropped out of school in the past 4 years, the majority have graduated,

some have gone on to further higher education, and others to gainful employment.

Conclusion

Schools around the world are challenged to effectively educate every student - to reach

and teach all learners - especially when those learners arrive not knowing the local language,

culture, or educational processes.

The experience of Edina High school teachers and administrators offers one example of

how, by recognizing and responding to a challenge, being guided by scholarship in the field, and

by learning from mistakes an effective program which prepares immigrant students, who have

limited or no prior formal education, to cope with high school level academic work and

successfully transition to the work force or other educational programs can be developed and

implemented.

Others can accomplish the same or do better, but to do so requires commitment and

coordination of the talents and perspectives of all participants: teachers, school administrators,

counselors, parents and community members.



References

Davis, B. (2002). How to teach students who don‘t look like you: Culturally relevant teaching. Corwin Press,

California.

Freeman, Y., & Freeman, D. (1998). ESL/EFL teaching: Principles for success. Reed Elsevier, NH.

Grant, R., & Wong, S. (2003). Barriers to literacy for language-minority learners: An argument for change in the

literacy education profession. Journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 48:5.

Irvin, J., Buehl, D., & Klemp, R. (2007). Reading and the high school student: Strategies to enhance literacy.

Pearson, MA.

Krashen, S. (1991). Sheltered subject matter teaching. Content-based language teaching. Cross Currents 18.

Lucas, T. (2000). Into, through, and beyond secondary school: Critical transitions for immigrant youth. McHenry,

IL, and Washington DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.

Lucas, T., Henze, R., & Donato, R. (1990). Promoting the success of Latino language minority students. An

exploratory study of six high schools. Harvard Educational Review, 60, 315-40.

Short, D.J., & Boyson, B. (1997). Secondary newcomer programs in the United States: 1996-97 Directory.

Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Teaching Reading Is Rocket Science: A Position Statement of AFT Teachers. Access online at:

http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/rocketsci.pdf

Tharp, R. G., (1998) From at-risk to excellence: research, theory and principles for practice. ERIC Digest no.

RR93002010.

Thomas, W.P., & Collier, V.P. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Washington, DC:

National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Walqui, A. (2000). Access and engagement: Program design and instructional approaches for immigrant students in

secondary schools. McHenry, IL, and Washington DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.

Walsh, C. (1991) Literacy and school success: Considerations for programming and instruction. In C. Walsh & H.

Prashkers (Eds.), Literacy development for bilingual students. Boston: New England Multifunctional Resource

Center for Language and Culture Education.


Reference # 83

Topic # 3

Workplace conditions of first and second year K-12 teachers

in a new teacher induction program: Differences in number of challenges,

type of school, and academic performance Marita Mahoney [email protected], CSU San Bernardino, USA

Ruth Sandlin [email protected], CSU San Bernardino, USA

Iris Riggs [email protected], CSU San Bernardino, USA

Beginning teachers, internationally, are often assigned the most difficult workplace assignments.

They have the most difficult students, fewer resources, and undesirable physical environments and

may be teaching out of their licensure area. This study will examine the kind and types of

challenges that new teachers experience and the relationship to the standardized performance

indicators of the schools in which they teach.

Introduction

New teacher induction programs have expanded dramatically in the last decade in the

United States (Wang, Odell, & Schwille, 2008) as well as in other countries such as the United

Kingdom (Totterdale, Woodroffe, Bubb, Daly, & Smart), Canada (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009)

and Australia (Allen, 2007). This is primarily due to the recognition that the most capable and

experienced teachers have the greatest impact on student achievement (Darling-Hammond,

2000) and that new teachers often enter and leave the teaching profession in the first five years

because of ―inadequate socialization‖ structures (Joiner & Edwards, 2008). Therefore, new

teachers are often dropping out of teaching before they transition to becoming more capable and

experienced in pedagogy with the ability to promote academic achievement for all students.

There have been documented successes for new teachers within well-designed and

appropriately funded induction programs (Darling-Hammond, 2003). New teachers have

increased confidence in their teaching, improved their ability to be more reflective about their

teaching, have had more opportunities for professional development, and have increased rates of

retention in the teaching profession (Darling-Hammond, 2003).

However, concerns have risen that new teachers experience, perhaps even in well-

developed induction programs, problems in classroom management and discipline, motivating

students, dealing with individual differences, coping with insufficient resources, and time

management within the classroom and outside of the classroom (Veenman, 1987). Furthermore,

new teachers‘ first workplace teaching assignments may contribute to numerous challenges for

the new teacher that could hinder or impede overall satisfaction with the profession as well the

ability to increase or sustain student achievement.

Within the U.S., cultural practices and unwritten policies frequently contribute to new

teacher assignment practices. For example, when student enrollment changes require

reconstitution of classes after the start of the school calendar, the newest teachers are often

identified to take on the newly constituted class—even if the class includes multiple grades,

more challenging students, or less than adequate materials. Also, teacher unions often create

policies that allow senior teachers within a school district to have first choice over the more

desirable work assignments.



Background

In the mid 1990‘s we began work in a teacher induction program in Southern California.

Our roles were primarily as trainers for mentor teachers and beginning teachers. We focused on

improving: pedagogy; classroom discipline; strategies for second language learners; and

assessment. This program, initiated in 1993, was part of a state mandated effort to support

beginning teachers in their first two years of teaching.

Currently, there are (140) Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment Programs (BTSA)

in California with a funding level that 86 million. Programs may serve single school districts or

large consortiums of multiple school districts. All elementary and secondary teachers must

complete two years of induction in order to receive the final teaching license. Induction consists

of a series of teaching tasks over two years which are assessed by both the beginning teacher and

mentor teacher.

Over the years as we worked, we began hearing anecdotal narratives about the lives of

the novices within our program. Mostly, the narratives or stories came from the mentors who

worked with the beginning teachers in their classrooms. But sometimes, we heard about

pertinent issues from project coordinators who worked with the beginning teacher/mentor

teacher pairs. Many of these stories revealed workplace conditions that were difficult at best.

For example, we heard about new teachers who did not have a permanent classroom—they

sometimes had to move from class to class within a given day of instruction. Sometimes,

novices had no materials or access to current textbooks and supplements. A common challenge

was that new teachers seemed to have a preponderance of students with behavior problems. One

might perceive that these difficulties were simply related to the inexperience of these teachers,

but the mentors held a different perspective. They often noted that their mentees were facing

more difficult contexts than experienced teachers at the same site--with many more students,

more challenging students, and/or more difficult settings.

It became apparent to us that our induction program was not addressing some of these

issues that our new teachers were confronting. We wondered whether it is the role of an

induction program to become involved in school and district policies about new teacher

placement and workplace conditions?

It also became clear that we really needed to learn about challenges new teachers were

experiencing, and we needed to look at these challenges at the macro level within our program to

see similarities and differences within and across the schools and districts within our program.

Purpose of the Study

From 2001 to 2008, mentor teachers within a large urban/suburban teacher induction

consortium in Southern California were asked to identify the number and kind of challenges that

their mentees were experiencing. In this 2009 study, we looked at the number and kind of

challenges new teachers experience and examined the relationship with the Academic

Performance Index (API) of the schools that new teachers are placed in. We hypothesized that

the new teachers facing the most challenges would be more likely to be teaching within lower

performing schools. We maintain that schools and districts may become more interested in new

teacher workplace conditions if we can support the argument that API scores are influenced by

how many challenges new teachers may experience.

Mahoney, et al.: Workplace conditions in a new teacher induction program


Additionally, we wondered if there are any differences among the different types of

schools (e.g., elementary, middle school, high school, and charter, etc.) in terms of challenges

that new teachers experience. There are notable differences between API scores within kind of

schools across districts but is there any relationship to workplace conditions of new teachers?

Methodology

The California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP) created in 1997 provided

the theoretical framework for the process of support and assessment. Additionally, the program

was developed to meet state-developed induction standards which guide programs and monitor

program effectiveness. These induction standards acknowledged assignments/challenges of new

teachers by suggesting induction programs must work to provide appropriate work setting for

new teachers, as well as provide additional support when challenging assignments or difficult

workplace contexts were unavoidable.

Participants within the state-mandated induction program designed to support beginning

teachers in their first two years of teacher were asked to participate. The induction program was

located in Southern California and serves a geographically diverse region of 40,506 square miles

or 65,186 kilometers. The total number of beginning teachers in the 2009 year were 1795 with

1734 survey responses. There were 73 districts involved. A county office of education served as

the lead agency for the program which is accredited by the state of California. An initial training

of three days introduced mentor teachers to their support and assessment roles with five

additional follow-up days held throughout each of the two years of induction.

Classroom teachers who served as mentors were assigned to 1-3 new teachers, while

teachers who worked as full-time mentors were assigned 10-15 new teachers. Mentors complete

classroom observations and guide novice teacher analysis of planning, instruction, and student

work products. Additionally, mentors and mentees complete a thorough review of the new

teacher‘s context including class, school, district, and community variables. This beginning-of-

the-year activity acquaints both teachers with the characteristics of the new teacher‘s students at

an in-depth level. Teachers identify performance levels of all students, verify language ability,

and investigate characteristics of students with special needs. They also document school site

characteristics, including resources or a lack of resources, and they investigate the community of

the students they teach.

This contextual task, in addition to the mentor‘s observations and dialogues with the new

teacher, makes the mentor well qualified to judge the nature of the challenges faced by their

mentees. Researchers made the decision to use mentor perceptions of new teacher contexts rather

than the opinion of new teachers. Midpoint during the academic year, mentors complete a

written questionnaire requesting they identify which challenges their mentees face at a greater

level than other veteran teachers teaching at the same site. We believe mentors are more likely

to have knowledge of the contexts of other teachers, and they are less likely to be biased about

the difficulties faced by the new teachers than would be the new teachers themselves.

Of 1795 new teachers (2007-2008 school year), usable data was obtained from 1734

(96.6% response rate) new teachers from 73 school districts. The school districts included public,

charter, and private schools. As previously stated, at mid-year, mentors for new teachers were

asked to rate the teaching assignment and challenges experienced by each new teacher they were

mentoring. Ratings were made on a 3-point Likert scale (1 = assignment/challenge not present, 2

= assignment/challenge somewhat present, 3 = assignment/challenge present). Mentors rated the



following assignments/challenges as to the extent the new teacher faced the assignment/

challenge to a greater degree than veteran teachers at the same site:

1. Teaching out of content area preparation

2. Teaching out of grade level preparation

3. Larger number of different types of preparations

4. Combination grade levels

5. Overflow classroom (taking students from over-filled classrooms)

6. No classroom (conducting class on stage, in hallway, etc.)

7. Roving teacher (move classroom periodically)

8. Classroom does not include basic materials and/or resources (no lab, no texts, etc.)

9. Higher percentage of challenging students

10. Larger number of students

11. Assignment has been changed more

This data has been collected and reported to the participating school districts and teacher

education programs for the past six years; however, the present analysis focuses on the 2008-

2009 school year. Additionally, Academic Performance Index (API) scores were recorded for

each school site. API scores are calculated by scaling students‘ performance on statewide

standardized assessments across multiple content areas and then averaged across all students

(California Department of Education, 2009).

Results

Responses were received from a variety of school types representing a range of API

scores (see Table 1). API scores are categorized as: Advanced = 1000 points; Proficient = 875

points; Basic = 700 points; Below Basic = 500 points; and, Far Below Basic = 200 points. As can

be seen in Table 1, all of the schools scored at the Below Basic or above on API scores;

however, no school types were in the Proficient or Advanced categories.

Table 1. School Type and API Scores of New Teachers.

School Type Frequency Percent Average APIa

Elementary 750 43.3 751 (sd = 73.8)

Middle/Junior High/Intermediate 388 18.9 717 (sd = 59.9)

High School 403 23.2 681 (sd = 56.2)

Charter 116 6.7 657 (sd = 117.2)

Private 7 0.4 b

Alternative 1 0.1 648 (sd = --)

Continuation 37 2.1 539 (sd = 56.4)

Alternative Schools Accountability Model

(ASAM)/Small School (between 11 & 99

valid standardized student test scores)

38 2.2 552 (sd = 69.8)

District/County Office 12 0.7 b

Unknown 42 2.4 b

Total 1734 100 714 (sd = 83.3)

a Potential API scores range from 200 – 1000;

PI scores are not calculated for schools with fewer than 11 valid scores. b These school types are not evaluated by API scores.



Mentors‘ ratings of the assignment/challenges were coded to indicate whether or not the

new teacher faced the assignment/challenge compared to veteran teachers. The range of

assignments/challenges new teachers may have experienced was 0 to 11. Mentors reported that

on average new teachers faced 1.2 (sd= 1.7) assignments/challenges at their school sites. The

frequency of reported assignments/challenges is presented in Table 2. As can be seen in Table 2,

the three most frequently reported assignments/challenges experienced by new teachers

compared to veteran teachers are: Higher percentage of challenging students (28.3%); Larger

number of different types of preparations (16.9%); and, Combination grade levels (15.4%).

Table 2. Frequency of Assignments/Challenges of New Teachers.

Assignment/Challenge Frequency Percent

Teaching out of content area 129 7.4

Teaching out of grade level preparation 115 6.6

Larger number of different types of preparations 293 16.9

Combination grade levels 267 15.4

Overflow classroom (taking students from over-filled classrooms) 86 5.0

No classroom (conducting class on stage, in hallway, etc.) 54 3.1

Roving teacher (move classroom periodically) 69 4.0

Classroom does not include basic materials and/or resources (no lab, no texts, etc.) 152 8.8

Higher percentage of challenging students 490 28.3

Larger number of students 177 10.2

Assignment has been changed more 163 9.4

We then investigated if the number of assignments/challenges differed by school type

(see Table 3). Overall, the school sites did differ on the number of assignments/challenges new

teachers faced compared to veteran teachers (F = 12.15, p ≤ 0.00). Pairwise comparisons

revealed numerous differences in the number of assignments/challenges new teachers experience

at each school type (see Table 4). Unexpectedly, a higher number of assignments/challenges

were reported for new teachers in private and charter school sites, while as expected, the lowest

was reported in elementary school sites.

Table 3. School Type and Assignment/Challenges of New Teachers.

School Type Meana SD

Elementary 0.85 1.45

Middle/Junior High/Intermediate 1.20 1.55

High School 1.26 1.80

Charter 2.03 2.54

Private 3.00 2.45

Continuation 1.22 1.84

Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM)/Small School 2.08 2.49

District/County Office 2.67 2.10

Overall 1.16 1.73

a Number of assignment/challenges range from 0 – 11.



Table 4. Pairwise Comparisons of Number of Assignments/Challenges by School Type

School Type Ele

men

tary

Mid

dle

/Ju

nio

r H

igh

/

Inte

rmed

iate

Hig

h S

cho

ol

Ch

art

er

Pri

va

te

Co

nti

nu

ati

on

AS

AM

/Sm

all

Sch

oo

l

Dis

tric

t/C

ou

nty

Off

ice

Elementary --

Middle/Junior High/Intermediate * --

High School * ns --

Charter * * * --

Private * * * ns --

Continuation ns ns ns * * --

Alternative Schools Accountability Model

(ASAM)/ Small School * * * ns ns * --

District/County Office * * * ns ns * ns --

* The mean difference is significant (p ≤ 0.05) ns = not significant.

We next investigated the relationship between the number of assignments/challenges,

school API scores and school type. As expected, the number of assignments/challenges was

correlated with school API scores (r = -0.07, p = 0.005), indicating that the more

assignments/challenges new teachers experience, school API scores decrease. As the number of

assignments/challenges experienced is correlated with school API scores, we controlled for the

number of assignments/challenges to investigate if there were differences in API scores by

school type. We controlled for number of assignments/challenges as we believe this is a facet

that schools and school districts are able to control. Results revealed that overall school types

differed on API scores after controlling for number of assignments/challenges (F = 101.86, p ≤

0.00; school API scores presented in Table 1). All pairwise comparisons were significant at the p

≤ 0.05 level, except for the difference in school API scores at Continuation versus ASAM/Small

Schools. Mean differences are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Mean Differences of School API Scores After Controlling for Number of Assignments/Challenges.

School Type Ele

men

tary

Mid

dle

/Ju

nio

r H

igh

/

Inte

rmed

iate

Hig

h S

cho

ol

Ch

art

er

Co

nti

nu

ati

on

AS

AM

/Sm

all

Sch

oo

l

Elementary --

Middle/Junior High/Intermediate 35.1* --

High School 70.8* 35.7* --

Charter 96.5* 61.4* 25.7* --

Continuation 214.3* 179.2* 143.5* 117.8* --

Alternative Schools Accountability

Model (ASAM)/Small School 200.7* 165.6* 129.9* 104.2* 13.5 --



* The mean difference is significant (p ≤ 0.05)

Discussion

Results make it clear that even within a state-approved induction program, the contexts

that new teachers face are more difficult than those of veteran teachers. The culture of American

schools continues to promote assignments which reward teaching longevity with more protected

contexts. Novices are more likely to face more challenging students, to have more preparations,

or to teach within a combination classroom which includes multiple grade levels. Unlike

professions in which the most difficult cases are reserved for those with the most preparation and

experience, America‘s teaching profession engages in ―trial by fire,‖ assuming that any teacher

should be able to handle any context. Thus, teaching continues to be a ―flat‖ profession within

the United States. There is no recognition that there are different levels of expertise acquired by

teachers and an understanding of the different contexts within schools and districts also seems

to be missing.

It is interesting to note that new teachers working within private or ―charter‖ schools

were more likely to face challenges. While California charter schools must be affiliated with a

school district, they are likely to resemble private schools due to their great range of design.

Both charter and private schools by nature, may serve a large number of challenging students,

and their smaller size may result in more combination classrooms and teachers who must teach

many different subject areas. Still, the results of this study are based upon challenges of new

teachers that differ from veterans at the same school site. Thus, administrators may want to

consider whether placements within charter schools are the best assignments for novices, and

both charter and private schools might be especially cognizant of the challenges of their contexts

in order to better support their new teachers.

The relationship of new teacher contexts to assessment outcomes may be the most

significant finding of this study. California schools are under increasing pressure to meet school-

specific testing targets. As schools fail to meet targets, administrators are likely to be replaced,

and ultimately, oversight of the school may be assigned to external panels. It seems wise to

seriously consider providing new teachers with more protected ―normal‖ workplace assignments

in order to assure that additional challenges do negatively influence student outcomes.

It is also important to note that the API scores of the schools involved in this study were

all Below Basic to Basic in standardized assessments. Elementary, Junior High, and High

Schools all performed better than Charter schools (Private Schools do not have API scores). So

not only do charters have more challenges, the also have lower API scores than public schools.

A decrease in number of challenges may assist each school type to improve which API category

they fall in (in some cases the differences in API scores across schools varied 100 to 200 points).

There is a current movement nationwide in the United States to create and fund more charter

schools. In California, the mayor of Los Angeles, Antonio Villaraigosa (2009) is trying to

approve over 50 charter-like schools as a way to improve student achievement. This effort runs

contradictory to results in this study.

America has a long history of treating teachers as though the newest teacher is prepared

to handle the most difficult challenges. It is difficult for an induction program that has no

responsibility for the hiring and placement of teachers within its many districts to control where

its participants are placed. It is our belief that knowledge can stimulate change, and so we

continue to provide our districts with their challenge results compared to aggregate results for the

program, and yet we have witnessed little to no change in assignment practice through the years.

We are heartened, however, with our new president‘s effort to encourage states to recognize the



varied assignments of teachers with varied pay. States must meet several criteria in order to be

eligible for federal stimulus funding reserved for education, one of which is varied pay for varied

duties. California does not presently meet that criterion, but there is great interest in striving to

do so.


Reference # 85

Topic # 5

Empowering students: A key to successful teaching Keshav Mandadi [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This paper attempts to provide some practical suggestions that every teacher at every level can

follow in his/her endeavor to be a better teacher. The ideas shared here are drawn from my own

experiences over the years. Arguably, our students desperately need order in their lives, and it is

up to us to help them by setting limits with them. Limits make them feel safe. When we define

limits, we are telling our students they cannot venture into water that is too deep. This paper

explores some strategies that help students assume responsibilities as we (teachers) set well-

defined limits with clear consequences.

We Make Our Own Choices

Our students have to learn that they have choices.-We all have choices. Some are easy

and some are more difficult. I remember student of mine who was caught threatening other

students to give him their home work. He claimed he did it because he was broke and had to

work after school, so he didn‘t have time to do his home work. I pointed out that there were

many other students working after school who did not choose to cheat. It was his choice, and he

chose to intimidate others and then to portray himself as the victim.

I totally empathized with his problems, but I would not enable him by sanctioning his

actions. Too often, we feel sorry for students and let things slide like that slide. I feel that this is

an injustice and we have to be tough for the sake of those very students about whom we care so

much.

Let Students Set Rules and Consequences

You can ask the class what rules they consider fair. (Don‘t ask what rules they think are

unfair-if you do you will be sorry!)

For instance, I ask them what would make a classroom feel safe, and then we brainstorm

and compile a list of rules. It is hard for them to complain that the rules they set are unfair. Of

course, if you see that they are not being serious and are making rules such as ―There should be

no homework ever‘, go back to a dictatorship.

The Sanctuary

This strategy is a powerful one. I explain to my students that my classroom is a sanctuary.

They must define the word (‗ a safe place‖). Then we brainstorm answers to the question, ―What

makes a classroom safe?‖ The resulting list is put on the bulletin board and must be respected.

When someone hurts someone‘s feelings, I stop immediately and ask , What is this classroom

called? They will say, ―It is a sanctuary‖. I keep doing this until they pick it up and say it to each

other. Hey quiet! This is a sanctuary‖ I never thought it would take effect as well as it did, but

the students valued the safe feeling that had in the class room. At first it was a joke, and then it

became a source of comfort. Children who in the past would never read aloud would do so now



because they knew no one would make fun of them if they made a mistake. In order for this to be

effective, you must teach the tacit approval strategy below.

Tacit Approval.

In order to make your classroom ― a sanctuary‖, your students must be armed with ways

to deal with the bullies without being confrontational….several of my classes, particularly the

ones on prejudice awareness and sex education required a very ― safe‘ classroom because of the

course contents. But how can students feel safe enough to share personal experiences and

feelings if they fear being made fun of by their peers?

I write the words ― TACIT APPROVAL‖ on the board, and define the term as unspoken

approval. Examples of tacit approval can be snickering, pointing and winking.

For example, we all know that no one in the room is going to tell the class bully not to

pick on the class victim. Yet we all wish he would stop. What we can do is refuse to laugh, or

look away, or anything else that will make the bully feel self conscious or less comfortable. We

know how we feel when we tell that hysterically funny joke and no one even smiles. We want to

crawl away and shrivel up. This is the same feeling the bully experiences when he is not

encouraged by others.

In the beginning, you as the teacher- may have to point out someone who is being unkind

and getting support from his classmates and show how they are giving tacit approval. Someone

eventually says, ―Stop giving tacit approval‖ to someone putting down another classmate. I have

been doing this for years and I have seen class after class catch on and become empowered.

I once had a new student come into my class after having been expelled from another

school for hitting a teacher. He sauntered into my room, and when I told him that he would need

a note book. He said, ―I will get one if I feel like it‖. He looked around, waiting for everyone to

laugh because, after all, he had putdown the teacher.. Imagine! He just got stares and he fled the

room…. I heard my students saying it ―it worked! We didn‘t give her tacit approval!‖ I had

forgotten about the tacit approval strategy, but they hadn‘t and suddenly they saw how they

could make a difference. Indeed they were empowered.

Use of ―I‖ Messages

One of the best strategies a teacher can employ is conflict resolution by using ―I‖

messages. Basically, this means communicating your wants, needs, concerns without attacking

your students. Instead of saying,‖ you don‘t do a bit of work here and you are going to flunk‖

you might say, ―you are getting behind in your work and I am concerned that I will not be able to

pass you‖. I have even gone so far as to tell a student that I felt she disliked being in my class

and asked if there was anything I could do to make our year together more enjoyable. Her

behavior changed after that and to this day we keep in touch. I truly believe she didn‘t realize I

had feelings and could be hurt. A high dose of honesty is strong cement.

Use ―Let‘s‖ instead of YOU.

I can‘t stand when I visit my doctor and she says, ―How are we today?‖ Likewise, I am

annoyed by the waiter who asks me, ―Hi! What are we going to have today? But in the class

Mandadi: Empowering students


room, it is nice to include yourself as part of the group. It really supports the ―same team‖

concept. Let‘s take out our books‖ is nicer than ―Take out your books‖ ‗What can we add to this

story‖ is more comfortable than ―What can you add?‖

Interchange Gender pronouns

I grew up thinking everyone was male unless otherwise stated. My teachers referred

every one as he (except ballet dancers, nurses, secretaries, and lady doctors.)The English

Language should be inclusive, because young girls and boys do not understand generic language.

They take everything literally and internalize what they hear. So the boy who never hears a nurse

referred to as HE or the girl who never hears a scientist referred to as SHE is hearing gender

roles being assigned by us…

Limiting the ―you should‖

We must carefully use the word ―you should/shouldn‘t‖ Instead of putting limitations on

everything the students do, it is better to be suggestive than authoritative. This kind of strategy

empowers the students and develops lateral thinking in them.

State Rules Impersonally

By stating rules impersonally, you are focusing on the rule and not the student. I get upset

when I hear teachers saying things like ―What‘s wrong with you? Can‘t you follow the rules?‖

How can we expect someone not to react defensively?

However, it is totally non confrontational when we just remind a student who is wearing

a hat in your class when the rule is ―no hats allowed‖

Conclusions

Some of these non-confrontational strategies help building confidence in the students

which is an important achievement for any successful teacher. As a result of empowering the

students, the teacher makes an attempt to tap into those feelings of self-worth and self assurance.


Reference # 89

Topic # 2

The cooperative curriculum in Engineering:

Curricular innovation and professors development Marcos Masetto [email protected], Pontifícia Universidade Catòlica de São Paulo, Brazil

Martha Prata-Linhares [email protected], Universidade de Uberaba, Brazil

Elize Keller Franco [email protected], Centro Univ. Adventista de São Paulo, Brazil

Cecília Gaeta [email protected], Centro Universitário SENAC, Brazil

Cristina Zukowsky-Tavares [email protected], Centro Univ. Adv. de São Paulo, Brazil

Thiago Schulze [email protected], Pontifícia Univ. Catòlica de São Paulo, Brazil

This study offers the opportunity of discussing studies that a Brazilian research group, made up of

researchers from different universities and students, has been carrying out concerning cooperative

courses in Engineering in Brazil. Investigation is concentrated in the observation of its innovative

curricular characteristics and the professional development of the professor which is required for

carrying out this new curriculum. It is based on bibliographical and case studies, documental

analysis, individual and collective research, participation of the group members in seminars and

specific events connected to the theme.

Introduction

To share reflections about the Cooperative Curriculum in Engineering and teaching

development for higher education is a very rich opportunity of probing into the studies we have

already been carrying out in the Post-Education Programme: Curriculum of the Pontífice

Universidade Católica de São Paulo (Brazil).

This Post-Education Programme hosts a Research Group called ―Teacher Development

and Curricular Paradigms‖, registered in the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa – CNPq (National

Board for Research), coordinated by Prof. Dr. Marcos Tarciso Masetto and made up of post-

graduate students and researchers who are masters and doctors.

This Research Group began its activities in 2005 and established as its goals to investi-

gate and identify innovative projects in higher education teaching and to go more deeply into

theoretical issues concerning innovation, curriculum, and teacher development. It is based on

bibliographical studies and case studies, document analysis, individual and collective research,

participation of the group members in seminars and specific events related to the theme. It pub-

lishes articles in journals and chapters in collections, showing the result of its investigations.

This paper offers the opportunity of discussing one of the studies we have been carrying

out about ―Cooperative Courses in Engineering‖, its characteristic of curricular innovation and

the development of the professors required for carrying out this new curriculum. The starting

point was to think about the socio-historic, educational, professional and political contextualiza-

tion, which today involves discussions about the development of the engineering professionals.

A knowledge or learning society

Knowledge today is presented as an almost infinite multiplicity of production sources. If

until a short time ago we could say that the universities constituted the great and privileged



‗locus‘ of research and scientific production, today, and since a while back, investigations and

the subsequent production of knowledge have their beginnings also in other spaces: research

organisms and institutes which are disengaged from universities, industrial laboratories,

enterprises, public and private organisms interested in projects that conduct intervention in

reality and those who carry out programmes and government policies in all levels. Today, we

actually build up knowledge in professional activity offices, and even in our home desks, thanks

to computers.

At the same time as the sources of production and knowledge are multiplied, access to it

has also been transformed: immediate access in real time to journals, articles, books, talks,

conferences, sites and the researcher and specialist him/herself who is responsible for publishing

the information. Due to this, science areas have come together: the phenomenons which are to be

understood, explained, require more than one approach, one specialist, one explanation:

multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity are called in to work together for the development of

science. Knowledge and interaction between the exact and human sciences becomes a demand

for world development, but not disconnected from the human community, its progression and

development of the peoples.

Due to this, there are those who call this society the ―learning society‖. Learning meaning

development of the whole man and society in its educational, political, ethical, economic,

cultural aspects, individual rights and social responsibilities, in short, of human citizenship itself.

This explains learning through life, ―life-long learning‖, which goes beyond the school spaces

and is present during all human existence.

This new world of knowledge is presented to the engineering professor. Before, he could

consider him/herself as an ―expert‖ in a specific area of knowledge that he commands,

understands, synthesizes and thus, it represents the body of information which will be passed on

and transmitted to students who will then become competent engineers. Nowadays he asks

him/herself how he/she can keep him/herself up to date and work with a universe of information

which is available to everybody, including the students, which can bring new information and

queries into his/her classroom, and how to share with the students during his class schedule and

established programme. How can he help the student to get access through Internet and, in a

critical manner, obtain information which may be relevant? Finally, the great question: what

does a student need to know to become a competent engineer?

At least professors are now beginning to think: what is then, the role of an expert in a

certain subject, who must teach the student the most he can in this subject? How is it possible to

work the different items of subjects in a classroom?

Hargreaves also asked himself the same question and dares to answer it indicating some

clues. For him, professors will find themselves in the need of:

promoting deep cognitive learning, learning to teach by means of ways in which they were not

taught, committing themselves with continued professional learning, working and learning in

teams with partners, developing and making things take shape starting from collective intelligence,

building an aptitude for change and risk-taking, stimulating trust in the processes.

(HARGREAVES, 2004:40)

Masetto, et al.: The cooperative curriculum in Engineering


The professionalism of the engineer

Another world which presents itself to us is the professionalism of the engineer. In the

under-graduate engineering courses, the profile of the students about to graduate is normally well

defined, keeping in mind the specific professional activities that behoove such a profession, and

the curriculum organization normally attends this demand. However, the engineer‘s training

today is called into question by this world of professionalism.

The performance needs for an engineer today are new, different from the traditional ones,

as well as the demands that are put on him, due, certainly to the technological innovations and

the advances of computer science. The engineer‘s inset in the professional activities connected to

his work continues demanding specificities, but more and more it also demands collaboration

from other areas which will allow for a better understanding of the phenomenons and find better

solutions for the problems which are presented do them. The definition of the engineer‘s profile

nowadays is under crisis; just as all the careers that try to respond to professional challenges of

the contemporaneous society are also.

The Curricular Directives (CNE/CES, 2002) that are the guide for curricular

organization in the development of an engineer in Brazil nowadays, try to extend these

professional competencies.

The 3rd

Article expresses thus:

The Under-graduate Engineering Course lists as the profile of the graduating student/professional,

an engineer with a generalist, humane, critical and reflexive development, able to absorb and

develop new technologies, stimulating his critical and creative performance in the identification

and solution of problems, considering their political, economical, social, environment and cultural

problems, with an ethical and humanistic view, in attendance to the demands of society.

These guidelines are not only decorative. They are in earnest. The 8th

Article determines:

The implantation and development of the curricular directives should guide and offer curricular

ideas to the Under-graduate Engineering Course that should be accompanied and permanently

assessed, in order to permit the adjustments that may be necessary to its improvement.

According to Saccadura (1999),

The modern engineering profession includes a great diversity of knowledge, competences, roles

carried out and professional standings. From civil engineering to electronic engineering, from

mechanics to telecommunications, a varied technological universe has been developed, allowing

the engineer to carry out roles such as administrator or ―manager‖, alongside more traditional

missions such as an object or system designer, or of a production manager. The engineer may be a

researcher, or a product or service salesman. From a civil servant to a member of staff in a private

enterprise or independent consulter, the professional situations of the engineers also show great

diversity. (SACADURA, 1999:16)

This world of professionalism of the engineer is also noticed by the professors in this

area, if not by means of the documents put out by the Ministry of Education, at least by the

changes in the performance of engineering which can be noticed by those who work as such.

The scenario of contemporary society induces professors to worry about their classes and

the manner how they have been traditionally been working. They see that it is no more possible,

in a scenario so full of innovation and change to maintain the conventional pattern of classes, as

if nothing had happened. The teaching professionalism must also be reviewed.



As we mentioned above, these two worlds among us today, which are connected, the

world of knowledge and the world of professionalism, demand a review of the engineer

development curriculum, as well as the manner in which we face the teaching performance in the

engineering courses.

Based on these issues, we will discuss ‗Cooperative Courses in Engineering‖ as a valid

alternative for the development of professionals in this area, in the context of the knowledge and

learning society and as a incentive to reflection on the teaching performance.

Cooperative Education in the context of alternative curricular practices in Engineering

In the scope of an alternative curricular organization which aims at re-signifying teaching

in Brazilian engineering due to current tendencies, some universities have faced the challenge of

implanting a different development proposal by means of Cooperative Education.

This proposal is involved in development of personal and professional competences in

the complexity of the real world, by means of a formative process that promotes a close

integration between teaching institutions and professional environments, mixing academic and

traineeship modules. There is a reorganization of time and space promoting the student‘s

learning outside the classroom, integrating the higher education institution and, promoting a

work in partnership between the teaching academic and the engineering companies.

This curriculum is called Cooperative as it allows for cooperation among enterprises that

are part of the agreement and teaching institutions, aiming at the development of professionals

who are qualified for fast transformations and technological innovations in the working area.

Experience with this curriculum, introduced in England at the beginning of the last century in the

engineering course, was extended to the University of Cincinnati (USA) and in 1957 to Waterloo

(Canada). In Brazil, in 1989 at the Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (University

of São Paulo Politechnic School), it was incorporated into the courses of Computer Engineering

and Chemical Engineering; in 2001 it was introduced into Materials Engineering at the Federal

University of Santa Catarina (UFSC) and in 2002 at the State University of Amazonas into the

course of Mechanical Engineering.

The curricular organization divides the school year into three periods of four months,

alternating periods with classes at the university and traineeship in engineering companies and

other productive areas. This brings important alterations in the organization of conventional

educational time and space. In this curriculum structuring, the students in cooperative courses

gain an enriched understanding of the academic programme, opening the possibility for

articulation of theoretical and practical aspects related to the teaching of Engineering. The

alternate sequence between the academic and traineeship modules, favours the building of

knowledge in a dialectic relation between the academic world and the professional world, where

queries, problems, cases and challenges found in the professional environments in which the

traineeship is carried out, may constitute the starting point and arriving point of the learnings that

occur in the development of an engineer.

Traineeship under this model, inset all through the course, and constituting an

enlargement of the traditional school spaces, is a distinctive aspect of the cooperative curriculum.

Traineeship is put in a position of distinction, because it offers the learner a development of

his/her professional competences, working in the correct environments of his/her future

profession. At the same time as practice and theory are integrated, traineeship helps the student to



live the environment, the scenario, the characters, the groups, the colleagues, the physical

environment, the problems and the day to day queries of his/her profession. (MASETTO and

PACHECO, 2007)

Traineeship is frequently not understood as an opportunity of learning, introduced only at

the end of the course in a dichotomic relation between theory and practice. Quite often it is

understood only as a bureaucratic demand.

In the cooperative courses under development in Brazil, the introduction of the

traineeship in the curriculum follows distinct formats, and it may occur from the first year of the

course or starting in the third year. In the first case, as the course has the duration of five years, it

is divided into 15 four-month modules, and of these, nine modules are academic, and six are

traineeship. In the second possibility, the students study four academic semesters and then they

continue in four-month modules which alternate academic modules and traineeship modules.

These two possibilities are represented in the table below:

AM - Academic Module; TM - Traineeship Module; P – Four-month period

1P (January – April); 2P (May- August); 3P (September – December)

Year Example 1 Example 2

1 P 2 P 3 P 1 P 2 P 3 P

1 AM1 AM 2 TM1 Two academic semesters

2 AM 3 TM 2 AM 4 Two academic semesters

3 TM 3 AM 5 TM 4 AM 1 AM 2 TM 1

4 AM 6 TM 5 AM 7 AM 3 TM 2 AM 4

5 TM 8 AM 8 AM 9 TM 3 AM 5 TM 4

Table 1 - Examples of the format of the Cooperative Engineering Courses - Masetto and Pacheco ( 2007)

A point to be highlighted as significant is that in a curriculum structured like this one,

during the five years of the course, the student accumulates at least two years of experience in

different productive engineering environments. Such involvement in the working world offers

the scenario for the development of a new professional profile.

Research carried out in 2002 by the Association of Polytechnic Engineers from the

University of São Paulo (EPUSP), showed that in the comparative analysis among the groups of

students from the various courses in polytechnic schools, those from the cooperative courses

showed favourable development concerning decision making and performance time. This data

coincides with the studies carried out by professor Brighenti when he compared the profile of the

under-graduates from EPUSP in 1997 in their traditional courses, with the students of two

modalities of cooperative courses. These last ones showed a better performance than those from

the conventional courses in terms of professional and personal maturity, critical sense, ability to

apply theory to practice, professional and personal discipline, initiative and leadership,

entrepreneurship, ability for communication, human relationship, and commitment with society

(MATAI and MATAI, 2005).

The same author calls attention to the fact that the rate of school evasion in the

cooperative courses practically does not exist.

The emphasis put on the student learner who is active, autonomous in his/her search for

knowledge, able to build his/her learning in a critical, responsible and committed manner, by

means of the articulation of academic experiences and real, concrete situations, re-contextualizes



and re-positions the professor‘s role and demands a teaching performance which is also

distinguished.

Research carried out in 2004, involving 143 students from cooperative courses at EPUSP,

in order to define the ideal profile of a professor, lists as most significant the following

competences: a strong sense of identification, dedication, involvement and alertness in relation

to his/her own activities; ability to involve and motivate other people in the solving of problems;

demonstration of creativity in the performance of work, breaking surpassed rules and paradigms;

appreciation for working in groups, in teams and with people in general; ability for negotiation

and demonstration of respect for other people‘s opinions; interest in professional matters that

goes beyond the specific activities of his/her functions; strength and stability of character and a

strong moral standing; persistence in reaching goals and purposes; flexibility, ability to face

obstacles and problems in a rational, logical and constructive manner; knowledge of how to

point out, critically, aspects that need to be corrected and improved in the performance of people

with whom he/she has a daily relationship. (MATAI and MATAI, 2005).

The re-conceptualization and alterations proposed in the cooperative projects show a

different assessment process, which must be continuous and intentionally planned. In the

assessment of student learning, the proposal involves offering help in the sense of re-orientation

of learnings, as the tutor-professor, while tutoring the student during the traineeship in a

professional environment, has the opportunity of assessing and altering the direction of the

learning situations in the academic environment, incorporating elements which can be taken up

again or extended in the theoretical modules. In order to close the final grade in the traineeship,

there is need to discuss the opinions of the tutor-professor, the supervisor engineer in the

engineering company, and read the report written by the students.

Assessment in the cooperative curriculum aims at effective involvement of the student in

his own learning project, in terms of self-development, self-knowledge and also self-assessment.

The professional environment is well adequate for this assessment process and enables the

student to identify his/her weak and strong points, becoming more aware of his/her personal and

professional potential with critical indicators to build up his own history.

Final Considerations

This short analysis of Cooperative Courses points to two final considerations.

The first relates to identifying in this proposal, a curriculum that can respond to the

reflections that were made at the beginning of this study about Professionalism of the Engineer

in a Society of Knowledge and his development in this area. We affirm that involving the

engineer in his/her professional activities is still something that demands specificities, but more

and more, it also demands cooperation in other areas of knowledge in order to allow for a better

understanding of the phenomenons and reach more efficient solutions for the problems which

appear, thus making his/her development up to date.

The second, equally valid and instigating, is that we can identify the fact that this

proposal only managed to show itself as an alternative in the development of engineers for our

days, because it demonstrated daring and courage for innovation in the curricula issue, altering

important and fundamental aspects for this development.

It assumed the contextualization of a development of engineers in a knowledge society;

made clear professional profiles correspondent to competence and citizenship; it moved the focus

away from the process of instruction and transmission of information and experiences, which



has been carried out with priority in universities, to the process of construction of significant

knowledge and a professional practice which is up to date, based on professional experiences in

environments of engineering businesses. The manner of carrying out this learning was

collaborative, a situation in which the professor, the students and professionals, discover

meanings for information researched, and rebuild this knowledge in a critical manner.

Curricular organization set value upon the integration of theory and practice right from

the beginning of the course, re-signifying traineeship. The practical and theoretical activities,

planned in an integrated manner, showed an increasing complexity as development was carried

out. The contents were reorganized in order to attend the four-month periods in the university

and the engineering companies.

With perspicacity and innovation, it was able to make use of space and time, both in the

four-month periods in the university as in the four-month periods in the engineering companies,

not submitting to the traditional 50 or 100-minute classes per subject, but opening space and time

necessary for investigative and professional activities.

We must not forget the alterations built around the roles of the professor, the student, the

groups of students and the professionals in the engineering companies, giving appreciation to the

team working relation which also showed co-responsibility.

This new curriculum also offered incentive for a change in the attitudes of the students by

means of planning concrete activities which guaranteed to them, and also demanded of them,

participation, work, research, communication and discussion with other colleagues and with the

professor, individual and group production, performance in the practical part with integration of

the theoretical studies, abilities and attitudes and values to be developed, integration of the

various areas of knowledge.

As to the professor, we may highlight a break in the paradigm of teaching functions,

under two aspects: (i) while demanding a new role of the professor, (he is also a learner), as an

intellectual researcher, critic, citizen and planner of learning situations; mediator and one who

offers incentive to the students in their learning processes; working in a team and in partnership

with the students and his/her professor colleagues; (ii) while opening perspective to the professor

in reviewing his/her practice due to the students‘ experiences in the traineeship, integrating

theory and practice effectively.

And finally, all the working methodology and assessment process was significantly

altered. Methodology, giving more space to strategies and techniques that favour the students‘

participation, interaction among them, the professor, reality and the professionals in the

engineering companies, a collaborative effort in the construction of knowledge and learning

while working (practice).

The assessment process integrated to learning, as a motivating and incentivizing element

with continuous feedback, offers new learning opportunities to the student, motivating him to

new learnings.

It is important to highlight that such an innovating curriculum produced significant

alterations in many points simultaneously, which allowed for the obtainment of the results shown

in the researches mentioned in the text. These confirmed that the students of the cooperative

courses showed a favourable development in relation to making a decision and performance

time, professional and personal maturity, critical sense, ability to apply theory to practice,

professional and personal discipline and initiative and spirit of leadership, entrepreneurship,

ability for communication, human relationship, commitment with society (MATAI and MATAI,

2005).



We cannot omit considering the fact that the proposal of the Cooperative Courses

promotes a series of reflections about how to prepare and implant a curriculum for the

development of an engineer for our new times. It may seem a challenge impossible to be

reached. Surely this was also the feeling of other pioneer groups in this area two or more decades

ago. But, they believed in their dream and made it come true.

References

CONSELHO NACIONAL DE EDUCAÇÃO. Resolução CNE/CES 11/2002, aprovado em 11 de março de 2002.

Institui as Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais do Curso de Graduação em Engenharia. Diário Oficial da União,

Brasília/DF, 9 de Abril de 2002. Seção 1, p. 32.

HARGREAVES, Andy – ―O ensino na sociedade do conhecimento‖ - Porto Alegre, ArtMed, 2004.

MASETTO, Marcos; PACHECO, Cláudio. O estágio e o ensino de engenharia. In: MASETTO, Marcos. ―Ensino de

engenharia - técnicas para otimização das aulas”. São Paulo, Avercamp, 2007.

MATAI, Patrícia; MATAI, Shigueharu. ―Ensino Cooperativo: Estruturas quadrimestrais”. COBENGE, 2001

(anais eletrônicos).

____________________ ―Ensino Cooperativo: O conhecimento das competências. Revista de Ensino de

Engenharia”, v.24, n.2, p.27-34, 2005.

PEREIRA PINTO, Danilo e NASCIMENTO, Jorge Luiz do (Orgs.)–‖Educação em Engenharia‖ - São Paulo Ed.

Mackenzie, 2002.

SACADURA, Jean François, “A formação dos engenheiros no limiar do terceiro milênio‖, in LINSINGEN, Irlan

Von, “Formação do engenheiro”, Florianópolis, Ed. UFSCAR, 1999.

UNIVERSIDADE DE SÃO PAULO – ―Escola Politécnica/Curso cooperativo – Engenharia de computação.

Engenharia química”. Manual do aluno 2006.


Reference # 90

Topic # 5

Technological advantage and teaching needs: Learner centered education Viju Mathew [email protected],

Ministry of Higher Education, College of Applied Sciences, Oman

The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the delivery of education system

has created many implications in the training of learner, training of teachers and development of

institution. To understand the major challenge of ICT for learning process need to be analyzed

carefully. This interest reflects, depending on perspective that the latest innovations in computer

based applications and materials will revolutionize the way in which higher education is delivered

(Ives & Jarvenpaa 1996). Gaining the benefits of ICT in terms of delivery, speed, and audio visual

experience has continuously increased the potential to set challenge for providers to develop new

strategies for teaching and learning and raises fundamental questions about the traditional learning

process of classroom and books. The biggest area of change has been in the adoption of these new

technologies to support mainstream teaching and learning process especially in continuous and

sustainable form.

Introduction

The technological development is independent from the constraints of time, space and

has enhanced the potential to change not only the learning method and accesses knowledge but

transforming and restructuring the traditional models of higher education through delivery and

interaction within course materials and associated resources. The use of information and

communication technologies (ICT) in the delivery of education has created many implications in

the training of learner, training of teachers and development of institution. Utilizing the ICT for

course delivery, training has created a change which is accepted by the society and the industry.

Indeed, technology based learning and delivery mode using information and communication

system has enabled higher education institution and universities to expand and reach beyond the

current countries geographical, to capitalize on new opportunities and reach prospective students

establishing through quality standards as global educational providers.

Information technology and information networks have made learning and knowledge

delivery on user friendly mode. E-Learning provides variety of contexts, such as distance

learning, online learning and networked learning (Wilson 2001). Technological innovation has

changed the social, political, economic, and cultural fabric of life since the end of the Cold War

(Taylor, 2001). Universities are enhancing the competitiveness in the new and challenging

distributed knowledge production system (Mlitwa, 2005). The fast expansion of the Internet and

related technological advancements, in conjunction with limited budgets and social demands for

improved access to higher education, has produced a substantial incentive for universities to

introduce eLearning courses. Knowledge production and dissemination, research and teaching

are no longer involved within the institution. It has expanded to collaboration beyond the micro

level to form interactions with a greater variety of knowledge producers than in the past.

Sustainable development and survival depends on how universities re-position themselves in

distributed knowledge production systems, the type of partnerships they forge (Gibbons, 1998;

van der Merwe, 2004), and how they use available tools and resources such as ICT to improve

their activities (Mlitwa, 2005).



It has been considered that Information and communication technology (ICT) has been

instrumental in social transformations in different set of implementation plan. In most of the

cases in developed and developing countries higher education has not been left untouched with

the application to produce quality outcomes. In the context of higher education there is a shift

from the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, to a more pragmatic economically-oriented

paradigm (Gibbons, 1998). Information system and various related aspects has been used with

the ability to undertake the challenge for extensive reach and develop cost effective method of

learning. The traditional universities are dealing with the pressures of globalization, the technol-

ogy revolution, new kinds of competition, and the global push for an information society. ICT

for teaching and learning should be conceptually and operationally to have a positive impact.

Main challenges

1. Proper implementation of projects: The improper implementation of ICT project in the

higher education result in the failure of effective output from cost invested. Inefficiency in

project planning and development in most of the higher education institution with incorrect

specification, time management and overall usage by the staff. The resistance of staff in

adopting change in the system result in inefficiency in the overall system. The responsibility

of the project team should based on effective implementation of project within time frame

support institution to extract advantage. O‘Hearn (2000), contends that university structures

are rigid and unproven, regarding the incorporation of technological advancements.

2. Team motivation: In-spite investing huge amount of money in implementing the

technological development, the higher education institution fails to motivate the faculty and

students to benefit maximum from the adopted technological advancement. It is common to

see that during the year long projects there is often lack of motivation among the team which

need to use. Holley (2000) states that use of electronic method for learning is difficult to

implement without the full cooperation and support of lecturers, as the degree of interaction

between lecturers and students is still predominant in technology based learning

environments (Volery 2000). Generally, the members assume that the new initiative need

plenty of time and are complex and therefore quite delay in adopting the change and use the

technology.

3. Recalcitrant users: During the initial stage all uses are enthusiastic, but as time progresses,

dramatically reduction in both usage and inclination for adopting the technology for daily

usage of teaching, learning and management fails. Andrew Feenberg‘s (2003) viewpoint on

technology and social contexts are used to categories dominant assumptions concerning

technology in teaching and learning. Traditional universities are able to compete with other

independent education providers in relation to social demands for ‗life long learning‘ and

globalizes education services? (O‘Hearn 2000).

4. Management support: The top management support will act as a backbone for the

technological culture development in the organization. The level of support from top

management toward technological adoption process will create positive effect and motivate

the staff.

5. Allocation of resources: The actual allocation of resources at various stages will be very

important as they are directly effecting the primary activity in the higher education

institution. Allocation of resources is considered to be subjective based on various factor

which will affect the performance and result in low level of achievement.

Mathew: Technological advantage and teaching needs


Advantages

The potential to explore at various stages emphasizing on efficient delivery of courses to

the potential learners through different techniques supporting the higher education institution to

attract and teach new students, and to improve co-operation with different stakeholders. The

South Africa higher education institution being an example has been a move by the more

established higher education institutions from cultural conservatism to a more entrepreneurial

university (Gutlig, 1999; van der Merwe, 2004) using technology and other means for service

delivery.

Model for technological advantage: User centered model

Technological advancement in any higher education institution will leads to the

advantage over many areas which will support the students, alumni, teachers and staff to interact

and exchange the knowledge.

Figure 1: Technology based learning in HE

The model for technological advantage: User centered model (Fig.1) emphasis on the

knowledge as core in any higher education institution which is mutually done between teachers

and students and other learners in the community. Technology plays vital role in the transfer and

dissemination of knowledge among various components. After globalization the need of the

learner has been changing drastically demanding for technology based learning at par from west.

The increasing demand for virtual learning, online courses and distance education e-learning has

been adopted as major mode of gaining education for both teens and executives at different level.

The HE institutions are operating various developmental and regular professional courses based

on technology to train, equip and fulfilling this current need of generation. the technology based

learning using media like face to face conferencing, text message, audio, video, digital web cast

in various forms like notes dissemination, books availability, cassettes, web based interactive

literature and discussion. Adopting the technology based application can involve 2-way process

of learning or 1-way process according to the need of the course. Using technology based

application for offering various programs, HE institution can analyze the type of students, course

preference with ease of use and cost. Developing teaching methods and designing the course

Knowledge

Learner

Institution Technology



delivery model the institution will have the advantage of interaction to community of learners

and organize the flow of knowledge transfer.

The technology based learning process based on learner centered approach will provide

various opportunities to interact among different components using technology and support

innovation and efficiency. Henry (2002) explains that in today‘s information age traditional

universities must compete with other educational providers, such as education centres and

corporate universities, if they are to attract and retain suitable students. The learner will have the

benefits of interaction (refer fig 2) with other learners, teachers, supervisors within the HE

system and also among other outside the loop of the same institution. Industry interaction,

research, knowledge transfer and other interrelated fields can also be taken into consideration for

overall improvement.

Figure 2: Technology based learning in HE

Technology based learning Cycle

Technology based learning process can be analyzed as a cycle consisting set of activities

and process under various stages. The stages includes:

1. Process Planning

2. Process analysis.

3. Objective identification.

4. Learning Process

5. Knowledge/ learning process creation.

6. Learning development.

7. capturing

8. Storage and access.

9. Distribution and delivery.

10. Assessment/ review

11. Feedback and change.

Learner

Industry

Institution

and others

Teacher/

supervisor



Technology based learning Cycle: Stages

1. Process Planning: The HE institution should make plan and formulate strategies for the

developing learning process using technology which will be based on user centered approach

and insist on the adopting the process framework.

2. Process analysis: Before starting the activities related to technology based learning process.

The HE institution should look for sources and usage in the organization. Sources refer to

various questions like: Why? Who? When? How it can be used in better way? Answering

these questions may be termed as learning process auditing.

3. Objective Identification: Learning process auditing should be capable of identifying and

separate relevant set of instruction and process which can act as a base to solve the

institutional problem. The major aspect of the stage is to define valuable technological

process for learning and can be used to save cost and time for teaching, learning, research

and other process.

4. Learning Process and process creation: The HE institution is required to develop learning

process framework based on the objectives. The institution uses the existing framework for

its decision making and problem solving process. Based on the situation and forces acting

Learning

Development Storage

Feedback

and Change

Capturing

Identification

Knowledge /

Learning

process creation

Knowledge

Analysis

Learning process

Planning

Distribution

/ Delivery

Learning

Process

Assessment

/ Review

Technology based learning: User centered

approach



internally and externally, newer process development can be used different purpose. Also,

new learning process can be developed according to the circumstances of the HE institution.

5. Learning development: Identification of the learning process can be done in a mixed form

which will sometimes mismatch with others. It also looks upon various areas and function of

education process like library, laboratory, classroom, administration for the development of

technological tools for decision making process.

6. Capturing: Changing environment and its forces differ from institution to institution and

function to function. The newer skills, information, expertise should be captured and develop

to improve the process. The functional changes based on the environmental forces should be

captured in form of knowledge for long-run development.

7. Storage and Access: Technology plays a crucial role in the process, storage, access and

transfer the files from teachers to the learners. Email, messages etc are some of the examples.

The file being send at different level by different components should be recorded and stored

in such a form which can be easily accessed for learning and research.

8. Distribution and delivery: The different functional unit and components of the HE institution

have the privilege to share and to create new ideas and dissemination for innovation process.

The distribution and delivery of courses and programs to the online learners, distant learner,

researchers and other can be achieved effectively through technological process.

9. Assessment and Review: Reviewing the process is necessary to control the overall delivery of

the content, knowledge, course and attracting new potential learners and other different

options from the community. It needs process scanning to anticipate learners needs. It will be

possible by involving stakeholders in review and assessment process.

10. Feedback and change: The stakeholders after reviewing the existing learning process gives

feedback about productivity, performance and achievement of result can be assessed and it

will also reveal recommendation and addition to improve the process. The feedback will act

as means for change and give information to analyze which will follow learning cycle.

External and internal factor affecting Learning cycle

The HE institution are affected by both internal and external factors. Some of them are

greatly influential to one or the other affecting the functional and key areas of the institution. The

internal factor comprise of teacher (teaching), learner (learning), alumni, course production,

marketing, human capital, technology, support system, research, development programs, projects

etc. The external factor comprises of education and technological awareness, economic

condition, technology, competition, socio-cultural factor and changing forces analyzed by the

institution which forms a sort of knowledge guiding the organization to develop new strategies.

Fry (2001) explains that universities are driven to e-Learning as a marketing tactic to attract part

time students and to maintain market position, and the rise of alliances with other organizations

is inevitable due to social demands for knowledge and the lack of public and government

funding in higher education. Various forces acting against the HE institution must be considered

during the learning cycle further transformed to achieve institutional objectives and create

incremental improvement in performance and knowledge delivery to learner. Subsequent

detailed are analyzed for problem solving and decision making process, creating reputation,

brand name, development etc. Teare (2000) debates the credibility of universities, offering

specific training within a number of disciplines, and believes that they only seek alliances with

traditional universities in an attempt to take advantage of universities respected reputations.



Technology based Learning in Organizational Strategy

In the today‘s world of global competition the higher education institution need to

embrace the technological innovation and equip themselves in providing service and use them as

a strategic tool, capable of transforming educational and business practices enabling to extend

the scope into wide network among scholars, students, industry and researchers. Darling (2002)

emphasize on number of established universities are embracing the use of technology in higher

education, especially in distance learning disciplines, without understanding or addressing the

business or educational requirements. The use of technology as interface can be critical at the

price of survival if the HE institution are not able to utilize effectively as a part of delivering and

managing its technological capabilities. Hartley (2000) emphasis on the university incorporating

e-Learning initiatives into organizational strategy must take into consideration: the financial

constraints of the strategy, suitability of the technology, implementation of the technology and

the range of e-Learning requirements within the institution. Darling (2002) explains that for

higher educational institutions, an effective strategy does not assure success, as the technical

issues in distance learning delivery will always be significant. The strategic alliances with

institutions for course material can be designed to develop the students in real business situations

in addition to underpinning academic endeavor (Teare, 2000)

Technological need and Objectives of HE institution

HE institution adopt various policies, develop objectives based on technological need for

enhancing quality, enhancing cost-effectiveness, networking among different components,

widening access to students, enhancing status and reputation of the institution, creating

opportunities for life long learning, increasing efficiency, enhancing flexibility, creating

opportunities for international students, generating institutional income, enhancing

competitiveness, understanding users needs etc.

The basic activities involved in adopting technological use in the HE institution are:

teaching, research, innovation in teaching and learning, teaching international students, providing

lifelong learning, externally funded research, interaction with business and industry. The

technological need to be supported, monitored and maintained carefully which will result in

effectiveness and improve performance. The key responsibility for implementing technology

based learning lies on Vice Chancellors, Rectors, Deans, Heads of departments, learning support

centre, Individual professor, IT professionals, support services and other staff members.

Technology is used to support various primary and supportive activities in the HE institution,

these activities includes: connecting to prerequisite knowledge developing positive attitudes

towards the learning, formal assessments and testing, guidance / informally monitoring,

counseling, knowledge transfer, motivating, participation, access to course activities, providing

feedback, re-using materials, skill development, students planning, learning processes,

assignment submission and self development. HE institution can utilize different technology

based practices which support them for enhancing the performance are: accessible via the web,

conferencing tools (video, audio, chat), e-mail systems, modules, planning tools, networking,

web resources, telephoning, blogs, chatting, course management systems, wireless solutions,



Technology and learning environment: Global context

Various ICT based system using Internet has allowed universities and colleges to expand

their horizon beyond the local campuses to extend to reach different learners around the world

and create global learning institutions for today‘s information age (Wilson 2001). The degree and

intensity of using ICT among universities has extended to adopt process which support the

learner to use based on need and situation. Global programs provide ‗real time‘ connections

between students who can share knowledge resources, such as databases libraries, from

anywhere in the world (O‘Hearn, 2000). Technology may be viewed as neutral and autonomous

or neutral and human controlled (Feenberg, 2003). The view of technology as both autonomous

and value-free (substantivist), while at the other technology is human controlled and value-laden

(critical perspective). (Feenberg, 2003). The globalizes network among the universities providing

different services has provide the sources to excess knowledge and support network for potential

learners indicating the positive growth overall.

The universities providing higher education will face challenge in implementing

programs to the learner using technology which demand high technical assistance, infrastructure

and IT tools for efficient delivery and process. The demand of global education environment

both from the learner point of view and from industry is equally acceptable to meet the academic

demands and this will increase the dimension of both staff and students in particular for

developing networks for learning. ICT is viewed as the link between different stakeholders

which can enhance the performance of teaching and learning process through effectiveness and

enhancing faster process. ICT is often considered part of a solution addressing the changing

learning needs of societies (Garrison and Anderson, 2003). The context of technology based

learning have advantage of cost, time, speed, space and management. But, the governance of the

ICT based programs should be effective for loosen the traditional barrier of class room teaching

having face to face interaction. However, universities must be cautious when deciding about e-

learning recognizing the benefits must be provided to the learner. In global context, the higher

education institution are linking learners around the world through ICT and capturing the top

notch on both academic and marketing of the programs. The activity used to incorporate multiple

media elements further enable effective and flexible interaction (Henke, 1997; McManus, 1995).

Universities are using technological tool for training and development of executive and

transferring knowledge and skill at various position significant for business and industry.

The delivery of education in future is envisage using ICT tool for e-learning providing

leverage to offer different courses and provide the lecturer with superior teaching tools and

research opportunities. McClelland (2001) contends that in e-learning environment lecturers can

offer constant educational support, as students are able to communicate with classmates and

lecturers, visit web sites and view course material regardless of their time and location. The

teaching tool associated with the teaching and learning process have the potential to equip the

teachers and students to adopt flexible mode of programs which will be supportive in life long

learning.

Conclusion

The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the delivery of

education has created many implications in the training of learner, training of teachers and



development of institution. The traditional universities are dealing with the pressures of

globalization, the technology revolution, new kinds of competition, and the global push for an

information society. Technology based learning and delivery mode using information and

communication system has enabled higher education institution and universities to expand and

reach beyond the current countries geographical, to capitalize on new opportunities and reach

prospective students establishing through quality standards as global educational providers.

Information system and various related aspects has been used with the ability to undertake the

challenge for extensive reach and develop cost effective method of learning. ICT for teaching

and learning should be conceptually and operationally to have a positive impact.

The paper provide model for technological advantage providing user centered model

emphasis on the knowledge as core in any higher education institution which is mutually done

between teachers and students and other learners in the community. The learner will have the

benefits of interact with other learners, teachers, supervisors within the HE system and also

among other outside the loop of the same institution. Technology based learning process can be

analyzed as a cycle consisting set of activities and process under various stages emphasizing on

the standard and continuous output through the use of ICT. The use of technology as interface

can be critical at the price of survival if the HE institution are not able to utilize effectively as a

part of delivering and managing its technological capabilities.

References

Darling, L. (2002). Your ELearning Strategy: Make sure it‘s learning for results. Training, 39(3), p. 2.

Feenberg, Andrew (2003). What is Technology: Lecture for the Komaba under groutess, June, 2003, at

http://www.rohansdsu.edu/faculty/feenberg/komaba.htm accessed on 17 June 2006)

Fry, K. (2001). ELearning Markets and Providers: some issues and prospects. Training and Education, 43(4), pp.

233-239.

Garrison, R. & Anderson, T. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice.

Routledge Falmer, London.

Gibbons, M. (998). Higher Education Relevance in the 21st Century. Paper presented at the UNESCO World

Conference on Higher Education. Paris: October 5-9, 1998. Online:

http://www1.worldbank.org/education/tertiary/publications.asp accessed on 08 Feb, 2006

Gutlig, J. (1999) Globalisation and the idea of the university in post-apartheid South Africa. Paper presented at the

Kenton Conference, South Africa.

Hartley, D. (2000). All Aboard the ELearning Train. Training & Development, 54(7), p. 37.

Henke, H. (1997). Evaluating web-based instruction design, in http://www.chartula.com/evalwbi.pdf accessed on 12

March 2006

Henry, P. (2002). Learning enters the boardroom: making the connection between strategy and enterprise-wide

learning. Industrial and Commercial Training, 34(2), pp. 66-69.

Holley, D. (2002). ―Which room is the virtual seminar in please?‖. Education and Training, 44(3), pp. 112-121.

McClelland, R. (2001). Web-based Administrative Support for University Students. The International Journal of

Educational Management, 15(6), pp. 292-303.

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Education Annual, 1995, 32, 51-57.

Mlitwa, Nhlanhla (2005). Higher Education and ICT in the Information Society: A Case of UWC. 2nd Annual

Conference of the Community Informatics Research Network (CIRN). 24-26 August, 2005, Cape Peninsula

University of Technology (CPUT), South Africa

O‘Hearn, J. (2000). Challenges for service leaders: setting the agenda for the virtual learning organization.

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(2), pp. 97-106.

Taylor, Mark, C. (2001). The Moment of Complexity: Emerging Network Culture. The University of Chicago Press,

Chicago, 2001

Teare, R. (2000). Modelling the Virtual University. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 12(3), pp. 111- 123.



Teare, R. (2000). Modelling the Virtual University. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 12(3), pp. 111- 123.

Van der Merwe (2004). Evaluating the Integration of ICTs into teaching and learning activities at a South African

higher education institution. A doctoral dissertation, Science and Technology stdies, Centre for Science

Studies, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa. Unpublished.

Van der Merwe, D. and Möller, J. (2004), New Unisa; Integration of the two home-grown LearnerManagement

Systems of ‗Old Unisa‘ and ‗Old TSA‘: The past, the merger and the future. Paper presented at the

emerge2004 Online Conference, 29 June – 8 July 2004.

Volery, T. (2000). Critical success factors in online education. The International Journal of Educational

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Reference # 95

Topic # 5

Supervision of instruction in the Republic of the Maldives:

Striving towards more learner-centred teaching Maria Alfredo Moreira [email protected], University of Minho, Portugal

Aishath Abdhulla [email protected], Republic of the Maldives

Zeema Abdhulla [email protected], Aboobakuru School, Republic of the Maldives

Zeenaz Adnan [email protected], Gn TRC Hafiz Ahmed School, Republic of the Maldives

Ahmed Faheem [email protected], H.Dh. Atoll Education Centre, Republic of the Maldives

Aishath Shibana [email protected], Seenu Teacher Resource Ctr, Republic of the Maldives

Aminath Warda [email protected], Republic of the Maldives

Moosa [email protected], Baa Atoll Education Centre, Republic of the Maldives

This paper describes the way supervision and monitoring of teaching practices is carried out in the

Republic of the Maldives. We will be providing an account of supervisory and monitoring

practices that have been implemented across different islands and atolls, with successful results in

terms of developing a more teacher and learner-centered approach to teaching and learning:

clinical observation, assessment of classroom instruction, seminars and sessions with teachers,

workshops, and action research. An illustration of the work will be presented, as well as some

discussion of the shortcomings and advantages of the supervisory practices (limitations,

constraints, opportunities, future work).

Introduction

The Republic of the Maldives has around 1190 inhabited islands. This means that each

island has a school that provides education to local students. Human and material resources are

provided to local schools by the Maldivian the Ministry of Education (MOE) in accordance with

the number of students in each school.

In the Maldivian education system, primary grades are 1-7, lower secondary 8-10 and

higher secondary 11-12 .In primary grades there are mostly teachers trained in the Maldives and

the curriculum and the syllabi are also written according to the Maldivian context. However

when the child reaches grade 6 and 7 s/he has foreign teachers mostly Indian and Srilankans.

When children enter school, they learn, besides their mother tongue (Divehi), Arabic and

English, the latter being the language of instruction in Maldivian schools. At the end of their

secondary school education, adolescents (grades ten and twelve) are required to do an

international exam in English as their final exam which will determine their course of studies.

After the 2004 Tsunami, under the auspices of the MOE and with the help of non-

governmental international organizations, namely following the tenets of the Child Friendly

Schools programme (see UNICEF, 2008), schools are undergoing a process of great change that

includes raising the quality of teaching and learning in some of the most disadvantaged schools.

That includes the training of teachers in order to improve student academic performance level, as

well as to help develop child-centred, active learning in classrooms.

The task of teaching and of school supervision are very demanding ones: co-existence of

several languages in school subjects, strong isolation of the islands and atolls, lack of qualified

teachers, lack of teachers in an inadequate number for the demands, lack of pedagogical

resources, among other. In this context, school supervision and monitoring of teaching and



learning is a complex task, that involves having good knowledge and skills, working closely with

teachers, and, above all, having a vision for school quality that will engage all stakeholders

(teachers, school directors, parents and children) in ‗a cause beyond oneself‘ (Glickman, Gordon

& Ross-Gordon, 2006) towards a more just, humane, and democratic society.

Maldivian visions for education

A vision represents clearly articulated statements of goals, principles, and expectations

for the entire learning community. A common unifying vision is achieved when the

administration, teachers, support staff, students, families, and representative community

members are able to clearly communicate that vision through education.

In MOE‘s vision on education, every Maldivian will have access to quality primary and

secondary education with widening opportunities for higher education and training. The

education provided will promote maximum realization of individual potential while at the same

time instill religious and cultural values that will foster social unity and harmony, as well as love

and pride in the nation. Maldivians should be endowed with the necessary knowledge and skills

to be productive, able and active participants both in the national and international arena.

Notwithstanding, in most of the Maldivian schools success and successful leadership is

often measured and calculated with the AP score after GCE O‘Level or GCE A‘ Level at the end

of the school year. Therefore schools work on improving grade 10 and grade 12 results and in the

process neglect the other grades. Many stakeholders of the school also feel the best school is the

school with most A grades and the best school leader is the one who is in charge of that school.

Thus school quality depends mainly on the results students get on exams. Our ultimate goal is

not producing quality children for future, but preparing students for a foreign examination. We

do not set goals on our own but follow tailor made goals made by the government.

In this context, successful schools are selected in terms of academic performance

irrespective to the differences in facilities and resources. In the case of low performing schools,

differences in resources, such as teachers and administrative staff are comparably high. Most of

the schools, especially in the smaller islands, do not have adequate facilities, resources and

qualified teachers. In smaller islands (with a student population of less than 100) there is only

one school with students from grade 1-10, while more populated islands can have a separate

school for secondary and primary education.

However, in our view, a successful school should focus beyond academic credits.

Successful schools can serve as model to the other schools. They provide insights into what can

work, besides a broad, comprehensive education to all students. The school should aim at high

academic achievement for all students and must aim at improving all students‘ academic

performance. However, performance should be measured in a variety of ways, and improvement

should be considered a function of individual growth and group progress. School success should

also be measured by improved student attitudes towards learning, social behavior, displays of

creative work, critical writing or thinking, attendance, grades, promotion, retention, community

and extracurricular participation.

The successful school‘s professional learning community is based on a commitment to

achieve high standards of learning for each and every child. The school should have clear and

high expectations for all students, and the school should be organized to meet the learning needs

of each and every student. In meeting its goals, the school always adheres to a set of ethical

Moreira: Supervision of instruction in the Republic of the Maldives


values. For us, standards of the heart help children become caring, contributing, productive, and

responsible members of society. Schools that deliberately foster positive character traits in their

students are described in many ways. Students and staff may say the school has a positive

climate; parents may note it is an equitable school where diversity is valued and stereotyping and

harassment are not tolerated. The community might observe that students and staff are often

engaged in service to others. In reality, standards of the heart are all of these things, and they add

a new dimension to the idea of achievement.

For us, effective schools include working for a cause beyond oneself have a collaborative

vision and set directions, understand and develop people (cf. Glickman et al., 2006). To achieve

this vision all Maldivian schools must work collaboratively nationwide. The successful school

does not operate in isolation. It is supported by the central office and works closely with

teachers and with parents as partners in their children‘s education.

To make a successful school there must be strong and committed school leadership as a

prerequisite for creating a culture of school improvement as effective leadership is at the core of

every successful organization (Leithwood et al., 2006; UNESCO, 2009). Effective leaders and

supervisors are committed to a process of continuously collaborating to strengthen their own

skills and knowledge so as to better serve the students. There should be adequate time for

genuine, collaborative professional work and learning, as well as an open, respectful dialogue

between all parties and a high level of trust.

Perspective(s) on supervision and teaching

―The most preoccupying characteristic of the supervision service in many countries is its almost

complete lack of impact on the teachers, the schools and the system. Ideally, the supervision visit

should form part of an improvement cycle. Such a cycle starts with the selection of the schools

and teachers in function of their needs, a profound examination of the school‘s or teachers‘ profile

and a helpful visit. This leads to a pertinent report which is distributed to several actors who can

take action including the school itself, the supervision service, the central administration and

teacher training colleges. Their action leads to improvement within the school and in the education

system as a whole. This ideal scenario however is the exception in both developed and developing

countries.‖ (De Grauwe, 2008: 2)

If the schools‘ goal is to reduce disparities in learning, upper levels of government need

to focus their efforts on schools with disadvantaged learners. This means strengthening the

schools‘ institutional and technical capacity and ensuring that teachers use their increased

autonomy effectively (UNESCO, 2009: 176). There should be feedback mechanisms that link

monitoring through school supervision to the provision of pedagogical support. In the Maldives,

school leaders, working with and through others, secure the commitment of the wider

community to the school by developing and maintaining effective partnerships with, for example

ministry departments, other schools, other services and agencies for children, island chiefs and

atoll offices, higher education institutions, employers and parents. Teacher Resource Centres

(TRC‘s) are built across the Maldives in each atoll for this purpose and they seem to be doing

their job well. Staff development programmes, teaching aids workshops and other training

workshops are being conducted for the atoll schools.

―The very large gaps in learning outcomes between schools in many developing countries mirror

other inequalities in education and in society at large. Supervision has a key role to play in closing



these gaps. What weak schools need is not just inspection but also consistent pedagogical support,

including regular visits by support-oriented supervisors.‖ (UNESCO, 2009: 184)

The need for a support-oriented, developmental approach to supervision and monitoring

counteracts with a tradition on a control, inspection-like approach in the Maldives. As De

Grauwe (2008) puts it, the prevalence of the control approach in both developing and developed

countries is largely explained by a lack of necessary supervisors, little time spent in schools, or

surplus of duties and activities to carry out; in addition, teachers‘ resistance to evaluation, lack of

follow-up to supervision, lack of separation between the support task and the control task of the

supervisor are another set of constraints very difficult to overcome.

School supervision should be placed at the service of both advantaged and disadvantaged

schools. However, in the Maldives, due mostly to the islands‘ and atolls‘ isolation, but also due

to the devastation caused by the 2004 Tsunami, we can say that almost all schools profit from a

support-oriented, developmental approach to supervision (Glickman et al., 2006; Harris, 1986).

Nonetheless, supervisors need to improve their supervision. In most of the schools, teachers are

not very happy about the monitoring process. For them it seems that lessons are observed to find

their faults. This is partly correct. Still in some schools supervisors are the people who look for

the teachers‘ faults; they neither do any observation nor provide professional help to the teachers.

They act like inspectors mostly concerned with handling behavioural issues. The Maldivian

supervisors need to wipe away this misconception and work towards more support-oriented,

developmental supervision.

Developing an integrated view of supervision and learner-centred teaching

―As the only direct institutional link between classrooms and education ministries, school

supervision plays a crucial role in education system management. School visits can allow

supervisors not only to support and monitor implementation of official policies but also to bring

school realities to the attention of policy-makers. School supervision systems in developing

countries are under researched, though anecdotal evidence suggests they are overstretched. With

demanding mandates, and limited human and financial resources, few developing countries have

supervision services that are fit for the task at hand. However, in their quest for quality education,

many countries have changed and clarified the role and structure of supervision in recent years.‖

(UNESCO, 2009: 183/4)

The course Supervision and Monitoring

In the course Supervision and Monitoring, developed within the Online Teaching and

Learning & Professional Development of Teachers in the Republic of the Maldives Course,

participants were required to show critical understanding of current theories and practices of

supervision in schooling contexts (including their own); monitor supervisory processes (learner

and teacher development processes); analyse and develop materials for supporting supervision

and monitoring of professional action; develop small-scale (action-)research projects on

supervision and, in the process, reflect critically on personal and professional development. Its

main aim was to involve participants into developing a teacher-centred, reflective approach to

supervision, teaching and learning that would integrate the principles and practices of

developmental supervision (Harris, 1986; Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2006) and of

clinical supervision (Goldhammer, Anderson & Krajewski, 1980; Acheson & Gall, 1997) within

a critical approach to supervision and monitoring (Freire, 1993; Waite, 1995; Smyth, 1995).



The improvement of instruction and of students‘ achievement is the main focus of a

developmental approach to supervision (Glickman et al., 2006; Harris, 1986). In this approach,

students are actively involved in their learning and at the same time it increases student‘s

responsibility and accountability in their learning. Developing learner-centred learning involves

viewing it in a context of child-friendly schools (UNICEF, 2008). The school is a significant

personal and social environment in the lives of its students. The teachers must keep in mind that

children are natural learners, and that they are the single most important factor in creating an

effective and inclusive classroom. A child-friendly school recognizes, encourages and supports

children‘s growing capacities as learners by providing a school culture, teaching behaviour and

curriculum content that are focused on learning and the learner. A child-friendly school also

ensures every child an environment that is physically safe, emotionally secure and

psychologically enabling. It also aims to develop a learning environment in which children are

motivated and able to learn. Staff members are friendly and welcoming to children and attend to

all their health and safety needs. The ability of a school to be and to call itself child-friendly is

directly linked to the support, participation and collaboration it receives from families and from

the community at large.

Within a vision for education that places the learner at centre-stage (either a teacher or a

student), teaching and supervision strategies develop along isomorphic processes that take

reflection, experimentation, negotiation, and regulation as both principles and tasks for learning.

As a means to enhance teacher reflexivity and emancipation through systematic, participatory

and collaborative inquiry into educational action, action research, as a powerful tool for engaging

teachers in the critical analysis of schooling contexts and pedagogical action towards learner

autonomy (Moreira, 2007; Jiménez Raya & Lamb, 2008; Vieira & Moreira, 2008; Vieira, 2009)

was also developed within this course. Being a participatory, teacher-centred approach to

pedagogy and research, action research articulates both teacher and learner development when

carried out within a critical approach to education (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Kincheloe, 2003).

For about 6 months, and in the context of this course, the participants developed

supervision practices in their own schooling contexts that engaged themselves and the teachers

they worked with in processes of action research, classroom observation, production of teaching/

learning/ assessment materials, workshops, self/ co-assessment of teaching practices, reflection

sessions, among other. Lessons were discussed and observed, field notes were taken,

questionnaires and interviews (with students, parents, teachers, school directors) were carried

out, learning materials were produced/ adapted and tested in the field, learning diaries were

written.

School-based supervision was taken as a complex and multi-varied function that included

coordinating teachers‘ work, organizing meetings with parents, teachers, administrative staff and

students, organizing school exams, checking teachers‘ schemes of work and lesson plans,

observing teacher‘s lessons, recording and analyzing data, giving frequent feedback to the

teachers, checking students‘ exercise books, among other. Still, teachers and supervisors

involved in these processes were able to place it at the service of their vision for school quality

that included teacher-centred supervision and learner-centred teaching.

Revisiting supervisory conceptions and practices

In this section, we will provide a first-person singular account of the way the authors, as

participants in this course, reviewed their personal theories on supervision and monitoring



towards more learner-centred teaching. We will focus on the changes in the way they perceive

their action, but also on how they developed more reflective practices: these included action

research, critical analysis of texts, clinical observation of teacher‘s teaching, introspective

observation of one‘s practice following the readings undertaken, along with changes introduced

to supervisory and teaching action as a result of the work developed with teachers, other

supervisors, students, and parents.

From the 20 characteristics given by Bennett (1997) I have taken autonomy, reflection and respect.

All the characteristics mentioned in the text are very important and useful to improve instruction.

Bennett (1997) says that teachers must feel respected for what they are and what they do in order

to accept a supervisors‘ assistance. This statement is very true as teachers are the people who do

the actual work in the class, while the supervisors mostly do the paper work at the back of the

class. Sometimes teachers refuse to come to the supervisor with their problems or in seeking help

because they feel that their freedom will be lost and they cannot go on with what they want or how

they believe it should be. When a teacher approaches a supervisor with a problem, the supervisors

give their ideas and expect the teacher to follow what they say rather than trying to get the

teacher‘s idea on the issue or improving it by giving suggestions. Most of the time supervisors do

not have enough time to probe the teacher and get them to solve their own problems in their own

way. If this can be improved we can build a better relation between supervisors and teachers. For

example, after a lesson observation I found that the teacher has class management problems. She

was prepared well and had all the material handy, but things failed once she is in the class. The

teacher felt very discouraged and tried to show excuses to cover up her failure in the classroom, as

soon as the post-observation conference starts. I ignored it and started telling how well she has

planned the lesson and praised her for her hard work. The teacher looked at me surprisingly, and

then slowly I could see her tensed down. She smiled for the first time and said that she wished the

students listened to her instructions. I asked the teacher to think of ways by which we can make

them listen to her next time. (…) I made her to come up with a solution for all her problems. Then

we prioritized the list and made an action plan to improve her classroom management issues.

Throughout the week I just drop visits into her class and tell how much she is improving. She felt

very happy with her improvement and was confident in handling the students. As a result she has

invited me to come to her class to see what the students do and how well they behave.

(Aishath Shibana)

Action Research is one of the useful self-evaluation strategies that I have learned from supervision

& monitoring (SM) course unit. Based on the literacy knowledge and practical experience gained

from SM course unit I will define Action Research as a process of steps used to collect and

analyze information in order to enhance our understanding of a topic or issue. Generally, action

research consists of seven steps: (1) posing a question (problem/issue), (2) defining objectives, (3)

developing action strategies, (4) developing research materials, (5) implementing action research,

(6) on-going evaluation of research and (7) writing final report/disseminating the result. In this

way, educational action research is conducted to investigate issues related to students, teachers and

other participants in school. Some of the issues could be behavioural patterns, how to engage

students in their learning effectively and so on. As different research topics reveal different

purposes, the methods and the strategies used to investigate them will too have a difference. Some

questions require selection of a large sample of people to provide data while others focus in-depth

on the performance or activities of a small number of people to obtain data. In addition, the other

topics rely on artifacts, documents, pictures etc. Apart from this, collection and analysis of the data

also differs among the research topics. Some methods rely heavily on formal tests and

questionnaires whereas others rely heavily on in-depth personal observation, interviews, and tape

recordings.

(Ali Hameed)

I called six colleagues of mine to come and start the same work with me and complete it together

to observe the results for ourselves. It was very interesting and useful not only for me but also for



my colleagues. I advised them to follow the checklist [Teachers‘ perspective inventory, in

http://www.flinders.edu.au/teach/t4l/evaluate/ considering.php] once a term for their progress.

It was having three parts in this checklist, sixteen statements in each part. The three parts are

different educational beliefs, different educational intentions and different educational actions.

While I was completing the checklist I thought I would get a very good result. When seven of us

got the result sheets we observed each other‘s scores. I got the highest. I got 43/45 in the actions. I

believe that it is something which is worth for me, because as a teacher educator, I participate with

the teachers for the pupils‘ improvement activities and teachers‘ professional development too by

conducting workshops. I don‘t like to sit and instruct others always. That may be one of my best

practices with my colleagues. (…)

In the area of different educational intentions my score was 38/45. It was may be true,

because sometimes the work which I had planned in the beginning of the year or terms could not

be completed because of some incidents and problems of mine and also the group of people I am

working with. So for the improvement, I think for the next year I could plan of thinking about

these situations. And try to improve this area for my development.

The third part, different educational actions, I got 42/45. This result is also good for me

because I always believe and try to start any work or anything in this field after a good plan with

other members‘ ideas, only for the development of pupils, teachers and school. That may be my

success. Following these results I will try to maintain these three areas and improve my actions,

beliefs and intentions in education. (…)

I strongly believe it was very useful for the teachers to evaluate their work. Teachers need to

do this type of checklists, once in a term and try to improve the different educational beliefs,

different educational intentions and different educational actions for the rapid improvement of the

students and of their own professional development.

(Aminath Warda)

The introduction in schools of the five step supervision model may encourage a more rigorous and

effective form of supervision but use of this model alone will not ensure that supervisors adopt a

more facilitative and less authoritarian role in the process. Teachers and supervisors (or observers)

must alter traditional ‗theories of power‘ by adjusting the way the cycle is put to use during the

supervision process. (…)

During the pre-observation meeting, the ‗proposed lesson will be reviewed by both teacher

and observer with a specific focus jointly determined‘ (Pavan, 1991: 5). In a technically arranged

cycle, the pre-observation visit may go through a standard set process as teacher and observer

meet to read through lesson plan and discuss the content and the focus of the observation. In a

process which encourages a more collegial approach, the observer would perhaps first of all

consider various options before this meeting. During the observation when ‗the observer collects

objective data in the classroom related to the purpose previously determined‘ (ibidem), the

observer can simply note the progress of the lesson and activities of students and teachers in

relation to the lesson plan. Alternatively, the observer can use the lesson plan as a start point for

the teacher but be open to variations during the lesson as the teacher makes use of student input

and unexpected events. This attitude allows the teacher to make decisions during the lesson which

may (or may not) improve the outcome and also allows teachers the opportunity to discuss their

action and its outcome during the feedback session. This attitude can encourage more interactive

teaching and learning in the classroom.

During the feedback section of the cycle ‗all collected data and analysis is shared with the

teacher so that lesson dynamics are understood and future plans may be made.‘ (ibidem). If the

observer wants to be also a facilitator, this should be a time for two-way discussion between

teacher and observer. There should be lots of questions asked and answered on both sides. The

analysis made by the teacher is equally important in some respects as it allows the observer the

opportunity to assess the teacher‘s level of understanding and depth of knowledge – just as a

teacher / student‘s questions and answers can reveal the same things. This means that each party

must respect the views of the other but accept that they may differ. The important point to

remember is that the best interests of the students are always kept in mind – and this leads on to

the last phase of the cycle – the reflection.

http://www.flinders.edu.au/teach/t4l/evaluate/%20considering.php



The reflection is described as ‗individual or joint analysis of all elements in the cycle with

analysis of supervisor‘s (observer‘s) role‘ (ibidem). Following the feedback each party should

reflect on the outcomes and this provides a start point for further action.

Also the follow-up activities may involve the teacher, teacher support, the observer or students in

the class. In other words there must be an open-minded approach to observation visits, set in an

organized system of communication.

(Zeenaz Adnan)

To succeed in the profession of teaching, it is important for teachers to think about the lesson after

each lesson. As a supervisor I need to make teachers reflect about the lesson they taught. They

can improve their teaching by correcting or changing the methods and strategies they used in the

previous lesson.

When we are observing a teacher for a second time we have to reflect about the feedback we

have given in the first observation, so that we know whether the teacher has improved in those

aspects. The main aim of observation is to improve the teacher; we will know whether they have

improved or not based on the previous feedback.

Reflective practice is important to the development of all professionals because it enables us

to learn from experience. Although we all learn from experience, more and more experience does

not guarantee more and more learning. 20 years of teaching may not equate to 20 years of learning

about teaching but may be only one year repeated 20 times. There are many times when our

normal reactions to events are insufficient themselves to encourage reflection. We should not rely

solely on our natural process of reflecting on experience, but actively seek ways to ensure that

reflection itself becomes a habit, ensuring our continuing development as a professional teacher.

(Aishath Abdulla)

Supervisors as facilitators play an important role in improving classroom instruction. Mainly the

supervisor is seen as a person who goes into the classrooms to observe the teaching and learning

but here I want to discuss the supervisors‘ facilitative role to have teachers involved in decision-

making and collegial exchanges.

For a supervisor it‘s not difficult to play a role of a facilitator or to go beyond the

technicalities of the observation (cf. Dunlap & Goldman, 1990). Supervisors project an

―instructional leadership‖ image so they have to practice reflective and peer supervisory support

models. This is to improve classroom instruction. Clinical supervision is done to improve the

classroom instruction. We supervisors are there to guide and give support to the teachers, not to

criticize their teaching or weak points. It‘s primary counseling and support what makes effective

supervision and monitoring.

The other thing which I want to highlight here is the remedial help the teachers give to the

weak students. Teachers make a great decision in diagnosing these students and bringing them up

to the concern of the school management and the parents. Teachers normally plan to give guidance

to the students with learning difficulties but in consultation with the supervisor. In this case

supervisor has to guide the teacher to draw the plan to give help to these students. In this case I

would sit with the teacher and review the students‘ progress and past results, student‘s

backgrounds and health issues. (Teachers keep the records of students regularly).The teacher must

keep the weekly records of these sets of students so that the teacher can share his/her best practices

with colleagues.

When we talk about the clinical supervision models one thing very important which comes to

my mind is peer support and the team teaching. These aspects are what we can practice in order to

give professional help to our teachers and improve collegiality among them. (…) The supervisor‘s

role here is to arrange time and space for this peer help and even has to encourage the teachers to

keep records of their experiences (reflective journals). (…)

In conclusion I would like to say that supervisors should go beyond the technicalities of the

clinical supervision for improving classroom instruction and make the teachers autonomous, as

well as improve the collegiality among them for the school to be an effective organization.

(Zeema Abdulla)



When we talk about facilitative power (Dunlap & Goldman, 1990), we can see how authoritative

power works in a top down system. This means the head teacher gives an order and the teachers

follow what he says without questioning the authority. For example [someone] has noted that the

spoken English standard of our school was not up to the mark. So, he informed all the teachers and

supervisors to communicate with the parents and students in English. Though teachers and

supervisors were not happy with this, they still implemented this order. All the notices for the

parents were kept in English and all the announcements were made in English. Teachers did not

speak in Dhivehi. The consequences were:

Parents started complaining because they couldn‘t understand the instructions.

Parents tend to be absent for the meetings and other functions.

Students did not bring enough materials for the lessons.

Teachers were demotivated because they were frustrated by all these issues.

Hence, we have to come back to the same methods that we have been exercising before. With

more demands and more complex problems, top down, authoritative power is not sufficient to

solve these problems.

(Ahmed Faheem)

The term ‗supervisor‘ has never been as meaningful to me as it is today. I have been a supervisor

since 2000 but the real work hidden in the supervision is getting clearer only now. What I had

been doing as a supervisor is what I learnt from my supervisors when I was working as a teacher

and from my colleagues after I became a supervisor. We were not directed by school heads nor

were we given any kind of supervisory training. We had limited background knowledge to judge

the competency of the teachers when we started off and whatever we did with the teachers came

from experience and from books.

There came a time for me that all I do as a supervisor is classroom observation and giving

feedback to the teachers. Up until today, we didn‘t know anything about the clinical supervision

model. Therefore, we did not conduct pre-observation conferences and post-observation

conferences. I can say that all the supervisors (including me) have practiced directive control

throughout and in all the situations with all the teachers ranging from the most experienced

teachers to the student teachers. No wonder the relationship between the teacher and the

supervisor was tense and that teachers ‗fear‘ the supervisors. And in the past (more than) most of

the observations done were judgmental rather than developmental. As a supervisor, I can do a lot

to go beyond the ‗technicalities‘ of observation, and establish a collaborative relationship with the

teachers. To do this the first task is to develop interpersonal relationships with the teachers and

encourage them for more open communication. Instead of giving instructions all the time, I will

talk with the teachers about the classroom teaching and about their feelings. Talk about the

students of his/her class and listen to the teacher discussing his/her students and then focus upon

those students the teacher chooses to discuss. (…) Talking about their feelings and having one on

one conversation will build trust with the teachers. Teacher participation in setting goals is

something I would like to start to implement straight away. Since the teachers are the ones who do

all the work to achieve the goals of the school, the teacher involvement is extremely important in

the student-teacher related activities. Only the teachers would know how far the set goals were

achievable and what changes should be brought if things did not work the way they should be.

(Ameliya Moosa)

Re-visioning education in Maldivian schools

Within the course on supervision and monitoring, the initial aims were to involve

participants in a teacher-centred, reflective approach to supervision, along with learner-centred

teaching. We believe these aims were largely attained. Teachers, supervisors, school directors,

and parents were jointly involved in processes of critically improving education for children in

the atolls, striving at all times to work together towards a common vision of education that would

improve classroom instruction and teacher learning by closely analysing it, reflecting on it, and



making it more learner-centred and child-friendly. As a result of this process, participants (and

the teachers they worked with) changed their conceptions of teaching, of supervision, but also of

research. Participants‘ opinions reveal that, before taking this course, most of the observations

were judgmental rather than developmental reinforcing the existent literature that points to the

prevalence of inspection, control-like models of school supervision (cf. De Grauwe, 2008),

instead of more supportive ones.

As supervisors and teachers, participants worked to go beyond the ‗technicalities‘ of

observation, and establish a collaborative relationship with the teachers, students and community

they worked with. They tried to develop good and trusting interpersonal relationships with the

teachers and encourage them for more open communication, encouraging them to talk about

classroom events and their feelings. Special attention was provided to teacher involvement in

supervisory decisions. Classroom instruction has slowly improved. Participants conducted

workshops for the atoll schools to discuss the difficulties with the teachers and ways to overcome

them. After completing action research, they also discussed the findings with the atoll teachers

and supervisors as it was based on problems selected by participants that they find in each and

every school in the Maldives. Together, they all strove to re-vision their targets (short-term and

long-term goals) towards a more learner-friendly vision of education that would place school

quality at the service of student and teacher development within a more critical view of

Maldivian education.

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A. Barfield & S. Brown (eds.), Re-constructing autonomy: international perspectives on transforming learner

and teacher autonomy in language education. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 56-70.

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Oxford, Paris: O.U.P. & UNESCO.

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http://www.unicef.org/devpro/files/Child_Friendly_Schools_Manual_EN_040809.pdf.

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of possibility. In M. Jiménez Raya & T. Lamb (eds.), Pedagogy for autonomy in modern languages education:

theory, practice and teacher education. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 266-282.

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Reference # 96

Topic # 3

Effect of different teaching styles on the performance

of female undergraduate students in the 100-meter hurdles (In Arabic) Hala Ali Moursy [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This study investigated the effect of classical and different teaching styles on performance in the

100-meter hurdles event. Twenty undergraduate female students majoring in Physical Education at

Sultan Qaboos University participated in the study. The students were registered in Track and

Field Course at the time of the study. Ten students received classical teaching and the other 10

received different teaching styles. Students in the experimental group performed better than the

control group at cognitive and physical tests.

تأثير استخذام األسلوب الوتبايي علي اإلًجاز الرقوي

م حواجس لذى طالبات قسن100و التحصيل الذراسي لسباق التربية الرياضية جاهعة السلطاى قابوش

)هالة علي هرسي / د.أ1

)

:يشكهخ انجحث ٔأًْٛتّ

جٌطؼ١ٍُ ِٓ ق١ع جٌّكطٜٛ ِؿحي فٟٚنحٚس جٌّؿحالش، جٌطط٠ٍٛ جٌٗحًِ فٟ ؾ١ّغ ئٌٝقح١ٌح جٌٍٓطٕسضطؿٗ ج٘طّحِحش ، ضفحػً ذ١ٓ جٌّؼٍُ ٚجٌّطؼٍُ ِّح ٠ػٍٜ جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس جإلٌمحء ئٌٝٚضك٠ًٛ جٌطؼ١ٍُ ِٓ ، جٌّٓطهىِس فٟ جٌطؼ١ٍُ ٚأْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ

ٚػٍٝ ٌطؼٍُ،فٟ جٌطؼ١ٍُ ٚجِٚٓ ٕ٘ح ضظٍٙ أ١ّ٘س جْطهىجَ جٌطٍق ٚجألْح١ٌد جٌكى٠ػس ،ٚوًٌه ضٛغ١ك جٌؼاللس ذ١ٓ جٌّؼٍُ ٚجٌّطؼٍُ٠ٌُحوز وجفؼ١س جٌطالخ ٌٍطؼٍُ ٌٚطك١ٓٓ جٌٕحضؽ ِٓ جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌٍغُ ِٓ جٌّكحٚالش جٌؿحوز الْطهىجَ جٌطٍق ٚجألْح١ٌد جٌكى٠ػس

ٚنحٚس جٌّإْٓحش جٌطٟ ضىٌِ جٌّٛجو ،ْح٠ٌح فٟ ِؼظُ جٌّإْٓحش جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس جألْح١ٌد جٌطم١ٍى٠سئال جٔٗ ِحَجي جْطهىجَ جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس،ٚألٓحَ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذحٌؿحِؼحش، ٔظٍجً الػطّحو غحٌر١س جٌمحت١ّٓ ػٍٝ جٌطى٠ٌّ ػٍٝ جٌهرٍز جًٌجض١س جٌِ جٌؼحِس جٌؼ١ٍّس وحٌّى

ٚػٍٝ ؾحٔد آنٍ . ٚػىَ ئ٠الع غحٌر١طُٙ ػٍٝ جٌؿى٠ى ػٓ أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّهطٍفس ٌطٛظ١فٙح فٟ ضى٠ٌّ جٌّٛجو جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌّهطٍفسخ جٌفٍو٠س ٚجٌطٟ ٠ّىٓ أْ ضٓحُ٘ فٟ ٌفغ جُْ جٌٍٓطٕس ػح١ٌّحً، ق١ع ذىأ جال٘طّحَ ذّٓحذمحش ٕ٘حن ج٘طّحَ ِٓ ؾحٔد جٌىٌٚس ذحألٌؼح

ج١ٌّىجْ ٚجٌّّٟحٌ وأقى جألٌؼحخ جٌفٍو٠س، ِٚٓ ٕ٘ح ضطٟف أ١ّ٘س ئػىجو ِؼٍُ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس أغٕحء وٌجْطٗ وطحٌد وجنً ألٓحَ ضُٓٙ فٟ ئػىجو ٠الخ جٌّىجٌِ ٌّّحٌْس ٠ٌحٞس أٌؼحخ جٌمٜٛ ٍٚٔٗ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٚئِىجوٖ ذأقىظ جألْح١ٌد جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ٚجٌطٟ

. ِّحٌْطٙح ٌٍّٓحّ٘س فٟ ض١ْٛغ لحػىز جٔطمحء أفًٟ جٌؼٕحٍٚ

نالي ٍِجقً جٌّٕٛ جٌّهطٍفس، ِٚؼٕٝ يٌه أْ ـئْ ظحٍ٘ز جٌفٍٚق جٌفٍو٠س فٟ جٌطؼٍُ ِٓ جٌظٛجٍ٘ جٌطٟ ضظٍٙ ذٛٞٛز ػٍٝ جٌطؼٍُ ًٌٌٚه ففٟ ضهط١١ جٌهرٍجش جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ٠ؿد أْ ٠ٍجػٝ ٚجٞؼٛ جٌّٕح٘ؽ جألفٍجو ٠هطٍفْٛ ف١ّح ذ١ُٕٙ فٟ ِمىجٌ جٌمىٌ

فٟ لىٌجضُٙ جٌؼحِس، ٚئغفحي ًٖ٘ ْٚجٌّىٌْْٛ ًٖ٘ جٌفٍٚق جٌطٟ ضٛؾى وجنً جٌفًٛ جٌٛجقى، فحٌفًٛ جٌٛجقى ٠طّٟٓ أفٍجو ٠طفحٚضٛ . جٌفٍٚق لى ٠ىْٛ ٌٗ جغٍ ٍْرٟ ػٍٝ جٌفٍو

ػٍُ جٌىفء ٘ٛ جًٌٞ ٠ٓطط١غ أْ ٠مىَ جٌؿى٠ى ذحْطٍّجٌ، ٠ٚؼٍف جٌىػ١ٍ ِٓ ِىجنً ٠ٍٜٚ ٔهرس ِٓ جٌؼٍّحء أْ جٌُو جٌّطؼٍُ ػٍٝ جٌركع ٚجالوطٗحف ِٓ نالي جٌّٗحٌوس ذا٠ؿحذ١س ٚٔٗح٠ ِّٛ ٚأْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّرحٍٖز ٚغ١ٍ جٌّرحٍٖز، ٚ٘ٛ جًٌٞ ٠ؼ

٠طٕحْد ِغ ٠ر١ؼطٗ ١ٌِٚٛٗ فٟ وً ِحوٖ ِٓ ِٛجو نالي ػ١ٍّس جٌطى٠ٌّ، وّح أٔٗ ِٓ جٌهطأ أال ١ٓ٠ٍ وً ٠حٌد فٟ ضؼٍّٗ ١ٍْج ٚػٍٝ ً٘ج . جٌىٌجْس فال ٠ٕرغٟ أْ ٠كٛي ٞؼفٗ جٌطر١ؼٟ فٟ ِحوز أٚ ٔٛع ِٓ ِٛجو جٌىٌجْس أٚ ؾُء ِٕٙح وْٚ جْطٍّجٌٖ فٟ جٌطؼٍُ

.ٚؾد ػ١ٍٕح ئ٠ؿحو أْح١ٌد ٌٍطى٠ٌّ ضؼًّ ػٍٝ ٍِجػحز جٌفٍٚق جٌفٍو٠س(1 :9) (18 :32) (4 :195) (14 :264)

ذٍٕٗ ِؿّٛػس ِٓ أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ ٌطؼٍُ جٌّٙحٌجش جٌكٍو١س ٚجٌطٟ ٠طُ ِٓ M.Mosston‖ 1966, (26)―ٚلى لحَ نالٌٙح ضكم١ك جأل٘ىجف جٌطٍذ٠ٛس جٌّٕٗٛوز، ٚلى ض١ُّش ًٖ٘ جٌّؿّٛػس ِٓ أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ ذطٛف١ٍ جٌفٍ٘ ٌٍّطؼٍُ ٌىٟ ٠طؼٍُ

ٚخ ِٓ ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد ٌٗ ٔظحَ نح٘ ٠كىوٖ ِٓ ٠هط١ ِٚٓ ٠طهً جٌمٍجٌجش، قٓد لىٌجضٗ ٚئِىح١ٔحضٗ ٚجْطؼىجوجضٗ، ٚوً أًْ . ٚوٌٚ وال ِٓ جٌّؼٍُ ٚجٌّطؼٍُ، ِٚٓ ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ

(

1 ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ –أْطحي ِٓحػى ذمُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس (



جألٍْٛخ ٚجقىج ِٓ ٌٚٛ ضىٌٕٛٛؾ١ح جئْ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ِٓ جألْح١ٌد جٌطٟ ضكمك جٌطٕٛع ق١ع ٠ؼطرٍ ًِٕ٘ظِٛس ضؼ١ّ١ٍس ضطفحػً ضفحػالً ٚظ١ف١حً ِٓ نالي ذٍٔحِؽ ضؼ١ٍّٟ ِمطٍـ ٌطكم١ك أ٘ىجف ِكىوز، ق١ع جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌكى٠ػس، وّح ٠ؼطرٍ

٠كطٜٛ ػٍٝ ِؿّٛػس أْح١ٌد ٠طُ جْطهىجِٙح فٟ ضؼ١ٍُ جٌّٙحٌز جٌكٍو١س ذٗىً ِطٛجَٞ ٚضهطٍف ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد ِٓ ِٙحٌز ئٌٝ جألٚجٍِ ـ جالوطٗحف ـ )وٚجش جٌّطٛفٍز ِٚػً ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد ِٙحٌز أنٍٜ ٚيٌه ضرؼح ٌٕٛع جٌّٙحٌز ٚضرؼح ٌهٛحتٙ جٌطالخ ٚجأل

(53: 2) (4: 17) (197ـ 83: 16). (ضٛؾ١ٗ جأللٍجْ

َ أْ ْرحلحش جٌّّٟحٌ 1998 ‖ْؼى جٌى٠ٓ جٌٍٗٔٛذٝ‖َ 1997ٚ ‖١ٍّْحْ ػٍٝ قٓٓ‖ٚ ‖ن٠ٍ١س جٌٓىٍٞ―ٚضًوٍ ػٍِٚ ”ٚ “أَ جألٌؼحخ “ْحْ ًِٕ فؿٍ جٌطح٠ٌم ٚلى ٌمرص ذـ ِٚٓحذمحش ج١ٌّىجْ ِٓ ألىَ جألٔٗطس ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس جٌطٟ ِحٌْٙح جإلْ

(7:8). أل١ّ٘طٙح فٟ ذٕحء جٌفٍو ذى١ٔح ٚٚك١ح ٚٔف١ٓحً “جٌىٌٚجش ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس

َ قٛجؾُ ِٓ جٌٓرحلحش جٌطٟ ضط١ُّ ذحإلغحٌز ٚجٌط٠ٛٗك ٚيٌه ٌىٛٔٙح 100َ أْ ْرحق 1997 ‖ذٓط٠ٛٓٝ أقّى―٠ًٚوٍ ألوجء جٌفٕٟ فٟ ػ١ٍّس جٌٍّٚق فٛق جٌكحؾُ ٚجٌطٛجفك ذ١ٓ أؾُجء جٌؿُٓ جألٍِ جًٌٞ ٠ططٍد ضؼطّى ػٍٝ جٌٍٓػس فٟ جٌؼىٚ ٚولس ج

ِٙحٌز ػح١ٌس فٟ ٠ٍ٠مس جألوجء ،قطٝ ٠طّىٓ جٌالػد ِٓ ضهط١س جٌكٛجؾُ ٚلطغ ِٓحفس جٌٓرحق فٟ ألً َِٓ ِّىٓ ٚذألً ِؿٙٛو فٛق جٌكحؾُ ،ٚنطٛز جٌكحؾُ ضٍضر١ ذػالظ َ قٛجؾُ فٟ نطٛز جٌكحؾُ أٚ جٌٍّٚق 100،ٚضطّػً جٌٛؼٛذس ػٕى ضؼٍُ ْرحق

(92: 5).قٍوحش أْح١ْس ٟ٘ جالٌضمحء ِح لرً جٌكحؾُ ،غُ ٍِقٍس جٌط١ٍجْ فٛق جٌكحؾُ ،غُ جٌٙر٠ٛ ِح ذؼى جٌكحؾُ

ٚٔظٍجً ١ٌُّّجش جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ جًٌٞ ٠ٍجػٝ جٌفٍٚق جٌفٍو٠س، ٠ٚٓحػى جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ػٍٝ جٌطفى١ٍ جٌؼٍّٟ جٌّٕطمٟ جٌّطؼٍُ ١ٕٗ٠ ٠ٚىطٗف ٠ٚكًٛ ٠ّٚحٌِ، وّح ٠ؼًّ ػٍٝ ض٠ٛٗك جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ٌطؼٍُ ج٠ٌُّى ِٓ جٌّٙحٌجش جٌكٍو١س، جٌّٕظُ، ٠ٚؿؼً

ٚوًٌه ٠ؼًّ ػٍٝ ضٛف١ٍ ِٛجلف ضؼ١ّ١ٍِس ِطٕٛػس، ٚأ٠ٟح ٠ؿؼً جٌّطؼٍُ ٠طؼٍُ ِٓ نالي جػطّحوٖ ػٍٝ ٔفٓٗ ٚوًٌه ؾٙىٖ جًٌجضٟ، ق١ف جألنطحء، وّح ٠ٍجػٝ ً٘ج جألٍْٛخ ِٓطٜٛ ٟٚٔؽ ٚنرٍز جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ، ٚوًٌه ضمى٠ُ جٌّؼٍِٛحش ذٌٛٛز أفًٟ، ٠ٚف١ى فٟ ضٙ

ًٌج ْؼص جٌرحقػس ئٌٝ جٌطؼٍف ػٍٝ ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ . ٠ٚٓحػى ػٍٝ جٌطؼحْٚ ذ١ٓ جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ٍٚٔٗ جالقطٍجَ جٌّطرحوي. ز ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذَِٛ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ100ٟػٍٝ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٟ ٚجإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ٌٓرحق

: انجحث أْذاف

جٌركع ئٌٝ جٌطؼٍف ػٍٝ ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٚ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ ٌٓرحق ٘ىف ٞ : َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ ٚيٌه ِٓ نالي جٌطؼٍف ػٍٝ 100

َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ 100ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس فٟ ِٓحذمس خ جٌطم١ٍىٞ ػٍٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ جألٍْٛ (1 .جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ

َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ 100ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س فٟ ِٓحذمس (2 . لحذِٛ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ

َ قٛجؾُ 100ٚجٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس فٟ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ٚجٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ فٟ ِٓحذمس زجٌّمحٌٔس ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ (3 .ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ

:انجحثفشٔع جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ٌٚٛحٌف (1

. َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذ100ٌِّٛٓحذمس ضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ (2

.ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذَِٛ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س 100ٌّٓحذمس فٟ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ زٚجٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ٌٚٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ زضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ (3

.َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذ100ِٛٚجٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ ٌّٓحذمس

:يظطهحبد انجحث

أصهٕة انتذسٚش : ( 144: 16)ِؿّٛػس ِٓ جإلؾٍجءجش جٌطٕف٠ً١س جٌطٟ ٠طرؼٙح جٌّؼٍُ فٟ ضٕف١ً جٌّحوز جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس

انتغزٚخ انشاخعخ : ٚ٘ٝ زٌألوجء ٠ّٚىٓ ضم١ّٓٙح ئٌٝ ضغ٠ًس ٌجؾؼس وجنٍٟ وّٕظِٛس٘ح جٌطحٌد ٠ٞٓطك جٌطِٟؼٍِٛحش ِٓ ؾ١ّغ جٌّٛحوٌ

جٌّؼٍُ ـ ج١ًٌُِ ـ جٌْٛحتً )ز ِٓ جٌر١ثس جٌّك١طس ذحٌالػد ِػً ِؼٍِٛحش ِٓ وجنً جٌالػد ٔفٓٗ ٚضغ٠ًس ٌجؾؼس نحٌؾٟ ( 15 - 6: 18 ) (جٌطىٌٕٛٛؾ١س

Moursy: Effect of different teaching styles on performance in hurdles


ٍٚاألصهٕة انًتجب(2)

: . ٘ٛ أٍْٛخ ٠ٓطهىِٗ جٌّؼٍُ ذٌٛٛز ِطٛج٠َس فٟ ضؼ١ٍُ ٚضؼٍُ جٌٕٗح٠حش ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس جٌّهطٍفس

ٗانتحظٛم انذساص(3)

: .جْٝ ِٕظُجوطٓحخ ِؼٍِٛحش ِٚؼحٌف ٚنرٍجش ٚفك ِكطٜٛ وٌ

: انذساصبد انضبثقخ

أغٍ جٌطؼ١ٍُ جًٌجضٟ فٟ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ػٍٟ ”ذىٌجْس جْطٙىفص جٌطؼٍف ػٍٟ Sharon Gaylezack‖, 1981, (30)―لحَ (1غّحْٔٛ ٠حٌرحً ِٓ جٌطٍرس جٌّؼ١ٍّٓ ٚضُ جنط١حٌُ٘ ذحٌط٠ٍمس (80)، ٚلى ذٍغ قؿُ جٌؼ١ٕس ”جٌطالخ جٌّى١ٌْٓ ٚضال١ًُِ٘

ضم١ُّٓٙ ئٌٟ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطٓح٠ٚط١ٓ، ٚلى جْطهىَ جٌرحقع جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ذحْطهىجَ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح جٌؼٗٛجت١س ٚضُ ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس، ٚلى ضّٟٕص أوٚجش جٌركع جٌرٍجِؽ جٌّّّٛس ٠رمحً ألٍْٛخ جٌطؼٍُ جًٌجضٟ ِٚم١حِ جالضؿح٘حش،

.(جٌطم١ٍى٠س )ػٍٟ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس (جٌطؼٍُ جًٌجضٟ)ز ٚلى أٖحٌش أُ٘ جٌٕطحتؽ جإلقٛحت١س ئٌٟ ضفٛق جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ. َجوش جضؿح٘حش جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٔكٛ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذحْطهىجَ جٌطؼٍُ جًٌجضٟ

أغٍ جْطهىجَ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّرحٍٖ ػٍٟ ٍْٛن جٌّىٌِ ”ذىٌجْس جْطٙىفص جٌطؼٍف ػٍٟ Kamel‖ 1986, (25)―لحِص (2ْطْٛ ٠حٌرحً ِٚىٌِ ِٓ ٠الخ ِٚى١ٌْٓ جٌٛال٠حش جٌّطكىز جأل٠ٍِى١س ضُ (60)٠ٕس، ٚلى ذٍغ قؿُ جٌغ”ٍْٚٛن جٌطحٌد

جنط١حٌُ٘ ذحٌط٠ٍمس جٌؼٗٛجت١س ٚضُ ضم١ُّٓٙ ئٌٟ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطٓح٠ٚط١ٓ، ٚلى جْطهىِص جٌرحقػس جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ذحْطهىجَ جٌهحٚس ذّٙحٌجش جٌؿّرحَ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس، ٚلى ضّٟٕص أوٚجش جٌركع أٌٚجق جٌّؼ١حٌ

ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ ِْٛطْٛ ٌٍطى٠ٌّ، ٚلى أٖحٌش أُ٘ جٌٕطحتؽ جإلقٛحت١س ئٌٟ ٚؾٛو فٍٚق يجش والٌس ئقٛحت١س فٟ ضؼٍُ . ِٙحٌجش جٌؿّرحَ ٌٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطٟ جْطهىِص أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّرحٍٖ

لس جٌطرحو١ٌس ػٍٟ جٌٍٓٛن جٌطؼحٟٚٔ فٟ وٌِ ضأغ١ٍ جٌطٍٞ“ذىٌجْس جْطٙىفص جٌطؼٍف ػٍٟ Kahila‖ 1987, (24)―لحِص (3نّٓس ٚغالغْٛ ض١ًٍّز ضُ جنط١حٌُ٘ ذحٌط٠ٍمس جٌؼٗٛجت١س ٚضُ ضم١ُّٓٙ ئٌٟ (35)، ٚلى ذٍغ قؿُ جٌؼ١ٕس”جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس

نّٓس ػٍٗز ض١ًٍّز ِٓ ض١ًٍّجش جٌٛف (15)ػٍْٗٚ ض١ًٍّز، ٚجٌٟحذطس لٛجِٙح (20)ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚلٛجِٙح ذطىجتٟ، ٚلى جْطهىِص جٌرحقػس جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ، ٚلى ضّٟٕص أوٚجش جٌركع أٌٚجق جٌؼًّ جٌهحٚس ذحألٍْٛخ جٌهحِّ جال

جٌّٓطهىَ ِٚم١حِ جٌؿحٔد جٌٛؾىجٟٔ، ٚلى أٖحٌش أُ٘ جٌٕطحتؽ جإلقٛحت١س ئٌٟ جالْطهىجَ جٌّٕظُ ٌط٠ٍمس جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌطرحو١ٌس . وَ فٟ جٌٛٚٛي ٌأل٘ىجف جالؾطّحػ١س جٌؼ١ٍحفاْ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٠ّىٕٙح أْ ضم (ضٛؾ١ٗ جأللٍجْ)

ذىٌجْس جْطٙىفص ِؼٍفس ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ ذٍٔحِؽ ضؼٍُ يجضٟ فٟ ضؼ١ٍُ ِٙحٌز جٌؼؿٍس فٟ Hollis A.C‖ 1990, (23)―لحَ (4أٌذؼس ٚغالغْٛ ٠حٌرس ِٓ ٠حٌرحش جٌؿحِؼس (34)جٌؿّرحَ ٚلى جْطهىَ جٌرحقع جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ، ٚلى ذٍغ قؿُ جٌؼ١ٕس

تحش ٚلى ضُ ضم١ُّٓٙ ئٌٟ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطٓح٠ٚط١ٓ، ٚلى جْطهىَ جٌرحقع جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ذحْطهىجَ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح جٌّرطىضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس، ٚلى ضّٟٕص أوٚجش جٌركع أٌٚجق جٌؼًّ جٌهحٚس ذّٙحٌز جٌؼؿٍس فٟ جٌؿّرحَ، ٚلى أٖحٌش أُ٘

. وٞ لى ؾحءج ذٕطحتؽ ِطٓح٠ٚس ٚال ضٛؾى فٍٚق يجش والٌس ئقٛحت١س ذ١ّٕٙح جٌٕطحتؽ جإلقٛحت١س ئٌٟ أْ جألٍْٛذ١ٓ جًٌجضٟ ٚجٌطمٍٟضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ ذؼٝ أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ ػٍٟ ”ذىٌجْس جْطٙىفص جٌطؼٍف ػٍٟ Osthuzon, Griesel‖ 1992, (29)―لحَ (5

ض١ًٍّجً ِٓ ضال١ًِ ْرؼس ٚضٓؼْٛ (97)، ٚلى ذٍغ قؿُ جٌؼ١ٕس ”ضكم١ك أ٘ىجف جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٌطال١ًِ جٌّىجٌِ جٌؼ١ٍحجٌّىجٌِ جٌؼ١ٍح ضُ جنط١حٌُ٘ ذحٌط٠ٍمس جٌؼٗٛجت١س، ٚلى جْطهىَ جٌرحقػحْ جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ذط١ُّٛ غالظ ِؿّٛػحش ضؿ٠ٍر١س ِٚؿّٛػس ٌجذؼس ٞحذطس ، ٚلى ضّٟٕص أوٚجش جٌركع جالنطرحٌجش جٌرى١ٔس جٌهحٚس ٌم١حِ ػٕحٍٚ ج١ٌٍحلس جٌرى١ٔس ل١ى جٌركع

وجٟٔ ٌطال١ًِ جٌّىجٌِ جٌؼ١ٍح ٚأٌٚجق جٌؼًّ ٚأٌٚجق جٌّؼ١حٌ جٌهحٚس ذحألْح١ٌد جٌّٓطهىِس ل١ى جٌركع، ِٚم١حِ جٌؿحٔد جٌٛؼأٍْٛخ .(ِٙحٌٞ –ذىٟٔ )أٍْٛخ ضٛؾ١ٗ جأللٍجْ ٠إغٍ فٟ جٌّؿحي جٌكٍوٟ :ِٚٓ أُ٘ جٌٕطحتؽ جٌطٟ ضٍٛٚص جٌىٌجْس ئ١ٌٙح

فٟ جٌّؿحي جالٔفؼحٌٟ، أِح ٠ٍ٠مس جٌطؼٍُ ذحألٍِ ٌُ ٠كمك أٞ جًٌجضٟ ِطؼىو جٌّٓط٠ٛحش يج ضأغ١ٍ –جٌططر١ك ذطٛؾ١ٗ جأللٍجْ .ِٓطٛٞ فٟ جٌؿٛجٔد جٌرى١ٔس ٚجٌّٙح٠ٌس ٚجالٔفؼح١ٌس

ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ “ٜ ذىٌجْس جْطٙىفص جٌطؼٍف ػً (19) (2000َ) ‖ِكّى ْؼى َغٍٛي، ٘ٗحَ ِكّى ػرى جٌك١ٍُ―لحَ (6، ٚلى “ٌرس ٖؼرس جٌطى٠ٌّ ذى١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس ج١ٌّٕح جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٟ ضؼٍُ ذؼٝ ِٙحٌجش وٍز ج١ٌى ١ٌ

جْطهىَ جٌرحقػحْ جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ذط٠ٍمس جٌم١حْحش جٌمر١ٍس ٚجٌرؼى٠س ػٍٟ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس، ٠ٌح١ٞس ؾحِؼس ج١ٌّٕح ٚلى ضُ ْطْٛ ٠حٌرح ِٓ ٠ٍرس جٌفٍلس جٌػحٌػس ٖؼرس جٌطى٠ٌّ ذى١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س جي (60)ٚلى ذٍغ قؿُ جٌؼ١ٕس

–جنط١حٌُ٘ ذحٌط٠ٍمس جٌؼٗٛجت١س ٚضُ ضم١ُّٓٙ ئٌٟ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطٓح٠ٚط١ٓ، ٚلى ضّٟٕص أوٚجش جٌركع جنطرحٌجش جٌمىٌز جٌرى١ٔس ٜ جْطر١حْ جٌؿحٔد جٌٛؾىجٟٔ، ٚلى أٖحٌش أُ٘ جٌٕطحتؽ جإلقٛحت١س ئي –جنطرحٌ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌّؼٍفٟ –جالنطرحٌجش جٌّٙح٠ٌس

و٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ وحْ أوػٍ ضأغ١ٍج ػٍٟ ضؼٍُ جٌّٙحٌجش ل١ى جٌركع ِٚٓطٛٞ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌّؼٍفٟ ِٓ جألٍْٛخ جٌطم١ٍىٞ أٍْٛخ جٌص. جٌّطرغ

(2 ٜ.ضؼ٠ٍف ئؾٍجب (

(3 ٜ.ضؼ٠ٍف ئؾٍجب (



ذٍٔحِـؽ ضؼ١ٍّٟ ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٚأغٍٖ “ذىٌجْس ذؼٕٛجْ (22) (2001َ) ‖١٘ػُ ػرى جٌّؿ١ى ِكّى―لحَ (7جٌركع ئٌٟ ض١ُّٛ ج٠ٙىف ً٘ٚ”ٔ ٌىٞ ٠ٍرس و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذح١ٌّٕحػٍٟ ِٓطٛٞ أوجء ذؼٝ ِٙـحٌجش ْــالـ جٌٟٗ

ذٍٔحِؽ ضؼ١ٍّٟ ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٚأغٍٖ ػٍٟ ِٓطٛٞ أوجء ذؼٝ ِٙحٌجش ْالـ ج١ٌٕٗ ٌىٞ ٠ٍرس و١ٍس ً٘ج جٌركع ، ٚلى ضُ جالْطؼحٔس جْطهىَ جٌرحقع جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ق١ع أٔٗ جٌّٕٙؽ جٌّالتُ ٌطر١ؼس .جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذح١ٌّٕح

ضّػً ٚ.ذحٌط١ُّٛ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس ذاضرحع جٌم١حِ جٌمرٍٟ ٚجٌرؼىٞ ٌىال جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ َ ٌٚمى ضُ ئؾٍجءٖ 2000/ 1999ٚيٌه فٟ جٌؼحَ جٌؿحِؼٟ ؾحِؼس ج١ٌّٕح –ِؿطّغ جٌركع فٟ ٠ٍرس و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس

ْطْٛ ٠حٌرح ٌٚمى لّٓص جٌؼ١ٕس ئٌٟ ( 60 )ػٗٛجت١س ِٓ ٠ٍرس جٌفٍلس جٌػحٌػس ٖؼرس ٠ٍق جٌطى٠ٌّ ٚذٍغ ػىوُ٘ ػٍٟ ػ١ٕسغالغْٛ ٠حٌرح ٚلى جضرغ ِؼٙح جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ جٌّمطٍـ ( 30 )ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطٓح٠ٚط١ٓ ِٚطىحفثط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚضًّٗ

غالغْٛ ٠حٌرح ٌٚمى جضرغ ( 30 )جش ل١ى جٌركع ، ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس ٚضًّٗ ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّٙحٌ )جٌط٠ٍمس جٌطم١ٍى٠س ٚوحٔص أُ٘ جٌٕطحتؽ أْ . ٌطى٠ٌّ ٔفّ جٌّٙحٌجش ل١ى جٌركع (جٌّطرؼس )ِٙح ٠ٍ٠مس جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌطم١ٍى٠س

جألْح١ْس جٌّهطحٌز ٌٍّرحٌَز ذٓالـ ٌٙح ضأغ١ٍج ئ٠ؿحذ١ح ػٍٟ ضك١ٓٓ أوجء جٌّٓطٛٞ جٌّٙحٌٜ ٌٍطٍرس فٟ جٌّٙحٌجش (جٌّطرؼس أْ جْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ وحْ ٌٗ ضأغ١ٍج ئ٠ؿحذ١ح فؼحال ػٍٟ ضك١ٓٓ أوجء .ج١ٌٕٗ ٌىٞ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

أْ جْطهىجَ .جٌّٓطٛٞ جٌّٙحٌٜ ٌٍطٍرس فٟ جٌّٙحٌجش جألْح١ْس جٌّهطحٌز ٌٍّرحٌَز ذٓالـ ج١ٌٕٗ ٌىٞ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١سٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ واقىٜ ٠ٍق جٌطؼ١ٍُ ٚضك١ٓٓ ِٓطٛٞ جألوجء جٌّٙحٌٜ وحْ أفًٟ ِٓ ٠ٍ٠مس جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌطم١ٍى٠س أٍْٛخ ج

. جٌّطّػٍس فٟ جٌٍٗـ جٌٍفظٟ ٚأوجء جٌّٕٛيؼ ِٓ جٌّؼٍُ (جٌّطرؼس) فٟجألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٝ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌّؼٍ ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَذىٌجْس ذؼٕٛجْ (2004َ) ‖ٔر١ً ِكّى ِكّى نطحخ―أؾٍٜ (8

٠حٌرحً ضُ (46)، جْطهىَ جٌرحقع جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ، ٚجٖطٍّص ػ١ٕس جٌركع جألْح١ْس ِٓحذمس لًف جٌمٍ٘فٟ ٞ ٚجإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلُ٠حٌرحً ٌٍؼحَ جٌىٌجْٟ (56)جنط١حٌُ٘ ػٗٛجت١ح ِٓ ذ١ٓ ٠الخ جٌفٍلس جٌػح١ٔس ذفٛٛي و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذى١ِح٠ ٚػىوُ٘

٠حٌرحً، ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس (23)ت١ح ئٌٝ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطىحفثط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚػىو٘ح َ، ٚضُ ضم١ُّٓٙ ػٗٛج2004/ 2003٠الخ ُٚ٘ جٌطالخ جٌرحلْٛ ٌإلػحوز ِّٚٓ ٌى٠ُٙ نرٍز ْحذمس ػٓ ِٓحذمس (9)٠حٌرحً، ٚيٌه ذؼى جْطرؼحو ػىو (23)ػىو٘ح

وّح .(جألٍْٛخ جٌٕم١ٍىٜ )جٌٟحذطس ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ قىٚظ ضكٓٓ فٟ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌّؼٍفٟ ذحٌٕٓرس ٌٍّؿّٛػس. لًف جٌمٍ٘ ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ قىٚظ ٚ. (ل١ٍىٜشجألٍْٛخ جي)ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ قىٚظ ضكٓٓ فٟ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ذحٌٕٓرس ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ قىٚظ ضكٓٓ فٟ جإلٔؿحَ ٚ .(جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ)ضكٓٓ فٟ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌّؼٍفٟ ذحٌٕٓرس ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ أْ ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س جورٍ ِٓ ٚ .(جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ)جٌٕٓرس ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س جٌٍلّٟ خ

ضُ جٌطًٛٚ ئٌٝ أْ ضفٛق جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ػٍٝ جٌّؿّٛػس ٚ .ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس فٟ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ .جٌٟحذطس فٟ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌّؼٍفٟ ٚجإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ

: انجحثاءاد إخش

يُٓح انجحث :

جٌّٕٙؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ ق١ع أٔٗ جٌّٕٙؽ جٌّالتُ ٌطر١ؼس ً٘ج جٌركع، ٚلى ضُ جالْطؼحٔس ذحٌط١ُّٛ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ زجٌرحقع شجْطهىَ

.جٌمرٍٟ ٚجٌرؼىٞ ٌىال جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ ٠ٌّٓؿّٛػط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس ذاضرحع جٌم١حِ

يدتًع ٔعُٛخ انجحث:

/ 2006ٚيٌه فٟ جٌؼحَ جٌؿحِؼٟ جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ،ؾحِؼس خ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞسٌركع فٟ ضّػً ِؿطّغ ج

ئٌٟ ِؿّٛػط١ٓ ِطٓح٠ٚط١ٓ ِٚطىحفثط١ٓ ئقىجّ٘ح ضُ ضم١ُّٓٙ ز٠حٌد (35)ْ جٌرحٌغ ػىوٖ جش جٌمَُٓ ٌٚمى ضُ ئؾٍجءٖ ػٍٟ ٠ٍد2007

ِٟ جٌّمطٍـ ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّٙحٌجش ل١ى ذغ ِؼٙح جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼٍٟٚلى جشُت ٠حٌرحش (8)ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٚضًّٗ

ٌطى٠ٌّ ٔفّ جٌّٙحٌجش ل١ى (جٌّطرؼس)٘ح ٠ٍ٠مس جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌطم١ٍى٠س عذغ ٌَٚمى جشُت ٠حٌرحش، (8)جٌركع، ٚجألنٍٜ ٞحذطس ٚضًّٗ

قىٚو جٌؼ١ٕس ٌؼىَ جالٔطظحَ ٠حٌرس نحٌؼ13ٚضُ جْطرؼحو .وّح ضُ جنط١حٌ ػىو ْص ٠حٌرحش ٌٍىٌجْس جالْططالػ١س. جٌركع

.ٚجالٚحذحش

.ٚجٌؿىٚي جٌطحٌٝ ٠ٛٞف ضؿحّٔ جٌؼ١ٕس جٌى١ٍس ٌٍركع فٝ ؾ١ّغ جٌّطغ١ٌٍجش ل١ى جٌركع



(1)ؾىٚي

جٌط١ٚٛف جإلقٛحتٝ ٌؼ١ٕس جٌركع جٌى١ٍس فٝ جٌّطغ١ٍجش ل١ى جٌركع

ْ =22

ٚقىز جٌم١حِ جٌّطغ١ٍجشجٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ جالٌطٛجء ج١١ٌْٛ

0.78- 19.25 0.88 19.02 ْٕس جٌؼٍّ جٌُِٕٟ

1.92 158 2.63 159.68 ُْ جٌضفحع جٌؿُٓ

0.33 58 3.25 58.36 وؿُ َْٚ جٌؿُٓ

1.08- 21 1.69 20.39 وٌؾس جًٌوحء

1.1 90.50 5.96 92.68 ُْ ٠ٛي جٌطٍف جٌٓفٍٝ

30َجٌؼىٚ 0.17 7.90 1.08 7.96 غح١ٔس

١ٌٓلٛز ػٟالش جٌٍؼ 0.21 62 5.63 62.39 غمً وؿُ

0.31- 57 2.97 56.69 غمً وؿُ لٛز ػٟالش جٌظٍٙ

0.34 133.50 11.84 134.85 ُْ جٌٛغد جٌط٠ًٛ

1.05 6 1.09 6.38 ػىو جٌؿٍِٛ ِٓ جٌٍلٛو

0.56 11.40 1.24 11.63 غح١ٔس جٌؿٍٜ جٌُؾُجؾٝ

1.64 1.90 0.11 1.96 ػىو ١ٔ جٌكرً

ٌى٠ٕح١ِىٝذحِ جٌّؼىي ٌٍطٛجَْ ج 1.11 58 3.69 59.36 وٌؾس

0.1 0.450 0.06 0.452 غح١ٔس َِٓ ٌو جٌفؼً

ِطٍ قٛجؾ100ُجٌؼىٚ 0.1- 27.40 4.87 27.23 غح١ٔس

.ضؿحّٔ أفٍجو ػ١ٕس جٌركع فٝ جٌّطغ١ٍجش ل١ى جٌؿىٚيٜ ِّح ١ٗ٠ٍ ئي 3+،-أْ ل١ُ ِؼحِالش جالٌطٛجء لى ضٍجٚقص ذ١ٓ (1)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

فؤ يدًٕعتٗ انجحثتكب:

.لحِص جٌرحقػس ذاؾٍجء جٌطىحفإ ذ١ٓ ِؿّٛػطٝ جٌركع جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس فٝ جٌّطغ١ٍجش ل١ى جٌركع

( 2 )ؾىٚي

والٌس جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس

لرً ضطر١ك جٌرٍٔحِؽ فٟ جٌّطغ١ٍجش ل١ى جٌركع

ْ1 =ْ2 =8

جٌّطغ١ٍجشجٌطؿ٠ٍر١س جٌّؿّٛػس جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

”ش“ل١ّس ِٓطٛٞ

ع َ ع َ جٌىالٌس

غ١ٍ وجي 0.97 1.04 19.25 0.84 19.14 جٌؼٍّ جٌُِٕٟ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.82 3.20 158.89 2.52 159.64 جٌضفحع جٌؿُٓ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.63 3.24 59.01 3.53 58.63 َْٚ جٌؿُٓ

غ١ٍ وجي 1.05 2.41 21.04 2.13 20.48 جًٌوحء

غ١ٍ وجي 1.12 5.95 91.38 6.54 92.67 ٠ٛي جٌطٍف جٌٓفٍٝ

30َجٌؼىٚ غ١ٍ وجي 0.57 1.03 7.81 1.12 7.64

غ١ٍ وجي 1.07 5.97 63.01 6.54 62.72 لٛز ػٟالش جٌٍؾ١ٍٓ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.64 4.82 57.21 3.87 56.58 لٛز ػٟالش جٌظٍٙ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.73 11.40 134.55 12.87 134.37 جٌٛغد جٌط٠ًٛ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.81 1.02 6.39 0.97 6.42 جٌؿٍِٛ ِٓ جٌٍلٛو

غ١ٍ وجي 0.98 1.48 11.08 1.34 10.97 جٌؿٍٜ جٌُؾُجؾٝ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.85 0.12 1.99 0.13 2.01 ١ٔ جٌكرً

غ١ٍ وجي 1.24 5.62 60.21 4.31 59.28 ذحِ جٌّؼىي ٌٍطٛجَْ جٌى٠ٕح١ِىٝ

غ١ٍ وجي 0.56 0.06 0.426 0.07 0.431 َِٓ ٌو جٌفؼً

جؾُِطٍ ق100ٛجٌؼىٚ غ١ٍ وجي 0.79 4.20 26.97 3.87 27.41

ضطر١ك جٌرٍٔحِؽ، ِّح ١ٗ٠ٍ يػىَ ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس فٝ جٌّطغ١ٍجش ل١ى جٌركع لد (2)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

.ئٌٝ ضىحفإ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ فٝ ضٍه جٌّطغ١ٍجش



ٔصبئم ٔأدٔاد خًع انجٛبَبد : : جألوٚجش ٚجألؾُٙز جٌطح١ٌس زجٌرحقع شجْطهىَ ذحٌركع ذ١حٔحش جٌهحٚسٌؿّغ جي

جألؾُٙز ٚجألوٚجش :

ـ ْحػس ئ٠محف ـ ١٠ٍٖ ل١حِ

.١ُِجْ ٠رٟ ٌم١حِ جٌَْٛ ـ. جٌٍْطح١ٍِ ٌم١حِ جٌطٛيـ

.ـ قرحي. ـ قٛجؾُ

االختجبساد:

يتش حٕاخز 100فبد انجذ َٛخ انخبطخ ثًضبثقخ اختجبساد انض . ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش، ٚجالنطرحٌجش جٌطٝ ضم١ّ ًٖ٘ 100ذطكى٠ى أُ٘ جٌٛفحش جٌرى ١ٔس جٌهحٚس ذّٓحذمس زجٌرحقع شلحَ

ء جٌؼٕحٍٚ، ٚيٌه ذؼى جال٠الع ػٍٝ جٌٍّجؾغ جٌؼ١ٍّس ٚجٌىٌجْحش جٌٓحذمس، ٚلى ضُ ٚٞغ ًٖ٘ جٌؼٕحٍٚ ٚجالنطرحٌجش ػٍٝ جٌهرٍج: ٚأْفٍ يٌه ػٓ ج٢ضٝ (1ٍِفك ٌلُ )

.ِطٍ ذحٌػح١ٔس30جٌؼىٚ - .لٛز ػٟالش جٌٍؾ١ٍٓ ذحٌىؿُ - .لٛز ػٟالش جٌظٍٙ ذحٌىؿُ - .جٌٛغد جٌط٠ًٛ ذحٌُٓ - .جٌؿٍِٛ ِٓ جٌٍلٛو ذحٌؼىو - .جٌؿٍٞ جٌُؾُجؾٝ ذحٌػح١ٔس - .١ٔ جٌكرً ذحٌؼىو - .ذحِ جٌّؼىي ٌٍطٛجَْ جٌى٠ٕح١ِىٟ ذحٌىٌؾس - .ٌػح١ٔسَِٓ ٌو جٌفؼً ذح - ذحٌػح١ٔس.ِطٍ قٛجؾ100ُػىٚ -

ٗاختجبس انتحظٛم انذساص:

ِطٍ 100لحِص جٌرحقػس ذٛٞغ جنطرحٌ ضك٠ٍٍٜ ٠م١ّ لىٌز جٌطحٌرحش ػٍٝ جْط١ؼحخ جٌّؼٍِٛحش جٌٕظ٠ٍس جٌهحٚس ذٓرحق

: جالْطّحٌجش. وٌؾس 50قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش، ٚقىوش جٌىٌؾس جٌؼظّٝ ٌالنطرحٌ ِٓ

ٌجء قٛي جألْح١ٌد جٌّٕحْرس جٌطٟ ٠ّىٓ جْطهىجِٙح وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ جْطّحٌز جْططالع آٌجء جٌهد .٠ّىٓ جْطهىجِٙح وجنً ٠س جٌطٟضى٠ٌّجيْح١ٌد أٔٓد جأل ذاػىجو جْطّحٌز جْططالع ٌأٜ جٌهرٍجء قٛي زجٌرحقع شلحَ

جٌٍأٞ ػٍٝ ؾ١ّغ أْح١ٌد ضطالع جِٚلى ٌٚػٟ أْ ضكطٜٛ جْطّحٌز ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش،100جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٕى ضؼ١ٍُ ِٓحذمس (3)ٚلى ؾحءش جالْطؿحذحش وّح فٝ جٌؿىٚي ( 3ٍِفك ). جٌطى٠ٌّ ِغ ضؼ٠ٍف ٌىً أٍْٛخ ٚٚؾٛو ِىحْ إلذىجء جٌٍأٞ

( 3)وٚي ؼ

10= ْ . جٌطٟ ٠ّىٓ جْطهىجِٙح وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ والٌس جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ

أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ ػى

و جٌّؿّٛػس

ج

ٌّط١ْٛ

ق

٠ّس وح2

ِٓطٜٛ

جٌىالٌس

*0.058 3.66 0.8 10 أٍْٛخ جألٚجٍِ

1.00 0.00 0.6 10 أٍْٛخ جٌطؼٍُ ذحٌّّحٌْس

*0.011 6.48 0.9 10 أٍْٛخ جٌطؼٍُ جٌطرحوٌٟ

1.00 0.00 0.5 10 أٍْٛخ جٌططر١ك جًٌجضٟ

0.527 0.40 0.6 10أٍْٛخ جٌّطؼىو جٌّٓط٠ٛحش

*0.058 3.75 0.8 10أٍْٛخ جالوطٗحف جٌّٛؾٗ

1.00 0.00 0.5 10 أٍْٛخ قً جٌّٗىالش

1.00 0.00 0.5 10 أٍْٛخ جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌفٍوٞ

0.527 0.40 0.4 10 أٍْٛخ ضٍم١ٓ جٌّطؼٍُ

0.527 0.40 0.4 10 أٍْٛخ جٌطؼٍُ جًٌجضٟ

أْ ل١ّس وح (3)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ 2

، 3.66) (ٞ، جالوطٗحفجألٚجٍِ، جٌطرحوي)جٌّكٓٛذس ٌىالٌس جٌفٍٚق ألْح١ٌد (1)ػٍٝ جٌطٛجٌٟ ٚػٕى وٌؾحش ق٠ٍس (0.058، 0.011، 0.058)ػٍٝ جٌطٛجٌٟ ٚػٕى ِٓطٜٛ والٌس ئقٛحت١س (3.75، 6.48



جْطمٍش جٌرحقػس ػٍٝ (3)ٚ٘ٝ فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ٚذحٌٕٓرس ٌرحلٟ جألْح١ٌد فٟٙ غ١ٍ وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح، ٚذٕحء ػٍٝ ٔطحتؽ ؾىٚي ، ٚضُ ضٍض١د جْطهىجَ ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد وجنً (جألٚجٍِ، جٌطرحوٌٟ، جالوطٗحف): ٠د وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٚ٘ٝجْطهىجَ جٌػالغس أْحي

جألٚجٍِ غُ )جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ قٓد نٛحتٙ ٚذ١ٕس وً أٍْٛخ ٚيٌه قطٝ ال ٠طؼحٌٜ أٍْٛخ ِغ آنٍ ٚوحْ جٌطٍض١د وح٢ضٟ . (جالوطٗحف غُ جٌطرحوٌٟ

قٛي ِىٛٔحش جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ ذحْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ جٌهرٍجء آٌجءجْطّحٌز جْططالع. ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش،100ذاػىجو جْطّحٌز جْططالع ٌأٜ جٌهرٍجء قٛي ِىٛٔحش جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌّٓطهىَ فٟ ضؼ١ٍُ ِٓحذمس زجٌرحقع شلحَ

. ٌّٓحذمسيٚيٌه ٌٍطؼٍف ػٍٝ ِىٜ ٚالق١س ِٕٚحْرس جٌّحوز جٌؼ١ٍّس

ًٙٛانجشَبيح انتعه:

د إعذاد انجشَبيح انتعهًٛٙ قٛذ انجحثخطٕا : .ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش100ذطكى٠ى جٌٙىف ِٓ ض١ُّٛ جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ جٌهح٘ ذّٓحذمس زجٌرحقع شلحَ - ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش100جٌهحٚس ذّٓحذمس شذؼًّ ِٓف ٍِؾؼٟ ٌٍٍّجؾغ جٌؼ١ٍّس ٚجٌىٌجْح زجٌرحقع شلحَ - . غُ ػٍٞٙح ػٍٝ جٌٓحوز جٌهرٍجء ٌّؼٍفس ِىٜ ِالتّطٙح ٌٙىف جٌركع ذط١ُّٛ ٚقىجش جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ زجٌرحقع شلحَ - : ٚلى ضُ ض٠َٛغ ٚقىجش جٌرٍٔحِؽ ػٍٝ فطٍز جٌططر١ك وح٢ضٟ -

ػىو جٌٛقىجش جٌٙىف جألْرٛع

:جألْرٛع جألٚي

:جألْرٛع جٌػحٟٔ

: جألْرٛع جٌػحٌع

: جألْرٛع جٌٍجذغ

: جألْرٛع جٌهحِّ

: جألْرٛع جٌٓحوِ

. قٍوس جٌٍؾً جٌكٍز ضؼ١ٍُ ػًّ

. ضؼ١ٍُ قٍوس لىَ جالٌضمحء

. جٌٍذ١ ذ١ٓ قٍوس جٌٍؾً جٌكٍز ٌٚؾً جالٌضمحء ٚجألوجء جٌىحًِ ٌٍّٙحٌز

. جٌؼىٚ ٚجٌٍّٚق ػٍٝ قٛجؾُ ِٕهفٟس جالٌضفحع ِغ ضم١ٍٛ ٚضط٠ًٛ جٌّٓحفس ذ١ٓ جٌكٛجؾُ

. جٌطٛجفك جٌىحًِ ٌٍّٚق جٌكٛجؾُ ِغ ضم١ٕٓ جٌػالظ نطٛجش

. ز جٌؼٍٗ قٛجؾُ وحٍِس ٚقٓحخ جٌُِٓ جٌرىء ٚضؼىٞ

غالظ ٚقىجش

غالظ ٚقىجش

غالظ ٚقىجش

غالظ ٚقىجش

غالظ ٚقىجش

غالظ ٚقىجش

ٚلى ٌجػص جٌرحقػس ػٕى جٌط١ُّٛ أْ ٠ىْٛ جألْرٛع جألٚي ٚجٌػحٟٔ ذ١١ٓ ٚقؿُ جٌطؼٍُ ذٗ ألً قطٝ ضفُٙ جٌطحٌرحش و١ف١س -

. جْطهىجَ جٌػالظ أْح١ٌد فٟ جٌطؼٍُذٛجلغ غالظ ٚقىجش أْرٛػ١ح، (ول١مس90)، َِٓ وً ٚقىز (ٚقىز ضؼ١ّ١ٍس 18 )جٌٛقىجش جٌهحٚس ذحٌرٍٔحِؽ فٟ ٚضُ ض١ُّٛ -

(ولحتك 5)ٌٍؿُء جٌطم٠ّٟٛ ٚ (ولحتك 10)ٌٍؿُء جألْحْٟ ٚ (ول١مس 60)ٌإلقّحء ٚ (ول١مس 15)ٚضُ ض٠َٛغ َِٓ جٌٛقىز . ٌٍؿُء جٌهطحِٟ

:ضؼ١ّ١ٍس وح٢ضٟٚضُ ضٕف١ً جٌؿُء جٌٍت١ٟٓ فٟ جٌٛقىز جي -ضى٠ٌّ ؾُء ِٓ جٌّٙحٌز فٟ جٌٛقىز جٌطؼ١ٍّس ذأٍْٛخ جألٚجٍِ غُ ئػحوز ضى٠ٌّ ٔفّ جٌؿُء ِٓ جٌّٙحٌز ذأٍْٛخ -

. جٌطرحوٌٟ ٍْٛخجألخجالوطٗحف، غُ ضى٠ٌّ ٔفّ جٌؿُء ِٓ جٌّٙحٌز

ًٙٛأصش ثُبء انجشَبيح انتعه: .أْ ٠ٕحْد ِكطٛجٖ ِغ أ٘ىجف جٌرٍٔحِؽ (1 .فٟ ِٓطٜٛ لىٌجش جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ أْ ٠ىْٛ جٌرٍٔحِؽ (2 . أْ ٠ٍجػٝ قٓٓ ض٠َٛغ جٌؼًّ ذ١ٓ جٌٕٗح٠ ٚجٌٍجقس (3 .أْ ٠ٍجػٝ ِرىأ جٌفٍٚق جٌفٍو٠س ٚ جٌطىٌؼ ِٓ جًٌٓٙ ئٌٝ جٌٛؼد (4 .ِغ جال٘طّحَ ذؼٛجًِ جألِحْ ٚجٌٓالِس شٍِجػحز ضٛف١ٍ جٌّىحْ ٚجإلِىح١ٔح (5 .ع يجضٗ ٚػاللطٗ ذح٢ن٠ٍٓأْ ٠كمك ِكط٠ٛحش جٌرٍٔحِؽ ضىحًِ جٌٗه١ٛس ٚػاللس جٌفٍو َ (6 . لحِص جٌرحقػس ذؼ١ٍّس جٌطى٠ٌّ ذٕفٓٙح ٌىً ِٓ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ ٌٍطأوى ِٓ ٞر١ جٌّطغ١ٍجش (7 .جْطهىِص جٌرحقػس ٖىز أوجء ِطْٛطس أغٕحء جٌطؼ١ٍُ قطٝ ضٕحْد ػ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ٍُ (8

يتش حٕاخز صٛذاد100ألصهٕة انًتجبٍٚ انخبص ثًضبثقخ ثب انخبطخ أٔساق انعًم : ز ذؼى جْططالع ٌأٜ جٌهرٍجء ٚػًّ ضؿٍذس جْططالػ١س ذاػىجو جٌرٍٔحِؽ فٟ جٌٌٛٛز جٌٕٙحت١س ٌٍططر١ك جٌرحقع شلحَ

. ٚجقطٛش وً ٚقىز فٟ جٌرٍٔحِؽ ػٍٝ غالغس أٌٚجق ػًّ، ٌىً أٍْٛخ ٌٚلس ػًّ فٟ جٌّكحٍٞز جٌٛجقىز o ٔسقخ انعًم انخبطخ ثأصهٕة األٔايش:

ز جٌؼًّ جٌهحٚس ذأٍْٛخ جألٚجٍِ وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌٚلس جٌؼًّ جٌهحٚس ذأٍْٛخ ذط١ُّٛ ٌٚق زجٌرحقع شٚلى لحَ: جٌّؼٍُ ق١ع أْ جٌّطؼٍُ ٠ط١غ ٠ٕٚفً ٚوحٔص ضًّٗ ػٍٝ ج٢ضٟ خ نحٚسجألٚجٍِ

ـ ٔٛع جألٍْٛخ ـ جٌؼٕٛجْ جٌهح٘ ـ ٌلُ جٌّكحٍٞز ـ جألْرٛع



(جإلنٍجؼ )ـ جٌط١ٞٛف ـ جٌطىٍجٌ ٚجٌٍجقس وجء ـ ٚٚف جأل .جٌمٛجػى جٌهحٚس فٟ ض١ُّٛ أٍْٛخ جألٚجٍِ زجٌرحقع شٌجع جوُـ

4ٍِفك ٌلُ o ٔسقخ انعًم انخبطخ ثأصهٕة االكتشبف:

٠طُ ٚ ،ظ ٠ٓطهىِٙح جٌّؼٍُجٌهحٚس ذأٍْٛخ جالوطٗحف وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ قٟ جٌؼًّ ذط١ُّٛ ٌٚلس زجٌرحقع شٚلحَ . ِٓ أْثٍس ضكع ػٍٝ جالوطٗحف ف١ٙحجالْطؼحٔس ذّح

ـ ٌلُ جٌّكحٍٞز ـ جألْرٛع الوطٗحفي جٌّػ١ٍـ جٌٓإجي ٔٛع جألٍْٛخ ـ ـ جٌؼٕٛجْ جٌهح٘

5ٍِفك ٌلُ o تٕخّٛ األقشاٌ ٔسقخ انًعٛبس انخبطخ ثأصهٕة :

٠سجٌّإو زْطهىِٙح جٌطحٌدشذط١ُّٛ ٌٚلس جٌّؼ١حٌ جٌهحٚس ذأٍْٛخ جٌطرحوٌٟ وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ق١ع زجٌرحقع شٚلحَ . ِٓ ٌٚٛ ٌْٚحِحش ض١ٞٛك١س ذّح ف١ٙحذحٌطرحوي ق١ع ٠طُ جالْطؼحٔس زجٌّالقع زٚجٌطحٌد

: ـ جٌؼٕٛجْ جٌهح٘ ـ ٌلُ جٌّكحٍٞز ـ جألْرٛع ـ جٌطىٍجٌ ٚجٌٍجقس ـ ٚٚف جألوجء ٔٛع جألٍْٛخ ـ

.ـ أوجء جٌطحٌد جٌّإوٜ ٚجٌطحٌد جٌّالقع (جإلنٍجؼ )ـ جٌط١ٞٛف 6ٍِفك ٌلُ

االصتطالعٛخ ادانذساس :

ٗانذساصخ االصتطالعٛخ األٔن: ػٍٝ ػىو َ 23/10/2006ئٌٝ 16/10ْ ٠َٛ جالغ١ٕٓ جٌّٛجفك َذاؾٍجء وٌجْس جْططالػ١س نالي جٌفطٍز زجٌرحقع شلحَ

ٚنحٌؼ ػ١ٕس ِّٚٓ ٠ٕطرك ػ١ٍُٙ ٔفّ ٠ٍٖٚ جٌؼ١ٕس، ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذؿحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ،ِٓ ٠حٌرحش (6). جٌركع، ٚيٌه ذططر١ك جالنطرحٌجش جٌرى١ٔس غُ ئػحوز ضطر١مٙح ذؼى أْرٛع ٌكٓحخ جٌٛىق ٚجٌػرحش

نالختجبساد انجذَٛخدق حضبة انض : ٠حٌرحش ِٓ ٠حٌرحش جٌّؿطّغ 6ػٍٝ ػ١ٕط١ٓ ِطفحٚضطٟ جٌّٓطٜٛ، فمى ضُ ِمحٌٔس ذ١ٓ ذأٍْٛخ جٌطّح٠ُٜضُ قٓحخ جٌٛىق

٠حٌرحش أن٠ٍحش ِٓ ٠حٌرحش جٌؿحِؼس نحٌؼ لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٚفٝ ٔفّ جٌٍّقٍس 6، ٚ(ِؿّٛػس ١ُِّز)جألٍٚٝ ٌٍؼ١ٕس : ، ق١ع ٠رك جالنطرحٌجش جٌرى١ٔس ػٍٝ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ، ٚأْفٍش جٌٕطحتؽ ػٓ جٌؿىٚي جٌطحٌٝ(١ُِّز ِؿّٛػس غ١ٍ)ج١ٌٕٓس

( 4 )ؾىٚي

جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ ج١ٌُّّز ٚغ١ٍ ج١ٌُّّز فٝ جالنطرحٌجش جٌرى١ٔس ل١ى جٌركع

ْ1 =ْ2 =6

جٌّطغ١ٍجشج١ٌُّّزجٌّؿّٛػس غ١ٍ ج١ٌُّّزجٌّؿّٛػس

”ش“ل١ّس ِٓطٛٞ

ع َ ع َ جٌىالٌس

30َجٌؼىٚ وجي 3.97 2.54 9.52 1.34 6.94

وجي 5.21 8.69 51.28 7.52 60.37 لٛز ػٟالش جٌٍؾ١ٍٓ

وجي 4.93 5.81 47.63 4.69 54.89 لٛز ػٟالش جٌظٍٙ

وجي 4.57 11.87 106.37 14.85 129.87 جٌٛغد جٌط٠ًٛ

وجي 3.08 0.97 4.21 1.02 5.69 جٌؿٍِٛ ِٓ جٌٍلٛو

َؾُجؾٝجٌؿٍٜ جي وجي 4.26 2.69 16.52 1.69 12.52

وجي 2.99 0.12 1.02 0.21 1.98 ١ٔ جٌكرً

وجي 6.87 7.91 42.96 5.87 55.69 ذحِ جٌّؼىي ٌٍطٛجَْ جٌى٠ٕح١ِىٝ

وجي 4.77 0.27 0.697 0.11 0.481 َِٓ ٌو جٌفؼً

ِطٍ قٛجؾ100ُجٌؼىٚ وجي 12.84 15.96 43.61 5.27 29.61

ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ ج١ٌُّّز ٚغ١ٍ ج١ٌُّّز ٌٚٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس ج١ٌُّّز فٝ ؾ١ّغ جٌّطغ١ٍجش جٌرى١ٔس ل١ى (4)َ ٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌق

.جٌركع، ِّح ١ٗ٠ٍ ئٌٝ ٚىق جالنطرحٌجش ل١ى جٌركع ف١ّح ٚٞؼص ِٓ أؾٍٗ

نالختجبساد انجذَٛخ انثجبدحضبة : غُ قٓحخ ِؼحًِ جالٌضرح٠ ذ١ٓ جٌططر١ك ،ضطر١ك جالنطرحٌ ٚئػحوز ضطر١مٗ ٚضُ قٓحخ غرحش جالنطرحٌ ػٓ ٠ٍ٠ك جْطهىجَ

. (5)جألٚي ٚجٌػحٟٔ وّح ٘ٛ ِٛٞف ذؿىٚي



(5)ؾىٚي

ٌالنطرحٌجش جٌرى١ٔس جٌهحٚس (ٌ)جٌّط١ْٛ جٌكٓحذٟ ٚجالٔكٍجف جٌّؼ١حٌٞ ٚل١ّس

ْ=6

جٌّطغ١ٍجشِؼحًِ جٌططر١ك جٌػحٔٝ جٌططر١ك جألٚي

ع َ ع َ جالٌضرال٠

30َجٌؼىٚ 6.94 1.34 6.86 1.52 0.897

0.887 6.42 59.96 7.52 60.37 لٛز ػٟالش جٌٍؾ١ٍٓ

0.829 5.12 55.21 4.69 54.89 لٛز ػٟالش جٌظٍٙ

0.901 12.58 130.54 14.85 129.87 جٌٛغد جٌط٠ًٛ

0.864 0.97 5.54 1.02 5.69 جٌؿٍِٛ ِٓ جٌٍلٛو

0.876 2.01 12.37 1.69 12.52 جٌؿٍٜ جٌُؾُجؾٝ

0.911 0.22 2.02 0.21 1.98 ١ٔ جٌكرً

0.890 6.21 56.34 5.87 55.69 ذحِ جٌّؼىي ٌٍطٛجَْ جٌى٠ٕح١ِىٝ

0.894 0.12 0.476 0.11 0.481 َِٓ ٌو جٌفؼً

ِطٍ قٛجؾ100ُجٌؼىٚ 29.61 5.27 30.21 6.33 0.887

أْ ضطر١م١ٓ جألٚي ٚجٌػحٔٝ فٝ ؾ١ّغ جالنطرحٌجش جٌرى١ٔس ل١ى جٌركع، ِّح ١ٗ٠ٍ ئٌٝجٌضفحع ٍِكٛظ فٝ ل١ُ ِؼحِالش جالٌضرح٠ ذ١ٓ جي (5)ؾىٚي جي ٠طٟف ِٓ

.ِمرٌٛس جالنطرحٌجش يجش ِؼحًِ غرحش ضٍه

انذساصخ االصتطالعٛخ انثبَٛخ: ٠حٌرحش لُٓ ِٓ ٠حٌرحش (6)ػٍٝ ػىو 2006 /10/ 25، 24ذاؾٍجء وٌجْس جْططالػ١س نالي جٌفطٍز زجٌرحقع شلحَٚيٌه ذٙىف ِؼٍفس ِىٜ ِّٚٓ ٠ٕطرك ػ١ٍُٙ ٔفّ ٠ٍٖٚ جٌؼ١ٕس، جٌركع ٚنحٌؼ ػ١ٕس١ٞس ذؿحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح

ذمٍجءز زلَٛ وً ٠حٌدشٜ ٚضُ ض٠َٛغ أٌٚجق جٌّؼ١حٌ ٌهِالتّس جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ، ِٚىحْ ئؾٍجء جٌطؿٍذس ٚجألوٚجش جٌّٓطهىِس، و١ف١س جْطهىجَ ٌٚلس جٌؼًّ جٌهحٚس ذحألٍْٛخ جٌطحٌرحش يجْس ػٓ ػىَ فُٙ ٚلى أْفٍش ضٍه جٌىٌ ،ِٓ ػًِّٕٙح ج ٠طٍدٚأوجء َ

.جٌطرحوٌٟ ، قطٝ ذٛٞغ ضؼ١ٍّحش ٌٍّٓطهىَ ٌٌٛلس جٌؼًّ جٌهحٚس ذحألٍْٛخ جٌطرحوٌٟز ذاؾٍجء جٌطؼى٠الش جٌهح٘ زجٌرحقع شلحَف

.ضطفُٙ جٌطحٌرحش ٌى١ف١س جْطهىجَ ٌٚلس جٌؼًّ

ٙانقٛبس انقجه: ذّٓحذمس ٌٍٛفحش جٌرى١ٔس جٌهحٚس جٌمرٍٝ وحفإ ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس ٚئؾٍجء جٌم١حِ ضُ ئؾٍجء ػ١ٍّحش جٌص

ػٍٝ ِالػد لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س َ ٚيٌه 28/10/2006 جٌٓرص جٌّٛجفك ٠َٛفٟ ٚل١حِ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ جٌمرٍٟ ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش100 .ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذؿحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ

تُفٛز انتدشثخ األصبصٛخ: ئٌٝ 30/10/2006َجالغ١ٕٓ جٌّٛجفك جٌّمطٍـ ػٍٝ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س فٟ جٌفطٍز ِٓ ٠َٛٞ ػ١ٍُشٔف١ً جٌرٍٔحِؽ جيضُ ش

.ْحػس ٚٔٛفَِٓ جٌّكحٍٞز جألْح١ْس ،ػٍٗ ِكحٍٞز غّحٟٔأْحذ١غ ذٛجلغ ْطس ناليَ، 11/12/2006 جألٌذؼحء جٌّٛجفك ٠َٛٚلحِص جٌرحقػس ذطٕف١ً ِكطٜٛ جٌٛقىجش . ٚفمحً ٌٍّمٌٍ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟٚوحْ ِكطٜٛ جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

.(جألٚجٍِ)جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ذحألٍْٛخ جٌطم١ٍىٞ

ٖانقٛبس انجعذ: ػٍٝ ٠الخ جٌّؿّٛػس ضك٠ٍٍٜذططر١ك جنطرحٌ زجٌرحقع شلحَ، ذؼى جالٔطٙحء ِٓ ضٕف١ً جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ جٌّمطٍـ

ٌّؼٍفس جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ٌىال ِٓ ِطٍ قٛجؾ100ُٚوًٌه أوجء ِٓحذمس جٌىٌجْٝ،ِٓطٜٛ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس ٌّؼٍفس .13/12/2006، ٚيٌه فٟ ٠َٛ جألٌذؼحء جٌّٛجفك جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس

ٙحانًعبندبد اإلحظبئ: : جٌطح١ٌس جإلقٛحت١س جٌّؼحِالش زجٌرحقع شجْطهىَ

جالٔكٍجف جٌّؼ١حٌٞ ـ ـ جٌّط١ْٛ جٌكٓحذٟ

(ش )ـ جنطرحٌ ـ ِؼحًِ جالٌطٛجء

( 2وح )ـ جنطرحٌ ـ ِؼحًِ جالٌضرح٠

ـ ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ



عشع انُتبئح ٔيُبقشتٓب:

:عشع انُتبئح: أٔال

(6)ؾىٚي

جَ جٌٍلّٝوالٌس جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ فٝ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؽ

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ل١ى جٌركع 100ٌٓرحق

ْ =8

”ش“ل١ّس جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ جٌم١حِ جٌمرٍٝ جٌّطغ١ٍ

ٚوالٌطٙح

ِؼحًِ

جالٌضرح٠

ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ

جٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

جٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

%13.61 0.621 2.76 3.21 23.68 3.87 27.41 جالٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ

100ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق (6)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ .ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ل١ى جٌركع

%.13.61، وّح ٠القع أْ ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ ذٍغص 0.621ِطْٛطس ذٍغصوّح ٠طٟف ِٓ ٔفّ جٌؿىٚي ٚؾٛو ػاللس جٌضرح١٠س ج٠ؿحذ١س

(7)ؾىٚي

والٌس جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ فٝ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ل١ى جٌركع 100ٌٓرحق

ْ =8

”ش“ف١ّس جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ جٌم١حِ جٌمرٍٝ جٌّطغ١ٍ

ٚوالٌطٙح

ِؼحًِ

جالٌضرح٠

ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ

جٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

جٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

%30.89 0.869 6.87 2.56 18.64 4.20 26.97 جالٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ

100ٌرؼىٜ فٝ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ ج (7)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

.ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ل١ى جٌركع

%. 30.89، وّح ٠القع أْ ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ ذٍغص 0.869وّح ٠طٟف ِٓ ٔفّ جٌؿىٚي ٚؾٛو ػاللس جٌضرح١٠س ج٠ؿحذ١س ل٠ٛس ذٍغص

(8)ؾىٚي

فٝ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ والٌس جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌرؼى١٠ٓ

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس 100ٌٓرحق

ْ1 =ْ2 =8

”ش“ف١ّس جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس جٌّطغ١ٍ

جٌّط١ْٛ ٚوالٌطٙح

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

جٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

4.69 2.56 18.64 3.21 23.68 جالٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ

ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ ِطْٛطٝ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌٟحذطس ٚجٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٌٚٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س فٝ جنطرحٌ (8)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

.ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ل١ى جٌركع 100ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق

(9)ؾىٚي

ٜ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝوالٌس جٌفٍٚق ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌرؼى١٠ٓ ف

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٚجٌٟحذطس 100ٌٓرحق

ْ1 =ْ2 =8

”ش“ف١ّس جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

جٌّط١ْٛ ٚوالٌطٙح

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

جٌّط١ْٛ

جٌكٓحذٝ

جالٔكٍجف

جٌّؼ١حٌٜ

9.57 3.58 43.97 5.97 31.59 جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٟ

ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ ِطْٛطٝ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌٟحذطس ٚجٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٌٚٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س فٝ جنطرحٌ (9)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

.ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ل١ى جٌركع 100ِٓطٜٛ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ ٌٓرحق

يُبقشخ انُتبئح: ز ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جنطرحٌ ٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجي (6)٠طٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

. ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ل١ى جٌركع 100ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق ًٖ٘ جٌفٍٚق ئٌٝ أ١ّ٘س ٚؾٛو جٌّؼٍُ أغٕحء ػ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ٍُ زجٌرحقع ٜػُشٚ



ِٓ أْ جٌّىٌخ ػٕىِح ٠ؼطٟ جٌالػد فىٍز ٚجٞكس ػٓ جألوجء Martin, Lussden‖ 1987, (26)― ًٚ٘ج ِح ٠إوىٖػ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ٍُ ٚجٌطى٠ٌد، ٜجٌّؼٍُ ألْ وً ِّٕٙح ٠إوٜ ِٚح ٠ٕطرك ػٍٟ جٌّىٌخ ٠ٕطرك ػً ،فحػ١ٍس أوػٍفاْ يٌه ٠ؿؼً أوجؤٖ

ٌؿ١ى جٌىل١ك ٌفٓ أوجء جٌٍٗـ جٜ أْ وٌؾس أوجء جٌالػر١ٓ ٌٍّٙحٌز ضطٛلف ػٍٟ ِمىٌز جٌّؼٍُ ػً (6) 1980َ ”قٕفٟ ِهطحٌ“ ٠ٍٜٚأْ ػ١ٍّس ٜ ئيأ٠ٟحً ًٖ٘ جٌفٍٚق زجٌرحقع ٜػُشوّح ،جٌّٙحٌز ِٓ ق١ع ٚكس جألٚٞحع ٌىً أؾُجء جٌؿُٓ نالي ػ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ٍُ

”ٖؼرحْ ػ١ى“ئ١ٌٗ ًٚ٘ج ٠طفك ِغ ِح ضًٛٚ ،ضمىَ جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ذٛفس ػحِسٜ جٌّٙحٌجش جٌّطؼٍّس ٠ؼًّ ػًٜ جٌطؼٍُ غُ جٌطى٠ٌد ػً .(10) 1990َ ”ٌٜفحػٟ ِٛطف“، (13) 1987َ

جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ فٟ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ئٌٝ ضأغ١ٍ جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ يجضٗ ِٚح ٠ك٠ٛٗ فٟ جٌطمىَ ز أ٠ٟحػُٜ جٌرحقعشوّح ٚوًٌه جٌطى٠ٌرحش ػٍٝ جٌّٙحٌز ٚوًٌه جألوٚجش جٌّٓحػىز فٟ جٌطؼٍُ ٚأ٠ٟح جٌطٗحذٗ فٟ جٌر١ثس جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ذ١ٓ ،ِٓ نطٛجش ضؼ١ّ١ٍس

(9)َ 1991 ”ٌذ١غ أقّى قّٛوز“ ٠ٚطفك يٌه ِغ ِح ضٍٛٚص ئ١ٌٗ ٔطحتؽ وٌجْحش وً ِٓ، ؾّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ٚجٌطؿ٠ٍر١سجٌُ “١٘ػُ ػرى جٌّؿ١ى ”ٚ (17)َ 2001 ”فح٠ُز ٖرً”، ٚ(7)َ 1996 ”نحٌى ٍِؾحْ”ٚ (15)َ 1991 ”ػحوي ػرى جٌكحفع”ٚ

2001 َ(21). ، وّح ٠القع أ٠ٟح أْ ٔٓرس 0.621ٌضرح١٠س ج٠ؿحذ١س ِطْٛطس ذٍغصٚؾٛو ػاللس ج (6)وّح ٠طٟف أ٠ٟح ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

%.13.61جٌطكٓٓ ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ ذٍغص ٚضؼُٜ جٌرحقػس ضٍه جٌٕط١ؿس ئٌٝ أٔٗ ػٍٝ جٌٍغُ ِٓ ضأغ١ٍ جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطم١ٍىٜ وحْ ٚجٞكح ػٍٝ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس،

ٌؼاللس جالٌضرح١٠س جٌّطْٛطس ض١ٍٗ ئٌٝ أْ جٌطأغ١ٍ ، ٚ٘ٝ ٔٓرس ئٌٝ قى ِح ِؼمٌٛس، ئال أْ ج%13.61ق١ع ذٍغص ٔٓد جٌطغ١ٍ جٌٕٓرٝ وحْ غ١ٍ ِطىحفة ػٍٝ أفٍجو ضٍه جٌّؿّٛػس، ِّح ١ٗ٠ٍ ئٌٝ ٌذّح نًٍ فٝ جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطم١ٍىٜ، أٚ ٌذّح ٌرؼٝ جٌّٗىالش

جٌط٠ٍمس ال ضٕحْد جٌطٝ ضطؼٍك ذأفٍجو جٌؼ١ٕس وؼىَ جٔٓؿحَ ذؼُٟٙ ِغ ٠ٍ٠مس جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّٓطهىِس فٝ ػ١ٍّس جٌطؼٍُ، أٚ ٌذّح أْ .جٌّٙحٌز جٌّطؼٍّس

ضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ “: أٔٗ ٜ ٠ٕٙ ػً ٜٔٗ لى ضكمك جٌفٍٜ جألٚي ٌٍركع ٚجًٌأ زجٌرحقع ٌٜشًٌٌٚه َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س 100ٌّٓحذمس جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ

. ”٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛجٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جنطرحٌ (7)٠ٚطٟف ِٓ جٌؿىٚي ٌلُ

.ِطٍ قٛجؾُ ١ْىجش ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ل١ى جٌركع 100ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق ، وّح ٠القع أْ ٔٓرس جٌطكٓٓ ذ١ٓ 0.869ج٠ؿحذ١س ل٠ٛس ذٍغص وّح ٠طٟف ِٓ ٔفّ جٌؿىٚي ٚؾٛو ػاللس جٌضرح١٠س

%.30.89جٌم١ح١ْٓ ذٍغص ً٘ج جٌطكٓٓ ٚجٌفٍق جٌّؼٕٛٞ جٌىر١ٍ فٟ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ئٌٝ جٌطأغ١ٍ جال٠ؿحذٟ ٌألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ِٚح ٚضؼُٞ جٌرحقػس

،جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ج١ٌد ئٌٝ ضكم١ك أػٍٝ لىٌ ِٓق١ع ٠ؼًّ ضٕٛع ًٖ٘ جألِ ٜ(جألٚجٍِ ـ جالوطٗحف ـ جٌطرحوي )٠كط٠ٛٗ ِٓ أْح١ٌد جْطهىجَ جٌّؼٍُ ٌٍؼى٠ى ِٓ أْح١ٌد جٌطى٠ٌّ ٚجألنً ذأقٓٓ ِح ف١ٙح وْٚ جٌطم١ى أْ (1) 2000َ ”ػُ جٌى٠ٓأذٛ جٌٕؿح “ٚوّح ٠ًوٍ

. ذأٍْٛخ ٚجقى ٠ؼًّ ػٍٝ ضكم١ك ضمىَ ور١ٍ فٟ ؾ١ّغ ؾٛجٔد جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ٚضكم١ك جأل٘ىجف جٌّٕٗٛوز ق١ع ٌىً أٍْٛخ ٠س،وّح أْ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ِٚح ٠كط٠ٛٗ ِٓ أْح١ٌد ضطىحًِ ِغ ذؼٟٙح جٌرؼٝ فٟ ِٕظِٛس ضى٠ٌّ

١ُِّجش ٚػ١ٛخ ِٚٓ نالي جْطهىجَ ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد أِىٓ جٌطغٍد ػٍٝ ػ١ٛخ وً أٍْٛخ ِٕٙح ذٛؾٛو ١ُِّجش فٟ ٔفّ جألْح١ٌد .وجنً جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ زجٌّٓطهىَ

٠ط١ف جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ِٓ نالي جْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌطرحوٌٟ ئٌٝ ل١حَ جٌّطؼٍُ ذى٠ٌٚٓ ّ٘ح وٌٚ جٌّطؼٍُ ٚػالٚز ػٍٝ يٌه ”ْؼ١ى جٌٗح٘ى”ٚ (21) 2001َ ”ِٛطفٝ جٌٓح٠ف“ ٠ٍٜٚ ،ٚئٚالـ جألنطحء ١ًٌٍُِجٌمٍجٌجش ٚضؼٍُ و١ف١س جضهحي ،ٚوٌٚ جٌّؼٍُ

وّح ٠ف١ى فٟ جٌٕٛجقٟ جالٔفؼح١ٌس ٚجالؾطّحػ١س ٚنحٚس ، وً ِطؼٍُأْ جألٍْٛخ جٌطرحوٌٟ ٠ف١ى فٟ ضٛف١ٍ ِىٌِ ي (12) 1995َ . جٌٍٓٛن جٌطؼحٟٚٔ ذ١ٓ جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ

ففٟ أٍْٛخ جألٚجٍِ ٠طُ ضمى٠ُ جٌطغ٠ًس جٌٍجؾؼس ،وّح ٠ط١ُّ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ذطٕٛع جٌطغ٠ًس جٌٍجؾؼس جٌطٟ ضمىَ ٌٍّطؼ١ٍّٓوطٗحف ضىْٛ جٌطغ٠ًس جٌٍجؾؼس وجن١ٍس ػٓ ٠ٍ٠ك جٌّطؼٍُ ٔفٓٗ ِٓ ٚفٝ أٍْٛخ جال ،ِٓ لرً جٌّؼٍُ ػٓ ٠ٍ٠ك ئٚالـ جألنطحءغٍ ور١ٍ فٟ ضك١ٓٓ أأْ ػ١ٍّس جٌطٌٛٛ ٌٙح (20 )َ 1995 ”ِكّٛو ػٕحْ“ ١ٗ٠ٍٚ ،نالي ػ١ٍّس جٌطٌٛٛ جٌطٟ ٠مَٛ ذٙح جٌّطؼٍُ

ٍْٛخ جٌطرحوٌٟ ػٓ ٠ٍ٠كجألٞ ٖىً جألوجء فٟ يجوٍز جٌّطؼٍُ، ٠ٚطُ ضمى٠ُ جٌطغ٠ًس جٌٍجؾؼس ف شٚضػرٟجألوجء ٚئٚالـ جألنطحء . ِٓ نالٌٙح ئٚالـ جألنطحء ٚضٛؾ١ٗ جٌّإوٜ أغٕحء جٌؼًّ ضُ ٞ ٌٚلس جٌّؼ١حٌ ق١ع ج١ًٌُِ ذحْطهىجَ

2001َ ”١٘ػُ ػرى جٌّؿ١ى”، ٚ(17)َ 2001 ”فح٠ُز ٖرً“٠ٚطفك يٌه ِغ ِح ضٍٛٚص ئ١ٌٗ ٔطحتؽ وٌجْحش وً ِٓ . غ١ٍ ج٠ؿحذٟ ػٍٝ ضؼٍُ جٌّٙحٌجش جٌكٍو١س ٚجإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ أْ جٌطى٠ٌّ ذحألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌٗ ضأ ػٍٝ (22)

ض١ٍٗ ئٌٝ أْ جٌطأغ١ٍ جٌٕٓرٝ وحْ ِطىحفثح ػٍٝ أفٍجو (7)وّح أْ جٌؼاللس جالٌضرح١٠س جٌم٠ٛس جٌّٛٞكس ذحٌؿىٚي ٌلُ .٠س جٌطؼٍُفٝ ػًّ “جألٍْٛخ جٌطرحوٌٟ “جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س، ًٚ٘ج ِٓ ئ٠ؿحذ١حش جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؿ٠ٍرٝ جًٌٜ ٠ٓطهىَ

ضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ جٌمرٍٝ ٚجٌرؼىٜ “ ٔٗأٚجًٌٞ ٠ٕٙ ػٍٝ ٌٍركع جٌػحٔٝٚذًٌه ٠طكمك جٌفٍٜ َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس 100ٌّٓحذمس ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٌٚٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ فٝ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ

.”ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛٚؾٛو فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح١ْٓ ِطْٛطٝ جٌّؿّٛػط١ٓ جٌٟحذطس (9، 8)و١ٌٚٓ ٌلّٝ ٠ٚطٟف ِٓ جٌؽ

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ 100ٚجٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ٌٚٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س فٝ جنطرحٌ ِٓطٜٛ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٚوًٌه جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ ٌٓرحق .١ْىجش ل١ى جٌركع



ٚجٌم١حِ (جٌّطرح٠ٓجألٍْٛخ )١١ْٓ جٌرؼىٜ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س ً٘ج جٌطكٓٓ ٚجٌفٍق جٌّؼٕٛٞ ذ١ٓ جٌم١ح زػُٜ جٌرحقعشٚئٌٝ جٌطأغ١ٍ جال٠ؿحذٟ ٌألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ِٚح ٠ٛؾى ذٗ ِٓ أْح١ٌد ِطٕٛػس ِٚح (جألٍْٛخ جٌطم١ٍىٜ)جٌرؼىٜ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

ْؼ١ى ن١ًٍ “٠س ق١ع ١ٗ٠ٍ ضٛفٍ٘ح ًٖ٘ جألْح١ٌد ِٓ ِٛحوٌ ضغ٠ًس ٌجؾؼس ِطٕٛػس ْٛجء وحٔص ًٖ٘ جٌّٛحوٌ وجن١ٍس أٚ نحٌؼْ جٌطىٍجٌ ئفايج وحْ جٌطىٍجٌ ٠إوٜ ئٌٝ قىٚظ جٌطؼٍُ، ف، أْ جٌطغ٠ًس جٌٍجؾؼس ضٍؼد وٌٚج أْح١ْح فٟ جٌطؼٍُ (12) 1995َ ”جٌٗح٘ى

أْ وّح ، ٠ٕطؽ ػٕٗ ٠َحوز فٟ جٌؿٙى ٚجٌٛلص جٌال١َِٓ ٌكىٚظ جٌطؼٍُ وٕط١ؿس ٌؼىَ ِؼٍفس جٌّطؼٍُ ذأنطحتٗ ٌٍجؾؼسفٟ غ١حخ جٌطغ٠ًس ججٌطؼٍُ جٌكٍوٟ جٌّرٕٝ ػٍٝ أنطحء فٟ جألوجء ٠إوٜ ئٌٝ غرحضٙح فٟ جٌٍّّجش جٌؼٛر١س ٚذحٌطحٌٟ ٠ٛؼد ضٛك١كٙح ذ١ّٕح ٠مطٍٛ

وّح ٠ط١ُّ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ، جألٍْٛخ جٌطم١ٍىٞ ػٍٝ ضٛف١ٍ ٔٛع ٚجقى ِٓ جٌطغ٠ًس جٌٍجؾؼس ٚجٌطٟ ضطُ ِٓ نالي ئٚالـ جألنطحءجٌٕؿح ػُ ٚأخ“٠ًوٍ ٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ق١ع أْ ٍِجػحز جٌفٍٚق جٌفٍو٠س فٟ جٌطؼٍُ ِٓ جألٌِٛ جألْح١ْس ق١ع ذٍّجػحز جٌفٍٚق جٌفٍو٠س ذ١ٓ ج

ٔٗ ِٓ جألٌِٛ جٌطٟ ٠ؿد ٍِجػحضٙح فٟ جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ٍِجػحز جٌفٍٚق أ (3) 1992َ ”ٌجؾفػُش جقّى ”ٚ (1)1996َ ”جٌى٠ٓجٌىٌجْٟ جٌٛجقى ٠طّٟٓ أفٍجو ٠طفحٚضْٛ فٟ لىٌجضُٙ جٌؼحِس جٌفٍو٠س ق١ع ال ضٛؾى ِؿّٛػس ِطؿحٔٓس ضّحَ جٌطؿحّٔ، فحٌفًٛ

٠فٍٜ ػٍٝ ؾ١ّغ جألفٍجو ِٓطٜٛ ضؼ١ٍُ ٚجقى ٠ٚؿد أْ ٠مَٛ ذٗ ؾ١ّغ جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ وْٚ جْطػٕحء جٌّطرغٚجٌهحٚس ذ١ّٕح جألٍْٛخ . ٚفٝ َِٓ ٚجقى

ٖف ٠ٚكًٛ ٠ّٚحٌِ ٠ٚؼًّ ػٍٝ ٠ٚٓحػى جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٝ جٌطفى١ٍ جٌّٕطمٟ جٌّٕظُ ٠ٚؿؼً جٌّطؼٍُ ١ٕٗ٠ ٠ٚىص ”فح٠ُز ٖرً“ٖ شًٚ٘ج ِح أوى ،ض٠ٛٗك جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ِغ ضٛف١ٍ ِٛجلف ضؼ١ّ١ٍس ِطٕٛػس ٌٍّطؼ١ٍّٓ وّح ٠ؿؼً جٌّطؼٍُ ٠ؼطّى ػٍٝ ٔفٓٗ

قى ِٓ لىٌز جٌّطؼ١ٍّٓ ػٍٝ جالوطٗحف ٚجٌّّحٌْس وّح ٌُ ٠ٍجػٝ جٌٕحق١س جالؾطّحػ١س ق١عٞ جٌطم١ٍىٜذ١ّٕح جألٍْٛخ (17)َ 2001ِّح ٠ؿؼٍٗ غ١ٍ لحوٌ جضهحي جٌمٍجٌجش جٌؼ١ٍّس جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ٠ؼًّ وً ِطؼٍُ ِٕفٍوج ٠ٚؿؼً جٌّطؼٍُ ِؼطّىج ػٍٝ جٌّؼٍُ فٟ ؾ١ّغ ٍِجقً

. أغٕحء ػ١ٍّس جٌطؼٍُ ، (22)َ 2001 ”١٘ػُ ػرى جٌّؿ١ى”ٚ (17)َ 2001 ”فح٠ُز ٖرً“ ٠ٚطفك يٌه ِغ ِح ضٍٛٚص ئ١ٌٗ ٔطحتؽ وٌجْحش وال ِٓ

. جٌطمح٠ى٠ٜفٛق جألٍْٛخ جٌّٙحٌجش ٜ ضؼٍُ فذحألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌٗ ضأغ١ٍ ج٠ؿحذٟ فٟ أْ جٌطى٠ٌٌّّؿّٛػس ي جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ ذ١ٓ ئقٛحت١حً ضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس “ٔٗ أٚجًٌٞ ٠ٕٙ ػٍٝ جٌٍجذغ ٌٍركع ٚذًٌه ٠طكمك جٌفٍٜ

فٟ جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٟ ٚجإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ (جألٍْٛخ جٌطم١ٍىٜ)ٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ٚجٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ ي (جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ) زجٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ . ”(جٌّطرح٠ٓجألٍْٛخ )زَ قٛجؾُ ٌٛحٌف جٌم١حِ جٌرؼىٜ ٌٍّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر100ٟفٟ ِٓحذمس

زضٛؾى فٍٚق وجٌس ئقٛحت١ح ذ١ٓ جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍرٟ“ ٔٗأٚجًٌٞ ٠ٕٙ ػٍٝ ٌٍركع جٌػحٌعٚذًٌه ٠طكمك جٌفٍٜ َ قٛجؾُ ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش 100فٟ جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٟ ٚجٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ ٌّٓحذمس ز٠ٌرٟٚجٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس ٌٚٛحٌف جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؽ .لُٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس جٌٍٓطحْ لحذِٛ

االصتخالطبد: فٟ قىٚو أ٘ىجف ٚفٍٜٚ جٌركع ٚفٝ قىٚو جٌؼ١ٕس ِٚح أْفٍش ػٕٗ جٌّؼحٌؿحش جإلقٛحت١س، ٚفٝ ٞٛء ضف١ٍٓ جٌٕطحتؽ

: جٌطح١ٌس شجالْطهالٚح ِٕٚحلٗطٙح فمى ضٍٛٚص جٌرحقػس ئٌِٝطٍ قٛجؾُ 100جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق ػٍٟ ضك١ٓٓ ِٓطٛٞ ٠ف١فح ٌٙح ضأغ١ٍج ئ٠ؿحذ١ح (جٌّطرؼس)جٌط٠ٍمس جٌطم١ٍى٠س (1

. ل١ى جٌركع ١ْىجش جٌّمٌٍ ػٍٝ ٠حٌرحش جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ 100جٌىٌجْٝ ٌٓرحق جٌطك١ًٛػٍٟ ضك١ٓٓ ِٓطٛٞ ٠ف١فح ٌٙح ضأغ١ٍج ئ٠ؿحذ١ح (جٌّطرؼس)جٌط٠ٍمس جٌطم١ٍى٠س (2

. ل١ى جٌركع ١ْىجش جٌّمٌٍ ػٍٝ ٠حٌرحش جٌّؿّٛػس جٌٟحذطس

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ 100جإلٔؿحَ جٌٍلّٝ ٌٓرحق جْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌٗ ضأغ١ٍج ئ٠ؿحذ١ح ػٍٟ ضك١ٓٓ ِٓطٛٞ (3

. ل١ى جٌركع ١ْىجش جٌّمٌٍ ػٍٝ ٠حٌرحش جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س

ِطٍ قٛجؾُ 100جٌطك١ًٛ جٌىٌجْٝ ٌٓرحق جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٌٗ ضأغ١ٍج ئ٠ؿحذ١ح ػٍٟ ضك١ٓٓ ِٓطٛٞ جْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ (4

. ل١ى جٌركع ١ْىجش جٌّمٌٍ ػٍٝ ٠حٌرحش جٌّؿّٛػس جٌطؿ٠ٍر١س

جْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ واقىٜ أْح١ٌد جٌطؼٍُ ٚضك١ٓٓ ِٓطٛٞ جألوجء جٌّٙحٌٜ وحْ أفًٟ ِٓ ٠ٍ٠مس جٌطؼ١ٍُ (5

. جٌّطّػٍس فٟ جٌٍٗـ جٌٍفظٟ ٚأوجء جٌّٕٛيؼ ِٓ جٌّؼٍُ (زجٌّطرغ)جٌطم١ٍى٠س

انتٕطٛبد: : ذّح ٠ٍٟ زٟٚٚ جٌرحقعشفٟ ٞٛء ٔطحتؽ جٌركع ٚفٟ قىٚو ػ١ٕس جٌركع ٚأٍْٛخ جٌطك١ًٍ جإلقٛحتٟ جٌّٓطهىَ

ِطرح٠ٓ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جيذألٓحَ ٚو١ٍحش ِمٌٍ أٌؼحخ جٌمٜٛوػٛز جٌمحت١ّٓ ػٍٟ ضى٠ٌّ (1

. أغٕحء جٌطؼٍُ ٌٚفغ ِٓطٛٞ أوجء جٌّٙحٌجش

.ٚيٌه ٌّح ٠ط١ُّ ذٗ ً٘ج جألٍْٛخ جٌؼ١ٍّسِكحٍٞجش ؾ١ّغ جيضطر١ك جٌرٍٔحِؽ جٌطؼ١ٍّٟ ذحْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ فٟ (2 .جْطهىجَ ً٘ج جألٍْٛخ فٟ ضؼٍّٙح ضأغ١ٍئؾٍجء وٌجْحش ِطٗحذٙس ٌألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ فٟ ٠ٌحٞحش أنٍٜ ٌٍطؼٍف (3ضؼ١ٍُ فٟٔس أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ذأْح١ٌد أنٍٜ ٌٍٛٚٛي ئٌٝ جٔٓد جألْح١ٌد جٌطى١ٓ٠ٌس ٌالْطفحوز ِٕٙح ِمحٌ (4

.جٌّٙحٌجش جٌكٍو١س



انًشاخع انعشثٛخ ٔاألخُجٛخ: ٠ح١ٞس، وجٌ جألٚىلحء، جٌٌّٕٛٛز جالضؿح٘حش جٌكى٠ػس فٟ ٠ٍق ضى٠ٌّ جٌطٍذ١س جٌٍ: (2000َ)أذٛ جٌٕؿح أقّى ػُ جٌى٠ٓ (1

.

.ػحٌُ جٌىطحخ، جٌمحٍ٘ز ،٠2ضى٠ٌّ جٌّٛجو جالؾطّحػ١س، (خ، ش): أقّى قٓٓ جٌٍمحٔٝ، ٠ّٛٔ أقّى ٌٞٛجْ (2

. ، وجٌ جٌّؼحٌف٠11 أٚٛي ػٍُ جٌٕفّ، :(1999َ) ٌجؾفػُش قّى أ (3

. زجٌمحٍ٘، جٌطؼٍُ، ٔظ٠ٍحش ٚضطر١محش، وجٌ جٌٕٟٙس: (1981َ) أٌٔٛ ِكّى جٌٍٗلحٜٚ (4

، وجٌ جٌفىٍ (ضؼ١ٍُ، ضى١ٕه، ضى٠ٌد)ْرحلحش جٌّّٟحٌ ِٚٓحذمحش ج١ٌّىجْ، : (1997َ) ذٓط٠ٛٓٝ أقّى ذٓط٠ٛٓٝ (5

. جٌؼٍذٟ

.، جٌمحٍ٘ز، وجٌ جٌفىٍ جٌؼٍذٟ”ِىٌخ وٍز جٌمىَ“: (1980َ)قٕفٟ ِكّٛو ِهطحٌ (6ء فٟ جٌمفُ ذحٌُجٔس ٌٍّرطىت١ٓ، جغٍ جْطهىجَ ذؼٝ أْح١ٌد جٌطؼٍُ ػٍٝ ِٓطٜٛ جألوج: (1996َ) نحٌى ٍِؾحْ ػرى جٌىج٠ُ (7

.ْ ذحٌُلح٠َك، ؾحِؼس جٌُلح٠َك ٞو١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٌٍرٕٟغ١ٍ ٌِٕٗٛز، ٌْحٌس ووطٌٛجٖ،

.وجٌ جٌّؼحٌف ، و١ًٌ جٌطؼ١ٍُ ٚجٌطى٠ٌد فٟ ِٓحذمحش جٌٍِٟ: (1997َ) ن٠ٍ١س ئذٍج١ُ٘ جٌٓىٍٜ، ١ٍّْٚحْ ػٍٝ قٓٓ (8

جألْح١ٌد جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس ػٍٝ ِٓطٜٛ جألوجء جٌّٙحٌٜ ٚجٌٍلّٟ فٟ وفغ جغٍ جْطهىجَ ذؼٝ: (1991َ) ٌذ١غ أقّى قّٛوز (9

. جٌّؿٍى جٌػحٌع، جٌؼىو جألٚي ٚجٌػحٟٔ، ؾحِؼس قٍٛجْ ػٍَٛ ٚفْٕٛ ج٠ٌٍحٞس، زجٌؿٍس، ِؿً

ِمحٌٔس أغٍ جٌطؼ١ٍُ جٌّرٍِؽ ٚجٌط٠ٍمس جٌطم١ٍى٠س ػٍٝ ِٓطٜٛ ضؼ١ٍُ جألوجء جٌّٙحٌٜ “: (1990َ) ٌفحػٟ ِٛطفٟ قٓٓ (10

.، ٌْحٌس ووطٌٛجٖ غ١ٍ ٌِٕٗٛز، و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٌٍر١ٕٓ،ؾحِؼس قٍٛجْ”جٌمىٌَٕحٖة وٍز

. ِٓحذمحش ج١ٌّىجْ ٚجٌّّٟحٌ، جإلٖؼحع ٌٍطرحػس، جإلْىٕى٠ٌس :(1998َ)ْؼى جٌى٠ٓ جٌٍٗٔٛذٝ (11

.٠ٍق ضى٠ٌّ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس، ِىطرس جٌطٍرس، ٖرٍج، جٌمحٍ٘ز :(1995َ)ْؼ١ى ن١ًٍ جٌٗح٘ى (12

، ”وٌجْس ضؿ٠ٍر١س ٌفحػ١ٍس جٌْٛحتً جٌطؼ١ّ١ٍس فٟ ضؼٍُ ِٙحٌز جٌّطحذؼس فٟ وٍز جٌٍٓس“: (1978َ)قٓح١ٔٓ ٖؼرحْ ػ١ى (13

.ؾحِؼس قٍٛجْ ٌْحٌس ووطٌٛجٖ غ١ٍ ٌِٕٗٛز، و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٌٍر١ٕٓ،

وجٌ ،1ؼ، ”جٌطٍذ١س ٠ٍٚق جٌطى٠ٌّ“فٟ ٠ٍق جٌطى٠ٌّ :(َ 1993)ٚحٌف ػرى جٌؼ٠ُُ، ػرى جٌؼ٠ُُ ػرى جٌّؿ١ى (14

. جٌّؼحٌف

ػٍٝ ِٓطٜٛ جألوجء جٌّٙحٌٜ ٚجٌٍلّٟ فٟ جغٍ جْطهىجَ أٍْٛذٟ جٌطرحوٌٟ ٚجٌّّحٌْس :(1991)ػحوي ِكّٛو ػرى جٌكحفع (15

. جٌٍِف جٌّؿٍى جٌطحْغ، جٌؼىو جٌٓحذغ ػٍٗ ٚجٌػحِٓ ػٍٗ، و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٌٍر١ٕٓ ؾحِؼس جٌُلح٠َك

(ضم٠ُٛ أْح١ٌد، جْطٍجض١ؿ١حش،)ٌطؼٍُ فٟ جٌطٍذ١س جٌرى ١ٔس ٚج٠ٌٍح١ٞس جٌطى٠ٌّ ي: (1994َ) ػفحف ػرى جٌى٠ٍُ قٓٓ (16

.ِٕٗحز جٌّؼحٌف

ضأغ١ٍ ذٍٔحِؽ ِمطٍـ ذحْطهىجَ جألٍْٛخ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٝ ضؼٍُ ذؼٝ ِٙحٌجش جٌىٍز جٌطحتٍز : (2001َ) فح٠ُز ِكّى ٖرً (17

. و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس، ؾحِؼس ٠ٕطح غ١ٍ ٌِٕٗٛز، ٌىٜ ٠حٌرحش و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذطٕطح ، ٌْحٌس ووطٌٛجٖ،

. ػحٌُ جٌىطحخ ، جٌمحٍ٘ز ”أ٘ىجفٗ، أْح١ٌرٗ، ضم٠ُٛ ٔطحتؿٗ، ضطر١محضٗ“جٌطى٠ٌّ : (1998َ) فىٍٜ قٓٓ ٠ٌحْ (18

جٌّطرح٠ٓ ػٍٟ ضؼٍُ ذؼٝ ضأغ١ٍ جْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ“ :(2000َ)ِكّى ْؼى َغٍٛي، ٘ٗحَ ِكّى ػرى جٌك١ٍُ (19

، ذكع ٌِٕٗٛ، ِؿٍىجش جٌركٛظ جٌّإضٍّ ”ٖؼرس جٌطى٠ٌّ ذى١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ؾحِؼس ج١ٌّٕح ِٙحٌجش وٍز ج١ٌى ٌطٍرس

أوطٛذٍ، جٌّؿٍى جٌػحٌع، 19 – 17جٌؼٍّٟ جٌػحٌع جالْطػّحٌ ٚجٌط١ّٕس جٌر٠ٍٗس فٟ ج٠ٌٛٓ جٌؼٍذٟ ِٓ ِٕظٌٛ ٠ٌحٟٞ ِٓ

.و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ٌٍرٕحش ذحٌؿ٠ٍُز، ؾحِؼس قٍٛجْ، جٌمحٍ٘ز . ١ْىٌٛٛؾ١س جٌطٍذ١س جٌرى١ٔس ٚج٠ٌٍح١ٞس، وجٌ جٌفىٍ جٌؼٍذٟ: (1995َ)ٚو ػرى جٌفطحـ ػٕحْ ِكُ (20

. جضؿح٘حش قى٠ػس فٟ ضى٠ٌّ جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس، ِىطرس جإلٖؼحع، جإلْىٕى٠ٌس :(2001َ)ِكّى ِٛطفٝ جٌٓح٠ف (21

أغٍٖ ػٍٝ ِٓطٜٛ أوجء ذؼٝ جٌّطرح٠ٓ ٚ ذٍٔحِؽ ضؼ١ٍّٟ ذحْطهىجَ أٍْٛخ جٌطى٠ٌّ: (2001َ) ١٘ػُ ػرى جٌّؿ١ى ِكّى (22

و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس غ١ٍ ٌِٕٗٛز، ج١ٌٕٗ ٌىٜ ٠ٍرس و١ٍس جٌطٍذ١س ج٠ٌٍح١ٞس ذح١ٌّٕح، ٌْحٌس ِحؾٓط١ٍ، ِٙحٌجش ْالـ

. ،ؾحِؼس ج١ٌّٕح

23) Hollis A.C. (1990): A written Program Of Self Instruction For Learning The Cart Wheel In Gymnastics, M.S In Physical Education and Recreation, Vol. 12.

24) Kahila, S (1987): Effect Of Comparative Method On Helping Behavior In Physical Education Lessons, Lie: Kunta, Jatiede, Helsinki.

25) Kamel, E. (1986): The Effect Using Cluser of Teaching Styles on Teacher and Student Behavior, Paper Presented at The 2nd, ICH. Per Europe Congress, Cunea, Ataly, July 1986.

26) Marrtin Garry, Lumsden Joan(1987): Coaching In Effective Behavior Approach, College Publishing, Toronto, 1987.



27) Mosston, M. (1981): Teaching Physical Education, 2nd Ed, Columbus, Ohio Charles E, Merrill Publishing

Company, 1981.

28) Mosston, M & Ashworth,s (1981): Teaching physical education, 2nded, Merrill publishing Co,Columbus London.

29) Osthuizen, M.J Griesel, J. (1992): The Effect Of The Command Reciprocal and Inclusion Teaching Styles On The Realization Of Objective In Physical Education On For High School Boys, S.A. Journal for Research, In Sport. Physical Education and Recreation, Veruserd Burg.

30) Sharon Gaylezack (1981): The Effect Of Individualized Instruction In Physical Education On Student Teachers and Their Students, Dissertation Abstract International, Vol. 42, No. 1.


Reference # 98

Topic # 3

Towards a new professional doctorate in education: A position paper Katya Narozhnaya, University of Maryland, USA

Stephen Koziol [email protected], University of Maryland, USA

David Imig [email protected], University of Maryland, USA

The paper proceeds as follows. The first part provides an overview of the general nature of

professional doctorates in the US, UK, and Australia. The next section examines the

distinguishing characteristics of the doctoral programs at the UMCP aspirational and comparable

peers to highlight their similarities and differences. Based on the analysis of peer institutions‘ data,

the paper presents a set of recommendations to guide the future development of the College of

Education policies for the Ed.D. and Ph.D. programs with the ultimate purpose to sharpen the

distinctions between the two. Recommendations include admission standards, time to degree

expectations, curriculum and residency requirements, student assessment, and capstone

experiences.

I. Introduction

At the University of Maryland, we have recently had visitors from China and Taiwan and

received inquiries from Australia, Hong Kong, Turkey and Chile regarding developments in

doctoral education in the United States. Seemingly, while everyone in the world is concerned

with the preparation of teachers, many are taking a long-term look at the challenge of preparing

better teachers and asking about those who will teach the future teachers. The ―universitification‖

of teacher education in all parts of the world has set in motion much concern about the faculties

that teach future teachers in colleges and universities.. So while this paper is about the

transformation of doctoral education in one college in one American university, it addresses

questions of quality that are being raised everywhere.

With the universitification of teacher education (i.e., making teacher education a post-

secondary expectation in a comprehensive university setting), part of the consideration has to do

with the preparation of faculty to teach and advise students in those programs. The assumption

that these are faculty trained in doctoral level courses and programs is wide spread. That

assumption then leads to the concerns about doctoral education and the characteristics and

offerings provided to future faculty. Doctoral education in the United States is under harsh

scrutiny by federal agencies and academic organizations. These criticisms of doctoral programs

go beyond teacher education and include programs offered in all fields and disciplines and in

many professional schools. The criticisms include: high student attrition, lengthy time to degree

completion, inadequate student preparation to join the ranks of the professoriate or the world of

professional practice; and, divergence between existing educational preparation, students‘

aspirations, and their actual careers in and outside of the academy (Bowen and Rudenstine, 1992;

Golde and Dore, 2001; Nyquist, 2002; Golde, 2008). This across-the-campus condemnation of

doctoral education is matched by those who criticize doctoral education offered by graduate

schools of education.

Doctoral education for school principals and superintendents as well as for teacher

leaders is subject to great criticism. Some have even called for the elimination of doctoral

programs for aspiring school leaders with Arthur Levine‘s criticisms among the harshest. Levine



argued that school administration programs are in ―curricular disarray, maintaining low

admissions and graduation standards, having weak faculty and students, providing inadequate

clinical instruction and experiences, offering inappropriate degrees, and producing poor

scholarship‖ (Levine, 2005). Levine (2005) called for the elimination of the Ed.D. degree and

the use of the Ph.D. only for those interested in research careers in education.

Other scholars have called for a clarification of the nature, purposes and intentions of

degrees leading to the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.)

(Shulman et al., 2006). Despite some recent efforts to reform and revamp doctoral education, the

strengthening of Ph.D. programs on a number of campuses, and although several successful

Ed.D. programs have been created around the country, the perception remains that Ed.D.

programs are lacking in rigor and are inadequate to meet the needs of today‘s educational

leaders. Of equal concern is the perception that Ph.D. programs in education are lacking in rigor

and relevance and failing to produce scholars and academicians needed to produce high quality

research.

A recent initiative of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CF) on

the Education Doctorate brought the debate about the purposes of doctoral education into sharper

focus. Shulman et al., (2006) argue that it is imperative to rethink and reclaim the research

doctorate in education (Ph.D.) and simultaneously develop a distinct and ―robust‖ professional

practice doctorate because of the overall perception of the Ed.D. as the ―Ph.D.-lite‖ degree

(Shulman et al., 2006, p. 25). Shulman and et al. (2006) went so far as to argue that it might be

necessary to create an entirely different degree designation, the professional practice doctorate,

in order to serve leading practitioners in the field of education and to explicitly differentiate it

from the research-oriented Ph.D. The promise of the new degree, with its focus on the

preparation of leading practitioners in education, is premised on it being a ―highly rigorous,‖

―easily identifiable,‖ and ―prestigious‖ post-baccalaureate degree (Shulman, Golde, et al. 2006,

p. 29).

Currently in the US there are 142 Schools of Education that offer both the Ph.D. and

Ed.D., often with little differentiation between the preparation of future faculty and researchers

and the preparation of school practitioners (Perry and Imig, 2008). Theoretically, the Ph.D. is

expected to be a traditional academic degree that prepares faculty, researchers, and scholars in

education while the Ed.D. is intended to prepare practitioners for professional practice. Put

differently, the Ph.D. should prepare ―professional researchers‖ and the Ed.D. should educate

―practicing professionals‖ (Bourner et al., 2000). In reality, despite the purported differences

between the two degrees, their distinctions have been honored more in theory than in practice

and the purposes of preparing scholars and practitioners have become confused over time

(Andresen, 1983; Dill and Morrison, 1985; Nelson & Coorough, 1994). ―We have come to a

situation where we have neither a first-rate model for the professional doctorate, which you can

call the Ed.D., nor do we have a really good model for the research doctorate, because we‘re

basically using the same model to educate both‖ (Shulman, as cited in Archer, 2005, para 15).

Eliminating the increasingly blurry distinction between the Ph.D. and Ed.D. degrees is

essential to reclaiming both degrees, particularly, when it comes to the candidates‘ career goals

(Shulman, Golde, et al., 2006). Two-thirds to three quarters of those students who earn education

doctorates (Ph.D. and Ed.D.) do not enter the professoriate (Shulman, Golde, et el., 2006). In the

Ed.D. category, far more graduates pursue administrative and /or teaching positions in the K–12

sector than in any postsecondary institutions or organizations (Bruckerhoff, 2000 as cited in

Townsend, 2002; Levine, 2005).

Narozhnaya, et al.: Towards a new professional doctorate in education


Insert College of Ed report data here that illustrates the mismatch between students‟

degree choices and subsequent employment.

Concomitantly, the emerging discussions about professional doctorates in education have

brought into sharp focus the design of professional school programs and how new professional

fields (engineering, nursing, pharmacy, etc.) manage within a fixed time frame to prepare

doctoral candidates to earn admission to the practice of the discipline. These new professional

doctorates focus on the students‘ ―preparation for the potential transformation of the field of

professional practice‖ by heavily relying on the curriculum‘s relevance to professional/ clinical

practice, the emphasis on the use of applied knowledge, and strong experiential learning

components (CGS, 2007, p. 6).

Unlike other professional fields, education uses the doctorate to prepare both scholars and

practitioners. In the field of education, the Ed.D. has frequently been considered the

―professional‖ degree, although it has never enjoyed the prestige and status of the doctorates

awarded by the professional business or medical schools. The first Ed.D. developed at Harvard

in the 1920‘s was envisioned as a ―practitioner‖ degree, and controlled by the Graduate School

rather than Harvard College (Clifford and Guthrie, 1988). While Harvard’s Graduate School of

Education continues to offer only the Ed.D. (although they recently announced the creation of a

joint PhD program with the Kennedy School of Government) most Ed.D. degree program

requirements have come to closely resemble Ph.D. requirements, thus diluting the distinction

between the two.

To adequately serve the professional needs of the education community, a consensus has

emerged that the Ed.D. needs to be better aligned with the needs of professional practitioners.

(Shulman, Golde, et al. 2006). Because most Ed.D.s are structured to grant academic doctorates

rather than professional doctorates, education practitioners are not ―well served by courses of

study that largely seek to mimic the structure, content, and requirements of traditional Ph.D.

programs in the arts and sciences‖ (Shulman, as cited in Archer, 2007, para 3).

Drawing from the recent Carnegie Initiative on the Education Doctorate (CID) and the

recommendations of the Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) on the Professional Doctorate, this

paper argues that there should be two distinct and clear approaches to doctoral education in the

College of Education at the University of Maryland (UMCP). The distinguishing missions and

characteristics of the two degrees need to be clearly identified and articulated to ensure that the

Ed.D. and Ph.D. are substantively different degrees. Because this College of Education has a

dual obligation to prepare both researchers and practitioners, revisiting the distinctions between

the two types of doctorates is necessary to prepare the next generation of school leaders,

educational faculty, and scholars who will be able to successfully tackle complex educational

problems. As Guthrie, professor of education and public policy at Peabody College, Vanderbilt

University recently said: ―neither the Ed.D. nor Ph.D. in education will be a legitimate, widely

accepted, advanced degree until the purposes they serve are clear and separate, and the standards

accompanying their pursuit are elevated‖ (Waddle, 2006).

We want to argue that the impetus to change doctoral education in education is now

critical with new demands for more and better prepared researchers and school leaders. We also

want to argue that the demand for change in doctoral education extends beyond the United

States. The paper proceeds as follows. The first part provides an overview of the general nature

of professional doctorates in the US, UK, and Australia. The next section examines the

distinguishing characteristics of the doctoral programs at the UMCP as well as aspirational and



comparable peers to highlight their similarities and differences. Based on the analysis of peer

institutions‘ data, the paper presents a set of recommendations to guide the future development

of the College of Education policies for the Ed.D. and Ph.D. programs with the ultimate purpose

to sharpen the distinctions between the two. Recommendations include changes in admission

standards, time to degree expectations, curriculum and residency requirements, faculty

advisement and course assignment, student assessment, and capstone experiences.

II. A Very Brief Overview of Professional Doctorates in the US and Worldwide

The attempt to clarify the purposes of the Ed.D. has caused education faculty to attempt

to understand the distinguishing characteristics of professional doctorates in other fields that are

closely geared to the needs of professional practitioners. Due to efforts of the National Research

Council, the National Science Foundation, the Carnegie Foundation and others, doctoral

education is under review. In the health service fields, there is considerable effort to invent new

doctoral degrees and to strengthen existing practitioner degrees. This section provides a brief

overview of professional doctorates, addresses their core characteristics, and major points of

departure from the Ph.D.

Professional doctorates are not new to U.S. higher education. They have served a specific

role in preparation for a profession, and they have usually been located in graduate schools

within a university or in freestanding, focused, professional institutions (Higher Learning

Commission, 2006). Many of the professional doctorates have been classified as ―1st

Professional Degrees‖ such as M.D., D.D.S., D.V.M., and J.D. by the National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES) that gathers data on higher education.

Over the past decade the list of 1st Professional Degrees has grown, particularly in health

care fields, as new professions emerged and licensing structures for them developed in many if

not all states (Higher Learning Commission, 2006). Nationally, there are now more than 30

distinct professional doctoral degree programs. The first generation programs are the oldest:

medicine (M.D.), dental science or surgery (D.D.S), veterinary medicine (D.V.M.), and dentistry

(D.D.S.). The second generation programs typically include law (J.D.), pharmacy, (Pharm.D.),

public health (D.P.H), psychology (D.Psych.), and education (Ed.D.). In recent years, the

number of the so-called ―clinical‖ doctorates has soared in fields of audiology (Au.D.), nursing

(D.N.P.), pharmacy (Pharm.D.), physical and occupational therapy (D.P.T. and O.T.D.,

respectively) (CGS, 2007).

In 2005, the Council of Graduate Schools appointed a task force on the professional

doctorate to provide guidance to their member institutions as they oversee existing professional

doctorate degrees and consider proposals for new professional doctorates (CGS, 2007). The CGS

task force examined common standards for professional doctorates, the minimum qualification of

graduate faculty within such programs, and other curricular matters that relate to general

graduate policies for the institution. It believes that professional degrees can offer ―important

innovations as universities respond to societal needs and prepare highly-skilled professional

workforce to address those needs‖ (CGS, 2007, p. 1). Similarly, the Higher Learning

Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools concluded that

professional doctorate should be viewed as a degree category in the hierarchy of U.S. higher

education degrees, and ―…perceived as different from and not as a substitute for the research



doctorate,‖ thus, calling for a substantial change in accreditation (Higher Learning Commission,

2006, p. 2).

With some important exceptions, all of these programs typically are post-baccalaureate in

nature and tend to require about three years of study (Higher Learning Commission, 2006). In

many universities that offer graduate education at the doctoral level, these programs are not part

of the graduate school and, thus, they are not shaped significantly by the graduate school‘s

academic practices and policies. In addition, the heads of the professional schools do not report

to the graduate dean (Higher Learning Commission, 2006).

While there is no agreement on what constitutes ―the core characteristics‖ of a

professional doctorate, most agree that it is about ―preparation for the potential transformation of

the field of professional practice‖ (CGS, 2007, p. 6). The consensus is that:

1. A professional doctorate is not the Ph.D. because it is ―more clinical, engaged, and applied‖

in its nature.

2. A professional doctorate is not and cannot be a ―re-titled Master‘s degree.‖

3. A professional doctorate addresses ―an area of professional practice where other degrees are

not currently meeting all employer needs.‖

4. A professional doctorate emphasizes applied/ clinical research or advanced practice.

5. Professional doctorate students are ―the leaders of the profession who will drive the creative

and knowledge-based development of its practices and the development of standards for

others‖ (CGS, 2007, p. 6).

The Ph.D. is still viewed as a research degree that provides ―independent research

experience in which the degree candidate makes a new contribution to knowledge‖ (CGS, 2007,

p. 5). The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (2005) similarly casts the

significance of research preparation as a central core aspect of doctoral training, stating: ―The

Ph.D. is, at its heart, a research degree. Demonstrating one‘s ability to conduct research and

scholarship that makes a unique contribution and meets the standards of credibility and

verifiability is the culminating experience of the Ph.D. degree‖ (CID Report, 2006, p. 4).

The CGS identified some of the key differences between a Ph.D. and a professional

doctorate:

1. Duration of study: a professional doctorate (beyond Master‘s) may take less time to complete

than a Ph.D.

2. The nature of coursework: a professional doctorate‘s curriculum (in credit hours)

considerably differs the Ph.D.

3. Clinical experiences/practica: a professional doctorate typically involves substantial clinical

experiences/practica as opposed to the Ph.D., where a significant amount of credits is

devoted to independent study/dissertation research.

4. The nature of the capstone experience: a professional doctorate may be with a dissertation, a

capstone, or nothing (CGS, 2007, p. 8).

Professional Practice Doctorates in the UK and Australia

The challenges of preparing educational leaders are not limited to the US context. Over

the last decade, a rapid expansion of professional doctorates has taken place in the UK, Australia,



New Zealand, and other European countries particularly, in fields of education, business,

psychology, health sciences, engineering, architecture, and others. Two examples from the UK

and Australia illustrate the trend.

In the UK, since the 90s, there has been a significant increase in the number of

professional doctorates with 109 in 1998, up to 153 in 2000 (Powell and Long, 2004). Doctorates

in education were introduced in the UK in 1992, in response to a growing market and new

political leadership (Park, 2005). The Ed.D., in particular, has been a major area of expansion

along with practice-based doctorates in other professional areas, such as engineering, clinical

psychology, pharmacy, business administration, etc. (Bourner et al, 2000).

Professional doctorates in the UK typically involve ―a combination of an extended

research enquiry in a field of study directly related to professional practice combined with one or

both of the following elements: additional taught work in a professional discipline and

professional experience‖ (Bourner et al., 1999, p. 269). One of the key features of the

professional doctorate and curriculum is its close link with clinical practice, and the focus on

applied knowledge (Ellis, 2005). Assessment of the professional doctorate typically comprises

coursework, doctoral thesis and viva voce (the Ph.D. includes only the assessment of doctoral

thesis and viva voce) (Ellis, 2005).

For instance, the Ed.D., with its explicit professional focus, primarily targets practitioners

or senior professionals (Scott et al., 2004). It is a practice-based doctorate, ―where experienced

professionals develop research skills, reflect rigorously on their practice, and carry out a

substantial piece of research, almost always based on their professional practice‖ (Scott et al.,

2004, p. 31). Most Ed.D.s require a Master‘s degree in education or a related field and some

professional experience. With great variation among programs, most education doctorates are

cohort-based, part-time, take from 3 and 7 years to compete, and consist of a set of taught

modules (or units), and a research-based capstone (typically a thesis) (Scott et al., 2004). The

curriculum usually consists of core courses on research methods and ―professionalism,‖ and

―subject-specific electives‖ (e.g., management, school improvement, etc.) (Lunt, 2003, p. 9).

During the past decade, professional doctorates have also expanded in Australian higher

education. First introduced in 1990, they ―reflect not only the expansion of, and demand for,

alternative doctoral level study, but also the diversification of disciplines and modes of research‖

(Newmannn & Goldstein, 2002, p. 1). The first wave of professional doctorates had a ―course-

work plus thesis model‖ which ―appeared to be dominated by academe‖ (Maxwell and

Shanahan, 1997, p. 138). The second generation of professional doctorates is marked by ―the

shift of the primary focus of the program into the professional environment with varying degrees

of support and input from the university‖ (Stephenson and et al., 2004, p. 1).

The impetus for the development of professional doctorates was the finding that many

Ph.D. graduates were finding employment in the non-academic professional environment, with

only one third of the new Ph.D. graduates going into academe (NBEET, 1989). These findings

were seen to call into question the appropriateness of current doctoral course structures for future

employment and career paths and, in response, the report stressed the potential for establishing

professional doctoral programs, particularly in the fields of engineering, accounting, law,

education and nursing (NBEET, 1989). While the Ph.D. was to remain the ―route for thorough

research training in the various fields of study,‖ professional doctorates were envisaged as an

alternative to the traditional Ph.D. for applied and practice-oriented professions (NBEET, 1989,

p. 26). Professional doctorates were not viewed as ―coursework‖ doctorates: they required



―substantial pieces of investigative work, projects and exercises, in addition to straight

coursework‖ was emphasized (NBEET, 1989, p. 28).

In the decade since the reports, professional doctorates have been on the rise. By 1996

there were over 40 professional doctorates offered by 27 Australian universities, enrolling

students in the fields of architecture, creative arts, environmental design, health services,

education, nursing, psychology and science education (Shanahan, 1996). Of the disciplines,

education was the first to take advantage of professional doctorates, possibly drawing on the

success of the American Ed.D. representing 40% of all professional doctorates ( Maxwell and

Shanahan‘s 1996 survey. Of the fields specifically suggested for piloting in the 1989 NBEET

report (engineering, accounting, law, education and nursing), the departments of education were

the most successful in creating new professional doctorates. (Newmannn & Goldstein, 2002).

Along with management doctorates, Ed.D.s constitute almost half of all professional doctorates

in Australia (Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000).

Recently, the Council of Australian Deans and Directors of Graduate Studies defined a

professional doctorate as ―a program of research, scholarship and advanced studies which

enables candidates to make a significant contribution to knowledge and practice in their

profession‖ (Newman, 2002, p. 8). Professional doctorates in Australia typically require

professional experiences before entering the program (Evans, 2001). They differ from the Ph.D.

primarily on the basis of coursework, seminars, and practica requirements and vary greatly in

terms of the amount of clinical work required, assessment and student supervision, and capstone

experiences (Lee et al., 2000).

To sum it up, in the US as well as in both the UK and Australia, professional practice is

key to the nature of the professional practice doctorate. The fundamental basis of a professional

doctorate is that students must solve problems relevant to their own professional practice and

ultimately make a significant contribution to current professional knowledge and/or practice

(Lester, 2004). The Ph.D. could have a professional focus and have clear implications for the

improvement of professional practice, but these are not essential requirements of the traditional

Ph.D. The central requirement for a professional doctorate to have a significant organizational

and professional impact in the workplace is a key characteristic that sets it apart from the Ph.D.

(Lester, 2004).

III. What Our Peers Do: An Overview of Doctoral Programs in Education

at Select Institutions in the US

This section of the paper reviews Ph.D. and Ed.D. program offerings of a cross-section of

the UMCP aspirational and comparable peers. The analysis focuses on the programs‘ essential

features: program mission, admissions, curriculum, and other policies/requirements. An

overview of the program characteristics at UMCP peer institutions is followed by

recommendations to the College of Education to revise its policies towards the Ph.D. and Ed.D.

Methodology

The primary criterion for the selection of institutions was similarity in institutional

mission. Peer institutions represent institutions that are ―similar in role, scope and/or mission‖

(Teeter and Brinkman, 2003, p. 106). From the universe of comparable institutions, a total of



eight institutional peers were identified. Four of them (the University of California-Berkeley, the

University of California-Los Angeles, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and the

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) were designated by the Maryland Higher Education

Commission in 1999 as aspirational peer institutions due to the similarities in mission and other

characteristics. The other four institutions represent the UMCP comparable peers: the University

of Minnesota at Twin Cities, University of Buffalo, the University of Virginia (UVA), and the

Pennsylvania State University. They are all public research universities with very high research

activity, according to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and its

classification system.

An effort was made to identify a program area (e.g., educational leadership, policy,

administration) that offered both an Ed.D. and Ph.D. to highlight their similarities and

differences. Two institutions (UCLA, UNC) did not have a single program/concentration area

that offered both degrees, so a corresponding program in a related area was selected. For

instance, UCLA did not have a single program that administers both doctoral degrees, so the

Ed.D. in Educational Leadership and the Ph.D. in Urban Schooling were reviewed.

Some Schools of Education offer up to fifteen kinds of doctoral programs (e.g., UVA),

therefore, for the purposes of illustration, only one program per institution was reviewed.

Preference was given to the programs in educational leadership whenever possible. Appendix A

details a full list of currently available programs at reviewed institutions.

The data were collected from the respective websites of the selected institutions: program

web pages, student handbooks, and other program documents. The data include available

program offerings as of February 2009. Table 1 lists the reviewed doctoral programs. Descriptive

analyses were used to compare the Ph.D. and Ed.D. program missions, admissions, curricular

and other requirements. On the basis of these analyses, recommendations were made to revisit

the policies related to the doctoral programs‘ policies at the College of Education.

Table 1: The List of Reviewed Doctoral Programs as of 02/2009.

Ed.D. Ph.D.

University of California

(Berkley) Policy, Organization, Measurement, and Evaluation

UCLA Educational Leadership Urban Schooling (US): Curriculum, Teaching,

Leadership & Policy Studies

University of Minnesota

(Twin Cities) Educational Administration (PK-12)

University of North

Carolina (Chapel Hill) Educational Leadership Education (Culture, Curriculum and Change)

University of Illinois

(Urbana-Champaign) Educational Administration and Leadership

SUNY at Buffalo Educational Administration

University of Virginia Educational Administration and Supervision

Penn State University Educational Leadership



Program mission at UMCP peer institutions

All eight institutions make an explicit distinction between an Ed.D. and a Ph.D. from a

career intention standpoint (Appendix A). The Ph.D. remains the route for those interested in

research and academic careers. The Ed.D. focuses on the preparation of professional leaders and

practitioners with some variation depending on the focus of specific programs. Some institutions

reference the preparation of leaders in administration and teaching both in K-12 and higher

education settings, leaders serving in various educational organizational and state agencies,

leaders able to ―conduct research and program evaluation and apply research findings in an

informed and critical manner‖ (UVA), and leaders serving in teacher training institutions

(UIUC).

All institutions make it clear that the Ed.D. is an applied, practitioner-oriented degree.

For instance, Berkeley emphasizes that the Ed.D. is more practice-oriented (professional degree),

while the Ph.D. is more research-oriented (academic degree). The distinction is sometimes

reflected in the program title. Thus, UCLA offers a Research in Education (Ph.D.) and a

Professional Degree in Education (Ed.D).

Recommendations to the College of Education

The missions and purposes of both doctoral programs should be more clearly and

thoroughly articulated. Two distinct and different approaches to doctoral education are needed.

The primary career purpose for the Ed.D. candidates should be professional practice and

leadership in a variety of educational institutions and /or organizations. As the CGS Task Force

put it, an Ed.D. is about ―preparation for the potential transformation of the field of professional

practice‖ and its students should be viewed as ―the leaders of the profession who will drive the

creative and knowledge-based development of its practices and the development of standards for

others‖ (CGS report, p. 6). In other words, the Ed.D. should ideally be perceived as a degree of

choice for those aspiring to professional positions of practice in educational leadership.

Conversely, Ph.D. candidates should be geared towards the scholarly practice, research, and/or

teaching.

Program Admissions at UMCP Peer Institutions (Appendix B)

An examination of the admissions criteria at UMCP peer institutions reveals the

following requirements:

Statement of purpose: All eight institutions require a statement of purpose or career

goals that are consistent with the program.

Master’s degree: Four out of eight institutions do not require a Master‘s degree for

either program including UCLA, where it is ―preferred‖ for the Ph. D. admissions. UB does not

have this requirement for its Ed.D. program.

GPA: Graduate and undergraduate transcripts are required by all institutions. Five of the

eight institutions reference a minimum 3.0 GPA for both doctoral degrees. One university



(UMN) requires a minimum of 3.00 in undergraduate work and an above 3.5 GPA in graduate

work for admission into either program. UNC requires a 3.2 undergraduate GPA for its Ed.D.

and a minimum of 3.0 for its Ph.D. One institution (UB) does not specify its GPA requirement.

GRE scores: Seven out of eight institutions require GRE scores for admission to both

degrees. Three institutions do not have a set minimum for both degrees (UC Berkeley, UB, and

PSU). Two institutions (UCLA, UMN) require a minimum of 500 on verbal and 500 on

quantitative for both degrees and an analytical score of 4 and 4.5, respectively. UIUC requires

GRE scores only for its Ph.D. program (minimum is not specified). UNC and UVA require GRE

scores in the 50th

percentile and 30th

percentile, respectively, for both degrees.

TOEFL: All institutions require international students to submit TOEFL scores.

Resume: A resume or curriculum vitae is explicitly required by three institutions for both

degrees.

Recommendations: Six of the eight institutions require at least three letters of

recommendations while the other two require two letters for both degrees.

Interview: Two institutions (UCLA, UVA) require an interview for their Ed.D. programs

admission (UCLA refers to it as the ―doctoral screening examination‖). Two institutions (UIUC,

PSU) require a personal interview for both degrees.

Academic/analytic writing: Four institutions (UCLA, UIUC, UB, and PSU) require an

academic writing sample for both programs. In addition to the writing sample, PSU may require

an additional timed writing sample to get a better idea of students‘ writing and analytic abilities.

Two institutions (UNC and UVA) require a writing sample for the Ph.D. but not for the Ed.D

programs.

Experience: In four institutions only Ed.D. requirements reference relevant professional

experience (e.g., teaching, professional leadership, state certification in school administration).

UVA goes as far as requiring previous professional experience in an area related to the chosen

major for its Ed.D. admissions.


Given the profile of the admissions requirements at UMCP peer institutions, we

recommend that the Ed.D. program should be geared towards reflective practitioners willing to

exercise their leadership potential or capacity in an educational organization. The most

successful applicants will have academic and professional goals tightly aligned with the mission

of the program. Of particular importance is evidence of an applicant‘s capacity for professional

leadership which may stem from an evaluation of the professional experience of the student,

organizational endorsement, and other factors gathered from the student‘s admission‘s

application. We recommend the following requirements for all Ed.D. students:



A minimum undergraduate GPA of 3.0/Graduate GPA of 3.5

A Master‘s Degree (including transcripts)

Program specific test scores (GRE, MAT, other)

Relevant Goal Statement

3 Letters of Recommendation that address leadership potential, relevant experience, and

ability to succeed in the program

A minimum of a three-year relevant professional experience in the field in which degree is

offered prior to admission

EDMS 645 or its equivalent (quantitative methods)

Other program-specific requirements (e.g. interview writing sample, portfolio, certificate in

special areas)

Program Requirements at UMCP Peer Institutions (Appendix D)

Core curriculum: Core curriculum requirements including the dissertation/capstone

credits range from 49 credit hours (UB) to the 90 credit hours (PSU) for the Ed.D. and from 64

to 76 credit hours (UIUC, UB) for the Ph.D. (Appendix C). One institution (UC Berkeley) does

not list specific credit hour requirements for both degrees: its requirements hover between 48 and

60 credits. Similarly, Penn State does not have fixed credit hour requirements for its Ed.D. Two

institutions (UVA, UIUC) require an identical coursework load for both doctoral degrees (72 and

64, respectively).

Inquiry methods courses: Three institutions reference the number of courses as opposed

to credit hours for their doctoral programs. UC Berkley requires at least two qualitative research

methods courses and two quantitative methods or evaluation courses for both doctoral degrees.

UCLA lists three required inquiry methods courses for all doctoral programs. UIUC requires two

research methods courses for its Ed. D. program.

The majority of institutions use a conventional credit hour to gauge the amount of

coursework. The requirements vary ranging from 6 up to 15 credit hours. Two institutions (PSU,

UB) require the same number of inquiry credit hours for both doctoral programs, 12 and 15,

respectively. UMN‘s requirements are similar: 13 credit hours for the Ed.D. and 12 credit hours

for the Ph.D. UNC requires twice as many credits for its Ph.D. program (12) as for its Ed.D. (6).

By contrast, UVA requires 6 credit hours for its Ed.D. and 15 credit hours for the Ph.D.

Additionally, two institutions (UCLA, UVA) require a research apprenticeship for their Ph.D.

students. UCLA apprenticeship requires 6 credit hours while the UVA apprenticeship requires 6

semesters.

Course Credit transfer: One institution (UNC) does not limit the number of hours that

can be transferred into a doctoral program to meet course requirements (provided they are

relevant graduate courses from approved institutions or from other graduate programs within this

institution and approved by the academic program). Three institutions (UIUC, UMN, UVA)

allow 12, 18 and 24 credits, respectively, to be transferred towards both programs.

Another institution (PSU) does not specify the number of credits for its Ph.D. program

but mentions that all courses must be approved by the academic advisor and meet the criteria of

being recent (completed no more than 5 years prior to admission), high quality (course syllabi



and written assignments may be requested), and directly relevant to the student‘s area of

specialization. It allows 30 credits to be transferred towards its Ed.D.program.

Another institution (UCLA) does not allow credit transfer for its Ed.D. because many of

the program courses build on other courses and/or are providing direct dissertation support. For

its Ph.D., with a UCLA College of Education Master‘s Degree, a maximum of eight courses

excluding cognate courses, may be transferred. With a Master‘s Degree from another UCLA

college or another institution or graduate courses with no advanced degree, a maximum of five

courses, excluding research methods and cognate courses, may be transferred (successful

completion of the Doctoral Screening Examination may be required in both cases).

Two institutions (UB, PSU) do not explicitly mention credit transfer requirements for

their Ed.D.s. At UB, according to the graduate school policies, Ed.D. students must take a

minimum of 48 credit hours at UB (total number of program credit hours is 49-55), and no more

than 12 credit hours of dissertation guidance may be used to meet this requirement. Only one

institution (UC Berkeley) does not allow the transfer of credit into all doctoral programs.

Internship: No Ph.D. programs list an internship requirement. Only two out of eight

institutions require an internship for their Ed.D. programs (UNC, UVA). UNC students must

spend 2 semesters in a supervised field experience while UVA students need 6 credits to satisfy

an internship requirement.

Residence requirement: Residence requirements vary by program and institution. In

most cases, students must meet residence requirements for either doctoral program. Three

institutions (UC Berkeley, UNC, PSU) have similar academic residence requirements for both

degrees. Doctoral students are required to complete a minimum program residence credit of four,

four, and three semesters of full-time residence, respectively.

Five other institutions report various residence requirements for doctoral degrees. UCLA,

UIUC, and UB require their Ph.D. students to fulfill a minimum residence requirement of at least

one year which includes 2 semesters of continuous full-time study in residence. At UIUC Ph.D.

continuous residence requirements are satisfied by two consecutive semesters of full-time (12

hours or more) coursework while Ed.D. students must take part in an approved full-time

combination of academic courses and professional experiences over four consecutive semesters.

At UVA residence requirement for the Ed.D. is satisfied by taking a minimum of 24 credits of

course work taught by resident faculty excluding internships, independent study and dissertation

credit. Ph.D. candidates must complete at least three academic years or 6 semesters of full-time

graduate work. One institution (UCLA) requires Ed.D. students to be continuously registered and

enrolled during their first three years of studies.

Both of the UMN programs do not report a residency requirement for earning a doctoral

degree. One institution (UB) does not require a full-time residency for its Ed.D. program.

Time to degree expectations: Three institutions (UC Berkeley, UIUC, UB) expect all

doctoral student to complete all degree requirements from the date of matriculation in six, seven,

and seven years, respectively. Two institutions (UCLA and UNC) expect their Ed.D. students to

graduate in five and nine years, respectively, while Ph.D. students in both institutions have eight

years to complete the program. In two other institutions the maximum time to complete both

degrees is five years after the oral preliminary exam (UMN) and four years after the



comprehensive exams (UVA). One institution (PSU) does not reference time to degree

requirements for any of its doctoral programs.


To be better aligned with our peer institutions and to better reflect the practice-based

nature of the Ed.D., we propose the following program requirements:

Total Credits Beyond Master‘s - 60

Program Requirements - 39

A minimum of 6 credits for the advanced internship

A minimum of 9 credits for the research/evaluation/assessment courses

Capstone Project – a minimum of 6 credits

Maximum credits to be transferred (up to 18 post Master‘s credits)

Time to degree: 4-5 years for full-time students, 4-8 years for part-time students

A candidate for the doctoral degree must complete a minimum residency requirement

(program specific).

Dissertation/Capstone experience at UMCP Peer Institutions (Appendix E)

All institutions reference a theoretical/original contribution to knowledge as the primary

purpose for the Ph.D. (Appendix D). Six institutions identify the application of knowledge to the

problems of professional practice in education as the key purpose of the capstone experience

while two institutions (UVA, UNC) require an original and independent research inquiry for

their Ed.D. programs.

Five institutions use a traditional dissertation format for both degrees. Three other

institutions use alternative capstone experiences taking the form of a field study or evaluation

(UMN), an original paper or an analytic report (UIUC), or a collaborative research project (UB).

Credit hour requirements: Two institutions do not list specific unit requirements to

earn either doctoral degree (UC Berkeley, UIUC). For instance, UIUC does not limit the number

of dissertation research hours a student can take (no more than 32 hours can be counted toward

the Ph.D. and no more than 16 hours can be counted towards the Ed.D. while a minimum of 4

hours is expected for either degree). One institution (UCLA) does not have a fixed dissertation

credit hour requirement for its Ph.D. while it requires two practica (2 units each) on the

development of the Ed.D. dissertation.

Three institutions (UNC, UVA, UMN) report an equal number of hours to satisfy the

dissertation credit requirement (6, 12 and 24 credits) for both degrees. Ed.D programs at two

other institutions (UB, PSU) call for 10 and 15 credit hours while the Ph.D. programs require 10-

12 and 12 credit hours, respectively.

Dissertation committee size: Five institutions have a three-member committee while

the other three require at least four members, with one exception. The UNC Ph.D. program

requires the doctoral committee to consist of at least five members.



Recommendations to the College of Education:

To be more consistent with the general profile of our peer institutions, we recommend

that the Ed.D. programs have the following capstone requirements:

A minimum 6 credits of 899

A three-member evaluation committee which consists of a tenure line faculty member from a

student‘s program, Dean‘s Representative who is a member of the Graduate Faculty in the

College, Faculty member or a Practitioner who holds a terminal degree in their field and is

approved by the Dean

A student‘s advisor must hold a Full or Part Time appointment in the College and be a

member of the Graduate Faculty.

A capstone project must be an individually written and defended product which should

address an important problem, issue, or question. While the strength of the traditional format

of a dissertation must not be overlooked, alternative formats that are just as rigorous and

relevant may be considered to prepare the Ed.D. students for the world of professional

practice. Those formats may range from a program evaluation to a collaborative capstone

project dealing with authentic policy issues and/or challenges conducted for potential clients.

Assessment of Student Performance at UMCP Peer Institutions (Appendix F)

First-year review

Only two institutions require a first-year review of student performance (UC Berkeley,

UCLA). At UC Berkeley, students are examined individually in the first year required

coursework irrespective of future specialization for either degree. UCLA first-year Ed.D.

students are required to take the Screening Examination consisting of a written, open-book, 4-

hour examination and an oral interview. The interview provides students with feedback on their

first-year performance in addition to testing knowledge of course content (e.g., student‘s

responses to the written portion of the screening exam, students‘ perceptions about their own

strengths and weaknesses, students‘ overall performance, etc.).

Mid-program review

All institutions require some combination of preliminary comprehensive examinations

with a written and/or oral component to assess the students‘ fitness to continue in the program

(Appendix E). While most institutions have a common examination format for both degrees, an

overview of the assessment requirements reveals some nuanced distinctions among the Ed.D.

and Ph. D. programs. The data also suggest that the assessment requirements are slightly more

rigorous for the Ph. D. students.

Most institutions require a qualifying exam consisting of the oral and written sections

plus an additional component for the Ph. D. students, typically designed to assess the student‘s

potential to perform scholarly research. For instance, UC Berkley requires a doctoral qualifying

exam for both programs and a prequalifying paper(s). Ed.D. students prepare one prequalifying

paper of publishable quality (e.g., an analytic literature review; a theoretical or policy issue

exploration, a pilot study with empirical data, a modest program evaluation, etc) while Ph.D.

students prepare 2 prequalifying papers (an empirical research study and a theoretical position

paper). UMN Ph.D. students have a written preliminary examination with a special paper that



explores areas for potential or existing student dissertation research interests. At UB Ph.D.

students are required to write a mini research paper of publishable quality.

Besides the qualifying examination, two institutions (UCLA, PSU), use portfolio

assessment to gauge the quality of Ph.D. students‘ work and the development of their research

interests. At UCLA a complete portfolio required of Ph.D. candidates contains two academic

papers, a copy of the most recent student transcript, an updated CV, and a self-reflection paper

devoted to the students‘ scholarly research interests. Similarly, PSU requires a portfolio that

contains a statement of each student‘s research interests, goals for the program, a program plan,

vita, and scholarly work or evidence of scholarly work (a publishable paper, a conference

presentation, a review of the literature, etc.) for both doctoral programs.

One institution (UVA), in addition to the comprehensive examination, keeps an ongoing

evaluation of its Ph.D. students. UVA faculty review students‘ progress each year to assess

student‘s course performance, their ability to interpret and synthesize educational leadership

literature, their knowledge of required subject matter, their performance in the research

apprenticeship, and writing. Students document their progress in these areas and the faculty

provides them with written and oral feedback on their annual progress.

All institutions have a preliminary oral examination (proposal defense) and a final oral

examination (dissertation/capstone defense).

Recommendations to the College of Education:

Given the profile of our peer institutions, we recommend that the student performance

assessment include the following elements:

Mid – Program review required after student has successfully completed 30 credits

Mid-Program Review required to evaluate student progress to degree and accomplishments

as determined by program (e.g., portfolio)

Review Product is evaluated by a minimum of 3 individuals: Advisor, a minimum of one

tenure line faculty member in the student‘s department/program, and one other individual

with expertise in the student‘s program area

Oral Examination (dissertation defense)

Conclusion

The matter of doctoral education for future faculty and for future practitioners is one that

extends beyond the University of Maryland. It is an issue that permeates every discussion of

teacher quality and administrator effectiveness.

We invite participants to examine the work that we have done at Maryland; we also urge

that much care be given to the matter of doctoral education in the future design of colleges and

universities.



Summary of the Proposed Guidelines for College Policies for the Ed.D. and Ph.D. programs

Ed.D. Ph.D.

Admission [Follow University Procedures for Application]

UGPA min 3.0

Grad GPA 3.5

Master‘s Degree required

Min 3 yrs relevant experience in the field in which

degree is offered

Test: Program specific (GRE, MAT, other)


3 Letters of Recommendation that address

leadership potential, relevant experience, and

ability to succeed in the program

EDMS-645 or equivalent

Transcripts – follow current policy

Other – program specific

(e.g. interview writing sample, portfolio,

certificate in special areas)

[Follow University Procedures for

Application]

UGPA min.3.0

GradGPA min 3.5

GRE-min 500 each; 4.5 analytic

writing


3 Letters of Recommendation that

address scholarship and experiences

relevant to program

EDMS-645 or equivalent

Transcripts – follow current policy

Other – program specific

(e.g., interview, writing sample)

transcripts – current policy

Time to Degree

Expectations

4-5 yrs FT ; 4-8 yrs PT 4-5 yrs FT from admission to doctoral

program

Residency Program specific Yes- minimum 2 yrs

Curriculum Total Credits Beyond Master‘s: 60

Program Requirements - 39

Internship – min 6 credits advanced internship

Res/Eva/Assess – min 9 credits

Capstone Project – min 6 credits

898???New number

Max credits to be transferred?

[up to 18 post master‘s credits]

Total Credits Beyond Master‘s: 60 [78

credits beyond the baccalaureate]

Program Requirements – 33 credits

Research Methods - min 12

Res Project / Apprenticeship – min 3

Dissertation – min 12 credits 899

Up to 18 post Master‘s credits be

transferred?

Graduate

Fellowships

Eligible for College and Program specific

fellowships

Eligible for Graduate School, College,

and Program Specific

Comprehensive

Examinations and

Mid-Program

Reviews

Mid – Program is review required after student has

successfully completed 30 credits

Mid-Program Review evaluates student progress

to degree and accomplishments as determined by

program (e.g., portfolio)

Review Product is evaluated by a minimum of 3

individuals: Advisor; a minimum of one tenure

line faculty member in the student‘s

department/program, one other individual with

expertise in the student‘s program area

Program specific

Advance to

Candidacy

n/a Current Graduate School and College

Policies



Ed.D. Ph.D.

Dissertation /

Capstone Project

Minimum 6 credits of ?? 898

Evaluation Committee: 3 members to include:

1= tenure line faculty member from student‘s

program

Advisor

1=Dean‘s Representative who is a member of the

Graduate Faculty in the College

1=Faculty member or a Practitioner who holds a

terminal degree in their field and is approved by

the Dean

Oral Examination

Capstone Project:

Must be an individually written and defended

product which should address an important

problem, issue, or question.

Minimum 12 credits 899

Current policies, except:

Nomination of Examining Committee:

must be approved by Dean‘s Office

Dissertation Quality Indicators

Format: Program Specific

Must be original research which is

supported by

Chair Advisor: Must hold a Full or Part Time

appointment in the College and be a member of

the Graduate Faculty

Program Specific Policy

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Reference # 99

Topic # 3

National educational policies in Brazil:

The 2009 federal program to foster public school teachers’ qualification Sonia Martins de Almeida Nogueira [email protected], St. Un. of N.Flum. Darcy Ribeiro, Brazil

Karina Barra Gomes [email protected], Centro Universitário Fluminense, Brazil

Mirian Paura Sabrosa Zippin Grinspun [email protected], Univ. Estd. do Rio de Jan., Brazil

This paper focus on the 2009 federally supported program to improve teacher education, in which

seventy-six public institutions of higher education arrived at a compromise agreement to enhance

initial and continuing teacher education, from 2009 to 2011, regarding the 2007 National Program

to Develop Education. According to the Ministry of Education, fully 50% of our current teacher

force is not qualified to teach basic education, concerning to primary and secondary levels. We

particularly worry about the teachers of Art. Our major sources of investigation comprise the

legislation, the academic recent literature and data provided by the Ministry of Education.

Introduction

The theme of the present study justifies itself, in our point of view, due to its relevance in

the set of governmental public policies, placed, per our understanding, in a higher level as a

research field in government guidelines designed to ensure the effectiveness of the social right

expressed as right to education (Brazil Federal Constitution, 1988, art. 6), right of all citizens

and duty of the State. This right is reinforced in article 5th

of the National Education Bases and

Guidelines Law (LDB – Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional), Education Act 1996,

in which the access to fundamental education is defined as a public subjective right.

Permanent and great challenges are faced in the education field, and this study was

developed with the aim to specifically address the question of the professional qualification of

the teacher, setting as its focal point the governmental program for the qualification and training

of teachers of elementary/middle levels and the response of public institutions of higher

education to the demand of the Ministry of Education.

In 1994, the federal government endorsed education as a social right in compliance with

the 1988 Federal Constitution, as well as with the contents of the document ―Education for All‖

signed in Jomtien, in 1990. Compulsory and free public education was adopted as one of its

guidelines to amplify and consolidate educational opportunities towards the universal access to

elementary education. Thus, the right to education, currently configured in the large spectrum of

basic education (preschool, primary and secondary school) and of higher education, translated

itself into a priority political action set by the State with regards to elementary education. This

orientation has prevailed in the period of 1994-2002, which corresponds to the two presidential

mandates of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso.

In January 2001, the National Plan of Education (PNE – Plano Nacional de Educação)

established that the States, the Federal District and municipalities should elaborate the

corresponding decennial plans. The Plan identified the qualification of faculty members as one of

PNE‘s greatest challenges, enforcing the Public Power task to dedicate with priority to the

solution of this problem.

We will make a small digression here. In face of the relationships between the education

system and the social structures, in which the political and economic systems interweave a



reflection, it is imperative to discuss some points arising from the globalization scene, as well as

the relevant issues that represent meaningful challenges regarding the planning and

implementation of educational policies. Among these challenges the focus goes to the quality

aspect, which in turn necessarily implies the matter of teacher education.

Carnoy (2003) argues that it is necessary to pay attention to the limits of the State power,

a matter revealed by the current ideological system within our globalized world, the capacity of

the State to manage education with efficacy, and the implicit obligation to reform the

management of the system. This involves, among other things, the evaluation of measures

capable of improving the quality of teaching, which evidences the problem of initial and

continuing training of teachers, the agents of the pedagogical action.

The author (ibid, p. 60) states that, in the nineties, both ILO and UNESCO have given

much importance to the conditions of work, the pay and the teachers` role in the decision making

for the education reform, at local and national scale. However, he adds that the pressure from

the international financial community with views to reduce or even cut public expenditures in

education have allowed for a partial influence of the substantive improvement achieved by the

training of these individuals. This also leaves room for various interpretations of the years 1990,

as follows: 1) the decline of expenditures in education, having as its core duty to adjust current

budgets to teachers‘ salary, which created a significant corruption of the working conditions of

the category; and 2) the design of a teacher profile as either a victim of the guiding policies in the

teaching system or culpable for the bad results (TEDESCO, 1997).

In 1996, the 45th

session of UNESCO International Conference on Education was

organized under the theme The role of teachers in a changing world, thus corroborating, one

more time, the description of the years 1990s as to the actions concerning to the strengthening of

the role of teachers in the process of transforming education. The final documents signed by

participants were structured with two fundamental principles, namely 1) the urgency of

educational reforms reaching the school and the classroom, considering the teacher a key

element in this process; 2) the need to formulate integrated policies for teachers (TEDESCO,

1997).

A second reading of the years 1980 and 1990may function as a background for the

reflection about the problems currently shown in the field of teacher education and teacher

professional training, particularly when we consider the embeddedness in the doctrinal and

normative aspects of the legislation.

We then interrogate: what are the new alternatives the academic community must search

in face of the complexity identified in the process of teacher education, imbricated in the most

general conditions of the interaction between the political, the economic and the education

systems? Which new alternatives should the academic world find in face of the legal dispositions

concerning teacher education? How should it position itself as far as the Teacher Training

Program (Programa de Formação de Professores – PROFOR) is concerned, a program

implemented in 2009 by the Ministry of Education?

In the construction of alternatives, we meet today the afore mentioned challenges: the

scenario designed by the democratization process of the country initiated in the years 1980,

which brought the new Magna Carta in 1988, the state constitutions in 1989, the organic

municipal laws, the Statute for the Children and Adolescent – ECA, in 1990, the National

Education Bases and Guidelines Law – Education Act 9394/96, the tensions inherited by the

civic society and the government, and the confrontations and difficulties experienced in the

process of implementing educational policies, and the fulfillment of the established goals.

Nogueira, et al.: National educational policies in Brazil


But a few elements have to be taken into consideration in this environment. According to

the recent results presented in national and international researches, the State in Brazil has been

showing weakness in its capacity of coping with the education system efficiently. It is

understood that, in the drive to universalize elementary education in the 1990‘s, the quality of

learning was sacrificed to quantity, a determining factor that led quality of education to low

positions in the international ranking and to high dropout and repetition rates. So, new lines of

action have been being oriented towards the accomplishment of the requirements of quality and

equity.

Dropouts and repetition rates call our attention to quality. Out of every 100 enrolled

students, 88.6 percent can be counted in the fourth year, which means 11.4 percentage of

dropouts and repetitions. We also find the percentage of 57.1 in the eight year, when compulsory

education should be completed. Only 36.6 percent finish high school (MEC/INEP, Censo

Escolar, 2004). We verify then a loss of over 40% of the students in schooling period, the cause

of which may be attributed to multiple and varied factors; nevertheless, the quality of school and

the role of the teacher must still be taken in consideration.

In 2005, according to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics – IBGE, 14.9

millions of Brazilians over the age of fifteen were illiterate and this means 11% of the adult

population. Repetition rates reached the highest standard in Latin America. These rates haven‘t

had significant change since then. These data become relevant to the reflection concerning the

main problems of the education system. Illiteracy, high standards of dropout and repetition and a

low rate of college graduates may be relevant indicatives of the educational policy makers‘

failure to cope with the demand of efficiency of the school system.

In this scenario, the federal government Program of Accelerated Development (PAC),

launched in 2007, set collective goals and commitments for 2007-2015-2022. On the other hand,

the National Program of Educational Development – PDE, Federal Decree no. 6094/2007,

integrated in the national plan for social development and poverty reduction, makes it reasonable

to conclude that a well-educated workforce is a positive factor in terms of economic growth.

Explanation of the growth phenomenon can be sought in the particular combination of factors

working in the same direction and reinforcing each other (HEALY, 2002, apud ROCHE, 2004,

p.53).

We carefully examined the sets of action proposed in the PDE in the light of the Federal

Constitution – CF and the Education Act of 1996. These legal documents state the

implementation and expansion of reforms to ensure a high quality standard in education as well

as pay great attention to teachers as protagonists in the educational reform. We understand that

the implementation of educational policies is a primary responsibility for the State and social,

economic and educational development, are interdependent pillars to promote national growth

(UNESCO, 2002). At the Union level the task of the authorities is to foster the realization of

educational policy and to evaluate the achievement of quality and equity. We particularly put

into light the measures that refer to teachers, their qualification, working conditions, salary and

infliction of responsibility for improving better quality in the teaching-learning process.

2009 National Plan and teacher education in public institutions

Considering the assertive that educational quality has a political and pedagogical inner

nature and in possession of data demonstrating that out of the 1.800.000 teachers acting in



elementary schools, ranging from 5th

to 9th

grades, as well as in middle level schools, 600.000 do

not hold college graduation or act in areas diverse from those they hold a licensure diploma, the

federal government has created the National Plan for the Training of Elementary Teachers –

PROFOR (Plano Nacional de Formação de Professores de Educação Básica), with the purpose of

equipping 339.400 teachers with qualifications for work in the period of 2009/2011, which

represents 50% of the EDUCACENSO demand elaborated by the Ministry of Education – MEC,

and about 85% of the demand for the year 2015, as per UNESCO Statistic Institute – UIS.

The first call addressed to circa forty eight federal universities, twenty eight state

universities and fourteen communitarian universities have received a response from the twenty

one states of the Union, which means that 52.895 vacancies have been offered to active teachers

from the public network. The State of Rio de Janeiro accounts for four federal universities and

three state universities, which, in compliance with their immediate possibilities and according to

the decision subscribed by the collegiate, offered a number of 136 vacancies for the second

semester of 2009, distributed in different licensure courses It is relevant to state that the referred

institutions develop fifteen courses for the initial teacher education..

The federal government has strongly invested in media advertising with views to attract

the youngsters to the teaching profession. Every year less young students choose professorship as

a career and more teachers quit their function, i.e., they renounce to teach, a problem getting

worse since the years 1990. The country faces a significant lack of teachers in the public system,

and this affects the quality of teaching and weakens the right to education. According to our

records, this is not an isolated phenomenon in Brazil, as other countries are facing the same

problem, but it is still necessary to pay attention to the urgent measures surrounding the

professional valuation of teachers.

Lima (2009) argues that the greatest challenge is to find young individuals willing to

apply for teachers‘ position in public schools. The author adds that youngsters lack motivation in

face of the reality they find in the schools. He concludes: in addition, other professions offer

better pays, benefits and social recognition (ibid, p. 8). This scenario furthers a call for effective

policy actions.

It must be emphasized that in the course of the 2000‘s policy makers have been pointing

to concrete plans focusing quality, equality and equity. Since 2007, new lines of action have been

oriented towards the accomplishment of the requirements of quality and equity. In 2009, in

Brazil, the emphasis is on fostering teacher education.

Focusing on the PROFOR and the training of teachers of Arts

The PDE, which represents the National Program of Education Development, already

mentioned, established in Brazil the regime of collaboration between the Union, states and

municipalities, giving priority, among other requirements, to the training of teachers in the

country.

Departing from PROFOR, a conjoint action of the Ministry of Education (MEC), the

Public Institutions of Higher Education (IPES) and the Chancery of Education of States and

Municipal Districts, a political action is being implemented with views to grant qualification to

those teachers in the public network who have not received a specific training in the respective

professional areas, as well as those teachers who are willing to have a second licensure.



Directing our attention to the training of teachers of Arts, we point to the different

changes and modifications alongside the years that it has gone through. This directly concerns

the insertion of this subject in the education system curricular grid, a fact which composes and

pervades the history of Arts teaching in Brazil. For this reason, it is necessary to approach certain

phases of this teaching from the twentieth century on, observing that, in the beginning, there

were few teachers with college degree.

Between the years of 1920 and 1970, Brazilian schools have experienced different

situations in the teaching of Arts. In the thirties and forties, the Choral Societies have prevailed,

after a project created by Heitor Villa-Lobos, who wanted to disseminate the musical language in

a systematic fashion, together with the principles of civism and collectivity, congruent with the

political thought of the time (PCN/Artes, 1997, p. 25). This project was part of a wider and

nationalistic musical program, so to ensure that certain aspects and themes of the folkloric music

– considered as having a nationalistic political color – took part in the principles taught at

schools and choirs all over the country (WISNIK and SQUEFF, 1993).

During that period, what existed in terms of Arts teaching were the subjects Drawing,

Handcrafting, Music, and Choral Singing, which were part of the programs of primary and low

secondary schools, sharing a vision of teaching based upon the traditional school (PCN/Artes,

1997, p.25). Thus, we may find, in the field of music teaching by means of Choral Singing, a

nationalistic trait in the training of the people living at this historical period of the education in

Brazil.

The Law 4.024 – Education Act 1961- set up Music Education at schools. Its dispositions

established new guidelines for the educational policy and defined orientations which redesigned

the curricular proposal of the former legislation. However, Romanelli (1997, p. 181), states that

in fact schools ended by composing their curriculum in accordance with the available human

and material resources, in other words, they continued to maintain the same curriculum as

before, even if the consideration of the possibility of States and institutions adding optional

subjects to the basic curriculum represented a step forward in terms of education.

In the sixties, the country was facing the military regime and a new scenario emerged. At

that time, the general trend was to adapt education to the economic development model, in

which, according to Fusari and Ferraz (2001) the drive towards a Technicist Pedagogy was an

attempt to keep pace with the technological world and an expanding industrial society.

The State invested in a model of education to form a qualified workforce, favoring at the

same time the process of importation of technology. In this regard, Shiroma, Moraes and

Evangelista (2002, p. 36) argue that ―educators and students were becoming human capital‖ for

the production of individual and social revenues; to this Romanelli (1997, p. 196) will add that,

from the years 1960 on, the government has seen ―the need to adopt for good the adjusting

measures to meet the economic development model being intensified in Brazil at the time‖.

With the 1971 reform, the Law no. 5.692 included Arts in the curriculum, under the title

of Artistic Education; yet, it was considered a mere ―educative activity‖ and not a curriculum

content. One may consider that the introduction of Artistic Education by the LDB is in fact a step

forward, both in terms of the legal support forwarded to this practice and for having been

considered an important aspect of the education of individuals. However, the amendment has

created new issues to be met, particularly to the teachers of the artistic subjects.

After 1971, the teachers of Drawing, Music, Handcrafting, Choir Singing and Applied

Arts, who used in their classrooms the specific knowledge corresponding to the respective

languages, began to see these different knowledges transformed into ―artistic activities‖.



According to Fusari and Ferraz (2001), teachers of the public school system met difficulties in

apprehending the teaching methods in the classroom and this resulted in a scarcely fundamented

practice, in need of theoretic-methodological deepening. A new issue was raised in respect to the

training of teachers of Arts: to adjust to the legislation and, at the same time, to the school

reality, the curriculum and the development of the contents of Arts in basic education.

In 1996, the teaching of Arts became compulsory, but the school, the education system

and the teachers confront challenges that transcend the structural dimension of the curricula and

the dynamics of teaching methodology. The contemporary educational policies need to be

adjusted to the social issues reflecting in the public school, such as unemployment, violence and

marginalization, problems that have been accentuated with the economic, political and cultural

globalization.

Our educators and students need to adjust themselves to a new proposal of Arts teaching;

new in terms of the effective legislation and also in relation to the undergoing changes referring

to the new contents that arise, particularly, after the inclusion of new technologies and the effects

of globalization. Teachers must be well prepared, they need to invest in their own preparation,

achieving the level of higher education and participating of extended training programs. As

regards the students, in what concerns to their integration and constancy in the learning process,

they must pursue the purpose of being inserted in the integrating proposition of the teaching of

Arts.

The PROFOR and the demands of the school system: the teaching of Arts

As to the specific area of Arts, this proposal of training teachers has a peculiar

importance, considering the great number of professionals actuating in States and Municipal

Districts with no licensure course – which should be in either one of the following modalities

offered in the artistic field: music, dance, stage and visual arts.

The incentive to this training, which the government plans to intensify by means of

PROFOR, should concur to a positive response from teachers of the public school network,

especially those not having been enabled by graduation courses.

Since the teaching of Arts became compulsory in 1996, the need to institute licensure

courses for the area has been intensified. In truth, only a few universities have developed, since

then, a proposal to meet the lack of teachers with college degree and, at the same time, the

insertion of young professionals opting for the professorship of Arts as a job.

The PROFOR started in this second semester. Pointing out the available vacancies in the

universities entailed to the program we may state that, in general, the requests for enrollment

were high, but we found out that there are federated units in Brazil which do not offer the

licensure course in Arts. Among them are the Federal District, and the States of Acre and Minas

Gerais. This may indicate that part of the country lacks professionals with qualification to teach

the artistic knowledge with competence and seriousness, which is an issue/matter supervening

contemporary education.

We highlight the State of Minas Gerais, in the southeast, with large territorial extension

and an enormous population, and traditionally presenting good issues in school system.

However, in its public school system, the number of professionals in a teacher‘s position without

specific qualification for teaching Arts illustrates the presumed absence of an artistic teaching

implying quality, integration and commitment.



In the case of Piauí and Pernambuco, states of the northeastern region, little demand and

few vacancies are registered. But in the state of Bahia, with large territorial extension, the

demand is very high and at times exceeds the number of vacancies at the higher education

institutions. On the other hand, in the North, more precisely in the State of Amazonas, the

demand exceeds by far the number of vacancies.

We must add a few comments on the profile of those who applied for the licensure

courses offered by the PROFOR in the first step of the program. It is not possible to infer the

number of teachers who do not have a first licensure. However, it is presumably a considerable

number, as per the information gathered out by the National Plan of Education and the survey

based on data from MEC. In the said survey, there is evidence that the offer numbers for the 1st

and the 2nd

licensures are very close.

These data are presented as a first approach to the problem of teacher education as far as

quality and equity are considered in the teaching of Arts.

In this scenario, it is relevant to emphasize the trajectory of the teaching of Arts,

historically picturing the lack of enabled professionals.

A few last words

Here we would only raise to consideration the fact that there remains the challenge of

effectively meeting the proposed principles and purposes and the need for a permanent process

of evaluation regarding the insufficiency of teachers vis-à-vis the demands of the education

system, as well as the government strategies to efficiently respond to the challenge of training

and progressively absorbing training professionals as staff members.

In January 2001, the National Plan of Education – PNE, Law no. 10.172, has presented a

cast of purposes to be met in the period 2001-2011, and teacher qualification was presented as

one of PNE‘s greatest challenges, being assigned to the Public Power the effort to find a solution

to this problem with priority. The available data show that very little has been done in this

respect, and the problems that have been diagnosed in the plan‘s elaboration process still demand

qualified professionals to work in the education systems, especially in the areas of Physics,

Chemistry, Mathematics, Biology, History and Geography, a wide array of options as we can

see.

The immediate consequence is the little progress verified in the last decades of the

struggle against low quality of schooling. In spite of the current proposals, it is our belief that the

governmental action has only achieved short-term relief, and that it is imperative to implement a

State education policy in order to effectively set a permanent process of confronting the

impeding obstacles to the capacity of the Public Power to assume its responsibility in the

exercise of the constitutional right to education that pertains to every Brazilian citizen. And,

similarly, to empower teachers to foster a high quality standard of education for all.

The training of teachers, its placement and permanence within the frame of the public

system is an urgent and pressing condition, the rigorous demand for the development of quality

education.



References

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Congresso Nacional. 1990. Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente. Law 8069/90. Available at

<http://www.Promenino.org.br>.

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<http://congressonacional.gov.br>

Congresso Nacional 2001. National Plan of Education. Law 10.172/01. Brasília: Editora Plano, 2001.

Presidência da República. Decree no. 6094, April 24, 2007. Diário Oficial da União, 25/04/2007> Available at

<http://www.congressonacional.gov.br>.

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Brasília: MEC/SEF, 1997.

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Congresso Nacional. Law no. 5.692, August 11, 1971.

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Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 2001

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Teixeira. Brasília: UNESCO Brasil, ISPE, 2003.

FUSARI, M. F. de R.; FERRAZ, M. H. C. de T. Arte na Educação Escolar. São Paulo: Cortez, 2001.

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http://www.ibge.gov.br

LIMA, Maria Ângela de. Procura-se professor. In Jornal da ADUFRJ. Rio de Janeiro: ADUFRJ, October 19, 2009.

Available at < http:// www.adufrj.org.br>

MINISTÉRIO DA EDUCAÇÃO – MEC. Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais Anísio Teixeira –

INEP 2004, 2006. Available at <http://www.inep.gov.br

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successful cases. Cecilia Braslavsky and Jorge Werthein (editors). Washington, DC: Inter-American

Development Bank, 2003.

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edition, 2002.

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on School Reform and Teachers Education. Christopher Day, Dolf van Veen, Wong–Kooi Sim (Eds).

Leuven/Apeldoorn: Garant, 1997.

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WISNIK, J.M.; SQUEFF, E. O Nacional e o Popular na Cultura Brasileira. São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1993.

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Reference # 102

Topic # 2

Recontextualizing standards to sustain international research

in the knowledge society James O‘Meara [email protected], University of Ballarat, Australia

James Sillitoe [email protected], University of Ballarat, Australia

Designing international research programs that promote quality and sustainability are an

imperative for universities. A problem that exists with the design of some international research

teams can be an over reliance on a limited number of individuals to sustain these teams. The

limited supply of these teams and researchers that can lead them only adds to this problem. This

ICET project aims to bring together a group of trans-national researchers for the purpose of

identifying and trailing a system for developing quality international research programs that

extend beyond the tenure of the leader who established the program.

Introduction

The history of ICET dates back to 1953. Since that time, a common theme linking its

member‘s initiatives has been the promotion of universal quality education through trans-

national cooperation for educational development programs. These programs include issues of

interest to a wider range of scholars, administrators, practitioners from universities, colleges,

departments and institutes of education as well as members of government ministries and

business leaders. The resulting collective expertise and geographical reach of the current

membership now provides a rich and varied forum for the development of national, regional and

trans-national networks.

Each year, this network comes together for a World Assembly, which allows a parallel

meeting of its board members. As with the work of any such board, their purpose involves

developing and maintaining activities to assist the organisation with achieving the organisation‘s

stated aims, which for ICET revolve around four key activities:

To foster international cooperation in improving the quality of preparation of teachers,

administrators and other education specialists through the development of national, regional and

international networks.

To promote cooperation between higher education institutions, government and the private sector

in order to develop a worldwide network of resources for innovative programs in international

educational development.

To provide an international forum for the exchange of information and the open discussion of

issues and trends in education and development issues.

To assist educational personnel training institutions all over the world to respond to the need for

improved facilities, diversified curricula and alternative and non-traditional educational methods.

A secondary function of the ICET board is to develop short and long-term strategies for

helping ICET to engage in programs and to build structures that will assist in achieving one or

more of these purposes. Within ICET, strategy development and implementation for each

purpose is shared among the various sub-committees of the board. Relevant to this discussion is



the work of the Research and Dissemination Subcommittee that is responsible for realising two

of ICET‘s purposes, which relate to internationalisation in higher education. These are:

Fostering international cooperation through networks to promote quality in educational initiatives

Promoting cooperation between higher education institutions, government and the private sector to

enhance and disseminate successful educational programs

These process aims are clearly essential to any organisation which purports to make a

global impact in education, and which holds that sharing of information and experiences is a

vehicle for international cooperation and understanding. This collective and humanitarian

responsibility of ICET as managed through Research and Dissemination Subcommittee is clearly

reflected in its current mission statement:

The ICET Research and Dissemination Group exists to enhance understandings in education of

professionals by conducting, documenting and disseminating innovative and appropriate research

programs as well as securing funds for multi sector collaboration involving local and visiting

ICET researchers.

This mission statement, generated by members of the sub-committee during the San-

Diego World Assembly in 2008, was drafted to provide a specific purpose for the group for the

next three to five years. Implicit within this statement is the expectation that ICET the research

and development activities should creating new knowledge and/or use existing knowledge in

new or creative ways. Captured within this statement is the expectation for the research group to

document and disseminate their findings both at the ICET World Assembly as well in academic

publications.

At the 2008 World Assembly in Braga, Portugal, the conference theme was Learning,

Leading and Linking: The Impact of Policy and Research upon Practice. This theme served as a

call to action for the research committee by reminding its members of the urgent need to engage

with research-led reform of education practice. At this time, an international group of members

of the Research and Dissemination Committee volunteered to become involved in this cross-

cultural research-based project, which was conceptualised as reforming internationalisation

practices in higher education and producing a book containing separate chapters related to

specific initiatives. However, whilst there was a willing trans-national group of participants,

some uncertainty surfaced regarding the underlying strategies necessary to sustain quality

research programs carried out by trans-national collaborative teams. The absence of appropriate

policies and practices meant that there was a lack of direction for this initiative. Previous

attempts in this area typically relatively isolated activities which have emerged as a collation of

existing papers as a Year Book publication that is based on individual efforts rather than true

collaborations.

Further, while the significant diversity of contributing authors was undoubtedly attractive

to publishing companies, the difficulties inherent in the development of a written testament of

the experience to promote culturally inclusive collaboration practices raised production

challenges that could not be easily met. This required the setting of theoretical guidelines and

approaches which were not usual for previous collaborative approaches. Indeed, addressing

collaboration issues presented its own set of challenges in an environment where production time

was limited, communications were complicated by geographical separation, and the pressures for

academic output were ever present.

O‟Meara & Sillitoe: Recontextualizing standards to sustain international research


The purpose of this paper is to present to researchers, investigating issues through trans

national collaborative projects, with an example of a project using the pedagogic device model

(Bernstein, 2000) and a comparative theory (King, 1967) to develop a framework to guide

researcher involved in this type of research. The International Council on Education for Teaching

(ICET) writing project involved finding answers for the following three research questions:

1. What activities could reflect key attributes within a internationalisation research process?

2. What roles can individuals play when promoting this type of research at and through their

institution?

3. How can an investigator distinguish between and discuss different types of transnational

research occurring at the different institutions?

Theoretical Framework

When no guidelines exist in one or more of the institutions involved in the collaboration,

there is a need to create a set of working guidelines or a framework that reflect consideration of

both local and international standards. This framework should also be able to allow researchers

to discuss and compare the educational and social phenomena occurring at and between their

institution during the collaboration to enable others to replicate the successes as well as learn

from the experiences of others. Comparative Inquiry has been used in the past to achieve some of

these outcomes (see for example Bereday, 1964; King, 1967;) promoting its adoption as a

guiding concept for informing and interpreting the research in this book. King (1967), suggested

that comparative inquiry is a useful approach for examining social and educational phenomena

from three perspectives: conceptual, institutional, and operational. These three perspectives

provided useful pointers for framing a problem to be resolved through the research conducted as

part of this internationalisation study. The key question for designers of this framework was:

What processes explained how a concept like internationalisation is contextualised for use at an

institution before being operationalised through trans-national research?

Bernstein‘s (1964, 1993, 2000) pedagogic device provided part of a theoretical

framework for this investigation. Bernstein‘s model of a ‗Pedagogic Device‘ (Bernstein, 1993)

identified three separate ‗fields‘ or locations where processes that shaped the conceptual,

institutional, and operational dimensions of internationalisation occurred. The field of production

was where the ‗what and the how of the ‗official‘ discourse was produced through classification.

The act of classification created a structure of internationalisation knowledge. The field of

recontextualisation was where this knowledge was reshaped into a form that could be transmitted

to researchers. The field of reproduction was where this knowledge was acquired for use by the

researchers involved in this project. King‘s (1967) comparative theory provided the missing part

to of the framework. This theory assisted with an explanation of the ‗what of

internationalisation‘ as well as facilitated an examination of this knowledge from three

perspectives: conceptual, institutional, and operational. These perspectives were especially useful

as they provided logical links between the rules, fields and processes of the pedagogic device and

a hierarchy of conceptual, institutional and operational perspectives of knowledge. The following

diagram represented the framework that guided the researchers as they developed real world

knowledge.



Pedagogic Device

Formal Social Groups

Distributive Rules

‘Power’

Producer Group

Recognition Rules

‘Knowledge’

Recontextualising Group

Evaluative Rules

‘Consciousness’

Realising Group

Rules

Distributive

Recontextualising

Evaluative

Production

Recontextualising

Reproduction

Creation

Transmission

Acquisition

Fields Process

Formal Model Realisation/ Real World Model / Real World Knowledge

Knowledge

Conceptual

Institutional

Operational

Figure 1: Internationalisation framework

Results

The internationalisation model is yielding some positive outcomes for the researchers

involved in the project. The pedagogic device component is proving a useful for locating fields

of activity where internationalisation knowledge making is occurring. Identifying UNESCO as a

key ‗producing‘ field‘ (UNESCO,2009,1998) is providing insights about where, constructing and

positioning of an official internationalisation discourse is occurring. Locating the

recontextualizing field at the University of Ballarat (UB) is assisting with identifying where the

appropriating and repositioning of ‗educational‘ knowledge is occurring. Key places at this

location include Academic Board for recontextualising UNESCO guidelines into a university

policy (i.e. ORF) and staff-member‘s offices for ‗framing‘ UB compliant policies for the

collaborating ICET researchers (i.e. PRF). Positioning collaborating universities as sites of

reproduction, is providing a focal point for comparing and contrasting the ‗manual discourses‘ of

research collaborating through this project.

The pedagogic device component of the framework is assisting with making sense of the

educational processes occurring in these fields. The distributive rules are contributing to an

explanation of the regulating and distributing of ‗worthwhile‘ internationalisation knowledge.

The recontextualising rules are guiding the transformation of the internationalisation policy from

UB‘s Academic Board into a pedagogic discourse for transmitting the ICET/UB

internationalisation ‗message‘ the researchers in the group. The evaluative rules are informing

the construction of a set of internationalisation standards for use by the collaborating researchers.

Viewing the rules and fields in this way is assisting with analysing the ‗arena‘ (Bernstein,1996)

of conflict where people will be adhering to and/or reconstructing the ICET/UB

internationalisation standards.

Working in a developing area of internationalisation through research with the Bernstein

model presented a challenge. The language the researchers used to describe internationalisation

research was unique to the individuals. This made it difficult to discuss internationalisation from

the three knowledge perspectives identified in figure 1. Elaborated internationalisation codes

(Bernstein, 1971) were necessary as the group had no prior or shared understanding and

knowledge of internationalisation through research. While the Bernstein model was useful in

identifying the need for a code, King‘s (1967) comparative theory was required to create the

code. The use of the four steps in this theory provided a set of integrated internationalisation



concepts, i.e. research, impact, collaboration, and sustainability. The hierarchy of each of the

concepts is outlined in Table 1.

Table 1: Hierarchy of Internationalisation Concepts

Research

Internationalisation through research could involve:

1. designing a project for using the existing knowledge of the collaborating researchers in new or creative ways

2. designing a project and obtaining institutional ethical approval for creating new knowledge in new or creative

ways

3. designing a project that reflects the expertise, knowledge and culture of the participating researchers , as well

as obtaining institutional ethical approval for creating new knowledge in new or creative ways

4. designing a project that reflects the expertise, knowledge and culture of the participating researchers ,

obtaining institutional ethical approval for creating new knowledge in new or creative ways, and publishes

findings that are cited by others in their same discipline.

Collaboration

Collaborating authors could develop communities characterising:

5. individualism where an author writes a chapter that reflects individual goals and research interests in

preference to the collective goals of the community of co-authors

6. bonding capital, where a homogenous (developed and developing, location – East-West/ North South ) group

of collaborating authors write a chapter that reflects the collective goals and research interests of this group in

preference to the goals of the community of co-authors

7. bridging capital where a heterogeneous (developed and developing, location – East-West/ North South )

group of collaborating authors write a chapter that reflects the collective goals of goals of the community of

co-authors

8. linking capital where a heterogeneous (developed and developing, location – East-West/ North South ) group

of collaborating authors write a chapter that reflects the collective goals of the community of co-authors and

external funding bodies.

Impact

The approach and /or the findings of the research project in the chapter:

1. would be unlikely to be cited and/or is unlikely to attract support from relevant internal grants

2. may be cited within existing networks and/or is likely to attract support from relevant internal funding bodies

3. is likely to be cited within the country of the author and/or is likely to attract support from relevant regional

and state level funding bodies

4. is likely to be cited outside the country of the author and/or is likely to attract support from relevant national

and international funding bodies

Sustainability

Each research collaboration should promote sustainability by :

1. maintaining and developing the ICET research networks

2. maintaining and developing the ICET research networks and creating new standards of research practice

among this network

3. maintaining and developing the ICET research networks, creating new standards of research practice among

this network, and establishing local institutional approaches that can be re-used in future collaborations with

ICET researchers

4. maintaining and developing the ICET research networks, creating new standards of research practice among

this network, establishing local institutional approaches that can be re-used in future collaborations with

ICET researchers, and integrating this research within an established research program at your university

The articulation of the attributes of the internationalisation themes facilitated the

development of a hierarchical internationalisation framework. The four levels of the



internationalisation hierarchy were Level 1 - Individual Process- Personal Focus; Level 2 -

Collaborative Process- Homogenous Focus; Level 3 - Collaborative Process- Heterogeneous

Focus and Level 4 - Collaborative Process- Strategic Focus. They represented different levels or

standards of internationalisation to the group members. These standards are outlined in Table 2

Table 2: Hierarchy of Internationalisation Standards

Internationalisation Level 1 (Individual Process- Personal Focus)

Internationalisation activities involving:

designing a project for using the existing knowledge of in new or creative ways

individualism where an author writes a chapter that reflects individual goals and research interests in

preference to the collective goals of the community of co-authors

research unlikely to be cited and/or is unlikely to attract support from relevant internal grants

maintaining and developing the ICET research networks

Internationalisation Level 2 (Collaborative Process- Homogenous Focus)


collaborating to design a project for using the existing knowledge of the collaborating researchers in new or

creative ways

bonding capital, where a homogenous (developed and developing, location – East-West/ North South ) group

of collaborating authors write a chapter that reflects the collective goals and research interests of this group in

preference to the goals of the community of co-authors

research that may be cited within existing networks and/or is likely to attract support from relevant internal

funding bodies

maintaining and developing the ICET research networks and creating new standards of research practice

among this network

Internationalisation Level 3 (Collaborative Process- Heterogeneous Focus)


collaborating when designing a project and obtaining institutional ethical approval for creating new

knowledge in new or creative ways

bridging capital where a heterogeneous (developed and developing, location – East-West/ North South )

group of collaborating authors write a chapter that reflects the collective goals of goals of the community of

co-authors

research that is likely to be cited within the country of the author and/or is likely to attract support from

relevant regional and state level funding bodies

maintaining and developing the ICET research networks, creating new standards of research practice among

this network, and establishing local institutional approaches that can be re-used in future collaborations with

ICET researchers.

Internationalisation Level 4 (Collaborative Process- Strategic Focus)


collaborating when designing a project that reflects the expertise, knowledge and culture of the participating

researchers , as well as obtaining institutional ethical approval for creating new knowledge in new or creative

ways

linking capital where a heterogeneous (developed and developing, location – East-West/ North South ) group

of collaborating authors write a chapter that reflects the collective goals of the community of co-authors and

external funding bodies likely to attract support from relevant national and international funding bodies

research that is likely to be cited outside the country of the author and/or is likely to attract support from

relevant national and international funding bodies

maintaining and developing the ICET research networks, creating new standards of research practice among

this network, establishing local institutional approaches that can be re-used in future collaborations with

ICET researchers, and integrating this research within an established research program at your university



Discussion

The research to date has begun to address some of the issues linked to the

internationalisation problem we identified as the focus for this paper. The framework presented

in Table two, provide authors with a hierarchy of standards based on a set of internationalisation

attributes. The Pedagogic Device model contained processes, which identified some of the roles

individuals involved in internationalisation research. King‘s (1967) comparative theory guided

the development of a typology of internationalisation attributes, which informed the structure of

the different standards of internationalisation. It is anticipated that these attributes and standards

will allow researchers to distinguish between and discuss different types of internationalisation

research occurring at the different institutions involved in the project. Similar expectations are

held in term of the value of these attributes and standards for identifying patterns, trends or

principles occurring in the internationalisation efforts of the researcher.


This work along with the work of the ICET researchers involved in this project will

provide important insights into the challenges and successes of internationalizing Higher

Education through research. Despite the ongoing nature of this research, the author believe the

findings to date are significant. Internationalisation researchers can use the existing findings to

replicate or generate internationalisation ‗codes‘ that reflect the structure of their group and the

values of the participating collaborators. The research has also highlighted the importance of

designing and disseminating a common knowledge structure among collaborators. Without the

use of King‘s (1967) comparative theory, this would not have occurred and research questions

about internationalisation attributes and different types of internationalisation research at the

different institutions would remain unanswered. The diversity of internationalisation approaches,

the ‗openness of systems‘ (Littlejohn, 2002) built around borderless universities and the

expectations for researchers to participate in trans national research (Seddoh,2003) warrants

continued research in this area. Unless this occurs, we could continue to see internationalisation

research that involves trans national activities without achieving internationalisation outcomes.

References

Bereday, G.Z. (1964) Comparative Method in Education. New York: Holt , Rinehart & Winston

Bernstein, B. (1964). Elaborated and restricted codes: Their social origins and some consequences. Part 2. American

Anthropologist, 66(6), 55-69.

Bernstein, B. (1993). The structuring of pedagogic discourse: Volume IV class, codes and control. London:

Routledge.

Bernstein, B. (1971). Class, Codes and Control vol. I. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Bernstein, B. (1977). Class, codes and control, vol. 3. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Bernstein, B. (1990). Class Codes and Control vol IV: The structuring of pedagogic discourse. London, Routledge

& Kegan Paul.

Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity - Theory, research, critique. (Revised ed.). Oxford:

Rowman & Littlefield.

Littlejohn, S. (2002). Theories of Human Communication. Albuquerque: Wadsworth

King, E. (1967) Comparative studies and policy decisions. Comparative Education, 4 (1): 51-63.

Richards, J. C. (1990). The language teaching matrix. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Seddoh, K. (2003) Internationalisation of Higher Education: Trends and developments since 1998, UNESCO, Paris.



UNESCO, (2009). 2009 World Conference on Higher Education: The New Dynamics of Higher Education and

Research For Societal Change and Development (UNESCO, Paris, 5 – 8 July 2009). Retrieved January 25,

2010, from

http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/ED/pdf/WCHE_2009/FINAL%20COMMUNIQ

UE%20WCHE%202009.pdf

UNESCO, (1998). World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action.

Retrieved November 30, 2009, from http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/wche/declaration_eng.htm


Reference # 108

Topic # 3

Cheating on exams: Reflecting about teachers’ education and ethics Maria Pimenta [email protected], Universidade de Uberaba, Brazil

This study presents an analysis about the relation between the act of cheating on exams at school

and teacher‘s education and moral education. The importance of this work is based on the absence

of this kind of debate that gives us a wrong impression about the relevance of this matter. The

methodology applied for this research was based in bibliographic studies, survey questionnaires

and interviews done with teachers and undergraduate students.

Objectives

The present research has been organized within a qualitative approach, considering that

―...it requires the world not to be thought as trivial, that everything has a potential to constitute a

clue allowing us to establish a clearer understanding of our study subject.‖ (BOGDAN e

BIKLEN, 1994: 49). In this way, this research aims at describing and analyzing how the

cheating is perceived by teachers in undergraduate private and public educational institutions.

The descriptions proposed aim at recollecting the meanings that permeate the cheating act for the

interviewed teachers. For that, it is necessary to identify the teachers‘ point of view concerning

the cheating origin and the mechanisms of its instauration as practice. The premises are that the

picture the teachers have of the cheating practice leads to a consideration on how the evaluations

have been thought and carried out in the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). Such

consideration, on its turn, founds the teachers‘ formation courses to have their basics revised

(vision of society, education and of the human being; targets and others) and, from them, to

revise the curricular structure, the content and the methodology approached in the mentioned

courses.

Perspectives or theoretical framework

The education is the field in which this research problem is inserted. The evaluation is a

part of the issue: types, targets and ethical formation. Education here is understood broadly, as

―...a share of the way of life of the social groups that create and recreate, among many other

inventions of the culture, in their society.‖ (BRANDÃO, 1983: 10). Thus, in the several

conjunctures, education assumes characteristics which are adapted to dominant interests and

powers. Frigotto (2000) observes that, from the 1960s and 1970s, education in Brazil has been

reduced by the economical interests to a simple aspect of preparation of skilled workers for

production. The implication of such reduction were expressed

...by the dismantling of the public school and the reinforcement of the education as ‗business‘; by

the dualism that materialized a quantity and quality of several educational services for the working

class and for the dominant class; by the technicism and fragmentation which diluted and weakened

the knowledge process; by the proletarization of the public teaching activity etc. (FRIGOTTO,

2000: 19)



This context has been consolidated and intensified along the time, especially in the

reinforcement of the education as business and proletarization of the public teaching activity

(CONTRERAS, 2002), a condition that today has also been extended to the private sphere and to

the higher education. Thus it is possible to observe the repercussion of that configuration of the

teaching work in the way of evaluation of the teaching/learning process.

It is known that the evaluation is a relevant practice for the human being, because it

generally founds the personal and professional decision making. It is a fact that we are constantly

being evaluated and evaluating. In education, evaluation comprehends a fundamental dimension

of the teaching/learning process. The evaluation allows us to identify whether the leaning is

occurring or not, and what should be the changes in the pedagogical practice, aiming to a better

teaching quality. There are some evaluation concepts (QUINQUER, 2003) and a significant

discussion about its suitability (CARDOSO, 1999; JORBA; SANMARTÍ, 2003; LUCKESI,

2003; FERNANDES, 2006). But what if there is a fraud? That is, when the students pretend – by

means of illegitimate resources – to detain knowledge they do not have, or that they have learned

something they have not learned in fact? When this happens, in addition to impairing the

teaching/learning process right away and consequently the teaching quality, it is necessary to

consider, in a first moment, the motivation for the fraudulence. Would that be a consequence of

an equivocated methodology, content and forms of evaluation? Or is it a consequence of values

propagated by the so-called ‗least-effort culture‘ today?

In a second moment, it is necessary to know the point of view of students and teachers

concerning the possible implications of the fraud as a phenomenon. The knowledge that should

be transmitted by the HEIs would be dispensable for the students‘ formation? Fraudulence

during the formation does not reinforce the idea that it is possible to be successful by using such

an expedient in other situations, including professionally?

The fraud practiced by the students in assessment tests, examinations and works is known

as cheating – popular name for the phenomenon. Another type of fraud very much in use is the

plagiarism – the entire or partial copy of a text or works in general (projects, reports, graduation

works, dissertations etc), without quoting the author.

To think about the relationship between ethics and professional formation we consider

Giddens‘s contribution (1991) when he highlights the strong links between modernity and the

time and space transformations. During pre-modernity, social life was underscored by the

―presence‖, what kept the coincidence time and space. Nowadays, the absence is drawn to social

life to the extent that it allows virtual, distant relationships. The process of separation between

time and space ensures the dynamics of modernity and the unfitness process. The latter is

considered by Giddens (1991:29) as ―..the ‗displacement‘ of the social relations of local

interaction contexts and their restructuring through undefined extensions of time-space‖. This

phenomenon promotes several changes, including the flexibilization of the restriction of habits

and local practices. The unfitness mechanisms are two: the symbolic cards and expertise

systems. The money, as an example of symbolic token, serves as an exchange item, no matter the

users‘ specific characteristics in any particular context.

Yet the expertise systems consist of ―...systems of technical or professional competence

excellence which organize the great areas of the material and social environments in which we

live today‖ (GIDDENS, 1991:35). Those systems legitimate the action of the necessary

professionals – teachers, doctors, lawyers, engineers etc. – and hired by laypeople. The ordinary

people are not entitled to check each professional‘s competence. They trust that, if the

professional has a certification, is also competent to exercise its profession. The trust becomes,

Pimenta: Cheating on exams


then, one of the bases of the professional and services negotiation. However, how to trust the

competence of professionals who, during their formation, were successful through cheating?

There are many studies on cheating in several countries, what reflects concern about the

phenomenon. There is a bibliographic review, however, in conventional and virtual data banks

that does not allow us to state that the matter has been properly discussed in Brazil, most likely

because of the insipidity of the subject and an inconsideration for its relevance. The term used in

foreign publications is cheating. Its literal translation brings about a value judgment: betrayal,

trickery – different from the terms cola (glue), pesca (fishing), fila (line, queue) etc (used in

Brazil), which are exempt from ethical concern, since they are focused on the act and not on the

relational aspects of the act and its implications1.

The betrayal/trickery phenomenon is in our daily routine, in the most different situations:

in family and marital relationships, in the traffic etc; in different areas: business, sports,

educations, biology, politics and law. If we take into considerations the importance –

implications and frequency – of the phenomenon, it is possible to observe that even so present it

is hardly ever called into question, mainly in academic ambit.

If, on the one hand, there is a perception of a transgression, of an equivocation and of

illegality in the betrayal/fraud, there is also a glamorization of the practice, mainly when it is

considered innocuous, as it happens when the school is considered. There are many sites and

texts available in the internet in which the students treat in a ludic way the strategies used to

fraud evaluations. There is a joy in fooling the teacher, with whom there is no trust relationship

and who, theoretically, should be ―smarter‖ and who occupies a higher hierarchic level than the

students. To complement the scenario, it is not uncommon to reward an employee who solves

any kind of problem no matter the ethical quality of the solution.

Another aspect to be noted is in which field of studies or science the concept could be

defined: in Philosophy, Psychology or Laws?

An effort to define the notion of betrayal/trickery was carried out by Green (2004), who

suggested two criteria. First, it should involve the violation of prescriptive, compulsory,

regulatory and directive conducting rules. Second, the rules must be fair, applied with justice

and, when violated, promote some advantage to the violator, in a relationship meant to be

cooperative. The author reminds us that if the rule violation was not intentional or if the rule was

unknown to the violator, it can not be considered a betrayal/trickery, even if it cases

harm/damage.

According to Brown & Howell (2001), the incidence of plagiarism has increased, and

they remember that the internet makes the practice easy and reduces the probability of

disclosure. The recollection among the students revealed that they consider the literal plagiarism

of texts more damaging. When there is paraphrase, from the students‘ point of view, the

plagiarism is considered be less grave. They also observe the educators‘ responsibility in relation

to such practice, when they do not report to the educational institution.

Primetime magazine, of the American television network ABC, made a research on the

many cheating ways among undergraduate students (KLEIN et al, 2006). The data collected

showed an increase in the incidence and sophistication of the cheating realization. The students

argued that they considered the cheating a legitimate strategy to get better grades in response to

the increasing requirements. A study by Sims (1993), cited by Klein et al., concluded that there is

a strong relation between the cheating at school and the anti-ethical behavior at work. Yet this

1 The first terms are concerned with the relationship between pupil and teacher, the institutions and the established

rules. In relation to the implications, the knowledge acquisition is being tricked, it does not happen.



study came to conclude that the situational factors tend to be less determining in the anti-ethical

behavior than the attitude before dishonesty. About the individual and situational factors,

research shows that the students cheat less when they feel they are part of the university, the

campus is smaller and the academic honesty is highly valued. (McCABE & TREVINO, 1996,

cited by KLEIN, 2006). The other studies suggest that the students cheat less when they

consider that they may be discovered, when the university has and divulges an honor code, and

when the other students‘ behavior discourages the cheating practice. The conclusion of a

research by Houston (1976), cited by Klein et al. (2006), points to the fact that the students cheat

more in bigger groups, with multiple choice objective assessment tests. This conclusion is

especially interesting when Brazilian reality is considered, since the private universities are

characterized by big classes and the use of multiple choice objective tests.

In Klein et al (2006) the academic practices the students consider as dishonest, which

comprehend the cheating concept, are brought into discussion. They are: to copy the work of

another student (or allow another student to copy yours); get help in a work you are supposed to

do by yourself; use a summary during a test; look at or copy somebody‘s answers during a test

(or allow someone to copy yours); program your calculator with relevant information for the test;

copy information from a source (including the web) without making reference or making

incorrect reference.

The research concluded that the cheating is not related to the course but to the pupils‘ age

and performance. In the first case, the younger the pupils, the more likely he/she is to cheat. In

the second case, the better the performance, the less likely he/she is to cheat.

Crown & Spiller (1998) reviewed the researches about cheating in the last twenty-five

years. These authors cite Beck & Ajzen (1991) who found a significant correlation between

cheating, lying and shoplifting, taking them to consider that the decision to cheat is related to the

decision to commit other anti-ethical practices. In the same line, Sims‘ research (1993), also

cited by Crown & Spiller (1998), reports a correlation between cheating and behave anti-

ethically at work.

What is being questioned in relation to cheating is what should be learned and was not, or

when one is insecure of one‘s performance. If the pupil is not sure if he/she learned, the

evaluation –exercise, test, exam – should have the function of revealing what was apprehended

or not, as to make possible to intervene to help in the learning process. If the evaluation attests

that the learning did not take place, it loses its immediate function. However, the consequences

do not end in the academic realm. The evaluated content – concepts, abilities, attitudes – that

should be understood is a part of the necessary knowledge for the pupil‘s professional formation.

Since it is possible to verify that he/she did not learn, he/she will be getting the endorsement to

develop a profession without conditions for such. Still as a consequence, society will have in its

institutions professionals with questionable qualification and ethical attitude.

Brazilian educational scenario is still characterized by the traditional pedagogy

(GHIRALDELLI, 1994) – presenting mostly the expositive method and ―bank-style‖ education

(FREIRE, 1974, 1996) – which treat the pupil as a receptacle for the teacher‘s knowledge. In

addition to the expositive method and the student‘s ―passivity‖ before his/her learning, the

evaluation used, in most schools, is classificatory (LUCKESI, 2003) – verifies what the pupil

learned, and is not formative, processual, helping to guide the pedagogical work. It is also

important to underscore that Veslin (1992), cited by Jorba e Sanmartí (2003), points at studies

which show the evaluation as the most boring and less motivating pedagogical practice, from the

teachers‘ point of view, and the most appalling and less rewarding practice, from the students‘



stand point. Considering these arguments, it seems that the evaluation – classificatory – little

serves to the learning process, besides disgusting both pupils and teachers.

Methods, techniques or modes of inquiry

The research procedures involve the bibliographic research to know the ―state-of-the-art‖

about the matter, and a field research with the application of questionnaires with open and closed

questions and interviews. The subjects of the research are students and teachers of undergraduate

public and private educational institutions. The collect data should help to define the cheating

phenomenon (what is it?); the motivation to cheat (from the pupils‘ standpoint) and to allow the

cheating (teachers‘ standpoint – why?). Thus we try to reflect on the matter, taking into account

three hypotheses:

1. The student ―cheats‖ because the objectives, methods and evaluation of schools and

universities do not suit the present educational conjuncture;

2. The practice is associated to a cultural trait of Brazilian people: the lack of knowledge

valorization; and

3. This practice unveils an inconsideration of the ethical dimension inherent to the process of

formation of the human being in all educational levels.

Data sources

A pilot research was carried out with students and teachers from a private university

during November 2006. Students from the day and night courses of Law, Pedagogy, Engineering

and Administration, who had finished and who were still attending the second year were

sampled. A questionnaire was answered by the students (see appendix), in which we tried to

identify whether they had already cheated; in which conditions; why; what are the consequences

they believe the cheating implies; and the vision in relation to the cheating (bad, good,

reproachable, allowed). The students were invited to participate in the research, that is, it was not

mandatory, all answered immediately and had guaranteed their anonymity. The incidence of

utilization was significant and the answers of the pedagogy students were similar to the other

courses. Around 67% admit they cheat, 27% do not cheat and 6% abstained from answering, in a

total of 250 students. Our theory is that cheating is becoming more and more a common practice

in schools and universities.

The questionnaire, answered by 54 teachers, revealed that 95% notice the cheating

practice among their students. The cheating is more observed in larger groups of students (63%).

The tests that were considered difficult and the multiple choice answers were ranked second

place, both with 42% of incidence. Regarding motivation for the cheating practice, the teachers

pointed out the lack of preparation as the main reason: 78%. From the teachers‘ point of view,

the most underscored consequence of cheating was the approval of the student who did not

acquire the knowledge. When the cheating itself is concerned, 100% of the teachers consider it a

bad or blameworthy attitude.



Results, conclusion and/or points of view

According to the students‘ answers, the situation in which the cheating was most used

was in the ―difficult assessment tests‖ (45%). The tests of the ―disciplines in which they did not

have the scores to succeed‖ also had a significant occurrence rate (10%) along with the anwer

―others‖. These referred to situations in which the students did not study, consequently feeling

desprepared, considering the cheating a way out of their defficiency. With lower frequency, there

are the ―tests where the teacher did not control the class‖ and the ―exercise lists‖.

The fact that most of the students who cheat justify their action from their perception that

the tests are difficult may indicate an inadequacy of the evaluation instrument (nonsense

requirement) elaborated by the teachers or lack of pre-requirement from the students‘ side

(hypothesis considered in the research). The other situations in which the cheating was used: ―no

average scoring‖, ―teacher did not control‖ and ―did not study‖ make 28% of the answers and are

circumstantial, that is, they do not concern their former formation. But they are related to the

conditions of time, motivation and organization for the study; to the teachers‘ commitment in

keeping the transparency of the process; and to the bureaucratic aspect which transforms the

learning in a index.

The teachers‘ permissive attitude is pointed out in many researches as a motivator for the

cheating. In the same way, the lack of mechanisms to cohibit fraud has been considered one of

the motives for the recent scandals involving some form of fraud in companies, in sports etc.

(CALLAHAN, 2004).

It is interesting to observe that from the teachers‘ standpoint the aspect related to the

school management (large classes) was presented as a situation in which there is more cheating.

It is known that the large number of students makes it difficult to control, from the teachers‘ part,

the cheating practice. However, to have the teacher as a controller systematically cohibiting

cheating practice already unveils that the process of formation and evaluation must be revised,

because the transparency of the process should also be valued by the students. The revision of

the formation process could contemplate the discussion with the students about cheating as fraud

and its ethical dimension. Would the assignment of the responsibility for the cheating practice to

larger classes decrease the importance of other determinants of the teaching-learning process?

For example, the comprehension of the knowledge value and its application in personal and

professional life; and the quality of relationship between teacher-student and student-student, that

is not constituted without trust, something almost inexistent in a dishonest environment.

The next question focused on what the students think of cheating. It could be observed

that around 53 % of the students consider it ―bad‖ (B). Adding to the amount of students who

consider it ―reproachable‖ (R), it makes 81%, which is possible to read as a negative

understanding of the cheating practice. It is interesting to note that this percentage is almost the

same of the students‘ who admitted to cheat. Only 12% see cheating as ―necessary‖ (N) and a

small amount of the students see it as ―positive‖ (P) (2%). It is possible to infer that the students

who cheat do it thinking it is not a good attitude, that is, they have a perception that they are

harming themselves, but they still do it. This fact brings some questioning: if the students

recognize that they are using something that they consider harmful, why do they choose to do it?

What values direct them to such practice?

According to Callahan (2004) the students who cheat during their evaluations speak of

their fear of economical failure and lack of effort from the teachers‘ side to demang an ethical

attitude. According to that author, the diffusion of anti-ethical behaviors caused by the social and



economical changes is reshaping the personal values. In addition, contratry to what is believed,

such anti-ethical behaviors are not originated in the radical individualism of the 1960s, but in the

culture of the money of the 1980s and 1990s. That culture brought the fragility if the community

and social responsibility sense and increased the greed and the materialism, making competition

even worse.

Most of the teachers also consider cheating ―bad‖ or ―reproachable‖, observing the

possible harm to the quality of professional and ethical formation of the students. .

When the consequences of the cheating is concerned, 67 % of the students answered that

they do not ―learn the contents‖ (DA), indicating that most understand that the cheating practice

implies a learning impairment. In a next step of the research, we will try to identify whether the

students consider the content that was not learned to be irrelevant; or whether, in the students‘

understanding, what they leave aside is not so important, thus they accept not to learn. The other

students are divided into the ones who consider that cheating does not imply any consequences

(NC -13%) and the ones who claim other consequences (Others- 13%). In this option, among the

consequences pointed out, we highlight: ―unprepared for the work market‖ and ―not to pay DP

(repentance)‖. The first reveals an understanding that the academic formation is part of the

professional formation, and, if one is deficient, the other, consequently, will be.

The second answer reveals that may be a naturalization of the cheating practice

associated with the immediatism, which comes this way: ―I cheat, I pass and I don‘t have to pay

DP‖. What poses the question: how does the subject who cheats deals with the idea of time? If a

problem is solved now (failure) in a fraudulent way, how is that individual going to deal with the

problem of the future? In the interviews (foreseen as next procedures), it is necessary to

investigate how the students intend to solve the question: ―…when I need that knowledge I

skipped by cheating, what will I do...?

As observed in the beginning of the text, a consequence of the cheating, pointed out by

Passow (2006),which affects directly the process of teaching-learning, is the fact that it upset the

evaluation results, impairing the teacher to know effectively what the students learned or not,

what must be reinforced and what has been learned. Without the function to show evidence of

the students performance, helping the teacher to conduct his/her work, the evaluation acquires a

exclusively classificatory character (LUCKESI, 2003), within a perspective of a ―bank-like‖

education (FREIRE, 1974, 1996).

The teachers showed the ―approval in the discipline without the proper knowledge‖ as the

most frequent consequence of cheating (60 %). In second place it is ―the student does not learn

the discipline contents‖ (48 %). The high incidence of those two consequences, very close in

relation to the meaning, brings one question: if the student does not learn and gets a certification

that he/she dominates the content, aren‘t the educational institution and teachers connivent with

the fraud, that is, legimating it? Wouldn‘t that be the most relevant consequence of the cheating

practice?

The teacher is one of the crucial subjects on the teaching-learning process, to the extent

that he/she is the responsible for the evaluation, in addition to the teaching in the classroom,

obviously. It is he/she who may contribute to valorize the knowledge and make its meaning

come through for the students – as they can see the relation of the former with the questions and

the challenges of their lives. In this conditions the cheating, or any other kind of fraud, would

probably became useless. In addition, the teachers‘ work helps students to see themselves as

subjects of their learning, and in this way education is meeting an important target, that is, the



reduction of the social inequality – as social inequality results from economical and knowledge

inequality (CASTRO, 1975).


The cheating glamorization is a fact that happens in several environments where it has

been discussed, thus it brings questions that should permeate its analysis as a phenomenon. It is

possible to find pupils and company managers who see the cheating practice as an advantage,

that is, it shows competence of an individual active to deal with the obstacles. Competence is

much valued nowadays in the corporative world.

The bibliographic research and the data collection carried out with the students and

teachers seem to indicate that the cheating practice is directly linked to the attitude in relation to

honesty and trust, to some teachers‘ attitudes of ―closing their eyes‖, and to the fact that, even in

a teachers‘ formation course, it is highly used.

We hope that this research contributes to discussions such as: the cheating practice, as a

universe to be disclosed in its totality of manifestations and motivations; from this discussion, to

reflect about the ethical aspects involved, that is, which values are present (or absent) in the

cheating practice; the relationship between the cheating practice and the undergraduate

educational crisis in Brazil; the role and responsibility of the educational institutions when facing

this relationship: what has been done and how? In addition, it is important to reflect on the

implications of the former aspects in the quality of professional formation. This quality will

determine the scientific and technological production, the competitiveness of companies and of

the country, the work posts generation, and consequently the quality of life of the citizens.

References

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views? Research in Higher Education, vol 42, no. 1, 2001, pp 103- 118.

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Harcourt, 2004.

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683–700.

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Reference # 109

Topic # 2

Managing teacher shortage in secondary schools in Southwestern Nigeria Bayode Popoola [email protected], Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria

Taiwo Adepoju [email protected], Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria

The study investigated the nature and extent of teacher shortage in secondary schools in

southwestern Nigeria and determined the strategies adopted by school principals to cope with the

problem. Data were collected from 221 school principals using a survey questionnaire. Results of

data analysis showed that most secondary schools in southwestern Nigeria experienced acute

shortage of teachers, with mathematics and science-related subjects as the most affected. Schools

in rural areas experienced more acute shortage of teachers than schools located in urban settings.

The paper stresses the need for school principals to be pragmatic in their management of teacher

shortage.

Introduction

Teachers play significant roles in any nation‘s educational development. They are widely

acknowledged as the most crucial single element in the educative process. All over the world, it

is widely recognized that the quality of a nation‘s teaching service is a major determinant of the

quality of education in that nation as well as the quality of human resources in all other sectors of

the economy. Teachers are central to the socioeconomic transformation that most nations

desperately need. They form a key part in the fight against some of the emerging problems of the

modern society, such as HIV/AIDs and environmental degradation. It is thus not surprising that

many international documents and declarations such as UNESCO‘s Education for All (EFA) and

United Nation‘s Millennium Development Initiatives affirm the critical role played by teachers

in national development.

In spite of the crucial and indispensable roles that teachers play in the educational system

and overall national development, they are unfortunately in short supply in many countries of the

world. Pipho had in 1998 predicted that the United States would be facing the largest teacher

shortage ever in its history. Grimmett & Echols (2000) agreed with this prediction and estimated

that there would be a demand for two million teachers in the United States by the year 2006.

Australia faces a similar shortage. Faced with unprecedented increase in student enrollments,

teacher retirements, and the number of ‗discouraged‘ teachers currently in the workforce, the

Australian Council of Deans of Education (1998) argued that the supply of entrants into teaching

would be insufficient to meet the demand for teachers in the country. It predicted shortages in

both elementary and secondary teachers in each of the next five years up to 2004. Current

statistics on teacher supply in Australia show that the situation has not improved significantly

(Lonsdale & Ingvarson, 2003).

Many other parts of the world have also been experiencing dire teacher shortages.

Reports from Grimmett & Echols (2000) show that 60.8% of the teaching force in Canada was

over 40 years of age; and since most teachers in the country retire at about 60 years, it is

estimated that Canada would be facing a serious teacher supply and demand problem in 2015,

created by her aging teaching workforce. Several African countries face similar difficulties. In

Kenya, Aduda & Mugo (2001) reported that 6000 teachers were needed in the capital city of



Nairobi alone. Statistics provided by the Global Campaign for Education (2006) indicate that

countries in sub-Saharan need four million more teachers to achieve the goals of EFA.

In Nigeria, available statistics indicate that there are only 591,041 teachers in primary

schools handling nearly 24 million pupils. As reported by Isyaku (2006), the teacher-pupil ratio

in many states of Nigeria varies from 1: 25 to 1: 70 against the National Policy of 1:35, and with

about 47% of teachers not having the minimum qualification for teaching. With the launching of

the Universal Basic Education programme, Isyaku (2006) estimated that additional 300,000

teachers would be needed to implement the country‘s basic education programme. In the same

vein, Oredein & Oloyede (2007) reported that 2,022 teachers were required in secondary schools

in five South-east educational zones in Nigeria as at the 2004/2005 academic session. It is

obvious from the foregoing statistics that the problem of teacher shortage in Nigeria is both in

terms of quantity and quality (Omo-Ojugo, 2009).

The inadequate supply of qualified teachers constitutes a major threat which could

eventually undermine the quality of education available to Nigerian school-going children.

Many contemporary educational theories hold that one of the pivotal causes of inadequate school

performance is the inability of schools to adequately staff classrooms with qualified teachers

(Ingersoll, 2001). In addition to undermining the quality of instructions in schools, research has

shown that inadequate supply of qualified teachers is responsible for high level of job stress

among serving teachers (Adepoju, 2007). Working with highly-stressed teachers poses difficult

challenges to school principals, who are expected to achieve school goals with limited human

and material resources at their disposal.

Of the basic administrative functions expected of school principals are those identified in

the literature as planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, staffing, reporting and decision-

making functions. By implication therefore, a school principal is essentially a planner,

organizer, coordinator, director, motivator and controller of all academic and non-academic

activities in the school. The primary function and responsibility of a school principal is the

enhancement of teaching and learning. He/she has to determine, clarify and develop educational

goals and policies; establish and organize a system of planning and implementing appropriate

educational programmes aimed at meeting the needs of the learners and the society. The school

principal is expected to procure and manage human, material and financial resources for

effective implementation of school programmes and realization of school goals. However, the

complexities and challenges of modern schools have increased the roles of school heads to

include managing crisis situation brought about by teacher shortage. They are expected to

employ managerial techniques or coping strategies to handle the situation. This development

increases job stress of teachers and administrators alike. It leads to increased turnover of staff;

undermines curriculum quality, and hinders efforts at staff development (Adepoju, 2007).

Objectives or Purpose of Study

The dominant policy response by Nigerian government to the problem of teacher

shortage has been the establishment of the National Teachers Institute for the training of teachers

for the nation‘s secondary schools. Though laudable, this initiative would only provide long-term

solutions to the problem. It seems reasonable, therefore, to examine short-term strategies

adopted by school administrators to provide relief from the problem of teacher shortage without

compromising academic standards. Thus, the current study was designed to investigate the

problem of teacher shortage in Nigerian secondary schools and determine the strategies adopted

Popoola & Adepoju: Managing teacher shortage in Southwestern Nigeria


by school administrators to cope with the problem. Specifically, the study attempted to provide

answers to the following questions:

1. What is the magnitude of teacher shortage in secondary schools in southwestern Nigeria?

2. In what subject areas do schools experience acute shortage of teachers?

3. What is the association between school location (rural/urban) and the extent of teacher

shortage?

4. What strategies do school administrators adopt to manage teacher shortage?

5. How do school administrators perceive the effectiveness of adopted strategies?

Methods or Techniques

The study population comprised principals of public secondary schools in Osun and

Ondo States in Southwestern Nigeria. As at the time of the study, there were 960 public

secondary schools in the two states. A sample of 221 schools (rural=88, urban=133),

representing 23% of public secondary schools in the study area, was selected using stratified

random sampling procedures with school location (rural-urban) as strata.

Data Sources or Evidence

The research instrument was a survey questionnaire administered in person on principals

of the selected secondary schools by the researchers and three trained post-graduate diploma in

education students. The questionnaire, which was constructed by the researchers, was titled

‗Questionnaire on Management of Teacher Shortage‘. Its content was based on the review of

current literature on the subject matter of managing teacher shortage. Section I of the instrument

consists of items requesting for demographic information about the schools and their principals.

In this section, information sought included student population, number of teachers required,

subjects in which teacher shortage was mostly experienced, school principals‘ educational

background and work experience. Section II contains 14 items pertaining to strategies adopted

by school principals to cope with teacher shortage, such as merging of classes, employment of

ad-hoc teachers, using parent volunteers to teach, increasing teachers‘ workload, conversion of

non-teaching staff to teachers and teacher exchange with neighbouring schools. The respondents

were required to indicate strategies in use in their schools and rate the effectiveness of adopted

strategies in solving the problem of teacher shortage. The section contains an open-ended item

which enabled the principals to indicate other strategies in use but not listed in the questionnaire.

Two professional colleagues who were experts in Test Construction determined the content and

face validity of the instrument before it was pilot-tested on a sample of 33 school principals who

were not participants in the main study. Reliability analysis showed that the instrument had high

internal consistency, with Cronbach‘s alpha of 0.88. Data were analyzed using descriptive

statistics. Chi-square statistics was used to determine the influence of school location (rural-

urban) on strategies for coping with teacher shortage.



Results

Extent and nature of teacher shortage

A major objective of the study was to determine the extent and nature of teacher shortage

in the study area. To do this, a teacher shortage index was computed for each of the selected

schools using the formula: NTR – NTA X 100

NTR

where: NTR = No of Teachers Required

NTA = No of Teachers Available

100 = Constant

Using the above formula, a teacher shortage index ranging from 0 to 100 was computed

for each school. A high index indicates a high magnitude of teacher shortage while a low index

implies a low magnitude of teacher shortage. The higher the index a school had, the more

serious the teacher shortage in the school. Schools with teacher-shortage indices ranging from 1

to 30 were classified as having mild shortage; those with 31 – 80 were classified as having acute

teacher shortage while those with indices above 80 were classified as having very acute teacher

shortage. A summary of the results as presented in Table 1 shows that none of the participating

schools had enough teachers at the time of data collection. A substantial majority (58.4%) was

classified as having acute teacher shortage while 18.6% had very acute shortage of teachers.

To determine the nature of teacher shortage, school principals were to indicate the dis-

ciplines in which teacher shortage was most prominent. As shown in Table 2, 33.9% and 30.3%

of school principals indicated that their schools experienced most acute shortage of teachers in

Mathematics and Science subjects. About 15% of schools experienced most-acute shortage of

English teachers while few schools experienced very acute shortage of teachers in disciplines

such as Arts (4.1%), Commercial (0.5%), local language (3.6%) and Social Sciences (3.6%).

Association between school location on teacher shortage

A further attempt was made to determine the association between school location and

teacher-shortage experience of participating schools. Chi-square analysis showed a value of

39.68 (df= 2, p < 0.05), indicating that school location had a significant association with the

extent of teacher shortage. As shown in Table 3, 55.7 and 36.4 percent of schools in rural areas

experienced acute and very acute shortage of teachers respectively as against 60.2 and 6.8% of

urban schools which experienced acute and very acute shortage respectively. These results

suggest that teacher shortage in the study area were more pronounced in rural than in urban

communities.

Strategies for managing teacher shortage

The study further determined the methods adopted by school principals in coping with

teacher shortage in their schools. In this respect, principals were required to indicate the use or

non-use of 14 different methods of managing teacher shortage in their schools. As shown in

Table 4, seven of the selected strategies were adopted by majority of school principals. These

were merging of classes (84.2%), use of NYSC/student teachers (75.1%), increasing teacher

workload (73.3%), making teachers to teach subjects outside their specialization (72.4%), giving



teaching assignments to administrative staff (63.8%), employment of temporary or ad-hoc

teachers (58.8%), using artisans as teachers (57.9%) and recruitment of part-time teachers

(52.0%). Methods which were least adopted by school principals included using ICT in teaching

(0%), parents as volunteer teachers (28.5%), teacher exchange with neighbouring schools

(30.8%), conversion of non-teaching to teaching staff (34.4%) and using students as peer

teachers (42.5%).

Furthermore, school principals were required to indicate perceived effectiveness of

methods used in managing teacher shortage in their schools. The data in Table 5 indicate that

making teachers to teach subjects outside their specialization was the only method perceived by

majority of school principals (79.2%) as effective in managing teacher shortage. On the other

hand, methods perceived as ineffective in managing teacher shortage by majority of school

principals include merging of classes (85.1%), employment of temporary or ad-hoc teachers

(74.4%) and using parents as volunteer teachers (71%) among others.

Discussion and/or Points of View

The results of the study have shown that teacher shortage was a common experience of

secondary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. More specifically, a substantial majority (58.4%) of

schools experienced acute teacher shortage, which suggests disequilibrium between teacher

demand and teacher supply in secondary schools in the area. The phenomenon of teacher

shortage raises several questions on the seriousness of the government to finance education in

Nigeria in line with the recommendations of the United Nations Organization, which stipulates

that 26% of a country‘s annual budget proposal be allocated to education. Of course, the

production of teachers in teacher-training institutions and employment of teachers produced by

these institutions are the responsibilities of government. Available records (FME, 2003) indicate

that government expenditure on education has been declining in recent years. This tends to

explain why teacher supply in Nigeria could not meet the demand for teachers in many states

(Adepoju & Fadokun, 2008). The findings of the present study on the extent of teacher shortage

experienced in Nigerian schools are similar to those of Pipho (1998), Grimmett & Echols (2000),

Ingersoll (2001), Isyaku (2006) and Global Campaign for Education (2006). In these studies,

acute teacher shortage was identified as a major problem facing educational development in both

the developed and third world countries. For instance, Isyaku (2006) estimated that additional

300,000 teachers would be needed to implement Nigeria‘s basic education programme while the

Global Campaign for Education (2006) reported that countries in sub-Saharan Africa would

require four million additional teachers to achieve the goals of EFA.

Another major finding of the present study revealed the disciplines in which secondary

schools in southwestern Nigeria experienced the most acute shortage of teachers. As reported by

school principals, secondary schools in southwestern Nigeria experienced most acute shortage of

teachers in Mathematics and Science subjects. Many schools also experienced acute shortage of

English teachers while few reported acute shortage of teachers in arts, commercial and social-

science subjects. It is obvious from these results that subjects considered as the core of Nigeria‘s

school curriculum are those that are mostly affected by teacher shortage. This development, no

doubt, has far-reaching implications on the overall quality of secondary education in Nigeria.

The problem of teacher shortage in core subject areas of the school curriculum in Nigeria

may be attributed to the low turn-out of teachers in these subject areas in higher institutions of



learning. In recent times, admission into teacher-education programmes of most Nigerian

universities had been lopsided against science and technical subjects. The acute shortage of

teachers in core subject areas can also be attributed to high students‘ enrolment rate in Nigerian

secondary schools coupled with the increasing number of teachers on retirements in

Mathematics, English language and Science subjects. The findings of this study are similar to

those of Lonsdale & Ingvarson (2003) who reported that teacher supply in Australia indicated

shortage in core subjects of Science and Mathematics although the severity of the problem varied

within and across the states and territories.

Another major concern of the study was to determine the association between school

location and teacher-shortage. The results showed that school location had a significant

relationship with teacher shortage. More specifically, schools in rural areas experienced more

acute teacher shortage than those in the urban setting. The reasons for this development are not

far fetched. In Nigeria, most teachers do not want to work in rural schools. Instead, they prefer

teaching in urban areas where facilities such as good road networks, electricity, good water

supply and other essential amenities are usually found. Even if posted to rural areas, a typical

Nigerian teacher will ‗struggle‘ to relocate to an urban school where he or she will have access to

essential amenities. The result is that schools in urban areas have better supply of teachers, while

those in rural areas face acute shortage of teachers. This finding corroborates those of Ayodele

(2000), Owoeye (2000) and Adepoju (2002). In these studies, the researchers reported that there

were more competent teachers in the urban areas of Oyo and Ekiti States of Nigeria than in the

rural areas of these states. Consequently, students in urban schools recorded higher academic

performance than those in rural schools in the Senior School Certificate Examinations. This

phenomenon is not peculiar to Nigeria as researchers in other parts of the world have reported

similar findings. For instance, Lonsdale and Ingvarson (2003) reported that rural and remote

areas across Australia had greater difficulty attracting teachers than the metropolitan areas.

The results of the study also revealed the strategies adopted by school administrators in

mitigating the effect of teacher shortage in their schools. Of fourteen strategies of managing

teacher shortage investigated, seven were adopted by majority of school principals, but only one

was rated by them as an effective coping strategy. By implication, most strategies adopted by

majority of principals to mitigate the problem of teacher shortage in schools were perceived to be

ineffective by school principals. Though widely-used, strategies such as merging of classes, use

of National Youth Service Corps members/student teachers, increasing teacher workload, giving

teaching assignments to administrative staff, employment of temporary or ad-hoc teachers, and

recruitment of part-time teachers were not perceived to be effective. It is apparent why these

strategies could not effectively solve the problem of teacher shortage in the schools. For

instance, strategies which require the use of ‗surrogate‘ teachers such as corps members, student

teachers, administrative staff, artisans, part time or ad-hoc teachers could not have produced

effective results because these ‗surrogate teachers‘ were untrained or not adequately prepared for

the teaching assignments given to them. At best, such ‗teachers‘ were meant to keep the students

busy in the absence of trained teachers. It is also likely that increasing the teaching loads of

available teachers failed to reduce the effect of teacher shortage on the schools because this

strategy did not ensure effective teaching. When teachers are over-loaded with teaching

assignments, their susceptibility to stress is likely to increase and they might become ineffective

in discharging their teaching responsibilities. Findings from a previous study by Adepoju (2007)

showed that there was no significant improvement in students‘ academic performance in



Nigerian schools where classes were merged and the multi-grade teaching technique adopted, in

which one teacher was required to teach two or three grades of pupils in one classroom.

The only strategy used by the majority of principals and described as effective in the

management of teacher shortage was making teachers to teach subjects outside their

specialization. There is need for caution in interpreting this result. School principals might have

perceived this method as effective not because they were convinced that it ensured effective

learning by pupils, but because it helped to keep their students busy and prevent classroom

disruptive behaviours that would have arisen if classrooms were unattended by teachers. The

effectiveness of this method as reported in the present study is contrary to findings from an

earlier study by Adepoju (2002) in which significant improvement was found in the quality of

learning when teachers were assigned to teach the subjects in which they specialized.

Conclusion

The results of this study point to the fact that inadequate supply of teachers could be a

major threat to the quality of secondary education in Southwestern Nigeria if urgent steps are not

taken to arrest the trend. A lasting solution to the problem of teacher shortage in the area

requires both short and long term measures. The long-term measures would include systematic

increase in the number of students admitted into teacher-training institutions in the country. This

should be accompanied by a commensurate increase in fund allocation to all institutions which

train prospective teachers. It is also important that a consistent programme of financial

incentives in form of bursaries and scholarships be put in place for teacher-trainees in these

institutions to attract more candidates to the teaching profession. The short-term measures to

reduce teacher shortage would include inter-state crash programmes of teacher recruitment,

through which states with very acute teacher shortage would be able to recruit teachers from

neighbouring states with better supply of teachers. In addition to this, government should

initiate policies to improve the remuneration, working conditions and career prospects of serving

teachers. Improvement in teachers‘ salaries and terms of employment relative to conditions

obtainable in other professions would go a long way in overcoming existing shortage of

professional teachers and attracting quality people to the teaching profession. Also, government

should provide basic social amenities for rural communities as well as initiate programmes of

financial incentives for teachers who work in rural schools with a view to encouraging them to

live and work in the rural communities. Finally, school principals need to be pragmatic in their

approaches to the management of teacher shortage by avoiding such strategies as merging of

classes and increasing teachers‘ work load, which are capable of compromising professional

standards of teaching rather than mitigate the effect of teacher shortage in their schools.

Table 1: Extent and Nature of Teacher Shortage:

Extent of Shortage N %

None 0 0

Mild 51 23.1

Acute 129 58.4

Very Acute 41 18.6



Table 2: Area of Teacher Shortage

Discipline N %

Mathematics 75 33.9

Sciences 67 30.3

English Language 35 15.8

Technical/Vocational 19 8.6

Commercial 1 .5

Arts 9 4.1

Local Language 8 3.6

Social Sciences 7 3.2

Total 221 100.0

Table 3: Influence of School Location on Teacher Shortage

School

Location

Extent of Teacher Shortage

df χ2 P

Mild

Shortage

Acute

Shortage

Very Acute

Shortage Total

Rural N 7 49 32 88

39.68* 2 <0.05

% 8.0% 55.7% 36.4% 100.0%

Urban N 44 80 9 133

% 33.1% 60.2% 6.8% 100.0%

Total N 51 129 41 221

Table 4: Methods of Managing Teacher Shortage

Methods

In Use Not in Use Total

N % N % N

Merging of classes 186 84.2 35 15.8 221

Conversion of non-teaching staff to teachers 76 34.4 145 65.6 221

Making teachers to teach subjects outside their specialization 160 72.4 61 27.6 221

Giving teaching assignments to administrators 141 63.8 80 36.2 221

Using artisans as teachers 128 57.9 95 43.0 221

Employment of temporary or ad-hoc teachers 130 58.8 91 41.2 221

Using NYSC/student teachers 166 75.1 55 24.9 221

Part-time teachers 115 52.0 106 48.0 221

Parents as volunteer teachers 63 28.5 158 71.5 221

Peer teaching 94 42.5 127 57.5 221

Using modern ICT assisted methods - 0 221 100 221

Increasing teachers‘ teaching assignments 162 73.3 59 26.7 221

Teacher exchange with neighbouring schools 68 30.8 153 69.2 221



Table 5: Effectiveness of Methods of Managing Teacher Shortage

Methods

Effective Not Effective Total

N % N % N

Merging of classes 33 14.9 188 85.1 221

Using non-teaching staff as teachers 79 35.7 142 64.3 221

Making teachers to teach subjects outside their specialization 175 79.2 46 20.8 221

Giving teaching assignments to administrators 78 35.3 143 64.7 221

Using artisans as teachers 84 38.0 137 62.0 221

Employment of temporary or ad-hoc teachers 56 25.3 165 74.4 221

Using NYSC/student teachers 68 30.8 153 69.2 221

Part-time teachers 76 34.4 145 65.6 221

Parents as volunteer teachers 64 29.0 157 71.0 221

Peer teaching 90 40.7 131 59.3 221

Using modern ICT assisted methods 82 37.1 139 62.9 221

Increasing teachers‘ teaching assignments 93 42.1 128 57.9 221

Teacher exchange with neighbouring schools 101 45.7 120 54.3 221

References

Adepoju, T. L. (2002). Locational factors as correlates of private cost and academic performance of secondary,

school students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,

Nigeria.

Adepoju, T. L. (2007). Occupational stress variables as correlates of job productivity: The case of higher

institutions of learning in Oyo and Ondo States, Nigeria. Studies in Educational Planning and Administration,

3 (1), 172 -181.

Adepoju, T. L., & Fadokun, J. B. (2008, August). Higher education, economic growth, and youth preparation for

labour market: The case of Nigeria. Paper presented at the Third Regional Conference on Higher

Education for Empowerment: Opportunities, Capabilities and Second Chances, Ibadan, Nigeria. Aduda, D., & Mugo, W. (2001, January 5). Schools need 6,000 teachers, but TSC (Teacher Service Commission)

rules out new recruitment. The Nation. Retrieved April 14, 2009 from

http://allafrica.com/stories/200101050303.html

Ayodele, J. B. (2007). Private sector participation in basic education in Nigeria: Implications for access and quality

assurance. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 4 (5), 691-696.

Australian Council of Deans of Education. (1998). Teacher supply and demand to 2004; 1998 updated projections.

Victoria: Australian Council of Deans of Education.

Federal Ministry of Education (2003). Education sector status report. Abuja : Government Press. Global Campaign for Education (2006) Teachers for all: What governments and donors should do. Retrieved April

15, 2009, from http://www.aidsportal.org/repos/GCE_Teachers_For_All_tcm8-6873.pdf

Grimmett, P.P., & Echols, F.H. (2000) Teacher and administrator shortages in changing time. Canadian Journal of

Education, 25 (4), 328 – 343.

Ingersoll, R.M. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis. American Educational

Research Journal , 38 (3), 499-534.

Lonsdale, M., & Ingvarson, L. ( 2003). Initiatives to address teacher shortage: Policy brief. Australia: Australian

Council for Educational Research.

Omo-Ojugo, M.O. (2009). Demand and supply of teachers for primary schools in the 21st century in Nigeria.

European Journal of Social Sciences, 7 (3), 149- 156.

Oredein, A.O., & Oloyede, D.O. (2007). Supervision and quality of teaching personnel: Effects on students‘

academic performance (Electronic Version). Educational Research and Review, 2(3), 32 – 35.

Owoeye, J. S. (2000). The effect of interaction of location, facilities and class size on academic achievement of

secondary school students in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan,

Ibadan, Nigeria.

Pipho, C. (1998). A real teacher shortage. Phi Delta Kapan, 80 (3), 181-182.

http://allafrica.com/stories/200101050303.html

http://www.aidsportal.org/repos/GCE_Teachers_For_All_tcm8-6873.pdf



Collaborative knowledge building in an Omani preservice course David Porcaro [email protected], University of Georgia and Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Many international non-government organizations have suggested constructivist educational

methods as the key to educational development. However, little has been done to explore how

students in developing countries react to these innovative pedagogies. The purpose of this study is

to understand how students, teachers and institutions adapt to collaborative knowledge-building

technologies and practices, as well as to design a Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning

(CSCL) environment that is contextually appropriate for an undergraduate course at Sultan

Qaboos University (SQU). Using educational design research methods, data will be collected

through mixed methods and analyzed to refine the course over three iterations.

Purpose

Although constructivism has gained popularity in Western academic discussion and

teacher-training courses (for example, in instructional design, see Jonassen, Cernusca, & Ionas,

2007), in many cases students‘ educational philosophies conflict with those of their teachers or

of their educational structure (Song, Hannafin, & Hill, 2007). For students raised in instructivist

educational systems who enroll in constructivist-based courses there may be a gap between their

own educational philosophies and those upon which the courses were built. The relative lack of

research on this subject has left instructional designers wondering how, or even if, this gap can

be bridged, or even whether it should be (Catterick, 2007).

As the number of multi-cultural classrooms increases worldwide, and as people become

increasingly connected globally, understanding the process of change that occurs when

introducing non-Western students to constructivist pedagogies generally and Computer-

Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) specifically can improve many international learning

contexts (Lin & Hatano, 2002; Oshima et al., 2006; Tan et al., 2005). Furthermore, as education

provides economic opportunities to developing countries, it is important for educational

development that a clearer understanding of student educational philosophy is gained in order to

design programs and products that are locally relevant, but globally valued (Bereiter, 2002). This

includes linking higher education to workforce capabilities by fostering collaborative knowledge

building (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1993) in undergraduate courses. In this way students can

move beyond simple memorization and fact recall to collaborative problem-solving, authentic

task completion and knowledge creation.

The purpose of this study is to understand how students, teachers and institutions adapt to

collaborative knowledge-building technologies and practices, as well as to understand how to

design a CSCL environment that is contextually appropriate for an undergraduate course at

Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in Muscat, Oman. It employs an educational design research

methodology (van den Akker, Gravemeijer, McKenney, & Nieveen, 2006), in which I seek to

design, in conjunction with local practitioners and over several iterations, a learning environment

that provides a localized solution to learning problems. Because design research is so deeply

contextual, the guiding research questions come not only from theory but also from contextual

demands and the needs of the design (Joseph, 2004). Since design research is emergent and

iterative, these questions change as the process evolves. However, to guide my initial efforts, I



will seek answers to the following two questions, the first based on theoretical work, and the

second based on local impact (Barab & Squire, 2004):

1. a) What changes (attitudinal, cognitive, epistemological, habitual, etc.) occur in Omani

students when a knowledge-building CSCL environment is introduced? b) How do the

students manage those changes?

2. What are the characteristics of a sustainable knowledge-building CSCL environment in an

Omani undergraduate educational technology course?

Theoretical framework

Many educators have advocated constructivist-based pedagogies as a way to develop the

skills needed in knowledge societies (UNESCO, 2005). However, many countries have a

tradition of instructivist-based practices, which rely on didactic lectures, rote memorization and

high-stakes exams. I use as a foundation a theoretical model currently under development for

introducing constructivist-based pedagogies into instructivist learning cultures (see figure 1).

Within this model, teachers, students, and institutions meet at the point of action (i.e.,

pedagogical activities within the learning environment), all of which occur within national

systems. The alignment between students‘ and teachers‘ educational philosophies, as well as an

institutional system‘s resources, policy, and culture can bring conflict or congruence, as teachers,

students, administrators and other stakeholders dismiss, alter, ignore or celebrate the

(mis)alignment. This model is intended to serve as a guide for educators who are introducing

innovative pedagogies in a variety of settings.

Figure 1: Framework for introducing innovative pedagogies.

Teacher epistemology

culture

individual difference

knowledge and skills

academic

habits/expectations

Student epistemology

culture

individual difference

knowledge and skills

academic

habit/expectations

Action

Institutional System

resources

National Context

policy

institutional culture

(e.g. economic, conditions,educational

tradition,sociopolitical conditions, workforce

requirements, location of schools)

Conflict

dismiss

adapt

Congruence

ignore

celebrate

Edu

cation

al

Ph

iloso

phy E

du

cation

al

Ph

iloso

phy

Porcaro: Collaborative knowledge building in an Omani preservice course


Research Design and Context

I am currently undertaking research to further explore how students in an undergraduate

educational technology course at SQU respond to the introduction of collaborative problem-

solving through CSCL. In order to link theory with praxis, and work in communion with local

practitioners to seek out solutions (Freire, 2000), I am employing an educational design research

methodology (van den Akker et al., 2006). In this way, I hope to find a sustainable solution for

the improvement of Omani education that could provide a model for educational practice in an

Omani knowledge society while also contributing to understanding of learning and educational

change.

My goal through this study is to create a knowledge-building CSCL exercise for use by

undergraduate students in the Instructional and Learning Technologies Program at Sultan

Qaboos University. I will teach the course for the first two semesters, and will transfer the course

to an Omani teacher for the last semester. In this course I will introduce exercises based on

Brown and Campione‘s (1996) Fostering a Community of Learners (FCL). The structure of the

course allows for one session a week devoted to traditional lectures, and the second session will

involve a more interactive ―lab‖ setting. In the second half of the semester, the students will

divide into jigsaw groups to learn about various aspects of educational technology, and will then

rejoin to collaboratively build educational technology artifacts using Future Learning

Environments (FLE4), which is an open-source CSCL tool (http://fle4.uiah.fi/) designed by the

University of Art and Design Helsinki and the University of Helsinki based off the pioneering

CSCL program Knowledge Forum/CSILE. It is a plug-in for WordPress blogs that scripts

students‘ online discussions and allows them to build knowledge collaboratively (Scardamalia &

Bereiter, 1993, 1996). FLE4 provides scripts for students (or ―knowledge types‖) that guide their

discussions and artifact creation toward knowledge building, helping the students to critically

analyze other students‘ comments as they build theory, question other students‘ assumptions, and

link ideas to relevant literature. Used in conjunction with other CSCL tools, such as wikis and

the Moodle learning management system, FLE4 allows students to engage in online discussions,

and design artifacts collaboratively.

Furthermore, to ensure that students have ―an awareness of communal purpose‖ (Crook,

1994), course activities are based on a Fostering Communities of Learners model (A. L. Brown

& Campione, 1996), where students work collaboratively on a ―consequential task.‖ They also

break off into ―jigsaw groups‖ were they can learn more about a specific role or aspect of their

task and then return to share their ideas with their groups. For this course, students will work in

groups of 4-5 students to build a multimedia kit for a unit of instruction. The students chose the

setting of the instruction, including available resources, age of the students and unit of

instruction. Each student then takes on a role, including project manager, instructional designer,

graphic designer, web specialist and audio/video specialist. Within their jigsaw groups students

research their role and determine how it can help contribute to their group projects. This ensures

that all students are valuable to the project and limits the free-rider affect of most cooperative

work. It further requires students to discuss issues and collaboratively make decisions, rather

than simply ―divide and conquer‖ the assigned task.

Students can then discuss their findings and concerns with others in the class who share

their role as part of a jigsaw group. Because these jigsaw groups are mixed-gender, all

discussions are mediated through the CSCL tool, allowing students to share ideas within a space

in which they are culturally comfortable.



Initial efforts are underway to allow each group to work with an expert practitioner who

is an experienced educator recruited from primarily Oman, but also internationally where

available, and who can help students in grounding their work in authentic data and tasks

(Herrington & Oliver, 2000). Creating artifacts will not only allow the students to learn the skills

of the instructional design community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991), but will immerse

them in a form of cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1987).

Data is being collected using a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. This

includes preterm, midterm and post-term exams, student questionnaires, interviews with case

students, and participant observations. Data will be analyzed through the constant comparison

methods (Glaser and Straus, 1967) to further understand how students react to an innovative

curriculum as well as how to further refine the course.

Preliminary Results

Although data is currently being gathered, and the course is still in the first iteration, it is

worth noting a few of the preliminary results. The most striking design consideration so far has

been building a collaborative classroom in a culture where men and women are segregated. In

order to address this need, I asked students to form their own groups, which allowed them to

create single-sex groups. In order to allow for jigsaw discussion, however, I rely heavily on the

CSCL tools, one of the strengths of using such a tool in this setting. Students discuss with each

other asynchronously online, in an environment that most are comfortable with. One student

even remarked that she felt collaboration between men and women would allow more creative

ideas to emerge. What remains to be seen is how effective this discussion is in generating deep-

level discussion when the students can not collaborate at a computer (Crook, 1994).

Students‘ language abilities and academic maturity are also important variables to

consider in this course. Students in this course were senior students, many currently undertaking

their teaching practice, or having just completed it. This strengthened their motivation as they

were able to see the relevance and direct application of course assignments. Because their

language skills were excellent, online and face-to-face discussions in English (the language of

instruction) were not limited by language difficulties, which would probably not be the case if

the students were in their first or second year at the university.

A further design consideration has been how to manage the variety and large number of

resources. Initially course resources were managed through a Wiki. However, future iterations

will investigate managing most of the course through the open-source Moodle Course

Management System, with links to FLE4 on a WordPress blog. Moodle will thus allow students

to turn to one site, which they are already familiar with, and which will provide them with many

CSCL tools for greater collaboration, such as wikis, synchronous chat and web conferencing.

Internet speeds as well as student access to computers have also been a problem for the

course. Online collaboration is frustrating when uploads and downloads take several minutes.

While all students can access the internet at the university, several do not have reliable internet at

their homes, and are unable to engage in asynchronous discussions very often through the week.

Furthermore, limited numbers of computers in classrooms mean that students often share

computers during class. Future research may examine whether that limits or enables deeper

collaboration

Probably the greatest challenge presented from the preliminary research is sustainability

of the program. The amount of time taken to set up the tools, and prepare course resources is

Porcaro: Collaborative knowledge building in an Omani preservice course


greater than most instructors would normally allot for their courses. Future research will

examine ways to make the course scalable, examining the design of a template that interested

teachers could easily copy in their own classroom.


This study provides a way of understanding how students and institutions react to the

introduction of constructivist-based pedagogies in traditionally instructivist classrooms. This is

important for any educator, as many national, institutional and individual variables contribute to

the success or failure of innovative pedagogies. A teacher or instructional designer who

understands how their own educational philosophy aligns with those of their students, as well as

the national and institutional context can do a much better job accommodating their own actions

in the classroom, as well as providing support to students as students learn and change.

Educational development agencies can further understand how institutional and national factors

limit the success of development programs, so they can understand how best to localize their

recommendations.

Furthermore, results can guide the successful implementation of a CSCL program or FCL

classroom in Oman or related contexts. Changes made the course due to technological, cultural

and institutional considerations can help inform the work of other educators who may want to

adopt similar practices in their classroom. It can further help instructional technologist and

learning theorists who may attempt similar programs in the Arab world.

References

van den Akker, J., Gravemeijer, K., McKenney, S., & Nieveen, N. (Eds.). (2006). Educational design research. New

York and London: Routledge.

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Reference # 113

Topic # 5

Shifting students towards greater autonomy in scientific investigation:

Developing a model of teacher support Umesh Ramnarain [email protected], University of Johannesburg, South Africa

In this report we discuss strategies employed by teachers in supporting 9th-grade (age 13-14 years)

students who are doing scientific investigations in South African schools. The research adopted a

mixed methodology research design which involved the collection of both quantitative and

qualitative data. The analysis of data revealed that teachers support students by asking questions

at all stages of the investigations, offering suggestions when necessary and giving students a

prompt sheet. Based on these findings a model of teacher support was formulated. The model

showed how teachers can apply their support strategies in order to help students towards greater

autonomy.

Introduction

Practical work in the school science curriculum is an area which has received much

attention in the curriculum reform initiatives which have taken place worldwide. The relatively

new South African science curriculum (Department of Education, 2002) advocates student

autonomy in scientific investigations as it specifies at the high school level (age 12-17), the

student apart from ―conducting investigations and collecting data‖ and ―evaluating data and

communicating findings, also ―plans a procedure to test predications, or hypotheses, with control

of an interfering variable‖ (p. 17). The literature on student autonomy is abundant, but there is no

general consensus on what this term means or implies. However, in the context of this study,

student autonomy is synonymous with independent learning where students are able to work on

their own with some guidance from the teacher. This study focused on determining how teachers

support students when they are granted the opportunity to do scientific investigations, with a

view to producing a model based on this research for teachers, to enable them to facilitate greater

student autonomy.

Background

Research on scientific investigations

In recent years there has been increasing research interest in student-centred inquiry-

focused learning environments. These studies have revealed that despite curriculum imperatives

for students to have more autonomy in doing investigations, they remain largely teacher

controlled (Watson, Goldsworthy & Wood-Robinson, 1998; Smith, Banilower, McMahon &

Weiss, 2002; Bradley, 2005; Trumbull, Scarano & Bonney, 2006).

The issue which this study investigated was how do teachers support students in shifting

them towards greater autonomy in doing investigations. Our knowledge about how to promote a

student-centred environment of scientific investigations is limited (Fradd & Lee, 1999). Our

study not only described support strategies used in their practice but also sought to develop a

model where the notion of withdrawing teacher support as students become more competent at

doing investigations is described.



Teacher support during investigations

Teacher support strategies describe the guidance that the teacher gives students in order

to facilitate their progress when they are doing scientific investigations. The form that this

support assumes is critical and must not be confused with teacher control. Teacher control

describes the degree to which a teacher determines what is done and how it is done. Teacher

support on the other hand, refers to the strategies used by the teacher in guiding the students

through the stages of the investigation. In this study, Vygotsky‘s notion of learning in the zone of

proximal development (ZPD) and the related apprenticeship model of Rogoff (1990) provided a

theoretical framework for understanding the supportive role that the teacher was expected to

play. Vygotsky‘s model for the mechanism through which social interaction facilitates cognitive

development resembles apprenticeship, in which a novice works closely with an expert in joint

problem solving in the zone of proximal development. The apprenticeship model described by

Rogoff (1990) considers children as apprentices who develop skills and understandings from

participating with peers and more skilled members of their society within the context of

sociocultural activity. In the science class the more knowledgeable teacher guides students

through the stages of the investigation while they are working with their peers in doing

investigations. This framework suggests that student autonomy and teacher support are

intimately linked and varying degrees of support and autonomy are present.

Method

The purpose of this research study was to find out what strategies teachers use to support

students when they carryout practical investigations, with a view to developing a model of

support that could lead to increased student autonomy during investigations. A mixed methods

approach was chosen to enable us to ‗collect both quantitative and qualitative data, merge the

data, and use the results to best understand a research problem‘ (Creswell, 2002, p. 564).

Survey

In the first stage in order to describe teachers‘ reported support strategies, quantitative

data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire which was distributed to a purposeful

sample of Grade 9 Natural Sciences teachers in public and independent secondary schools in the

province of KwaZulu-Natal. Grade 9 (13-14 years) was considered significant as it is the first

grade in the South African school science curriculum where learners are expected to do open

investigations.

From the responses to a pilot questionnaire, it became apparent that investigations were

taking place mainly at schools where there was a reasonably high level of resources such as

laboratories with glassware and chemicals and basic equipment for standard curriculum practical

work. We therefore decided to now survey a specific target group, purposively focussing on

schools which had resources and could reasonably be expected to carry out investigations with

their students. The content validity of the main questionnaire was established by having it

reviewed by researchers in science education at Michigan State University, which we visited as a

result of a collaboration between the National Research Foundation of South Africa and the

National Science Foundation of the United States. The main questionnaire was therefore sent to

Ramnarain: Shifting students toward greater autonomy in scientific investigation


150 well resourced schools in the province purposively selected, informed by the analysis of the

pilot questionnaire returns and data provided by the provincial department of education. In the

end, responses were received from 55 Natural Sciences teachers who reported doing

investigations with their students. We believed this sample was representative of teachers doing

investigations with grade 9 classes and working in schools that have sufficient material resources

to carry out investigations. The questionnaire in soliciting data on teacher support had a section

where the teachers had to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with a statement

relating to the use of a particular support strategy. For example, teachers had to respond to what

extent they agreed with the statement: ―I help learners to clarify their investigative questions‖.

These statements were formulated according to the existing literature on how teachers support

learners (Roth, 1995; Harlen, 1999; Wellington (2000); Haigh, 2001; Howe (2002), Llewellyn

(2002); Wu & Hsieh, 2006). The quantitative data in the form of these responses to the teacher

questionnaire were analysed statistically using the SPSS version 11.0 for windows software

program. Firstly, responses to each item in the questionnaires such as ―never‖, ―seldom‖,

―sometimes‖, ―often‖ and ―always‖ were coded in the SPSS programme and then the data for

each respondent was entered in the data file. The SPSS programme generated frequency tables

for each questionnaire item, indicating the most and least frequently chosen response as a

percentage. In this way the patterns of responses were established. In addition, questions were

grouped and aggregated and patterns of responses indicating different types of support were

established.

Observations and interviews

In the next stage, qualitative data was collected through interviews with five teachers and

through classroom observations of lessons taught by the teachers. These teachers who responded

to the main questionnaire had indicated learners were doing investigations at their schools. These

schools were all adequately resourced for practical work, having a reasonable supply of

apparatus and chemicals. The teachers Ms Khan, Mr Stander, Mr Chetty, Ms Julius and Ms

Moyo (all pseudonyms) were all experiences teachers who had been teaching Natural Sciences

for at least ten years. These schools were within a reasonable travelling distance from us, and the

teachers at these schools were amenable to class observations and interviews. We cannot claim

this group is representative of all teachers doing investigations but it is a broad enough selection

to provide in-depth data about different types of practices.

The classroom observations focused on the strategies used by the teacher in supporting

students. We made written field-notes which focused on the actions of the teacher and student,

and the teacher-student interactions which took place. Follow-up interviews with these teachers

provided in-depth information on how they supported students who were doing investigations. In

addition, the teachers were asked to explain some of their responses to the questionnaires and

some of their actions during the classroom observations. The interviews and verbal interactions

which took place in the observations were audio-recorded.

The determination of the types of support and other findings followed an inductive

process and both involved looking for common strategies as we progressed through the cases and

using NVIVO software (Bazeley & Richards, 2000) to further analyse the complete data set at

the end. The data was coded by means of nodes which were called ‗teacher support strategies‘.

Later, as the transcripts of interviews were analysed, and following inter-reliability checks with

other researchers the coding was revised and ‗teacher support strategies‘ was turned into a tree



node with the various support strategies as its children. These strategies that were identified were

also informed by a review of literature on autonomous science investigations. In this way, the

chunks of data representing words and actions were clustered, sorted and systematically arranged

into categories of teacher support strategies. From this analysis, particular common support

strategies could be recognized.

The findings from the analysis of the survey were then compared to findings from the

class observations and teacher interviews. In this way the two types of data were integrated into a

coherent whole.

Findings

The main support strategies found from the analysis were: asking questions at all stages

of the investigations; offering suggestions when stuck and giving students a prompt sheet. The

asking of questions was by far the dominant support strategy, and the findings in supplementing

the existing body of knowledge describes the different types of questioning that teachers employ

in supporting students through the different stages of the investigation. Drawing from these

findings a model of staged support was developed. This model elaborated how the identified

support strategies could be applied by teachers in shifting students towards greater autonomy.

The support strategies will now be described and explained.

Asking probing questions

Teachers ask students questions at all stages of the investigation to probe their

understanding which at times makes them reconsider what they are doing. Firstly, such questions

are used to support students when formulating the investigation question. Sixty percent of the

teachers who responded to the questionnaire item ―I help the students to clarify the investigation

question‖ indicated they ‗often‘ or ‗always‘ did this. The majority indicated that at this stage they

normally ask questions which focus on the relationship between the variables in the

investigation. Only 9% of teachers indicated they did not help and the remainder indicated that

they sometimes helped. The following response elicited from Mr Stander describes how he

supports students by asking them to clarify the variables they have identified.

Most investigations involve dependent and independent variables. If they (students) are to

correctly write the research question they will need to know what is meant by these variables.

When they are discussing what question they want to do, I would go to the groups and ask them to

spell out exactly what these variables are. Sometimes they confuse them. I then have to intervene

and ask them to rethink it.

The focus on the need to clarify variables under investigation also arose during one of the

class observations. The excerpt below relates to an exchange which took place in Ms Khan‘s

class where a practical on pulse rate was observed, and provides an example of how the teacher

by employing probing questions, enabled the students to think through more clearly the

relationship between the variables under investigation.

Ms Khan: Okay, tell me what your hypothesis is ?

Smith: We want to investigate the effect of drinking coffee on the pulse rate.

Ms Khan: Yes, but is this your hypothesis. Do you remember the hypothesis ?



Ruan: It is a something you say which may be true. That‟s what you want to investigate.

Ms Khan: Good. Now, can we try again. Yes, Follett-Smith

Smith: Coffee causes the pulse rate to increase

Ms Khan: Can we identify the variables in this hypothesis ?

Ruan: The independent variable is the amount of coffee and the dependent variable is the

pulse rate.

Ms Khan: I need you to explain to me how you will investigate this.

Ruan: We will choose a group of people. We will take their pulse before and after the

coffee.

Ms Khan: In making the coffee will you add different quantities of instant coffee to the water ?

Ruan: No, it will be two teaspoons for all.

Ms Khan: Then I want you to have a look at your independent variable. You said it is the

amount of coffee. That doesn‟t seem right does it ?

Smith: No, we will need to change that to drinking coffee.

Ms Khan: So, what is the extraneous variable ?

Smith: The number of spoons of coffee.

By intervening the teacher forced the students to verbalize and rethink the hypothesis

they had formulated. This was crucial since a hypothesis which is misinterpreted or poorly

formulated will lead to invalid results.

Secondly, questioning as a support strategy is also used by teachers in guiding students in

the planning stage and often results in students rethinking their plan. This is illustrated in the

following excerpt from an experiment in Ms Julius‘s class to show that one of the products of

combustion of a candle is carbon dioxide. The teacher used a series of probing questions to

influence students to rethink their plan.

Ms Julius: Guys tell me what you will do.

Trevor: Ma‟am, we will burn the candle. This gives CO2 . We then take something

burning like a match. If it goes off it proves the candle gave CO2.

Ms Julius Okay so will you hold the burning match close to the candle flame ?

[The students all answered „yes ma‟am‟.]

Ms Julius: Okay, I want you to think about this before you conduct your experiment.

How do things burn and what is needed for burning ?

[The students reflect on this question and engage in a group discussion.

Thereafter teacher returns to the group.]

Ms Julius: Have you thought about this ?

Vijay: Ya, we know that oxygen is needed for burning.

Ms Julius: Good. You are saying that the match that‟s burning will go off in air when

held near the candle ?

Vijay: Ya.

Ms Julius: Think about this….in air. Yes, Suren ?

Suren: I am not sure….but with the oxygen in the air it will carry on burning.

Ms Julius: Good. So what do you thing you need to do ?

Suren: Collect the gas in a container.

Ms Julius: Yes, now I want you to design this and show me what you will do.

[After a discussion, the group leader calls for the teacher.]

Ms Julius: Okay Trevor what‟s your plan ?

Trevor: We think we need to have a bottle to store the CO2. We can put the candle in the

bottle…light it and then quickly put the match there.

Thirdly, teachers also question students about what they are doing while they are busy

conducting the investigation. In response to the question ―When students are conducting the

investigation, I ask them questions so they may reflect on what they are doing.‖ About 67% of



the teachers indicated that they either ‗often‘ or ‗always‘ followed this strategy. Only 3.6% (two

teachers) said they seldom or never did this. This support strategy is illustrated in the following

excerpt from a guided investigation described in Mr Chetty‘s class where students investigated

the relationship between current strength and potential difference across a light bulb in a circuit.

Mr Chetty: Okay, what seems to be the problem here ?

Johnson: The bulb is off.

Mr Chetty: Have you checked to see that your circuit is complete ? Are there any gaps in your

circuit ? Is your circuit closed ?

[The students answer, „yes sir‟ in unison]

Mr Chetty: Okay, I want you to look closely at your connection of the voltmeter. What is the

voltmeter doing in this circuit ?

Kelly: Measuring volts.

Mr Chetty: What do you mean by that ?

Kelly: The voltage.

Mr Chetty: What is voltage ?

[The students are unable to answer.]

Mr Chetty: I want you to get out your notebooks and look up what voltage is.

[The students page through their notebooks and then Johnson answers.]

Johnson: It is the energy transfer per Coulomb of charge.

Mr Chetty: Explain this to me in your own words.

Johnson: How much energy the current supplies to the circuit ?

Mr Chetty: Good. Now let‟s go back here. Why do we have this voltmeter in the circuit ?

Visharlan: To measure the energy transfer across the bulb.

Mr Chetty: Now to measure this energy transfer across the bulb, how should the voltmeter be

connected. In series or parallel ? Yes, Vishalan ?

Visharlan: I think in parallel ?

Mr Chetty: Good. Now look at what you have done here.

[The students then make the changes to the circuit and the bulb now glows.]

This exchange between the teacher and students shows how the teacher by redirecting the

students to a concept they had already studied, is able to get them to reflect on and rethink their

connections in the circuit. The teacher did not tell or show the students what to do. Instead, he

teacher checked on the conceptual understanding of the students by asking the students to

explain in their own words the concept of ‗electrical potential difference‘. This was crucial in

deciding whether a series or parallel connection of the voltmeter would be correct.

Fourthly, teachers also ask probing questions when asking students to review their plan if

the findings are incorrect. Analysis of data collected from the teacher questionnaire showed that

about 64% of the respondents collectively either ‗often‘ or ‗always‘ asked students to go back

and review their plan if the findings of the investigation were not correct. An example of this

support strategy was evident in the observation which took place in Mr Stander‘s class. A group

of students who had investigated the effect of temperature on the resistance in the circuit, had

erroneously concluded that resistance in a circuit is lower at a higher temperature. Upon using

probing questions about the procedure they had followed, the students were led to discover the

flaw in their plan. During the experiment the students had failed to control other variables such

as the length of the conductor and its thickness. By reviewing their plan with them, the students

were able to redo the investigation and control the variables correctly.

In general the data gathered showed that teachers used a questioning strategy in enabling

the students to understand more clearly the question or hypothesis they intend investigating, to

reconsider their planning, in re-thinking some of their actions when collecting data, and in

reviewing their plan after generating incorrect findings.



Offering students suggestions when they do not seem to be making progress

The teacher makes suggestions when the students do not seem to be making progress in

conducting the investigation. These suggestions include directing students to a different method

or pointing out a mistake or giving a few ideas for consideration. In essence the support involved

the teacher pointing out or providing ideas rather than probing through questions to reveal them.

The majority of the teacher (69%) indicated that they either ‗often‘ or ‗always‘ offered the

students suggestions when they were making no progress in the investigation.

For example, a situation arose in Mr Chetty‘s class, where a group of students were not

making progress, and he intervened by offering a suggestion. The students had connected a

circuit with an ammeter in series to the circuit and a voltmeter in parallel across a light bulb. The

needles on the measuring instruments however showed a deflection to the left of zero. The

students appeared to be confused. The teacher facilitated their progress by suggesting that the

students mark the polarities on all the components in their circuit diagram they had drawn. The

students were then asked to go to their circuit and check to see that the wires went to the correct

terminals on the components. After they made the necessary changes to their circuit, the problem

was rectified with all the needles on the correct side of zero for each device. In this case there

was a direct intervention from the teacher and it solved the problem.

The following excerpt from an interview with Ms Julius reveals how offering suggestions

can be less instructive and more facilitative:

I would sit down and listen to their ideas. I made them verbalise, I wouldn‟t just give them the

answer. They had to give me some kind of logical deduction. If I then found a glitch in their

reasoning I would say perhaps you should review that step and then come back to me. So I was

reluctant to just give them the answer. They battled with this. They wanted the answer. They didn‟t

want to sit and have to work through it.

It is evident from this analysis of data collected that in general the teacher will offer a

suggestion when students do not know what to do next in the investigation. It appears that in

offering a suggestion, the teacher does not tell the students what to do, but rather offers a hint,

makes comment or points them in a particular direction which gets them on track again. In this

way the student autonomy often referred to in the new curriculum policy in South Africa

(Department of Education, 2002) is preserved.

Use of a structured prompt sheet.

Teachers give students a prompt sheet which helps to focus students on the stages of the

investigation. A prompt sheet may include questions or broad headings to direct the students

through the stages of the investigation. The questionnaire findings showed that just over half of

the teachers indicated that they either ‗often‘ or ‗always‘ gave students a prompt sheet.

Furthermore, about 25% reported that they ‗sometimes‘ gave students a prompt sheet to help

focus them on the stages of the investigation. The following comment by Mr Chetty refers to the

use of prompt sheets:

I have used a worksheet, a prompt sheet if you like where students are asked a number of

questions to guide them and help them. Such as what are the variables you are investigating, what

apparatus will you use, how will you measure the variables, draw a table, and what are your

conclusions. I feel this keeps them on track.



The above excerpt shows how a prompt sheet can be useful in giving structure to the

investigation and also serves to guide and focus the students through the stages in the

investigation. An example of this was the investigation on the relationship between current

strength and potential difference in a circuit, where Mr Chetty gave the students a worksheet

which served as a prompt sheet. This prompt sheet comprised of questions and instructions

which acted as cues to focus students on the stages of the investigation. This prompt sheet was

not like a traditional worksheet such as the one used in another of the investigations observed

(Mrs Moyo‘s class) where students where given a list of instructions to follow

It is apparent that a prompt sheet is often used and seen as an important instrument that

can be used to support students by providing structure to an investigation.

Discussion of findings

The study reveals that although autonomy may be transferred to students in doing

practical investigations, teachers believe that they have a pivotal role to play in supporting these

students through the investigative process. Rotheram (1984) states that scientific investigations,

especially open investigations are most demanding and involves the student asking questions,

designing experiments, carrying out experiments and reaching conclusions. The evidence

collected in this study suggests that teachers employ a variety of strategies in supporting students

throughout the stages of the investigation in which they reduce control and allow more

autonomy. The employment of these support strategies showed that teachers did not believe in

abandoning students in the interests of promoting their autonomy.

Implications and recommendations for practice

In an effort to achieve the outcomes desired by some of the new curricula with respect to

student autonomy when doing practical inquiry, two models are put forward which can be used

by teachers and curriculum planners to facilitate a transition towards investigations where

students have more autonomy. The first model identifies the autonomy level of the student, and

the second model suggests how teachers can support students in facilitating a shift towards

greater student autonomy in scientific investigations.

A model of autonomy levels of investigations

The model in Table 1, which is similar in structure to that proposed by Lock (1990) and

Gabel (2001) shows a progression where students have little autonomy at level 1, with a gradual

increase of this autonomy, until level 5 is reached where students have substantial autonomy.

The model identifies the autonomy level of students based on whether the teacher or student has

responsibility for the stage of the investigation. For example, a student is at autonomy level 3 if

the teacher provides the topic and question, and the student plans the investigation, collects data,

analyses the data and draws a conclusion. An investigation done at autonomy level 5 would

correspond to a science exposition investigation, where the student has autonomy over all stages

of the investigation. It needs to be mentioned that although this was not encountered in the study,

it is quite possible that the stages may be mixed so that both the teacher and student may be



jointly involved at a particular stage as co-investigators. Also, a teacher demonstration where the

teacher does all stages and the student only observes may be considered as autonomy level 0.

Table 1. Model of autonomy levels of investigations

Investigation stages Autonomy level

1 2 3 4 5

Choosing the topic

T T T T L

Formulating the question

T T T L L

Planning

T T L L L

Collecting data

T L L L L

Analysing data and drawing

a conclusion

L L L L L

Note: T = Teacher controls and carries out L = Learner has autonomy and responsibility to carry out

This model can be used in curriculum development programmes at schools where

students have limited autonomy in doing investigations and there is a desire to move toward

more autonomy.

Firstly, the model labels the stages of the investigation and autonomy level of students in

investigations, and so provides a common language for teachers, curriculum planners and

researchers to engage with the issue of student autonomy. Secondly, the model can be used as an

instrument to gauge and report on the autonomy level of students at schools. Thirdly, once the

autonomy level of students has been gauged, the model can be used by professional development

practitioners in structuring a developmental programme in the form of a series of investigation

tasks which represent a progression towards autonomy level 5.

A model of staged support from teachers

If students are to progress to higher levels of autonomy which are described in Table 3,

teachers need to offer support when necessary. The support strategies identified from the

literature review and used by teachers in this study, can be implemented in supporting students

towards greater autonomy in doing investigations. In increasing student autonomy, teachers need

to firstly know about the prior experience and skills students possess, the context in which the

investigation is taking place such as the size of the class, the resources available, and the time

available for the investigation.

At autonomy level 1, the student may have little or no experience of investigations.

Before exposing students to any investigations the teacher may give students exercises in

formulating questions, identifying variables, using apparatus, drawing graphs etc. The teacher

may then model the stages of an investigation. As the teacher is doing the investigation, he or she

could label the stages and explain what is being done. The students may be given some

autonomy here in analysing the data and drawing a conclusion. At this autonomy level it would

be expected that support strategies which address skills development will dominate. At the

autonomy level 2, students may be given the investigation question, and a plan with step-by step

instructions. The students would then have autonomy in collecting data, analysing data and



drawing a conclusion. At this stage of autonomy, the teacher may support students by asking

them questions so they reflect upon what they are doing, give instructions in the use of practical

techniques, show students how to use an apparatus they are not familiar with, and remind

students of precautions to be taken. When students have had sufficient experience at this level of

autonomy they may progress to autonomy level 3 where they may be given autonomy in

planning an investigation.

Here the student would be asked to produce a detailed plan which outlines the steps they

would follow. The learners may be given a prompt sheet to guide them in their planning. At this

stage of the investigation, the teacher should be supporting the students by asking probing

questions related to the steps they will take, the apparatus they have chosen, and precautions to

be taken. The teacher may need to offer suggestions if the plan is inadequate. The teacher may

also ask students to revise the plan if the apparatus they have chosen is not available or if the

investigation cannot be carried out in the time available. If students are working in small groups

the teacher can ask the group to identify the roles the members will play when the investigations

is being carried out. When students are competent at this level of autonomy they may be given

the opportunity of doing an investigation at autonomy level 4 where they also formulate the

investigation question. The teacher may support the students here by asking students to identify

the independent, dependent and control variables. He or she would also offer advice on whether

the question can be investigated with the available resources. After students have done a number

of investigations, they may be asked to do an investigation which gives them autonomy at all

stages. This investigation would be done at autonomy level 5. From the above it is evident that as

students gain more experience and expertise at doing investigations, they progress to a higher

level of autonomy. Accompanying this, the teacher support is gradually withdrawn. This

withdrawal of teacher support is represented in Figure 1. This notion of withdrawing teacher

support as students become more competent at doing investigations is similar to that expressed

by Gabel (2001) in her model for a scaffolded inquiry. A similar framework is presented by the

National Research Council (2000) in the National Science and Education Standards guide for

teaching and learning inquiry. However, the model developed in this study distinguishes itself in

that it describes the strategies that teachers can use in shifting students towards greater autonomy

across the stages of the investigation. The implementation of investigations based on the above

model would describe a situation where students who lack experience and expertise at

investigations would have limited autonomy with a large amount of teacher support.



Figure 1. Teacher support with changing autonomy

As these students acquire more experience and expertise by doing investigations, they

will gain more autonomy and the teacher support will fade. Sund and Trowbridge (1973) initially

explained this situation by advancing that if students have not had experience in learning through

inquiry, their lessons should be considerably structured. After they have gained some experience

in carrying out an investigation, the structure should be lessened. The model of the autonomy

levels already described, together with this model can serve as important reflective tools in

facilitating the implementation of investigations at schools.

Conclusion

The implementation of scientific investigations at schools presents a new challenge to

teachers as it signals an opportunity to shift from a teacher-centred to a student-centred approach

in practical inquiry. Teachers are now faced with a situation of relinquishing their traditional

control in the classroom and using support strategies in facilitating the students‘ progress

towards greater autonomy. As a first step in the process, we have presented a model of the types

of investigation which will enable teachers to gauge the current autonomy level of investigations

they are providing students. The study shows that teachers are able to offer the types of support

needed to guide students through the various stages of investigations as they make their first

steps toward autonomy. However, it is our opinion that the second step required is a planned way

of withdrawing support to increase student autonomy and the second model provides a reflective

tool for guiding this process.

Theoretically, both models are underpinned by the principles inherent in Vygotsky‘s

notion of learning and the related apprenticeship model of Rogoff (1990). In shifting learners

More

More

Less

Less

Autonomy level 1

Autonomy level 5

Investigation

AUTONOMY SUPPORT

Structured prompt sheet

Suggestions, ideas, reflection

Skills development

Questions Clarification, probing

Support Strategy



towards greater autonomy in scientific investigations, the position and role of the knowledgeable

teacher as one who supports learners in developing competence is crucial.

It is anticipated that both models would help teachers inform their practice in facilitating

a move toward more open investigations where students have more autonomy. The models may

be seen as tools which teachers can use to consciously construct and choreograph an

environment which supports student autonomy.

References

Bazeley, P. & Richards, L. (2000). The NVivo Qualitative Project Book. London: SAGE.

Bradley, D. (2005). The Science Practical Inventory: a new evaluation instrument for science practical programs. A

paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Science, Mathematics and Technology Education,

Victoria, Canada.

Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative

research. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill Prentice-Hall.

Department of Education. (2002). Policy: Revised National Curriculum Statement for Grades R-9 (Schools),

Overview. Pretoria: Author..

Fradd, S. H. & Lee, O. (1999). Teachers‘ roles in promoting science inquiry with students from diverse language

backgrounds. Educational Researcher, 28(6), 14-20.

Gabel, C. (2001). Effectiveness of a scaffolded approach for teaching students to design scientific inquiries.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Denver.

Haigh, M. (2001). Supporting student investigations. New Zealand Science Teacher, 96, 39-41.

Harlen, W. (1999). Purposes and procedures for assessing science process skills. Assessment in Education, 6(1),

129-144.

Howe, A. C. (2002). Engaging children in science (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Llewellyn, D. (2002). Inquire within. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Lock, R. (1990). Open-ended, problem-solving investigations: What do we mean and how

can we use them ? School Science Review, 71(256), 63-72.

National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and

learning. Washington: National Academy Press.

Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.

Roth, W-M. (1995). Authentic school science: Knowing and learning in open-inquiry laboratories. Dordrecht, The

Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Rotheram, K. (1984). Guided exploration using flowcharts. The School Science Review, 65(233), 655-669.

Smith, P. S., Banilower, E. R., McMahon, K. C., & Weiss, I. R. (2002). The national survey of science and

mathematics education: Trends from 1977 to 2000. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research.

Sund, R. B. & Trowbridge, L. W. (1973). Teaching science by inquiry in the secondary School. Ohio: Merrill.

Trumbull, D.J., Scarano, G. & Bonney, R. (2006). Relations Among Two Teachers‘ Practices and Beliefs,

Conceptualizations of the Nature of Science, and their Implementation of Student Independent Inquiry

Projects. International Journal of Science Education, 28(14), 1717-1750.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept of activity in

Soviet psychology (pp. 147-188). Armonk, NY: Sharpe.

Watson, J. R., Goldsworthy, A. & Wood-Robinson, V. (1998). ASE-King‟s science investigations in schools

(AKSIS) project: Second interim report to the QCA. London: King‘s College.

Wellington, J. (2000). Teaching and learning secondary science. London: Routledge.

Wu, H.-K., & Hsieh, C.-E. (2006). Developing sixth graders‘ inquiry skills to construct scientific explanations in

inquiry-based learning environments, International Journal of Science Education, 28(11), 1289-1313.


Reference # 118

Topic # 5

The “glocal” dimension of teacher training programmes:

The challenges of training teachers of Islamic Religious Education in Belgium S. Sergio AbdusSalâm Scatolini Apostolo [email protected],

International University College, Belgium

This paper describes some of the variables at stake as a new Islamic RE teacher training

programme is set up and managed. It is argued that such a programme highlights the ―glocal‖

dimension of teacher training in and for Western Europe. On the one hand, there are the global

roots of the Muslim community (its members and its tradition). On the other, there are the local

cultural coordinates. This interplay of local and global —‖glocal‖— factors make particular

demands on the College, its curriculum, and its faculty. In such situations, the power of

imagination must be rediscovered.

Introduction

GROUP T - International University College Leuven is made up of the Leuven Education

College, the Leuven Engineering College and the Centre for Anticipative Continuing Education

(ACE-GROUP T). At the college but without being a constitutive part of it, there is also a branch

of the Confucius Institute, whose headquarters are situated in Beijing and known as ‗Hanban‘.

The Education section is the smaller and less grand one. Whether we like it or not, teachers bring

in less glamour and less sponsoring than engineers. This has so far meant that our insertion into

the world had to take place through our individual students rather than through our links with the

business world.

One of our house phrases at the Leuven Education College is ‗theworld@groupt,‟ which

already signals the incidence of the global at our local level. This catch phrase is the name of a

project that seeks to celebrate the intercultural experiences of our third-year students across the

language border (within Belgium) and abroad. With it, our college wishes to encourage its

students to develop broader perspectives and approaches for when they start working as

educators in Flanders after their graduation.

Our English International Educating Class (IEC), inspired by UNESCO‘s vision of

education, is yet another way of bringing the world into our college and to the attention of our

students.1

The addition of an Islamic Religious Education (IRE) track to our curriculum in 2008

brought some new colours onto our old predominantly Flemish2 palette. Oddly enough, Muslim

youths, born and raised in this country, seem to require from our structures a somewhat more

1 http://www.groupt.be/piec. 2 Belgium is a federal, democratic monarchy with several governmental levels. First of all, there is a federal level,

which is easier for foreigner to perceive. Apart from that, there are three language communities (Dutch, French and

German speaking, respectively) and three regions (Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels-Capital). This system can come

across as difficult to understand because territorial and ethno-linguistic categories criss-cross one another. Flanders

is Dutch speaking. Although Wallonia is French speaking, it also houses the German-speaking community.

Brussels-Capital is bilingual (French and Dutch speaking). Education is one of the competences in the hands of the

communities, not of the Federal state. That is why I shall not speak in this contribution of ‗Belgian education and

schools,‘ but of ‗Flemish‟ ones.




radical mental shift than our (non-western) international students or even than a six-week

teaching experience in Africa, the Caribbean or South America. This is probably related to the

way in which the relationship between ‗old Belgians,‘ ‗new Belgians,‘ and non-Belgians is

negotiated in this federal state, especially in terms of religious and non-religious worldviews in

the public sphere, including the school.

After years of ideological struggle, Catholics, liberals and socialists reached a School

Pact in 1958. As a result, students in state-run schools have had to follow a subject on

levensbeschouwingen (worldviews, philosophies of life, or ‗life views‘). This general

compulsion was combined with the students‘ freedom to choose —in local, provincial and

communnity schools— between Judaism, Christianity (Catholic, Protestant, Anglican or

Orthodox), Islam and (agnostic/atheistic) Humanist Thinking.

Gradually, at a deeper level, another sort of pact was also reached. Many ‗old Belgians‘

(maybe most of them) have come to tacitly agree that being (too) religious could be (is) a sign of

irrationality and ignorance and probably also both a cause and a result of oppression.3 This anti-

religious bias is not only a mere repetition of Freudian, Feuerbachian and Marxist concepts; it

also shows the scars of a painful religious experience in the past. As a consequence, Belgian

Catholics have at times been more at odd with the Vatican4 than with their agnostic or atheist

neighbours. Orthodox and Protestants, who still upheld a more traditionally theocentric outlook

on life, were and still are too small a minority to have a real social impact in this respect.

The accommodations crystalized in the school pact seem to have been disrupted by the

approximately 400,000 Muslims living in Belgium. This small community has apparently been

enough to confront the non-Muslim majority with the need to redefine the acceptable

definition(s) of belgianhood (and flemishness) as well as of the social role and permissible

visibility of divergent worldviews, especially clearly religious ones such as Islam.5

Irina Bokova, UNESCO‘s Director General, has recently reflected on the complexity of

the world and stated that ‗we live in a globalized world, but too many walls remain‘. Social

divides are real and daunting. However, that is only half the picture. The other half is that some

of our responses to the challenges facing us carry ‗the risk of creating a more uniform world,

eroding the incredible diversity that is the real source of human creativity, economic and social

development, and opening the way for new forms of repression, exclusion and poverty‘.6

Our multicultural societies are not yet communities of social partners. This dilemma is

not an isolated phenomenon affecting Belgians only. It is part of the globalization process and

touches us in our capacity of educators and education providers. By questioning our identity as

they both divide us and lump us together, our societies also present us with opportunities that can

inspire and enrich us to evolve positively in directions yet unknown.

3 This can easily be ascertained by going through the reactions of the general public to the recent ban on religious

symbols in Flemish community schools and other religion-related issues. 4 This is clear in matters concerning the ending of human life (abortion and euthanasia), contraception and sexuality

(premarital sex, de facto unions, homosexual marriage and divorce). 5 ‗Dans ce processus, il n‘y a pas que ces nouveaux citoyens qui négocient de nouvelles identités car c‘est

l‘ensemble de la population dite « autochtone » qui est forcée de repenser sa propre identité collective.‘ (Torrekens,

2005:47). 6 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=46847&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.

Scatolini: The “glocal” dimension of teacher training programmes


Globalization

Globalization has a lot to do with the production, flow and consumption of goods and

information. It also includes the movement of people, ideas, trends, concerns, lifestyles, vices,

crime, etc. (Castells, 2010). Globalization is not static, but essentially dynamic. Borders have

become extremely porous. In the European Union, this is a daily realization; we only need to

look at the picture on our EURO coins to realize how far money travels. In fact, individuals and

groups have interacted throughout history —some even created extensive empires where the use

of a lingua franca was commonplace (e.g. Aramaic, Greek, Latin, Arabic, French, English, etc.).

However, there are differences between the past and now, one of them being the feeling of

simultaneousness.

Although civilization as such has always entailed a certain detachment from ‗bare

nature,‘ our civilization has gone a step further. Technology, the mass media and other variables

(e.g. outsourcing) are turning time into an increasingly dislocated (i.e. without a locale) measure.

Virtual space has expanded the meaning of ‗real‘ space. Our habits have changed. For one, our

diet is less conditioned by the local seasons than by our trading partners, our links (e.g. old

colonial relationships) and international fads and trends.

The economic game has also changed, at least in industrialized societies. The Fordist

paradigm has been dethroned (Brown et al., 2007). We no longer need mere mass reproduction;

now, it is innovation that sells. Our fancy must continually be tickled. Our restless spirits

manifest themselves in shopaholic behaviour. Yet, despite consumerism being more or less

addictive, our jobs often depend on it. If people suddenly stopped buying trivial merchandise,

many would end up in the streets, including people in developing countries.

The innovation paradigm has underlined the need for knowledge and the latter‘s

undeniable link with the economy. This is part of what Richard Kenny and Martin Florida

(Kenny & Florida, 1993; Florida, 2002) have called ‗innovation-mediated production‘ (see also

Castells, 2010).

This post-Fordist model has repercussions not only for business, but also for education. If

the success of our economies truly rests on innovation, then the classical educational styles,

focused on reproduction as they were, will logically be found wanting. As a result, the ‗education

and learning paradigm around the world is under increasing pressure to better meet the demands

of this new knowledge and information-intensive global economy‘ (Cogburn, 1998). The accent

is no longer emphatically laid on what students learn; now it is almost equally important how

they learn to become inquisitive, creative, innovative, resourceful, etc.

If knowledge is the door to development, and development is the steppingstone to

welfare, then we already know that the divide between the ‗haves‘ and the ‗have-nots‘ will not

be minimized unless knowledge is made more easily accessible. And precisely herein lies a

contradiction: knowledge should lead to equality, but since knowledge means money, very few

people will be ready to really share it for free. Think of the price of higher education and how

European and American colleges and universities cash in on the needs of students from the

developing world willing to pay fortunes for the chance to study in the UK or the USA. Who

knows, maybe some of us owe our jobs to that contradiction. Moreover, think of those cases in

which college fees are inflated unnecessarily only not to look ‗too cheap‘ and, therefore, also

‗not good enough‘. ‗If it is more expensive, it must be better‘ — or, at least, that is what some

think (even international educational organizations!).



This is the context within which most of us educate future educators: a dynamic,

decentred and complex one. Nonetheless, as the icons of the new logocentric and consumerist

mindset rise and fall, at least for a while, we are increasingly reminded that we are interrelated

and that economic reasons are not always the most valid or more pressing ones. We know that

they will not automatically make us feel prouder about ourselves and our performance in the

world. Knowledge, education, learning, the economy and personal satisfaction are surely co-

related, but they do not necessarily coincide with one another.

That is why most of us keep asking ourselves what kind of programmes we should be

offering to our students and what their components should be. We must educate educators (not

just teachers) in and for complex contexts, and that calls for reflection and guts.

Since one of the dimensions of globalization is that it is conducive to multi-layered

existential perceptions and appropriations of reality, I shall now briefly introduce the concept of

glocality.

Glocality

Glocality is the combination, mingling and cross-pollination of inside and outside

variables, forces and frames of reference. Glocality is all those localities that, despite not

occupying any given physical space, still are very real in our lived experience.

Glocality presents a number of dimensions. One of them is that we ‗are witnessing both

macro-level homogenization of identities and micro-level fragmentation of them‘ (Meyrowitz,

2004). This is an important element for educators that embrace learner-centred approaches. The

ways in which globalization and glocality influence individual and group identity will differ

from time to time in different ways. To teenagers, defining their identity implies negotiating their

relationship with their own body, their peers, the older generations, the choices that will affect

their future career, etc. Young adults will face other issues, e.g. getting ready for a job or finding

one, starting a family, having children, renting or buying a flat or a house, becoming active social

agents or not, etc. In the case of groups, global influences will co-relate to regional and local

responses to it, e.g. religiously motivated suicide bombers in Iraq and Pakistan will not help

improve the perception of Muslims in the west.7

The glocal dimension of our life reminds us that education is more than mere schooling. I

guess that each generation must redefine what education is and what it should be primarily for.

The glocal and the role of education revisited

Education is certainly not limited to lab-like school settings. Teacher education institutes

can not remain oblivious of globalization and the new ‗glocalities‘ it facilitates. If and when the

circumstances change, so too must our ways of dealing with them be changed. That is why our

pedagogies and philosophies of education must be reviewed every so often. The phenomenon of

glocality entails that we must make an effort to ensure that education does justice to both the

local and the global dimensions of the learning community (Guttman, 2009). In itself, it is not an

7 And so a Belgian Muslim can be suddenly perceived by other non-Muslim Belgians as having more in common

with the Taliban (whom he has never met and probably abhors) than with his Belgian primary and secondary school

classmates. The Belgian Muslim can thus be robbed of his Belgian identity and (provisionally) invested with another

until he has proven himself to be more Belgian than Taliban.



ethical phenomenon; it is us humans that can render it ethical or unethical by means of our

choices and the (anti)values that we extol and pursue.

The presence of Muslims in previously non-Muslim communities constitutes an added

challenge as we revisit the subjective educational theories as well as the professional ideal self as

educators that influence the way in which we educate student-teachers.

Revisiting our pedagogical vision and intervention

The glocal dimension of lived experience presents us educators, in general, and educators

of future educators, in particular, with the task of redefining our views of education as well as the

many ways in which we translate them into educational practices. This is particularly important

in multicultural Western societies where the view that schools are the factories in which the

desired citizens are mass-produced is being confronted with the fact that our societies no longer

have a unified identity. So if we do not know what our society is or should be like, how are we

then to know for which society we must prepare our students?

As educational practitioners and researchers, we must remain critical of new

developments, schools and fads. We ought, for instance, to critically assess the ideologies behind

the knowledge society and, especially, the knowledge economy, not to forget the consequences

they can have. We cannot afford to become oblivious of the limitations of the ‗pedagogization‘

of society8 as well as of the reduction of education to schooling. That is why I shall now briefly

ask some questions in relation to how we view education and our task as educators in our glocal

contexts.

Belonging and Islam: the borders where learner-centeredness ends?

Learner-centred pedagogies are in. Given that expressions such as ‗letting a child be a

child‘ are built on presuppositions that are of an ideological (not ‗natural‘) nature,9 it may be

asked whether the child- and learner-centred discourses have actually led to the broadening of

our pedagogical vision and practice and the reformulation of what being a school means.

For instance, we may ask in Flanders: If our schools are learner centred, how come that

students from ethnic minorities (especially Muslim ones) are often envisaged as either a

‗problem‘ to be solved by getting rid of them or a ‗selling stunt‘10 to be exploited as sources of

extra funding? If we did not only talk the learner-centred talk, but also walked the walk, we

should see them as one of the main objectives at whose service schools and curricula should be,

namely as students. If our school was truly learner centred, we would not so easily demand that

8 This can be seen, for instance, in light of the ‗Totally Pedagogized Society‘ (or TPS), spoken of by Bernstein

(2001). 9 Nature is the stage on which we live, but not always an essential part of our personal self-definition. Moreover,

globalization, as said above, often brings along a further alienation from our natural or physical location (which need

not always be seen as negative, although it can be). 10 Are we at times led by the idea that the more minorities we have in the school, the more (governmental) funding

we will get for extra programmes‘? The problem is that ‗diversity‘ is often turned into a synonym of ‗foreigner-

related affairs‘. It has been shown that, in fact, many people engaged in ‗diversity management‘ in education reduce

their job to the social insertion or integration (in Dutch: inburgering and integratie) of students with a non-Belgian

ethnic background. That is why Steyaert (2009) suggests that they should not be called ‗diversity managers,‘ but

‗inburgering/integratie managers‘ instead.



our students change to be allowed to be in our midst. Instead, we would question ourselves to see

where we must change to better serve them. Indeed, we would try to ‗discover them as subjects,

acknowledging their identities, cultural and cognitive universe‘11

(Croso, 2009).

How come that our learner-centred educational theories are not always followed by

learner-centred practices in our very teacher education colleges? Do we at times not deal with

our own students in inflexible ways while we teach them to be flexible and accommodating to

better serve their future pupils and students? Do our schools often not behave towards us and the

student population more as a factory than as ‗learner-centred‘ colleges? After what and whom

are we modelling our visions and practices?

Differential pedagogical discourses and rigid school practices?

Despite the fact that we are offering future teachers a good basis in psychology and in

theories underlying the importance of differential pedagogical practice, the presence of

allochthonous populations in Europe, especially of Muslims, is at times greeted with increasingly

rigid responses on the part of schools. Cases of indiscipline do not lead to a reconsideration of a

school‟s atmosphere and practice (both implicit and explicit or hidden and manifest), but to the

questioning of the students‟ potentials or attitude.

On the part of the allochthonous groups, one can also observe certain blindness as to what

needs to be changed. Victims and people that think that they are being victimized often have

difficulties accepting the need to embark on a journey of self-critical analysis to find out whether

the negative reactions that they experience or actually encounter may partly be due to their own

action. Indeed, mentality deadlocks as this can easily lead to the active and passive enactment of

victimization mechanisms whereby everybody views oneself as a helpless victim and no longer

as an enterprising social partner.

Educating for compliance or creativity, or both?

Who is well educated: the one that abides by the ‗done thing‘ dictated by society and the

market or the one that dares to think up alternatives?

In this context, the issue of imagination takes on paramount importance. Progress is only

possible when people dare to think that some things could be otherwise. Although schools need

the market and must at times dog behind market forces, the current economy is increasingly

dependent on knowledge and creativity. Climate issues, too, indicate that the survival of our

lifestyle will only be safeguarded if and when we can combine respect for nature with a

creativity that can look past natural limitations.

Thinking up, articulating and enacting pedagogies that combine the necessary degree of

compliance and creativity (and even rebellion) is an exercise to which all teacher educators ought

to devote the needed attention.

I think that the presence of Muslims in Europe offers our societies opportunities for self-

critique and growth. The shocking and sobering effects of the Holocaust led Europeans to review

their assumptions, such as nationalism, belonging, inclusion and exclusion. The birth and the

development of the European Union have shown that lessons were indeed learnt and that Europe

has evolved ethically and economically in positive ways.

11 My translation of: ‗descubrirlos como sujetos, reconociendo sus identidades, su universo cultural y cognitivo‘.



Nonetheless, although the colonial thought that European philosophies and practices were

the summit of civilization was shuttered by the Holocaust (which irrevocably proved otherwise),

some seem to be returning to it. We are, therefore, forced by our historical consciousness to

rethink our views and ways. We are once again given the chance to redefine and reapply the

values of the European humanist tradition, this time taking into considerations the insights

present in the traditions of our Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist and other neighbours. Together, we

stand in our immediate glocal space. As we find ourselves at the crossroads where identity and

belonging are being discussed, our response should help us to evolve one step forward, not

backwards. More inclusive views of community and education are called for, without entailing a

levelling-off of personal differences. We ought to learn to be together in different ways as well

as to be different while still being together.

Rhyming factual plurality with religious singularity

We are not alone in the world. Our ideas about life and the self are just a few among

many. And if we are to believe the UN Declaration of Human Rights, we all have the right to

have them and express them in just ways, as well as to freely change them.

One of the questions that educators of future educators in the West are faced with is how

can religion, which is based on the conviction that ‗our ideas are true (even God‟s truth)‘ be

combined with a democratic education aimed at safeguarding and perpetuating the democratic

rule of law through laws that must be defended rationally and that are based on the people‟s right

to self-determination and not on mandatory divine revelation?

This question necessitates a reappraisal of our foundational religious and non-religious

texts and the ways in which we read and interpret them. Do they really have to alienate us from

our fellow believers, agnostics, or atheists elsewhere? This will be yet another area where the

reality of glocality manifests itself, especially due to the fact that these texts are not only ours.

For they belong to humanity and as such are pone to be interpreted differently in different places

and by different people.

As a way to combine pedagogy and the promotion of identity and belonging, at

GROUP T, we base our educational policy and practice on UNESCO‘s Four Pillars of

Education: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. In a

sense, they are a condensed version of many pedagogical and didactic principles.

UNESCO‘s Four Pillars of Education

UNESCO‘s Four Pillars of Education provide us with a checklist of four basic

components of holistic education: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and

learning to be.

Although the short description of these pillars given on the UNESCO page12

could be

critiqued for having a western, industrialized ring and a strong and rather uncritical market

orientation (Bonal & Rambla, 2003), at our college we believe that they can be used as a

platform for holistic education. Consequently, we encourage our students to ensure that their

educational intervention facilitates the realisation of these four goals in their life as educators and

learners.

12 http://www.unesco.org/delors/fourpil.htm.



Learning to know: each pedagogical encounter should facilitate the discovery and acquisition

of new knowledge as well as of the strategies to continue learning. They should therefore not

only be about learning, but also about learning to learn, not just in the classroom, but in life.

Learning to do: there should be enough individual activities so that pupils and students can

get to know their own potentials as well as to appropriate, integrate and apply new

knowledge and skills both in real life situations and in virtual ones based on speculations as

to how the world might turn out to be in the future.

Learning to live together: team building strategies and assignments should be employed so

that the learners can be helped to find their place and role in the group —indeed, in different

groups

Learning to be: finally, there must be personal and interpersonal growth moments during

which all participants discover the existential relevance of the new knowledge, skills and

metacognitive elements for themselves as persons (including the educator) and the group.

After all, education is about helping the whole person to become a conscientious and

balanced individual as well as a functional member of one or more communities.

The ideal situation is that these four elements are present in each pedagogical encounter

or lesson —indeed, in the whole curriculum. If they are, it is my conviction that we will be on

the way to a holistic approach that places both the educator and the learners within one learning

process13

generating individuals and community, as well as identity and belonging.

The last two elements, identity and belonging, are among the main priorities of

GROUP T - Leuven Education College, in general, and, especially, of our teacher education

programme in the area of IRE, which I shall now describe.

The backdrop of GROUP T‘s IRE track

The Flemish education system

Belgium is a federal state with several governmental levels, organized in language

communities and regions, education being one of the tasks of the communities and not of the

federal government. I shall therefore concentrate on Flemish secondary education, within which

there are four tracks: General (GSE, in Dutch: ASO), Technical (TSE, in Dutch: TSO),

Vocational (VSE, in Dutch: BSO) and Artistic (ASE, in Dutch: KSO).

GSE is the track followed by those who intend to do further studies afterwards, e.g. at a

university or a professional college.

VSE centres on a profession, e.g. in the metal, building, care, or fashion sector; the

theoretical component is limited and wholly focused on the area of specialization. VSE

students can still go on to further studies, e.g. by doing an extra seventh year.

TSE is somewhere in between GSE and VSE.

ASE is completely geared to the education of artists, e.g. in the area of music, dance, or the

visual arts.

13 We might this way be able to go beyond the learner-centred vs. teacher-centred dichotomy.



There are basically two kinds of schools: 1) directly sponsored by the government

(community, provincial and municipal schools) and 2) free schools, i.e. schools set up by other

agencies, e.g. Catholic or ‗method‘ schools.

IRE is an option only in schools directly sponsored by the government. The other schools

mostly teach their own ‗life views‘ (Catholic, Jewish, or non-confessional humanism).

The Belgian Muslim community

There are about 400,000 Muslims in Belgium. The two majority groups have Moroccan

or Turkish roots; however, there is also a sizeable Kurd, Somali and Chechen community. There

are also Muslims with a Pakistani, Egyptian, Tunisian, Algerian, European (Belgian, Bosnian,

etc.), or other background (Indian, Bangladeshi, Iranian, etc.).

Unity of minds and hearts remains a considerable problem that at times thwarts the

visibility of the community.

The social and education divide

It is no longer sufficient to focus on the ‗digital divide‘ between nations; we must also

tackle the ‗knowledge divide‘ between students. The poor levels of literacy among many

(Muslim) migrants, especially Turkish and Moroccan ones (Kaya & Kentel, 2007; Saaf, 2009),14

meant that upon arrival in Europe, they often landed in the lower ranks of the social ladder —

where the majority still is.

Practically, this variable translated itself into a phenomenon whereby their children often

end up in vocational schools. Some tried to start off in GSE but kept ‗falling‘ till their arrived in

VSE. In Flanders, this is called the ‗waterfall effect‘. I have observed that this experience of

‗failure‘ and the constraints of their socio-economic background and the lifestyle that it often

entails,15

often affects both the students‘ self-image (‗as losers‘) and their (initial) performance in

tertiary education. For after having concentrated almost exclusively on practical skills, they will

have a cognitive lacuna if and when they join programmes in tertiary education.

Cyberspace and the virtual ‗umma

‗If education does not require a specific spatial location or a building then it can be

delivered from anywhere to anywhere‘ (Mosco, 1998). This applies not only to education, but

also to the knowledge hubs in Muslim world community („umma). Fatwa‘s are being given in

Egypt or Saudi Arabia for Muslims living in Canada, France, or the Netherlands. This glocal

phenomenon affects the identity and the feeling of belonging of our Muslims throughout the

14 Recent research has shown that half the population with Turkish and Moroccan roots lives under the poverty line

(De Rynck, 2008). 15 The families of most of my female Muslim students expect them not only to study full-time, but also to help with

the cooking, the cleaning and the upbringing of their siblings at home. It is also unlikely that Moslimas will be

allowed to rent a student room and stay away from home during the week. In some exceptional cases, their families

will not even allow them to participate in study trips if that means that they will have to stay in hotels where there

will also be male students. This is hardly ever the case with non-Muslim female students. They may stay on campus

throughout the week and, while at home, they are allowed to lead a very private life in their own room. This means,

for instance, that they have more time to study and to do their school assignments.



world, in particular of the teenagers and young adults. Effective and differential educational

policies can therefore not be oblivious of this dynamic, let along teacher education colleges.

Social models as educational models

Our glocal context challenges us to be creative and to develop new models for educating

and new concrete ways of doing it already. At GROUP T, this translates into the question: What

kind of IRE are we going to offer our IRE student-teachers?

Should we cop out and remain neutral, with the understanding that neutrality implies

bracketing out the differences that may bring about frictions, as the majority of Flemish people

seem to prefer doing?

Or should we rather seek to officialise assimilation through our curriculum and training

methods so that our students ‗blend in‘ completely?

Should we, on the contrary, turn IRE into a tool of ghettoization, stressing how unique

Muslims are? Said otherwise, should we encourage them to live in some sort of concocted,

anachronistic ‗medina.com‘ and thus to opt out of their Flemish/Belgian context?

Would it be responsible of us to accept multiculturalism and to equip our students with

enough, fair and critical information about the different social groups round about them without

actually and explicitly engaging with ‗the other‘ in the process?

Finally, would it be a wise managerial decision to take a decisive stance in favour of

interculturalism, institutionally embodying the message that we wish to convey, and thus run the

risk of chasing away more segregationist16 or nationalistic segments of the student population?

The intercultural thrust

Even though ‗multicultural education‘ and ‗intercultural education‘ are, at times, seen as

synonyms, UNESCO prefers to conceptualize intercultural education as being interaction-

oriented and of a clearly programmatic nature, while multicultural is seen as a more descriptive

term referring to the social make-up of a school or a class.17 A good example of intercultural

education and not just ‗foreigner pedagogy‘ is found in the 1996 German guideline ‗Intercultural

Education at School‘ (‗Interkulturelle Bildung und Erziehung in der Schule‘), which indicated

that federal states should: ‗Overhaul and further develop their curricula and guidelines for all

subjects with regard to an intercultural dimension; develop teaching materials which address

intercultural aspects as an integral part of school and education; only allow school textbooks that

16 There can also be forms of segregationist mindsets among Muslims, for instance, by avoiding contacts with non-

Muslims as much as possible and using ritual, purity laws as an excuse to raise iron-cast barriers between peoples. 17 http://www.eera-ecer.eu/ecer-programmes-and-presentations/conference/ecer-

2009/contribution/1654/?no_cache=1. A good example of the implications of the word ‗intercultural‘ can be found

in the following passage on intercultural dialogue: ‗Intercultural dialogue is not a debate on secularism or a

theological debate on the truth, relevance or extent of one philosophy or another! Just imagine how dangerous such

an exercise would be since, by definition, beliefs are based on dogmas and, in a democracy that recognises freedom

of conscience, it is neither possible nor desirable to use a public initiative to convince oneself that one is right and

that others are wrong. Therefore, dialogue is not meant to be a process to convince others to convert to one's own

religious or secular philosophy. Intercultural dialogue must allow for discussion of the multiplicity of worldviews

and cultures as well as discussion of ways in which that diversity can be managed democratically, how it can

contribute to society as a whole and what its significance and value are. For example, this kind of dialogue can play

an important role both in resolving practical problems raised by the multicultural society and in constructing a

concept of citizenship that values diversity and individual rights.‘ (Manço, 2005)

http://www.eera-ecer.eu/ecer-programmes-and-presentations/conference/ecer-2009/contribution/1654/?no_cache=1

http://www.eera-ecer.eu/ecer-programmes-and-presentations/conference/ecer-2009/contribution/1654/?no_cache=1



do not marginalise or discriminate against other cultures and include texts and pictures that give

non‐German students an opportunity to identify with them; facilitate the employment of

non‐German teachers in all subject areas and intensify the collaboration between mother tongue

teachers and other staff; and include intercultural aspects in teacher training courses.‘ (Faas,

2008).

At the management and departmental level, GROUP T has made a conscious choice in

favour of promoting an intercultural climate and pluralistic policies. That is why we count

intercultural competences among the competences that our student-teachers should demonstrate

in order to graduate. Said otherwise, education should help our students to live as and to become

adequate (enough) teachers in a culturally diverse and complex society (Hoff, 1995).

The problem with intercultural (or diversity) education is that there is a real risk that it

may be a mere coating, a PR exercise (e.g. to attract funding for projects concerning the

multicultural society or geared to helping only students with a foreign background). Another

danger is that it may be reduced to ethnic differences only, thus forgetting physical disabilities,

conditions affecting learning, ageism, gender, etc.

Intercultural education should become a mindset, ‗the normal run of the mill‘. Having

said that, it must be borne in mind that even this will probably remain sheer wishful thinking

unless the curriculum, the building and even the prospectus are intrinsically intercultural.18

An intercultural pedagogy should be seen reflected in an intercultural curriculum and in

intercultural infrastructures. However, for this to take place, time, resources and visionary people

are needed. On the one hand, such pedagogy entails helping both personnel and students to feel

that we are granted the space to work on, establish and express our own identity.19

On the other

hand, an intercultural pedagogical approach ought to seek to instil in both the staff and the

students the due respect for the differences among us, for they contribute to making us who we

are. Therefore, if we wish to communicate with the ‗real‘ other (not the one we would like him

or her to be), then we must accept that they do not need to become a copy of us. To foster such a

mentality we have chosen, with the help of the Coordinator of Diversity and Pluralism, to start

off by working together within the department of worldviews and religions. This department

consists of three lecturers of Catholic RE, one of Islamic RE (myself), three of Humanist

Philosophy of Life and one of Buddhism.

However, I fear that we often talk the intercultural talk, but do not walk the

diversity and intercultural walk. We should pose ourselves very practical questions:

What story do our buildings tell? Are they user-friendly, also in the case of handicapped and

emotionally or physically impaired students? Are our toilets duly fitted so that Muslims can

18 This is important because when educators pretend to hold neutral approaches and use neutral material, the risk is

great that differences will be ignored. I concur with Tupper on this point: ‗I acknowledge to some extent the

necessity of creating uniform goals and objectives for students in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes, but these

should never be framed in a way that negates the lived experiences of students based on their race, culture, gender,

class, sexual orientation, etc. Often objectives or rationales appear neutral when in fact they are the embodiment of

partiality‘ (Tupper, 2008). 19 Two notes are in order here. First, the issue of identity underlines the ‗constructedness‘ of human life as lived

experience. Identities are not natural, biological phenomena: they are constructed and internalized (Castells, 2004).

They can, therefore, be deconstructed, reconstructed, even discarded and replaced. Dogmatism in the area of

identities represents a clearly ill-advised lack of insight into one‘s own self and that of social interaction. Second,

rights are also constructs, framed by the bonds of the law. Over and above rights (and duties), we find our ethical

discourse(s) in terms of values, such as justice, which is yet another tier of our multidimensional lived experience.



perform the ritual washing during school hours and are there spaces suitable for reflection

and prayer?

Do our cafeterias offer decent kosher, halâl, vegetarian and vegan alternatives, i.e. a thought-

out menu with an eye for taste and variety and not just to avoid ‗them‘ complaining (again)?

Has our school calendar incorporated the feast days of the different groups represented in our

school? Have those days actually taken up in our colleges‘ planners and the necessary

allowances made in our colleges‘ rules and regulations?

Have our course load and requirements as well as our examination papers been designed to

suit both theoretically and visually oriented students, not to forget students with attention

deficit, dyslexia, dyscalculia, etc.?

When I consider these questions and look at my own college, I can happily say that we

are on the way to a comprehensive intercultural pedagogy, but must also humbly confess that we

are not there yet.

Two projects at GROUP T: IEC and IRE

The two programmes in which I am personally involved as educator are the International

Educating Class (IEC) and the teacher education programme in the area of Islamic Religious

Education (IRE). Both of them are examples of how important the glocal dimension is to

professional colleges nowadays, especially in multicultural societies.

The IEC

The IEC20 presents a twofold movement. On the one hand, it seeks to bring the world into

GROUP T by incorporating international students into our everyday college life. On the other, it

aims to empower its participants to stake their claim in the world as innovative agents of positive

change and as navigators for peace in the global village.

The IEC comprises two one-semester undergraduate and postgraduate programmes:

Exploring Education (30 ECTS) and Enterprising Education (30 ECTS), both based on

UNESCO‘s educational vision and projects.

The first component of the IEC, namely Exploring Education, aims to familiarize the

participants with education as something much broader than schooling. Human socialization is a

process whereby we are both learners and educators. This programme is, therefore, suitable not

only for teachers, but for everybody who wishes to rediscover the educating dimension of their

whole life, including their professional practice.

UNESCO’s

4 PILLARS

OF EDUCATION

CORE MODULES

Learning TO KNOW Capacity Building and Learning Strategies for Innovation (3 ECTS)

Global Education networks and agencies (3 ECTS)

Learning TO DO Educational planning, implementation and evaluation: theory (3 ECTS)

Educational planning, implementation and evaluation: Internship (3 ECTS)

20 See www.groupt.be/piec.



Learning TO LIVE

TOGETHER

Living together in 2025 (3 ECTS)

Education, society and intercultural dialogue (3 ECTS)

Learning TO BE On becoming a person (6 ECTS)

Extension Modules

Chinese Language and Culture: an introduction (3 ECTS)

English, Language, code and Culture (3 ECTS)

English Proficiency (3 ECTS)

We have seen that students experience this programme not just as a school activity,

but as an existential journey. Indeed, by the end of the semester, most of them have

integrated into their personal value system and aspirations the two overarching

motivational slogans: becoming navigators of peace and agents of positive change.

The second component, namely Enterprising Education, has been conceived as a

unified whole of theory and practice (in terms of each of its modules as well as of the full

programme).

UNESCO’s 5 THEMES

Modules

Education

Educating for education: care (3 ECTS)

Natural Sciences

Educating for natural sciences: sustainability (3 ECTS)

Social and Human

Sciences

Educating for social sciences: justice (3 ECTS)

Culture Educating for culture: diversity (3 ECTS)

Communicatioand

Information

Educating for communication and information:

empowerment (3 ECTS)

Practicum

Project Management and Education Planning (5 ECTS)

Internship (10 ECTS)

The division into an exploring and an enterprising moment is not arbitrary. It is

intimately related to the vision of GROUP T according to which our student-teachers are

expected to have an engineering mentality, while our student-engineers are encouraged to show

an educating thrust in their work.

The IRE track

Our Islamic teacher education programme is the second such programme to be offered in

Dutch in Belgium and the only one in Flanders. In itself, it is a sign that the Muslim community

has taken root and become of age in Belgium.

Seen from the perspective of this paper, the IRE programme is a clear reminder that the

Belgian ‗locality‘ has become increasingly diversified and complex and that our citizens both

share and do not share the same existential space.

The IRE programme also shows that Belgium is not stagnant. Our federal community (or

communities) evolves. Even though the Belgian (or, even better, the Flemish and Walloon)



collective consciousness has not always caught up with this demographic and social fact, future

teachers in Flanders may not be oblivious of these developments.

Basic components

At GROUP T, to become teachers, students must choose two subjects (e.g. French and

Islam or Biology and Islam) on which they will concentrate and which they will be able to teach

after graduation. Beside those concentration subjects, all GROUP T student-teachers share

common components (e.g. general didactics, language and communication workshops, project

weeks, and meta-workshops). Some of the students, depending on their level, will also have to

follow language monitoring sessions focusing on grammar, syntax, or pronunciation.

Beside the cognitive modules, there are also three broad components: (1) projects focused

on the students‘ subjective educational theory and professional ideal self (Janssens &

Kelchtermans, 1997; Schutz & Zembylas, 2009), (2) meta-workshops destined to facilitate and

support self-reflection as future teachers and (3) yearly internships, both at home and abroad.

The professional BA programme can be completed within three years in six semesters.

IRE-specific components

Each year comprises three subjects directly related to Islam: Domain-Specific Theory and

Applied Didactics (mandatory for IRE student-teachers) and Islam as elective.

All three subjects have been conceived of from a glocal perspective. On the one hand,

they deal with the traditional Islamic knowledge base, aiming to acquaint the students with key

concepts in the Islamic Sciences as it is done in Muslim countries. On the other hand, they are

also challenged to bring that knowledge into dialogue with issues pertaining to their lived

experience in Flanders and Belgium as a whole.

Throughout the programme, we seek to apply an open, nuanced and intercultural wisdom

approach, instead of a legalistic, segregationist one. Diversity is given a central position in the

curriculum concerning Islamic as well as interreligious themes. Without taking sides, we strive

to familiarize our IRE student-teachers with Sunni, Shiite and Ibadi theology and practice. This

is motivated by the conviction that in the future, they will have the duty to affirm their pupils and

students, empowering them to become wholesome and socially integrated citizens and Muslims,

no matter what Islamic legal or theological school they may follow.

Challenges: educating glocal IRE teachers

As I reflect on our college‘s practice in the education of IRE teachers in light of the

concept of glocality, it appears to me that there are certain key realizations that we had better not

lose sight of. I shall briefly enumerate some of them.

Twofold standards: local and global

Our Muslim student-teachers must not only be up to the task of being educators in

Western Europe, but also of being teachers of Islamic RE. Very often the Islamic Studies

programmes in the west bear little resemblance to those in the Muslim world in terms of

contents. This can create a feeling of inferiority in our students, since they will be able to discuss

and debate about Islam and other worldviews with their western colleagues, but might feel ill-



prepared to do it in front of other Muslims. Besides, it is possible that many of our student-

teachers‘ future pupils and students will have been influenced by the information posted on non-

Belgian websites, which, to all intents and purposes, often seem to entertain the pretension of

being the conveyers of the ‗only true position of Islam‘. Our students must therefore be able to

engage in a critical dialogue not only with westerners using western arguments and texts, but

also with non-westerners employing texts cast in a traditional Islamic format and jargon.21

One of the difficulties at this level is language. Christians can study theology without

ever reading the Holy Scriptures in their original languages (Hebrew, Aramaic and Koinè

Greek), but this is not quite applicable to the field of IRE. In the west, we need to learn Arabic.

However, the fact that most Muslim students in Belgium have a foreign background and often

come from vocational schools means that in Flanders, learning good Dutch must be prioritized

over learning Arabic. Seen that the position of the Flemish ministry of education is that ‗every

teacher is a (Dutch) language teacher,‘ demanding a working knowledge of Arabic would place a

hardly justifiable burden on the full-time timetable of our students. This exemplifies one of the

essentially glocal demands being made on our students, as well as the local constraints.

Research and publication: a global tradition with local flavours

Due to the great lack of adequate intercultural teaching material, teacher education

colleges should seize the opportunity and establish research and publication units. The danger

with professional tertiary colleges (at least in Flanders) is that we may start thinking that research

must only be done at universities.

Furthermore, due to the ongoing reforms in European higher education, universities and

professional (university) colleges in Belgium have different goals and cater for different types of

students. This means that they do not need to mirror themselves in the other. Their research

interests should be different because their target group and objectives, as well as the experience

from which they stem, also differ. Our professional colleges must accept their place, role and

angle (our practice and praxis bias) in the new glocal knowledge society. This is particularly true

in the case of programmes in the area of IRE on various accounts; for instance, firstly, because

there is a great need for didactic material designed with a view to being used within our western

context and, secondly, because by involving our own students in the work of our research and

publication centres, we could contribute to the birth of more proactive, better educated and more

research-oriented Muslim generations.

Critical and traditional: local and global expectations

It is not always easy to strike a balance between educating educators for IRE taught from

a confessional perspective and educating educators for western societies. Governments have their

expectations from IRE teachers, but so too do the Muslim community, the inspectorate for IRE

and the umbrella Muslim organizations that coordinate the public life of the community (here

called ‗Executive of Muslims in Belgium,‘ or EMB).

21 It is not only a question of being a critical Muslim vis-à-vis non-Muslims, but also vis-à-vis Muslims both at home

and abroad. Knowing what being a minority means, we, Muslims in Europe, should defend the rights of non-Muslim

minorities in predominantly Muslim countries and societies. Only then shall we prove that we are honestly interested

in justice and not just in our gain. We must remind ourselves that our surrender and commitment is to God and to

doing justice in mercy, not to a label or a group as if Islam was a ‗club thing‘.



It is not easy for Muslim educators in the west to often have to explain to other Muslims

why we nuance our statements, especially when it comes down to issues such as girls and boys

sharing a swimming-pool or to thorny questions such as abortion, same-sex marriage and

euthanasia (all of which are possible in Belgium within the bounds of the law). What may sound

conservative to some (e.g. western non-Muslims) will probably be perceived as too liberal by

others.

Courage to face local and global disavowal

Muslims in Europe and European Muslims often have a double feeling of belonging

(Maréchal, 2003), but also of not-belonging. In Belgium, they are not considered Belgians,

Flemish or Walloons, but Turks, Moroccans, etc. In Turkey or Morocco, however, they are seen

as Belgians. They are different wherever they are. They may even realize that they are freer to be

Muslims in Europe than elsewhere, which may feel, to some, as an implicit recognition that non-

Muslim societies can be better than Muslim ones. To acknowledge this would be like conceding

defeat precisely to those that make them feel unwanted in Europe (i.e. unwanted for as long as

they do not betray their identity).

The risks are that some of those who stay in the west while dreaming of a ‗medina.com‘

virtual locality may, in the long run, experience a sense of disgust: at themselves for having

chosen comfort (al-dunya) over religion (al-dîn) and at the local community for having expected

this self-betrayal from them.

Nonetheless, I am convinced that living on the border, between two realities, need not

always be a negative thing. The ‗in-between zone‘ is, more often than not, precisely the locale

where creativity flourishes, also seen from the point of view of identity creation.22

Those who are

content with living in pigeon-holes for good will probably never come up with innovative and

better social alternatives. Nonetheless, living ‗in-between‘ is not always easy and, apparently, not

everybody is up to it.

In order to help our students to fulfil satisfying and meaningful roles in our globalized

world, we ought to rethink our pedagogical approaches. We are not only educating future

educators to be learner oriented, we are also educators ourselves and should, therefore, be

personally learner oriented. Muslim students are not just Muslims, they are our students. How

are we going to (continue to) develop pedagogies, curricula and structures that celebrate identity

and foster multi-tiered belonging? –that remains the question.

Some final remarks

First, I would like to underline the need to regularly revisit the question of what education

is/should be as well as the answers given to it. The globalization of goods, information and

knowledge calls for ever new ways of educating ourselves and others, as well as of critiquing our

pedagogical assumptions. For, as Depaepe has suggested, in the history of education continuity

has been stronger than discontinuity (1997).

22 According to Bhabha (1990), it is precisely the ‗third space‘ that makes possible the rise of new positions as it

displaces the histories and uncontested traditions (and their biases) that generated previous identities. The ‗third

space‘ starts a new dynamic of identification (Ghosh, Abdi & Naseem, 2008) whereby members of a group discover

that they can define themselves in new ways.



Depaepe has rightfully remarked that ‗Increased attention to the child cannot be equated

with emancipatory orientation. The so-called pedocentrism of the New School Movement placed

children on a pedestal. They had to play and be happy on the pedagogical island that adults had

reserved for them. In the world of adults, they bore no responsibilities at all. Raising children

was the postponement of independence, which could easily degenerate into alienation from

oneself and from nature and also into increased dependency on others.‘ (Depaepe, 1997:217).

This observation indicates that at times, schooling is (unconsciously?) based on the invention of

‗the child‘ as a being that must be protected from real life23

(and thus severed from it) and of the

school as a sort of pre-emptive correctional ward for infants24

seen primarily as the future

workforce in the making.25

The link between education and life must never be lost. It is in this

context that the link between education and the labour market finds its rationale. However,

education is not merely about taking life as it is (raw life), it also entails a certain idealism:

shaping ‗raw‘ life into something more humane, into ‗ideal‘ life.

Second, my advice is that as educators of future educators in a global age, we must make

sure that we, our curricula and structures meaningfully acknowledge the many glocalities that

shape the lived experience of our students, especially in terms of identity and belonging. This

calls for openness as well as for a critical attitude.

Third, as educators of IRE teachers in Flanders, we may say that our task is a wonderful

professional challenge. In a sense, we are like Moses who, according to the biblical story, led his

people to the land of freedom, but could not enter into it. He had to be content with a mere

glimpse of it from a mountain top. Thus, we, too, are called upon to prepare our student for a

world, indeed, many worlds or glocalities that will most likely not be ours.

What we and our students do in our educational encounters may influence the geo-

historical concretisation and articulation of the Islamic experience and discourse in the Flanders

of the future. We must, therefore, start by seeing our Muslim students first and foremost as

students and as future educators (not as ‗a curiosity‘), at whose service our college, our curricula

and ourselves ought to be —provided that we have taken on board the insights of the learner-

centred pedagogical discourse. Their progress in their learning process and its impact on their

all-round wellbeing should be at the forefront of our objectives, nurturing their identity and

acknowledging that they belong to more than one glocality.

23 Children must be guarded from the ‗negative‘ components of life, such as illnesses, inequalities, disagreements,

death, etc. Classrooms are on the whole conceived of as controlled and regulated environments, often on the grounds

that the students‘ future workplace will be that way and they must be ready for it. Indirectly, child-centred schools

may, therefore, be fabricating workers for factories rather than educating children to successfully function in the real

world with all of its dimensions. Ironically, a street-child in Rio de Janeiro could, from this perspective, be described

as somebody who has been adequately educated to function and survive in his real world, whereas our well-schooled

children are often unable to even cope with the stress of an exam. What is education then and who is educated? 24 Society is increasingly placing the burden of behavioural formation and reform on the shoulders of teachers.

Schools and teachers are being asked to correct much of what our students as citizens are doing wrong and to pre-

emptively tackle what might go wrong in the future. This way, schools and educators do not only have to prepare the

future workforce, but also to function as correctional agents (often due to the lack of meaningful communication

between parents and children on account of the parents‘ working hours). The economy is no longer at the service of

human beings, but human beings at the service of the economy and the desires and aspirations that consumerism (its

motor) has instilled in them. 25 This has been poignantly worded by Bonal and Ramblas: ‗Flexible and global capitalism –the social base that

regulates the pedagogic discourse- requires a specific type of pedagogic expression that erodes commitment,

certainty and that is therefore socially empty.‘ (Bonal & Rambla, 2003)



Fourth, we should never stop encouraging our students to become more reflective and

critical by means of reflective and critical educational practices.

Globalization could engender new structures whereby education can be colonized by

powers external to it —powers that do not have the holistic wellbeing of the students as their

primary goal. We should recognise the value of the old practice of ‗discernment of spirits‘ and

combine it with ideological criticism. Simplistic views (e.g. that improvements in the education

system alone will automatically lead to a just distribution of wealth and opportunities and to

overall social wellbeing) ought to be nuanced.26

Human life unfolds within systemic

environments27

that can only be radically refashioned if and when structural strategies are set in

place, including changes in the dominant mentality and established practices.

Fifth, we should also convey to all our students the sense that identity and belonging

bring along responsibilities. For the truly developed human being is the one that makes a positive

difference wherever he or she is, that is, the one who uses his or her identity and belonging not

only to profit from the community, but also to strengthen it.

This last remark is not ideologically neutral, but that does not bother me. Value-free

education is an illusion: it does not exist. All educational choices and practices are based on

assumptions, some better founded than others, but still dependent on founding narratives.28

If

education was indeed value-free, it would also be either worthless or gutless, easily hijacked by

dehumanizing forces such as blind capitalism, materialism, political or religious dictators, in

short, by agents that will not help our human spirit to personally and collectively soar to new

heights.

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Intercultural Education, 17, pp. 475-483.

BHABHA, Homi (1990). ‗The third space: Interview with Homi Bhabha, in J. Rutherford (ed.), Identity:

Community, Culture, Difference. London: Lawrence & Wishart.

BANDURA, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

BECCARIA, Luis & GROISMAN, Fernando (2004). ‗Educación y distribución del ingreso,‘ in SITEAL [Debate 3:

La incidencia de la educación sobre el bienestar de los hogares]. Buenos Aires: UNESCO, IIEP and OEI.

http://www.siteal.iipe-oei.org.

BECK, U. (1992). The Risk Society. London: Sage Publications.

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Reference # 120

Topic # 4

Teachers, students and eLearning: From stereotypes to autonomy James Scully [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This paper is a practitioner‘s exploration of how teachers and students can move from the

stereotypes each hold to a situation where both can exploit eLearning to develop autonomous

patterns of teaching and learning which complement their classrooms and out-of-class activities.

Three themes are examined:

Tertiary students and their teachers as unique individuals and variations in learning

preferences, styles, and communication.

Techniques, course materials, and task types in eLearning, including communicative

technologies such as ―Web 2.0‖.

Using eLearning to develop approaches and skills that foster development of successful

communication in tertiary teachers and language students.

Introduction

In the beginning there are students and their teacher. A key task for teachers is to analyse

the students they teach and to differentiate. This enables them to adapt their training and practice

to the particular students in the room with them at the time and to direct the most appropriate

learning materials tools and tasks to the students who will benefit the most from them. In an

ordinary course at university, students and teachers get to know one another in the classroom,

face-to-face. In the contemporary university, Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)

supplements this. Students and teacher use email, online forums, even chat rooms. Online

communication provides a new channel of communication between teacher and student. In

addition, the teacher may have the option of managing aspects of learning with a virtual learning

environment (VLE). Students can log-in to the system, submit work, do quizzes and many other

things. All their actions are recorded online for the teacher to review – one way of finding out a

student‘s preferences.

For many years now we have also had the ―CALL Lab‖ (Computer Assisted Language

Learning). Here, computers are available with programmes designed to assist with learning

certain aspects of language. Grammar is the focus of one programme, Speed Reading another,

listening and speaking another. All these tools can help the teachers get to know their students to

develop an appreciation of their unique language skills and personality.

Interestingly the factors that lead to success in learning with these technological tools are

not so different from the traditional ones. In a study of university students in the UAE, the

students identified the characteristics of the teacher as the most important critical success factor

in eLearning success (Selim, 2007). Teacher decisions to continue to use eLearning in a

European University environment were discovered to depend on perceived usefulness and their

own intrinsic motivation (Sørebø et al, 2009). This all seems very familiar.

On Variety

Research frequently exposes contradictions, generalizations and offers us some useful

starting places for thinking about eLearning in our particular setting. I will explore some of the



implications of cultural and personal variation, the nature of communication, the culture of

learning and of how critical thought is expressed in eLearning practice for these teachers and

their students. Teacher and learner variations and consequent variations in teaching and learning

preferences, styles, communication and learning relationships will be explored with examples

from practice in Sultan Qaboos University and other Gulf education settings.

As communication is a focus of eLearning it is important to examine communication

styles and preferences. Zaharna, (1995) examines the communication preferences of ―Arabs‖ and

compares them to Americans. His context is political and social communication, but this is a

good starting point. He suggests that Arab communication is likely to be less factual and more

about feeling; more indirect, subjective and sensitive to the social context of the message, than

its US counterpart. It will be less linear and less concrete, with more imagery. The language

teacher will immediately see a problem. All these aspects of writing or speaking are subtle and

complex and require considerable mastery of English for even basic expression.

Hall (2009) offers more direct advice to those in eLearning;

―... participant commitment or obligation to the course and each other must be developed before

interaction will occur‖

Henderson (2007) questions whether a multicultural model for eLearning is possible at

all. She cites examples of common cultural stereotypes offered as rationales for the particular

structure of eLearning materials. The alternative is to draw on the multiple cultures present in

the society hosting the eLearning. She pictures a course designed from the different

epistemologies of global culture, the indigenous culture, the gender culture, the workplace

culture, the dominant and minority cultures. Hall‘s (2009) design-based approach also attempts

to draw on this richness, though it sees Omani culture as more singular.

Looking at the way students tackle eLearning, learning styles in the Gulf are much talked

about and little researched. Even when they are researched, the results are often open to more

than one interpretation. Reid’s classic 1987 learning styles study indicated that Arabs in the

USA had all combinations of learning styles. However she was quick to point out that the Arabs

in her study were not a homogeneous group as they came from several different parts of the Arab

world. The idea that Gulf students prefer an auditory mode is described as a ―myth‖ by

Hatherley-Greene (2005), but his results actually show far more auditory-receptive preferences

in a sample of Emirati students than the reference sample from all over the world. Nothing is

very clear cut.

So what makes for a successful eLearning system? A comparison of critical success

factors in Eastern and Western studies of eLearning (Liu and Wang, 2009) shows broad

agreement over the role of technology: it must work, be accessible and so on. Studies in Asia

highlight the importance of positive instructor input whereas those in the West highlight a

contrasting emphasis on the use of advanced technologies and active student participation. This

section highlights a few cultural issues that we should bear in mind when we look at the actual

use of the eLearning systems.

Framework

As there is almost infinite variety in the way English can be taught in the classroom, there

is also much variety in the way it can be taught online (Brecht and Walton, 1994). The

Scully: Teachers, students and eLearning


impression that eLearning is only ―one kind‖ of learning is belied by the types and techniques

used, even now, in ELT online resources (e.g. Hall, 2009). A multidimensional typology of

eLearning, rooted in the literature and with practical examples is offered. The typology explores

teacher student relationships (Liu et al., 2002) in the context of eLearning in the Gulf.

As I indicated in the introduction, there are three main categories of computer-based tools

used by language teachers and learners, each with a different purpose.

Category A: Computer-Mediated Communication Tools (CMC)

e.g. discussion forums, messaging, chat rooms

Category B: Learning Management Systems (LMS)

e.g. gradebooks, online assignment submission, online marking

Category C: Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

Programs like Tell Me More, Grammar ROM, Hot Potatoes

Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) such as Moodle and Blackboard incorporate all

of these in different ways. Hence we have a real variety of online teaching and learning tools

and techniques.

Category A is peer-oriented, B is teacher-oriented and C, self-controlled. This relates

closely to Moore and Kearsley‘s (1996) three types of interaction. They distinguish Learner-

Content (locus of control is with the student), Learner-Instructor where the focus has shifted

towards (but not completely to) the teacher and Learner-Learner (peer-oriented interactions).

Cognitive activity or presence (Garrison & Anderson, 2003) is primarily learner-centered (e.g.

when using a CALL program), social presence is mainly peer-oriented (when students discuss

the content among themselves) and the teacher presence self-evidently teacher oriented (in a

mediated discussion, formal assignment or quiz).

These tools making up a VLE can be used in different ways. One functional typology

(Scully, 2006) offers the teacher clear distinctions between different parts of a course.

The Communicative Component: day to day course communication

The Complementary Component: course materials offered through eLearning as an

alternate mode of delivery.

The Supplementary Component: additional materials and exercises to develop skills

required by the course.

The Required Component: assessed elements of courses

Each component relies more or less on the different tools above. Teachers can use the

typology to help balance their teaching materials online and offline.

As language teachers and learners the communicative mode of the material is important.

The model proposed by Brecht and Walton (1994) is widely used in foreign language teaching in

the USA and other countries and can help us see how different elements of the eLearning system

can relate to different modes of language use.

Interpretive Mode: This involves mostly receptive abilities such as listening, reading and

viewing.



Interpersonal Mode: Individuals have meaningful interactions, on discussion boards, in

chat, text or email. Peer-to-peer discussion and teacher-student (e.g. online feedback,

notices) are probably dominant.

Presentational Mode: The production of written or spoken language for communication to

an audience where contact is not ―personal‖. This could include essays, web pages, blogs,

wikis, oral presentations, or podcasts.

These three modes encapsulate the role of language in thinking and analyzing, in personal

communication, and in formal presentation. This highlights different uses of language. Teachers

can target a particular role in their materials and in their contact with students. It also reflects

communication with self, peers and teachers respectively.

Table 1 from Scully 2006

Taxonomy Locus Relationship Role Tool Type Context Language Mode

Category A Peer Learner

Learner

Social CMC High Interpersonal

Presentational

Category B Teacher Learner

Teacher

Facilitative

Didactic

LMS

Medium Presentational

Interpretive

Category C Self Learner Content

Cognitive CALL Low Interpretive

Going one step further than the formal and the informal there is a constant tension, for

both teachers and students, between the academic and the general. How rooted in academic

study should language learning be? For many students, their English course is seen a waste of

time unless it appears to relate directly to their studies (face validity). For many teachers, their

language learning should focus on key linguistic skills. Academic vocabulary and subject-based

materials are unnecessary distractions from the core task. Faculty have said (in needs analysis

surveys, for instance) that language teachers should concentrate on grammar and not worry about

the academic content. Different activities, online or not, make use of the academic context to

varying degrees. A subject-based project or presentation, writing a lab report or listening to an

academic lecture are all very ―high context‖ tasks. Having a chat about your favourite cars,

playing word games or having a grammar test are all ―low context‖. This dimension reflects

both the General English to English for Academic Purposes or Basic Interpersonal

Communicative Skills (BICS) to Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) distinction

(Cummins, 1979). The good thing about eLearning systems is that they can combine these.

Messaging tools allow personal communication, as do chat tools, blogs and discussion forums,

while more structured academic tasks, can use either similar tools (e.g. forums) or different ones

(e.g. wikis, quizzes).

I think it is clear from the various models and the ways they dovetail (see Table 1) that

not only can online learning suit a wide variety of needs, but also it can actually encourage the

different learning styles, and the whole set of relationships which go from didactic to self-

directed that we want to develop in our students. Liu, Lavelle and Andris, (2002), for instance,



show students‘ internal locus of control (self – direction – see second column in table 1) gaining

strength through the use of online learning.

Application

This section includes a set of examples and counter-examples examining the impact

(intended and unintended) of eLearning and Web2.0 technologies on the learning process. The

examples explore the role of teacher as facilitator and learner as autonomous, which is not

always intuitively obvious in this context. Neither the strategies that students ―should‖ use nor

the strategies that they actually use and the strategies teachers suggest are necessarily a good

match.

Let us demonstrate with a simple example of traditional technology and www

interactivity. Our language centre is encouraging students to buy and use paper dictionaries, has

developed worksheets, put dictionaries in cupboards in classrooms and set side time in the

schedule to concentrate on dictionary work. At the same time, on the front page of several

online courses we use, there is a form box that connects to an online dictionary. A student can

―drag and drop‖ a word off a web page (or online document) and get an instant definition (or

pronunciation) of that word. For some these technologies are complementary, for others almost

contradictory.

In another example, other features of the online environment have immediate benefits to

learners. How the presentation of text is controlled is a clear example. When weaker EFL

students have this control, their attitude towards learning English improves significantly (Yeh &

Lehman, 2001). Several courses I have used have ―lectures‖ where mp3 audio files are paired

with a ―script‖ of the lecture (Interpretive pieces). Students can choose to pre-read, read only,

read and listen or listen only. Students may then have activities based on the reading/listening

either online or on paper in class. Different students, when asked, express different preferences

for their study strategies (see also Ehrman & Leaver, 2003). Combining this with an online test

is long known to assist comprehension proficiency.

eLearning can sometimes be used to nullify the advantage of ―unfair practices‖! Research

and experience in the use of online quizzes, administered in the students‘ own time, indicate that

Gulf Arab students are prepared to go to great lengths to obtain answers from their colleagues

(Wright et al., 2007), even to the extent that this can take longer than doing the quizzes

themselves. In an English for Special Purposes course teachers spent considerable time choosing

interesting materials to help students learn the specialist vocabulary. Then, as a learning aid in

some courses we introduced there is a pool of over 250 questions each for several 50-question

practice quizzes. I have seen ―crib sheets‖ where students have done online quizzes over and

over again to obtain the answers to all the questions and produced a vocabulary list that is almost

identical to the one in the text they are recommended to use. Other students who have not done

the quiz then use this list to ―revise‖. Using the text in the first place would probably save them

time and effort and be rather more interesting than memorizing the list. However if they know

the vocabulary at the end of the course the objective is achieved! The rote learning style may not

be the most effective in this context, but it does still work!

However there are other ways to use quizzes. Williams (2008) got his students to write

the quiz questions in Moodle, to try them out on members of a collaborative group and edit them,

then administer them (light heartedly, but competitively) to other groups. He then had them



reflect on the experience in a discussion forum. Williams changed the relationship of the

students to the quiz entirely, altered the locus of control, changed a task that is normally low

context to a high context one and ended up with quiz questions his students could not complain

about if he reused them later in the course for assessment. This last example introduces

reflection and self monitoring activities into a more traditional task and this is a common feature

of the imaginative use of learning technologies. There is considerable evidence that self-

monitoring strategies are useful in web-based activities (e.g. Chang, 2007), though most of this

evidence comes from studies done in East-Asia. Williams‘s study indicates we can probably

extend application of this efficacy to the Gulf region, at least. More systematic studies of

specific tasks are needed, however.

Moving on to modes of communication, using messaging and discussion boards to

prepare for classroom activity (The communicative component) is a way of getting students to

use the second language for the business of the course, and encourages skills of communicative

accuracy and correction/explanation (e.g. Smith, 2002). It also allows for the establishment of

social relationships which Hall (2009) and Zahana (1995) both suggest will be particularly

advantageous for Gulf students. The messaging system in Moodle (The SQU Virtual Learning

Environment - VLE), or other such systems, enables informal interpersonal communication

between students. Male and female students can send each other messages with many purposes.

There is a constant tension between the academic and non-academic uses of these systems, as

can easily be demonstrated by the fact that messaging has been disabled and re-enabled on

several occasions over the last few years in SQU. Messaging, at one point in time, almost

overloaded the whole Moodle server: further evidence that Hall and Zahana‘s assertions have

validity.

It not only the place of messaging and chat that divide teachers. Language teachers have

often had ambivalent feelings towards translation. On the one hand, mother tongue usage and

development is important to allow sophisticated cognitive skills. On the other hand, the

communicative method, currently dominant, recommends the target language be used as the

medium of instruction and all classroom interaction.

An important issue today is the use of web translation tools in CMC. It is now common

to see students sitting writing in Arabic into an online translation tool (or pasting from the web)

and then pasting the English version into a document. Are these an aid or a hindrance to the

interpretive and presentation activities of students? I received, over 18 months ago(!), an

uneven, but interesting biography of Umm Kulthum from a weak student in a low level class.

There were plenty of grammar mistakes, strange punctuation and some odd choices of

vocabulary. The style seemed Arabic rather than English. That is a common problem; but,

overall, the piece had some good selections of information and useful ideas. Some work with

―Google Translate‖ obtained me a very similar piece and planted the idea, not easily verifiable,

that this was how the work had originated. Subsequent editing proved the student could improve

it with some guidance, so I suspect progress was made, and in this instance, I had little problem

with the origin of the text. Here is a sample of a raw ―Googlation‖ on the same subject below:

―They started small in her publicity, was just an additional source of income for the family, but

exceeded the maximum when the dreams of the father become the main source of income for the

family.‖

(Translation from Arabic to English of a section of the Arabic Wikipedia article on Umm

Kulthum)



Other teachers I have spoken with have been ignorant of this possibility or expressed very

negative attitudes to this as a strategy, so, for some, there is clearly a problem with the

application of this technology. Once again the new tool offers the student more independence of

the teacher, but the teacher is in a position to exploit this to develop the key skill of editing in a

second language: a skill that will be much needed in the student‘s academic future.

This section shows how eLearning can moves the learner to a different place, which the

learner of yesteryear might well not recognize. It may be that many of the tools are well known

(the quiz, the journal), but new ones have come to play (online translation, quiz writing tools),

both old and new will inevitably be different and challenging in their new environment, and the

teacher plays a key role in the imaginative and productive use!

Conclusions

The paper contends that exploring the multiplicity of eLearning techniques and having

educators offering different learners a variety of ways to achieve their goals in different kinds of

interaction with their teachers, peers and themselves is both fruitful and satisfying for teachers,

students and institutions.

There will always be tensions in ideas of ―best practice‖. Not everyone will want to, or

be able to exploit all the tools. But tools are what they are and a skilled tool user will be able to

use the tools to good effect. In contrast there is the saying ―a bad workman always blames his

tools‖. Both our teachers and students need to become familiar with and adept at using these

tools. They will choose to use some a lot and others a little, but that is as it should be – each

chooses what suit his or her learning or teaching style. So where can you find out about these

tools?

Teachers who would like more examples of eLearning activities to try can turn to a

variety of sources. There are now several texts with practical and imaginative examples such as

Sharma and Barrett‘s (2007) ―Blended Learning‖ and Dudeney and Hockley‘s (2007) ―How to

Teach English with Technology‖. They offer useful hints and ways to use the tools, which

teachers can adapt to the needs of their students. Websites abound – quickshout.blogspot.com is

Nik Peachey‘s collection of views and ideas on language learning and the web. He also has a

daily English activities blog (daily-english-activities.blogspot.com). www.go2web20.net has 50

icons of Web2.0 sites, many of which could be used by a language teacher.

The most important element of all of this has to be that at the end of the course both

teachers and students should have advanced, the strengths and preferences of the students should

be known to the teacher and have been employed in their choices of the tasks and tools that

enabled the students to make progress during their course. For some students, though I venture

this is now very few, they would prefer not to use the internet or the computer, I think it is our

job to find something that starts them off, to use imagination to generate the first spark of

interest, because we do the no favours if they leave our care without computer skills and a tool

which may not yet be essential, but is likely to be so very soon and not just for language

learning.

http://www.go2web20.net/



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Reference # 121

Topic # 2

Selected determinants of career maturity of undergraduates

in private universities in Malaysia Boon Ping See [email protected], INTI University College, Malaysia

Asmuni Azizan [email protected], Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Say Fooi Foo, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

The objectives of the study are to define identify the level of career maturity and compare its level

by socio-economic status (SES), gender and work experience among the undergraduates. Data was

collected from 275 final year undergraduates of two private universities in Malaysia. It was found

that the career maturity was at upper moderate level. There were no significant differences on

mean career maturity level by gender, SES and work experience (p > .05). It was found that SES

was significantly related to career maturity.

Research Problems and Objectives

Career maturity is central to a developmental approach to understand career behavior. It

involves an assessment of an individual‘s level of career progress to be used as a valuable

construct in career development of adolescents (Brown, 2002; Punch et al., 2005). Career

maturity refers to the individual‘s readiness to make informed, age-appropriate career decisions

and ability to cope with career development tasks (Brown, 2002; Savickas, 1984). Career

matured person displays certain characteristics such as the ability to perform self-evaluation in

order to gain insight; obtain the necessary competencies in order to make an informed decision;

integrate self-knowledge of the world of work; and implement all or some of the above-

mentioned knowledge when planning a career (Coertse & Schepers, 2004). Young adults at the

university are identified as being in the transition from school-to-work because it is the

beginning point of fulltime employment (Savickas, 1999).

The role of university in incubating social development and personal growth of

undergraduates is vital for the development of workforces. At this stage, it is one of the major

milestones in the education cycle before an undergraduate enters the working world (Guerra &

Braungart-Rieker, 1999). They shall be career-matured and ready to make appropriate career

decision before they leave the university. The college years are a crucial time for career-related

decision-making. Thus, it is important for undergraduates to perform careful career exploration

and planning during the college or university years. Success in work and satisfaction in work are

subjective concepts with different meanings for different individuals, but few people do not

value and seek them (Punch et. al, 2005). A proper and well planned career choice is an

important issue in the early stages of career life.

Like other countries in the world, Malaysia also faced unemployment among new

graduates since 2000 (Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, 2006 & 2007; World Bank,

2007). A policy concern arises about the capacity of the economy to absorb the expanded output

of graduates. It could be caused by several factors such as the slowing rate of economic growth,

unexpected shifts in demand from one industry to another, the quality of tertiary education, and

mismatches between market requirements and the graduates that universities produce. The

Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia through the National Higher Education Action Plan

2007-2010 has launched Graduate Training Scheme (Ministry of Higher Education (2007). This



indicated that additional training needed or extension of university courses required for graduates

to become more competent to enter into job market, which should be already completed before

they graduated. Since mid-1990s, the remarkable progress of economy has raised per capita

incomes and the social-economics status of the people. Although Malaysia has attained high

achievement in human development with poverty rate having fallen below less than 5 per cent in

2007, income disparities are still substantial with regards to spatial and community variations

particularly, in the rural areas (United Nations Development Programme, 2007).

These problems give rise to a dilemma in the career development process of

undergraduates in Malaysia. Are they not career matured? What is their level of career maturity?

Does the social-economics status affect the career maturity? Are they ready and capable to make

suitable career choice? It would appropriate to find out the status of career maturity among

undergraduates in Malaysia in order to facilitate well to cater with the needs of their career

development process. In this study, the socio-economic status (SES) refers to the family social

status within the scope of parents‘ educational and occupational situation only, regardless of the

ethnicities and the financial achievement.

The objectives of the study are to define the career maturity level and its determinants

among final year undergraduates in selected private universities in Malaysia. Specifically, the

objectives are:

1. To identify the level of career maturity among the final year undergraduates.

2. To compare its level by social-economics status (SES) and work experience among the final

year undergraduates.

Literature Review

Research on career maturity by Super has been widely tested, expanded, revised and

refined until the present day. Career maturity is the extent to which individuals are able to make

career related choices independently, and was defined by Super as the ―individual‘s readiness to

cope with the developmental tasks (for) that stage of development‖ (as cited in Brown & Brooks,

1996). The construct of career maturity consist of readiness, attitude and competency to cope

effectively with the career development tasks corresponding to one‘s life stage (Coertse &

Schepers, 2004). Career maturity is one of the most widely researched aspects of college

students‘ career development (King, 1990; Savickas, 1984). Career maturity during the

exploratory stage of career development comprises distinctive cognitive and affective

components as hypothesized by Crites (1971) and Healy (1994). Literature reviews show that the

career maturity is an important stage that individual should achieve in order to make appropriate

career decision. A career-matured individual would effectively progress from different stages of

his career development process.

Review of literatures has identified numbers of variables correlate and predicting career

maturity among adolescents at college level. The selected variables are social economic status

(SES) (Kings, 1989; Luzzo, 1995; Rondermund & Silbereisen, 1998; Creed & Patton, 2003),

work experience (Paton, 2000; Earl & Bright, 2003), and gender (Super, 1955; Rojewski et. al.,

1995; Luzzo, 1999). Socio-economic status (SES) seems to be a determinant that getting higher

and higher attention as a variable in much study. King (1989) found a low correlation between

SES and career maturity level among 318 adolescents in high school. Majority of the students

come from middle and upper middle class family. King (1990) found negative relationship

See, et al.: Selected determinants of career maturity of undergraduates


between SES and career maturity among female students only. The study by Rodermund &

Silbereisen (1998), Naidoo, Bowman and Gerstein (1998), and Creed and Patton (2003) found

career maturity was significantly related to SES. The SES was determined based on parental

education levels.

For actual work experience, mixed results have been reported. Earl and Bright (2003)

found that level at university, age and work experience influence career maturity among

undergraduates. Sangeeta, Profirio and Mary (2005) also found that part-time workers were more

responsible and they displayed greater career maturity then full-time and non-working students.

Young female students displayed higher level of career maturity than the young male students,

but did not differ on personal responsibility. Punch, Creed and Hyde (2003) found no

relationship between paid work experience and career maturity. This is consistent with Patton‘s

(2000) study that concluded that part-time work contributes to the development of young people

and they exhibit greater career maturity than those who do not work. Studies on influences of

gender and the career maturity showed mixed results (Rojewski et. al 1995; Creed & Patton,

2003). The studies on relationship for career maturity and gender, generally, females have higher

score on career maturity level than males (Fouad, 1998; Luzzo, 1995). The research framework

was formed and stipulated a relationship study on SES, work experience and gender are the

predictors for the level of career maturity.

Methodology

The research design applies the correlation study method. In order to answer to the

research objectives and their findings, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to the

targeted population. The sample for this study was 340 final year undergraduates in two selected

private universities in Nilai Town, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Nilai was selected in this study

because of its geographical location and current economic growth and development in Klang

Valley located a distance away from Kuala Lumpur city and the township is developed with an

aim to become one of the regional education hubs for higher education in the country.

The career maturity level was measured by using the Measure of Guidance Impact (MGI)

which was developed for the Employment Department by the National Foundation for

Educational Research (Christophers et al, 1993 as cited in Eirini & Ann, 2002). An example of

the item is ―I have made a plan for my future working life‖. The higher score indicate the higher

career maturity of the respondents. The Cronbach‘s alpha obtained was .80 in previous studies

(Flouri & Buchanan, 2002).

The socio-economic status is measured by using the Four Factors Index of Socio Status

by Hollingshead (1975). This index is used because of its flexibility in estimating SES in

different family situation (Naidoo et al., 1998). There are two parts for the measures. The first

part is about the parents‘ educational level. The educational levels have been ranked from low

score at ―less than form 3‖ level to high score at ―graduate degree‖ level. The second part is

about the parents‘ current occupations. List of occupations have been categorized and ranked

from a lower score for general and unskilled laborer to a higher score for major business and

professional. The respondent shall select the parents‘ educational level and the current

occupation that had been put in various criteria. The higher score indicates the higher level of

SES of the respondents. The working experience is indicated by ‗Yes‘ or ‗No‘ answers. Answer

‗Yes‘ refers to working continuously or accumulatively for more than 6 months. In order to

determine the validity and reliability for the measurement instruments, a pre-test had been



carried out. A total of 35 questionnaires were distributed to some of the undergraduates. The

Cronbach‘s alpha for the variables were .748 for career maturity and .735 for SES.

Results and Discussions

The findings and followed by the discussions is presented by exploring the background

and characteristic of respondents, the relationship of the dependent variables and independent

variables, the level of mean score for each variable and comparison of the mean differences.

Characteristics of Respondents

Out of 275 respondents, 41.1% were female and 58.9% were male. Their age ranged from

19 to 25 years old. In a more detail view, there were 43 respondents in age group of 19 to 20

years old. This is 15.6% from the total number of respondents. The majority of the respondents

were more than 20 years old. They were 41.5% and 42.9% in the age group of 21 to 22 years old

and 23 to 25 years old respectively. The respondents‘ mean age was 22.17 years old (SD = 1.46).

Lower bound of age group was 19 year old. Out of 43 respondents in the age group of 19 – 20

years old, there were 2 respondents who mentioned being in the age group of 19. This could be

because their excellent academic performance while student in secondary school. In addition, the

tri-semester systems in the private universities enabled the students to achieve the fast-track

progress towards the final year of their bachelor‘s degree study compared to the normal-track

progress students. The finding was also in line with Savickas (1999) notion that adolescents were

on the transition, and Rojewski (1994) notion that the age of college students is associated with

their career decision-making needs (Luzzo, 1999). Theories of career development recognized

the changes that people go through as they mature.

The next demographic is the SES and work experience (Table 1). The SES was measured

by using an ordinal scale from lower, medium to upper level. The width interval was computed

at 19.33. Therefore the lower level ranged from 8.00 to 27.33, the medium level ranged from

27.34 to 46.67, and the upper level ranged from 46.68 to 66.00. The number respondents were

almost equally distributed in all three levels of SES. 34.5% were from the lower level, 33.5% of

the respondents were from medium level and 32.0% were from the upper level of SES. From the

respondents, 126 (45.8%) mentioned that they have no work experience whilst 149 (54.2%)

mentioned that they have previous work experience. It was found that the respondents were

almost equally distributed from all SES level. In addition, the number of respondents that

responded having work experience and without was about the same.

Table 1: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to SES and Work Experience

Frequency Percent

Cumulative

Percent

SES Lower 95 34.5 34.5

Medium 92 33.5 68.0

Upper 88 32.0 100.0

Total 275 100.0

Work Never worked before 126 45.8 45.8

Experience Had worked before 149 54.2 100.0

Total 275 100.0 100.0



Comparison on Mean Career Maturity Scores by Gender, SES and Work Experience

The overall mean score for career maturity level of undergraduates was M = 3.63 (SD =

.6254). It is a moderately high level of career maturity score (Table 2). When looking at the

comparison of means (independent t-test and ANOVA test) career maturity score by gender, SES

and the work experience, all test results indicated insignificant differences among these variables

based on the data collected. Most of the previous studies found that females scored higher than

males in the career maturity level (Hartung, 1997; Luzzo, 1995; Patton & Creed, 2002). It was

found to be the reverse in this study. The mean career maturity score for males (M = 3.6852, SD

= .61687) was only slightly higher than females (M = 3.5735, SD = .63443) undergraduates.

This indicated that female undergraduates were not necessarily involved more than male

undergraduates in their career planning task. This may be due to the improvement of awareness

among male undergraduates in their career planning task at this stage.

An independent t-test had been carried out in order to determine whether it was a

significant difference in the mean career maturity scores for female and male undergraduates.

The preliminary test showed that the basic assumption of normality and homogeneity of variance

were met. The t-test result showed that there was insignificant differences for mean career

maturity score among male and female [t(275) = -1.461, p = .145> .05]. This indicated that the

mean career maturity score for male and female undergraduates were no different.

Similarly, it was also found that the mean career maturity score for non-work experience

undergraduates (M = 3.6000, SD = .59113) was slightly lower than the work-experienced

undergraduates (M = 3.6725, SD = .65315). Sangeeta et. al. (2005) and Patton (2000) found that

work experienced student obtained higher career maturity level than non-work experienced

students. The preliminary test observed that the basic assumption of normality and homogeneity

of variance were met. There were insignificant differences on mean career maturity score for

experience and non-experience undergraduates [t(275) = -0.957, p = .339]. This indicated that

mean career maturity score among undergraduates with and without work experience was

statistically equal.

Table 2: Mean Career Maturity Score by Gender, SES and Work Experience (n=275)

Gender N

Mean Career Maturity

Score Std. Deviation

Gender Female 113 3.5735 .63443

Male 162 3.6852 .61687

Total 275

SES Lower 95 3.5495 .65035

Medium 92 3.6457 .64287

Upper 88 3.7295 .57057

Total 275

Work Never worked before 126 3.6000 .59113

Experience Had worked before 149 3.6725 .65315

Total 275

Next, SES has obtained different scores at their different levels, where higher SES level

obtained higher career maturity score. The respondents from upper SES level scored at M =

3.7295 (SD = .57057) in career maturity score. The medium SES level scored at M = 3.6457 (SD



= .64287), and lower SES level scored at M= 3.5495 (SD = .65035). The differences of mean

career maturity scores were found to be very small among the categories. An individual from a

better SES background reflected generally higher career maturity. The preliminary test observed

that the basic assumption of normality and homogeneity of variance were met. From the

ANOVA output table, the test result showed that there were insignificant differences on mean

career maturity scores for all SES levels of undergraduates [F(275) =1.913, p = .150]. This

indicated that mean career maturity scores among undergraduates of all SES levels were

statistically equal.

Relationship between SES and Career Maturity

The Pearson Correlation Coefficient table indicated that SES is positively related with

career maturity (Table 3). Though significant positive relationship exist, it was very low and

negligible (r = .158, p = .001). The finding supported previous studies by King (1989);

Rodermund & Silbereisen (1998); Naidoo et al. (1998); Creed & Patton (2003). They found that

SES correlates with career maturity but at a very low relationship. SES was found to have low

relationship with the career maturity level. This may be due to the students‘ abilities to cope with

and adapt to changes of life style since joining the universities. They were able to learn from

friends of different backgrounds, understand and share the common campus cultures, thinking

and experiences of each other during their campus life.

The study by King (1989) on female respondents revealed that their SES status was

negatively correlated with career maturity in her proposed model. Female with higher SES did

not associate with high, but low score of career maturity. On the other hand, male respondents

revealed positive correlation of SES with career maturity, but insignificant. She claimed that

boys from higher SES family would have parents who had higher aspiration for the son‘s

occupational attainments, and this is an attribute significantly associated with career maturity

scores. However, the findings were not consistent. There are other attributes that could influence

the change in the characteristic of the undergraduates which relates to SES such as historical

background and attributes of causality and work salience (Naidoo et al. (1998)).

Table 3: Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Career Maturity and SES

Career

Maturity SES

Career

Maturity

Pearson

Correlation 1 .158(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) . .009

N 275 275

SES Pearson

Correlation .158(**) 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .009 .

N 275 275

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).



Conclusion

This study has identified that the career maturity level of undergraduates in two private

universities in Malaysia is at moderate level (M = 3.6393, SD = .6254). It was found that 50% of

the undergraduates scored between 3.20 and 4.00. Only 10% scored above 4.40. Most of the

findings support previous studies on career maturity. The mean career maturity score was found

to be different in gender, SES and work experience. However, the results were statistically

insignificant when they were tested. Significant relationship that exists between career maturity

and SES was found to have low and little correlation.


The study has provided a small piece of information about undergraduates‘ career

maturity and its related factors. It is hoped that this study could assist the government,

policymakers, and especially curriculum developers to plan and measure the effectiveness of

programmes designed to enhance their career development, and to develop a positive and

productive workforce for the country. Career maturity is closely related to the process of career

choice and career decision by understanding the determinants of career maturity, an appropriate

career intervention plan could be applied to this group of undergraduates especially those at the

lower career maturity level. Initiatives to improve the SES, could take very long as it involves

many different parties. However, the fundamental elements should start from the individual

himself and facilitated by various external factors in order to achieve a better SES.

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Reference # 122

Topic # 3

Quality issues in higher education: A case of Oman Iqtidar Ali Shah [email protected], Neeta Baporikar [email protected]

College of Applied Sciences, Salalah, Ministry of Higher Education, Oman, Oman

The Oman Accreditation Council (OAC) has recently developed a system of evaluating quality

assurance in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Oman. HEIs who are seeking accreditation

are asked to develop a Quality Audit Portfolio. The objective of this paper to review and evaluate

the present system of developing a Quality Audit Portfolio in the light of the requirements to

develop the Quality Audit Portfolio, and the suitability / reliability of self-assessment approach

adopted by HEIs. The research methodology will be content analysis and discussion with officials.

The paper will explore the difficulties and obstacles in developing QAP and to what extent the

―Self Assessment Approach‖ being adopted is realistic approach for evaluating various component

/ activities in the HEIs.

Introduction

The educational history of the Sultanate of Oman has undergone rapid development. In

1970, there were three primary schools in the country with less than 1000 students and no

college or university (Al Bandary, 2005 and Al Shmeli, 2009). Today, there are more than 60

higher education institutions run by private and public sector offering various programmes. The

total number of students in Higher Education in Oman in 2009 is approximately 80,000 (Al

Shmeli, 2009).

Oman has a young, dynamic and fast-growing higher education sector. Higher Education

Institutions are owned and governed by a variety of entities, including the Ministry of Higher

Education, the Ministry of Man Power, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Health, and the

Ministry of Commerce and Industry, other governmental entities, and private owners. It has a

legacy of nationally developed and imported programs of higher education. The country‘s

licensing and accreditation systems are still in nascent (OAC, 2006).

The Oman Accreditation Council has been established by Royal Decree No. 74/2001,

which is responsible for the external quality assurance and quality enhancement of HEIs and

programs in the Sultanate of Oman. The OAC is a Member of the International Network for

Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) and seeks to abide by its polices

and guidelines wherever possible (OAC, 2008).

The OAC has recently introduced a quality assurance process for HEIs called Quality

Audit which has two stages. Stage one is based on self-assessment / self study and external

review / consideration of self-assessment. In stage two the HEIs undergo a Standard Assessment.

The emphasis of Standard Assessment is on empirically measuring whether an HEI has met the

institutional quality standards published by OAC. An HEI Quality Audit is an independent

evaluation of the effectiveness of the system and processes by which an HEI sets, pursues and

achieve its mission and vision.

Firstly an HEI conducts a self study of its own quality assurance and quality enhancement

activities and writes the findings in a Quality Audit Portfolio. This element is ―based on the

premise that Quality and Quality Assurance are primarily the responsibilities of HEIs themselves

and should respect institutional integrity.‖ By basing the Quality Audit on an HEI self study, the

HEI is given the opportunity to help define the scope of the audit as it applies to them.




Then, an external Audit Panel comprised of national and international peers from acade-

mia, industry and professional considers this Portfolio and checks its completeness and accuracy

through such means as interviews and cross checking with original documentation and other

information sources. The Audit Panel produces a Quality Audit Report. This document presents

the Audit Panel‘s findings, including Commendations about areas regarded as particularly

effective and Affirmations and Recommendations about areas where there are opportunities for

improvement. This part of the Quality Audit process is called the External Review.

According to OAC, ―an HEI Quality Audit fulfills two different but related purposes.

Firstly, it is an important means by which the HEIs are held accountable to society for their role

in providing quality higher education. Quality Audit Reports are public, meaning that society

may have an informed view about how well an HEI is attending to its responsibilities. Secondly,

and of equal importance, Quality Audit is a means for facilitating continuous quality

improvement within the HEI. It generate the impetus for a self-study, and then produces an

independent evaluative report containing recommendations, affirmations, and commendations

for formative purpose‖ (OAC, 2008).

A common observation and discussion held with various HEIs staffs indicate that the

development of self evaluation report (Quality Audit Portfolio) in the light of OAC‘s guidelines

is a challenge for HEIs because it requires a lot of time, database and professional staff.

Similarly, a question of reliability of Quality Audit Portfolio is also rises as most of the HEIs are

seeking financial support from government and having many competitors.

The objective of this paper to review and evaluate the present system of developing a

Quality Audit Portfolio in the light of following research questions:

1. What are the requirements from HEIs to develop the Quality Audit Portfolio?

2. To assess the suitability / reliability of self assessment approach adopted by HEIs.

3. To find out the difficulties in developing QAP and to what extent the ―Self Assessment

Approach‖ being adopted is realistic approach for evaluating various component / activities

in the HEIs.

This paper is organized as follows: Section 1 gives introduction, Section 2 provides

literature review. Section 3 explains background of Higher Education in Oman. Measuring

quality of higher education in Oman is discussed in section 5. Section 6 presents the approach to

designing quality audit portfolio. The paper concludes in Section 7.

Literature Review

Rapid expansion of higher education worldwide, increased access to higher education,

diverse range of public and private higher education institutions, diverse and multidisciplinary

academics programmes, cross-boarder institutions, globalization, economic integration, and

increased academic and professional mobility have been several factors that have contributed to

the growing preoccupation of quality assurance. During the last two decades there is an

increasing demand for trustworthy organizations that can establish confidence using quality

assurance methods. Moreover, there is also need to develop more effective mechanisms for the

professional recognition of higher education credentials.

Quality assurance helps to make higher education transparent and trustworthy for citizens

and employers as well as for students and scholars from other continents. Quality assurance is

Shah & Baporikar: Quality issues in higher education


the systematic review of educational programmes to ensure that acceptable standards of

education, scholarship and infrastructure are being maintained (UNESCO, 2009). The term

quality assurance in higher education is increasingly used to denote the practices whereby

academic standards, i.e., the level of academic achievement attained by higher education

graduates, are maintained and improved (Dill, 2007).

According to the International Institute for Educational Planning, ―Quality assurance has

two underlying broad objectives: control/accountability and improvement. Control/accountability

relates to processes which assess whether minimum standards are in place in a higher education

institution or programme. Quality improvement identifies developmental processes, such as the

strengths and weaknesses of institutions and their academic provision‖ (IIEP, 2009). A quality

assurance is the responsibility of both the institute itself which is called Internal Quality

Assurance (IQA) and the government which is called External Quality Assurance (EQA), detail

of which is explained below:

Internal quality assurance refers to each institution‘s or programme‘s policies and

mechanisms for ensuring that it is fulfilling its own purposes, as well as the standards that

apply to higher education in general, or to the profession or discipline in particular.

External quality assurance refers to the actions of an external body, possibly a quality

assurance agency, which assesses the operation of the institution or its programmes, to

determine whether it is meeting the agreed standards. EQA systems include accreditation,

assessment or audit.

There are now many public and private agencies at regional, national and international

level responsible for the oversight of institutional performance. Agencies may provide

―accreditation‖ or validation that an institution or a specific academic program meets minimum

performance standards established by that agency. Thus, improvement and accountability are

supposedly the main purposes for establishing quality assurance agencies (Al Bandary 2005).

Accreditation is the primary means by which colleges, universities and programmes

assure quality to the students and the publics. Accreditation is about quality assurance and

quality improvement. It is a process to scrutinize higher education institutions and programs

(Eaton, 2006).

The purposes of quality assurance at the institutional level might be:

To improve higher education institutions and their programmes;

To provide assurance to the public regarding the achievement of the required general level of

quality;

To provide assurance to the public and other stakeholders that a particular set of professional

and academic standards is achieved;

To demonstrate effectiveness and provide accountability regarding whether or not

institutional and programme intentions are fulfilled to a satisfactory level;

To demonstrate or effect efficiency in all functions of the institution (quality management) at

all levels;\

To permit choices (programmes) to be made in the institutions in respect of funding from the

government;

To enable rationalizations decisions to be made in institutions and the higher education

system. (Strydom, 2001)



Background of Higher Education in Oman

There have been several key phases in the development of higher education in Oman

which is given below:

Prior to 1970: No formal higher education in Oman

1970s-1980s: Establishment of public colleges (with an emphasis on vocational education

and training, particularly in teaching and health) and Sultan Qaboos University

1990s-present: Import of foreign programs, devlivered in Oman through provate HEPs

(colleges and universities). This was as attempt to rapidly grow the sector in response to an

identified need.

New Phase: Establishment of a comprehensive higher education system. This is an attempt

to consolidate gains by implementing effective and efficient quality assurance and quality

enhancement process (OAC, 2006a).

Oman‘s system of higher education is dynamic and has grown rapidly over the past three

decades. Oman has developed an independent system of higher education consisting of 61 HEIs

and providing post secondary diploma or degree programmes. Out of 61 HEIs, two-third is

public institutions, operating through various ministries and agencies as detailed in table 1

below:

Table 1: Government and private HEIs in the Sultanate of Oman

Under the

Jurisdiction of

Higher Education Institutions No. of

Institution

Independent Sultan Qaboos University (Government) 01

Ministry of Higher

Education

Colleges of Applied Sciences (Government) 06

Private Universities 05

Private Colleges, two of which are designated as University Colleges 19

Total 30

Ministry of

Manpower

Higher College of Technology (Government) 01

Colleges of Technology (Government) 05

Oman Tourism College (Private) 01

Total 07

Ministry of Health Nursing Institutes (Government) 11

Health Science Institutes (Government) 05

Total 16

Ministry of Defense Academies / Training Centers (Government) 04

The Command and Staff College (Government with restricted admission) 01

Total 05

Ministry of Aqaf and

Religious Affairs

The Institute of Shari‘a Sciences (Government) 01

Total 01

Royal Oman Police The Royal Oman Police Academy (Government, with restricted admission) 01

Total 01

Central Bank of

Oman

The College of Banking & Financial Studies

(Quasi-Government)

01

Total 01

Total Number of Higher Education Institutions 61

Source: Al Shmeli, 2009



Out of total 78,858 enrolments (approximately 80,000), 45,337 students are enrolled in

government HEIs and 33,521 students in 24 private HEIs. Approximately 12,000 Omani students

are currently studying abroad. For the academic year 2007-08, the percentage of enrollment in

science majors (Engineering, Information Technology, Health, Natural Sciences, Physics,

Agricultural, Architecture, and Construction) accounted for 45.5% of the overall enrollment;

Humanities 35.4%; and Commerce and Economics constituted 19.1% (Al Shmeli, 2009).

HEIs in Oman can be classified into local and overseas:

1. Local HEIs: These institutions are locally developed. Some of them have partnership

arrangements with outside institutions, while others operate independently.

2. Overseas HEIs: These institutions are opened in Oman by overseas HEIs. They are under the

control of overseas institutions.

Similarly, HEIs can be classified on the basis of academic programmes:

1. Multiple Programmes: Some HEIs offer a wide range of academics programmes such as

humanities, social sciences and engineering etc.

2. Specialized Programmes: Some HEIs offer specialize programme in one or two specific

fields such as nursing, teaching, engineering and business.

HEIs can also be classified on the basis of sponsorship:

1. Public Sector Institutions: Public sector institution can be further divided into two:

a. Public Sector Colleges: Various HEIs (colleges) are run and control by government.

Various government ministries are involved such as the Ministry of Higher Education, the

Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of

Industries and Commerce.

b. Public Sector University: There is only one public sector university ―Sultan Qaboos

University‖ which runs independently.

Private Sector Institutions: Private sector institutions can be dived into two:

a. Private Sector Colleges: There are various colleges which is run and control by private

sector. Some are providing local made programmes and some have imported programmes.

b. Private Sector Universities: There are five universities in various location of the country

which are run independently by private sector.

OAC (OAC, undated) has classified the HEIs in Oman on the basis of scope / activities

and provided the following classification of institutions:

Colleges of Higher Education

The term ―College‖ is used in a generic sense and includes institutions of Higher

Education which have names such as ―Academy‖ or ―Institute‖ and which match the description

of Higher Education Colleges. Higher Education Colleges are primarily teaching institutions,

offering programmes to the level of Bachelor‘s degree or may conduct undergraduate

programmes in one or more broad fields or may offer a wide range of community and

professional courses at the undergraduate level on a flexible basis to meet community

requirements. Some institutions offer a variety of programmes, while others are specialist



institutions, offering programmes in one or two professional fields, such as teaching, nursing,

engineering or business studies. In addition to formal award courses, Higher Education Colleges

frequently provide courses in areas such as English Language, Business and IT. These may be

stand-alone courses, or may contribute towards a diploma or degree offered by the institution.

The concentration on teaching in Higher Education Colleges means that the quality of teaching

and learning should be high. There is no established research base in the colleges of higher

education. The head of such institution is usually called Dean.

University Colleges

University Colleges have a strong commitment to excellence in teaching. A University

College shares some of the key characteristics of a University including research activity

relevant to local and national needs, appropriate research facilities, and programmes up to and

including the Master‘s degree in at least two broad fields of study. The University College has

reasonable investment in research equipment and laboratories, as well as staffing to support the

research function. The resources and infrastructure required to adequately support research and

postgraduate programmes are usually larger and more expensive than Higher Education

Colleges. In particular, library, computer labs, research journals and internet access are

substantially greater than Higher Education Colleges.

Equipment and facilities for staff and student research must be more extensive. Master‘s

degree programmes at University Colleges may include research degrees. Academic staff for

Master‘s research degree programmes should be involved actively in research at the forefront of

their discipline and should be proficient in utilizing international research networks. Where

advanced professional programmes are offered, the academic staff involved should have

extensive relevant professional experience at a senior level, as well as appropriate academic

qualifications. The head of University College is usually designated as Dean with appropriate

qualification and professional experience.

Universities

Universities have a strong commitment to excellence in teaching and research. The

University‘s scope of activities in academics and research is also comparatively more than other

HEIs (College of Higher Education and University College). Universities have a demonstrated

commitment to the development and transmission of knowledge through research, scholarly

publication, teaching, and community service, in all fields in which they operate. The basic

characteristics of University are:

a. Offers programmes of Bachelor, Masters and or Doctoral level.

b. Conducts research in various field at local, national and international level.

c. Arranges conferences and other programmes in advanced professional practice in

cooperation with national and international professional bodies.

d. The availability of adequate resources, equipment, infrastructure and facilities to support

staff and students to contribute in research at the national and international contexts.

e. The academic staff in the University is usually more professional and qualified. Most of the

staffs are holding PhD degree with appropriate research publications.



f. The university administration reflects the academic maturity and intellectual independence of

the institution. Considerable academic authority is given to an academic board and rigorous

mechanisms must be in place to ensure that high academic and professional standards are

maintained.

g. The head of University is usually designated as President, Rector or Vice Chancellor.

All public HEIs are fully funded by government revenues which cover all capital and

operating expenditures as well as tuition, and include student allowances generous enough at the

high end (students at Sultan Qaboos University) to cover books, accommodation and living

expenses. At the same time, Government subsidizes private colleges through scholarships, land

grants and tax exemptions. In addition, qualifying private universities receive a grant of RO 17

million for quality improvements directly related to the classroom and learning resources and a

matching grant of RO 3 million, totaling RO 20,000,000, or approximately 52,000,000 US$.

Discussion Regarding Measuring Quality of Higher Education in Oman

There is growing interest in the quality of higher education in Oman as independent

structure of higher education has been established with 61 HEIs of public and private sector and

offering various programmes to approximately 80,000 students. The two key public sector

institutions namely the Ministry of Higher Education and the Oman Accreditation Council

(OAC) are responsible for quality assurance in respect to licensing, auditing, accreditation and

institutions / programs validation.

There are various stages for approval and accreditation of HEIs and Programmes. The

approval for new HEIs to operate in the Sultanate of Oman involves the following four stages:

The First Stage – Proposal

The first stage includes the development of a comprehensive proposal and feasibility

study. The proposal is submitted to the Directorate General of Private Universities and Colleges,

Ministry of Higher Education where it is studied and a report is prepared for the Council of

Higher Education. The report to the Council of Higher Education include comment on

conformance with regulations; quality of academic provision, learning and support resources;

and, financial viability. Attention is paid particularly to the need for the new institution,

including potential impact on other provision.

The Second Stage - Conditional Approval and Licensing

The second stage involves conditional approval or rejection by the Council of Higher

Education. If approval by the Council of Higher Education is granted, the Ministry of Higher

Education grants the institution a license to commence operations for a period of 12 months after

completion of facilities and full mobilization of all required resources. This is followed by

supervision by the Ministry of Higher Education in the case of private institutions, and by the

relevant Ministry in the case of public institutions.



The Third Stage - Provisional Accreditation and Renewal of License

The third stage occurs during the first year of operation and involves application to the

OAC for provisional accreditation of both the institution and its programmes. A self-evaluation

with a full report and external audit are required and must be provided within a maximum of 12

months after commencement of operations. The results of the self-study and external audit are

evaluated by the OAC, with advice from special panels appointed by the Council.

If provisional accreditation is granted on the basis of the performance of the institution

during its first year of operation and its plans for the next four years, official notification is given

to the Ministry for Higher Education who then renews the license, enabling the institution to

continue operating for another four years. During this time, the institution is monitored by the

OAC in order to ensure that commitments have been met and programmes are delivered as

proposed.

The Fourth Stage - Full Accreditation

The fourth stage involves full accreditation and occurs before the end of the first five year

period of operation. If the OAC is satisfied as a result of the second self-study and external

review that commitments have been met and quality is being maintained as proposed, the

provisional designation is removed, and the institution is considered to be fully accredited.

Currently all the existing HEIs have been granted license by the Ministry of Higher

Education to operate institutions in Oman. They have passed stage 1 and 2 successfully and are

now in stage 3 of accreditation. The third stage which is more crucial, complicated and a

challenge for HEIs, is the focus of the study and need to be discussed in more detail.

The third stage of higher education quality assurance is called Quality Audit. According

to Oman Accreditation Council (OAC, 2008) Quality Audit is an independent evaluation of the

effectiveness of the system and process by which an HEI sets, pursues and achieves its mission

and vision. Quality Audit has two components: Self Study and External Review as explained

with the help of following figure 1.

Figure 1: Quality Audit Components

Source: Manual of Quality Audit, 200…

Self Study External Review

Self Study

Activities

Quality Audit

Portfolio

External Review

Activities

Quality Audit

Report

Quality Audit



First, an HEI conducts a self study of its own quality assurance and quality enhancement

activities and writes the findings in a Quality Audit Portfolio (QAP). Then, an external Audit

Panel comprised of national and international peers from academia, industry and professions

consider this Portfolio and check its completeness and accuracy through such means as

interviews and cross-checking with original documentation and other information sources. This

Audit Panel produces a Quality Audit Report. Quality Audit Report presents findings including

Commendations about areas regarded as particularly effectives and Affirmation and

Recommendation about areas where there are opportunities for improvement. This part of the

Quality Audit process is called the External Review.

After successfully completion of Quality Audit, the HEIs are evaluated against

benchmark called Standards Assessment. The HEIs are accredited if they qualify Standard

Assessment. The process and framework for accreditation of existing HEIs is given in a self

explanatory figure 2 below:

Figure 2: Quality Audit Stages and Framework

Source: OAC (2009)

As indicated above that in the process of accreditation, the stage of Self Assessment

Approach (QAP) is complicated and is a challenge for HEIs, the analysis of which is carried out

in section 6 below.



Review and Analysis of Self-Assessment Approach

In 2008, the OAC launched institutional evaluations of the existing HEIs which will be

completed in six years. A manual called ―Quality Audit Manual‖ (QAM) was distributed to the

HEIs to use as guidelines to conduct their self-evaluation and produce evidence based report

called ―Quality Audit Portfolio‖ (QAP). For the institutions, this kind of self-evaluation is an

original evaluation practice. The head of the HEIs (Rectors / Vice Chancellor or Dean) assigned

the task of self-evaluation to a team / committee that are especially formed for the purpose.

These teams include senior management and teaching staff. The time period require to develop

the report is from 6 to 9 months.

All HEIs are required to develop / prepare QAP in the light of instructions / guidelines

provided in the QAM which mostly covers the following important topics.

Governance and Management

Student Learning by Coursework Programmes

Student Learning by Research Programme

Staff Research and Consultancy

Industry and Community Engagement

Academic Support Services

Students and Student Support Services

Staff and Support Services

General Support Services and Facilities

The HEIs are required to evaluate all the above activities using ADRI (Approach-

Deployment-Results-Improvements) methods as explained below:

The HEI planned arrangements are suitable to achieve their prescribed goals (i.e. to check the

overall Approach);

The HEI actual practice conforms to the planned arrangements (i.e. to check the

Deployment);

The arrangements achieve the desired Results;

The HEI is learning from a self-evaluation of its approach, deployment and results, and can

demonstrate Improvements.

The aforementioned contents for self-evaluation cover almost all activities which are

expected from an HEI. The approach of ADRI is also good for self-evaluation. However, it is

observed that the development of QAP is a challenge for HEIs in Oman. They consider it as a

compulsory document require for accreditation. The discussion held with various staff involves

in the preparation of QAP indicate that instead to use the preparation of QAP as an objective to

see the strength and weaknesses for quality assurance, most of the institutions use as an end

which is require for accreditation. Some staff identified language as a main constraint to develop

QAP. Most of the institutions‘ data are available in Arabic which is hurdle for expatriate staff.

Similarly QAM is in English which is a barrier in the way of understanding of local staff.

Evaluation is also complex process and most of the staffs are un-aware / untrained how to

conduct evaluation. In order to train the relevant staff, training workshops have been conducted

in most of the HEIs but failed to achieve the desirable objectives. Some indicated that most



senior level staffs are engaged for long time to develop the QAP as requirement instead to assign

them an actual work to improve quality. In such a situation some institutions are in search of

some external expert to develop QAP for their institutes. The commitment of staff is also

remained a serious question because they consider it as an extra workload. .

Institution‘s Approach to Designing Quality Audit Portfolio

The QAP developed by some HEIs, were analyzed to find out their approach to designing

QAP and to what extent they followed the methodology and guidelines of OAC mentioned in

QAM. Moreover, to see how the QAP reflects the true picture of the institute.

It was noted that most the HEIs have provided detailed and accurate information

regarding their students, teaching staff, technical and administrative personnel, infrastructure,

research, training and other resources etc in their respective QAP. However, some deficiencies

were identified in their approach which is given below:

More descriptive approach prevails in the QAP.

Lack of information that was backed by evidence or that was verifiable. For example, various

surveys undertaken to show results of their activities, can not by verified by external

reviewer.

Lack of quantitative information in QAP.

Only minor issues and deficiencies are highlighted to protect the institute image.

The reports highlight all the facilities available in the institute for students and faculty but

failed to reflect the actual academic environment and effects of their policies and strategies

on the out put.

Several institutions feared that the self-evaluation would harm their national reputations.

The HEIs provided numerous statistics of their facilities in QAP. However, they did not

mention to what extent they are utilizing and in working conditions.

The QAP as whole do not reflect the image of institute or the achievements in academics and

research.

Various institutes can not be compared on the basis of QAP for ranking purpose.

Conclusion

Self-evaluation is necessity for the HEIs to reflect their strength and weaknesses or the

image of HEIs in term of academics and research. However, the development of real self-

evaluation report is difficult for the institutions as they are still young and there is lack of

understanding. Moreover, several questions remain unanswered: does self-evaluation reveal the

entire reality of an institution? Is self-evaluation capable of addressing every challenge met by

the institution? How to distinguish the picture given by the self-evaluation from the overall

reality? To what extent the external evaluators can confirm the reality of self-evaluation? To

what extent the stakeholders including parents and students can understand the QAP of an

institution which is a public document? To what extent the stakeholders (parent, students,

industry etc) can rank various HEIs on the basis of QAP?



Answers to these critical questions would be the basis of further research and facilitate to

achieve the ultimate objectives of higher education – ―to develop competent and quality

conscious citizens for the country‖

Keeping in view the above, it is recommended that the present system of quality

assurance should be simplify in such a way that HEIs may be able to provide the necessary

information to the OAC in easy way and which reflect the actual image of the institute to the

public. The information can be verifiable, evidence based and on the basis of which an institute

can be ranked. QAP should be simple according to local requirement so that all stakeholders

including students and parents may understand easily. There is need of a simple integrated

system which assures quality of the HEIs and same time rank the institution in term of academics

and research. This will reduce the un-necessary workload on institutions and will be beneficial

for all stakeholders.

Terms

Accreditation is the process of external quality review used in higher education to scrutinize

colleges, universities, and higher education programs for quality assurance and quality

improvement.

Audit: A process of review of an institution or program to determine if its curriculum, staff, and

infrastructure meet its stated aims and objectives. An audit focuses on accountability of

institutions and programs.

Institutional Licensure: State government approval to conduct business as an educational

institution. Licensing is not equated to accreditation and does not necessarily require

demonstration of quality or ability to meet performance standards.

Peer Review: External review and evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of an institution‘s

academic programs, staffing, and structure, carried out by a team of external evaluators who are

specialists in the fields reviewed and knowledgeable about higher education in general. Reviews

may be based on standards set by the accrediting organizations or on quality standards set more

broadly.

Quality Audit: A test of an institution‘s quality assurance and control system through a self-

evaluation and external review of its programs, staff, and infrastructure.

Recognition: Acknowledgment that an accrediting organization meets or surpasses standards set

by the entity conducting the recognition review.

Self-study: The review and evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of an institution‘s own

academic programs, staffing, and structure, based on standards set by an outside quality

assurance body, carried out by the institution itself. Self-studies usually are undertaken in

preparation for a quality assurance site visit by an outside team of specialists. Results in a self-

study report.



References

Al Bandary M. (2005); Meeting the challenges: The development of quality assurance in Oman‘s Colleges of

Education, Higher Education (2005) 50: 181–195, DOI 10.1007/s10734-004-6348-y

Al Shmeli, H. (2009); Higher Education in the Sultanate of Oman: Planning in Context of Globalization, IIEP Policy

Forum, 2-3 July, 2009.

Dill D. (2007); Quality Assurance in Higher Education: Practices and Issues, The 3rd International Encyclopedia of

Education, Editors-in-Chief Barry McGaw, Eva Baker and Penelope P Peterson, Elsevier Publications.

Eaton J. S (2006); An Overview of US Accreditation, Council for Higher Education Accreditation.(CHEA), USA.

IIEP (2009); International Institute for Educational Planning, http://www.iiep.unesco.org/focus-on-higher-

education/quality-assurance-in-higher-education.html?type=99 Accessed on September 30, 2009.

OAC (Undated); Requirements for Oman‘s System of Quality Assurance in Higher Education, Oman‘s System of

Quality Assurance: Part One: Standards (Approved), Oman Accreditation Council, Sultanate of Oman.

OAC (2006); Plan for an Omani Higher Education Quality Management System (―The Quality Plan‖), Oman

Accreditation Council.

OAC (2006a); Accreditation vs Recognition of Programme in Oman, A Poster Developed by Oman Accreditation

Council.

(OAC (2008); Quality Audit Manual, Institutional Accreditation: Stage 1, Oman Accreditation Council, Sultanate of

Oman.

OAC (2009); Institutional Accreditation Overview, http://www.oac.gov. om/ institution/ Accessed on September 30,

2009

Strydom, K (2001); Critical Perspective on Quality Assurance in Higher Education in South Africa, University of

Free State, South Africa.

UNESCO (2009); United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organization. http://www.unesco.org/en/higher-

education/themes/quality-assurance-and-recognition /Accessed on September 30, 2009.


Reference # 125

Topic # 3

Why would anyone want to do Educational Studies? Angela Shaw [email protected], University of Hull, United Kingdom

Ally Dunhill [email protected], University of Hull, United Kingdom

Derek Colquhoun [email protected], University of Hull, United Kingdom

The overall aim of the project was to find out more about the average Educational Studies student;

who they are, where they come from, what they hope to achieve through their degree studies and

how they fare upon completion of the degree. In addition the project wanted to find out whether

the pre-entry profiles of the students affected their performance on the degree and/or the eventual

degree which they obtained. The title of the paper reflects a sense of unease about the acceptance

of vocational qualifications as appropriate vehicles for entry to Higher Education. The paper

utilizes quantitative data collection and a detailed analysis of the consequent student responses.

The outcomes give some insight as to why students choose this particular discipline.

Shaw, et al.: Why would anyone want to do Educational Studies?



Reference # 126

Topic # 6

Quality assurance driving teaching and learning at Petra University Aseel Shawareb [email protected], Petra University, Jordan

Yousef Bakr [email protected], Petra University, Jordan

Quality control and quality assurance have become the key themes for higher education in many

countries in the world (Manila, 2009). In this paper, the impact of quality assurance on Petra

University performance and how to develop and implement a fully integrated quality management

system, will be outlined , based on a set of university prescribed principles for a quality assurance

framework, aiming at enhancing and assuring the quality of educational programs. Specifically,

we tried to outline the environment, describe the tasks, identify the opportunities and challenges

from a faculty point of view, describe the strategies used to achieve the university‘s objectives,

mission, and vision highlighting the factors of success.

Objectives

Although there is an increasing number of universities, implementing the quality

management systems, little empirical literature has addressed this process in the education sector

from an academic point of view. This study critically examines the quality assurance procedures

and investigates how it drives the learning and teaching process at the university. Specifically,

the study provides answers to the following research questions.

1. What is the quality assurance agenda at Petra University?

2. What is the effect of quality assurance on the teaching and learning process from the point

view of faculty members?

Theoretical framework

Higher education has been the subject of increasing criticism in recent years (Daly,

1994). Critics have been just as vocal in the rest of the world. Partly in response to this chorus of

concern, governments have moved to make universities and colleges more accountable for the

finances they receive from state offers. The concern about the quality of teaching has been

particularly strong as many have begun to suspect that teaching has been relegated to a poor

second place behind research because of ever increasing pressure on academics to publish. The

general thrust has usually been toward mechanisms for quality assurance of teaching (Kember,

1996).

In discussing quality assurance and quality enhancement, we draw upon a distinction

made by (Elton, 1994). He grouped the quality ―A‘s‖: quality assurance, accountability, audit,

and assessment, and saw them as concerned with control of both quality and the people who

control quality, whereas, quality enhancement was seen as related to the ―E‘s‖: empowerment,

enthusiasm, expertise, and excellence.

Accreditation is considered as the first step to achieve quality assurance and it has

become almost universal. Internal or external panels may withhold approval for a program to be

offered if they are not convinced that the program can be taught according to an adequate



standard. Use of external examiners is another well-established quality assurance mechanism

designed to verify the appropriateness of degree awards. Recently, it has also become more

common to appraise teaching directly. The most widely used mechanism has been the use of

student feedback questionnaires, though some institutions have sought other diverse forms of

feedback through teaching profiles or portfolios (Gibbs, 1992).

Stakeholders have a range of expectations about quality outcomes in higher education.

Institutions are setting policies and practices aimed at enhancing and assuring the quality

of their core business – teaching and learning (Fiona & Alex,2002)

Within the framework of its concern to move forward in implementing quality standards

of higher education, Petra University, in coordination with local and international professional

institutions, continued its endeavors to establish a concrete Quality Assurance foundation, based

on its strategic 5- year plan 2007-2012. This plan was stemmed from the university‘s vision to be

the University of Choice in Jordan and the Region.

The University has taken positive steps towards quality control, and what has been

accomplished so far is quite an achievement despite the difficulties that PU faced from the outset

of the project and the fact that such vital changes can‘t be made overnight. A solid strategic plan

was set out and is now being implemented (www.uop.edu.jo/qa/?lang=en&location=QA).

Quality assurance driving teaching and learning at Petra University

Background of Accreditation System in Jordan

The accreditation process was introduced to Jordan in 1990 and was managed by

accreditation committees stemmed from the Higher Education Council (HEC).

In 1999 Higher Education Accreditation Council ( HEAC ) was established but was

chaired by the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research.

In 2007 Higher Education Strategy in Jordan ( 2007-2012) was stemmed from the fact

that during the last two decades , this sector was incredibly expanded due to many reasons as the

number of universities in Jordan is among the highest world wide comparing to the population

i.e. 25 universities serving a population of 6m. ( 1:24000) whereas in UK for example , there are

more than 150 universities serving 6.1m people ( 1:400,000).

Therefore the said strategy was based on a concrete vision and mission and of higher

quality to satisfy the growing demand on education in Jordan by Jordanians and other students

from neighboring countries. This study will give a clear idea about the impact of quality assurance, and quality control

on higher education in general and on the teaching and learning process in particular .This is

very important for both students and teachers.

Methods, techniques, or modes of inquiry

In order to show how quality assurance was built up at Petra University, a historical and

documentarian analysis of quality assurance agenda was used. Also, a focus group and

questionnaire to investigate the influence of quality on learning and teaching process from the

view point of academics will be used.

http://www.uop.edu.jo/qa/?lang=en&location=QA

Shawareb & Bakr: Quality assurance driving teaching and learning


What is the quality assurance agenda at Petra University?

Progress and Plans

Data sources and evidence

Primary and secondary data in addition to formal documentations of quality assurance

from the administrative services at Petra University will be considered. This information was

used to analyze: the objective of the quality assurance and why it was performed; how the

process was started ; its stages, difficulties and benefits; and the success factors. Secondary data

sources included access to internal documents: self-assessment plan, written material produced

during the process (e.g. forms containing strengths, weaknesses and improvement actions, forms

containing action plans, questionnaires, exams results), objectives, indicators, and materials

collected. This information will be used to supplement the primary data.

How QA system in PU was established

Governorance Support :In 2007 , the management of Petra University decided that PU

should be engaged in QA process and accordingly such process was to be supported. That

was the corner stone of the process.

Formation of a Steering Committee : The Committee represented various faculties .

Vision and Mission Statements : were set by the top management with the help of the Quality

Assurance Committee .

A comprehensive questionnaire was then designed for : a) Faculty Staff b) Management Staff

c) Students d) graduates e) local community and industry.

SWOT Analysis was then derived from the questionnaire .

Goals and Objectives were then concluded from the SWOT analysis.

SER Self evaluation report was then set at the level of the institution.

The SER was set out in parallel with A Strategic Plan for Quality Assurance and was based

on the Vision , mission and objectives.

This was followed by a series of SERs. At the subject level covering Accounting ,

Financial Sciences and English .

Quality Assurance Council then formed a follow up committee to pursue the execution of the

Strategic Plan for Quality Assurance SPQA .

The whole process was based on QAA 6 Aspects but PU added a 7th

.. Aspect as follows:

1. Cu1- Curriculum Design Content and Organization .

2. Teaching, Learning and Assessment. (TLA).Student Progress and Achievement Student

support and guidance.

5. Learning Resources (LR) .

6. Quality Management and Enhancement (QME).

7. Research Enhancement and Assessment Committee .

issued 12 Quality Assurance criteria to be followed at the institution level and PU is now

orking into merging the 7 aspects into the 12 HEAC QA criteria .

An action plan of individual phases was then laid down to include :



Establishment of a Master Plan Committee to handle all matters related to buildings and

facilities ( chaired by top management of the university).

Capacity building (to train all PU members on QA issues and 7 aspects).

Dissemination of QA culture. This was in the form of series of lectures , workshops,

seminars and meetings internally and externally.

A series of local audits covered all departments at the 5 faculties.

The Quality Assurance Council at the institution level and the QA committees at the faculty

level held their meetings regularly.

What is the effect of quality assurance on the teaching and learning process

from the point view of faculty members?

This study was based on an internal research whereby various faculties and faculty

members ranks where taken into account. The researches draw an action plan which was started

with a questionnaire constructed as follows:

Specifying the domains of quality assurance criteria which effect teaching and learning,

the researchers reviewed the literature related to the quality assurance and selected those criteria

related to Teaching and Learning, and modified them to be more meaningful and useful in the

context of Petra University QA strategy. Based on this review, the researchers put a list of 26

items as a primary version for the questionnaire.

The primary version of the questionnaire was reviewed by faculty members.

In order to have psychometric indicators for the items of the primary version of the

questionnaire, it was administered to a sample of (10) faculty members that were selected

randomly from the study population (not included in the study sample). The results showed that

the correlations between the performance on the items and the total scores (RIX) were ranged

between (0.37 - 0.70) to obtain the questionnaire reliability,. The questionnaire was administered

twice in a three week period interval to this sample. A correlation coefficient between the two

scores obtained by the subjects was computed. The test- retest reliability coefficient were (0.77),

(0.68), (0.64), (0.63), for the questionnaire as a whole respectively. This was considered

acceptable for the purpose of the study.

The questionnaire comprised (26) items to measure the effect of quality assurance on

Teaching an Learning. Staff were asked to rate their agreement with the 26 items on a Likert-

type scale ranging from 3 (strongly effect) to 1 (no effect). The questionnaire was pilot-tested to

disclose any possible inaccuracies or ambiguities and to enable the necessary refinements. It was

also administered to three faculty members who were randomly selected from the population for

the pilot test. Data received from the pilot test was reviewed and changes were made.

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, and

frequencies). and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine whether quality assurance effect

on teaching and learning at Petra University due to the study variables: academic rank, college

and faculty.



Population and sample

Sample of this study is shown in table (1)

Faculty

Rank

Total Lecturer Assistant Prof. Associate Prof. Full Prof.

Art and Sciences 1 8 4 1 14

IT 4 4 2 0 10

Pharmacy 1 5 3 0 9

Architecture 2 6 4 1 1

Admin. Science 6 5 4 0 15 Total 14 28 17 2 61

Results

This study was designed to examine how the implementation of QA criteria affects the

process of teaching and learning. In order to answer this question, means, standard deviations,

ranks, were found as shown in Table (2) below:

Table 2 : means, standard deviations, and ranks for each domain.

Domains Mean

Std.

Deviation Rank

Programme, Objectives, ILOs. and study Plan 11.98 2.85 3

Teaching Process 16.62 4.22 1

Assessment 11.95 3.39 4

Learning Resources 15.35 3.95 2

It is noticed from the table above that the domain which was mostly affected by Quality

Assurance implementation was the (Teaching Process), followed by (Learning Resources) and

(Programme objective,) but the least affected was the (Assessment).

Table (3) Means, Std.Deviations, and Ranks for the Domains at various Faculties

Domains Faculty Mean

Std.

Deviation Rank

Programme , Objectives , ILOs and study Plan

Arts and Sciences 12.50 2.62 1

IT 12.20 2.66 1

Pharmacy 11.67 3.24 3

Architecture 11.77 3.14 5

Admin. Science 11.73 3.01 4

Teaching Process

Arts and Sciences 16.50 3.18 3

IT 17.30 4.50 1

Pharmacy 16.22 4.82 5



Assessment Arts and Sciences 11.71 3.00 4

IT 11.50 3.21 5

Pharmacy 11.89 3.86 3





Domains Faculty Mean

Std.

Deviation Rank

Learning Resources Art and Sciences 15.63 3.70 2

IT 15.90 4.31 1

Pharmacy 15.22 3.93 3



Again, it is noticed from Table (3) above that the most affected faculties by the domains

are reflected as follows:

Programme , Objectives , ILOs and study Plan :

Faculty of Art and Sciences and Faculty of IT.

Teaching Process :

Faculty of IT and Faculty of Admin Sciences

Assessment

Faculty of Architecture and Arts and Faculty of Admin. Sciences .

Learning Resources: Faculty of IT and Faculty of Arts and Science

Table (4) Means, Std. Deviation and Ranks of the Domains, as per academic rank of the faculty members.

Domains Teaching

Member

Rank

Mean Std.

Deviation Rank

Programme , Objectives , ILOs and study Plan

Full Prof. 13.00 0.00 1

Associate

Prof. 9.47 4.00 4

Assistant

Prof. 12.93 1.44 3

Lecturer 13.00 1.47 1

Teaching Process

Full Prof. 20.00 0.00 1

Associate

Prof. 13.94 4.45 4

Assistant

Prof. 16.39 3.80 3

Lecturer 19.86 2.25 2

Assessment Full Prof. 16.00 0.00 1

Associate

Prof. 10.71 3.24 4

Assistant

Prof. 10.89 2.99 3

Lecturer 15.00 2.15 2

Learning Resources Full Prof. 19.00 0.00 1

Associate

Prof. 13.27 3.39 3

Assistant

Prof. 15.04 4.62 4

Lecturer 17.43 2.06 2

Table (4) reveals that a full prof. in all domains was the one which was mostly affected

by QA implementation in terms of impact on teaching and learning. This was due to the fact that

2 full professors had participated in the sample and is understood that the background of these

full professors. in QA is wider than associate professors of assistant professors.



General:

Means were very close in all Faculties but when applied ANOV (Analysis of Variance)

test, no significant indicators were found and this is why we depended on the Means in this

study.

I has been noticed in all tables that the lecturer had occupied higher ranks in the impact

of QA on teaching an learning , while the assistant prof. And associate prof. have occupied lower

ranks in the impact of QA on teaching and learning . This is usually possible if their background

on Quality Assurance was less than the lecturers .

It is also noticed that the lecturers are more eager to explore new methods and

experiments . This is attributed to their hopes that one day they will go for Ph.D.

Conclusions and point of view

Although Petra University is still in its early stages of Quality Assurance development,

but is committed to opening up quality education to students from a diverse range of

backgrounds and experiences. PU has set concrete values and objectives. The 5 year Strategic

Plan for Quality Assurance (2007-2012) is still under implementation, we are in the second year

of implementation. The impact of Quality Assurance on all activities is not comprehensively

materialized.

Major elements such as assessment, accountability and performance appraisal are due for

implementation. Upon the completion of such implementation, it is envisaged that the subject

results i.e. impact of QA on teaching and learning will eventually be more obvious.

The subject study must be repeated regularly to ensure that:

1. Faculty members observe QA criteria: have well designed curriculum, study plans, course

data sheets, specified ILOs. and programme objectives

2. Students are well supported and guided.

3. Learning resources are in place.

4. Assessment is duly performed.

This will take care of teaching and learning process provided that the study includes a

wider sample of faculty members, students, graduates, the industries, and stake holders.

The study may also be extended to cover other institutions.

This is not the end of the process. Other topics may be addressed such as impact of QA

on the quality of graduates, labor market, research, etc.

Further, The success of this process will undoubtedly affect QA criteria other than

teaching and learning such as research, bridging the gap between academia and industry ,

enhance lifelong learning process and will extend to affect the local community, and accordingly

preservation of environment .

The challenges we face in this century are enormous. We live in a global village and are

immediately affected by the surroundings in all walks of life. The overlap of common interests

among countries dictates a fresh intellectual approach in dealing with each other.( Badran,2009)

Some of these approaches are: dialogue and respect of differences with others,

enhancement of intellectual pluralism and maximizing the common interests and respect the



ethnic and religious differences with others. We live in a mosaic cultural heritage which we

should understand, respect and live with. .(Badran 2009)

All of this will not be realized without a concrete foundation for teaching and learning,

govern by QA criteria.

It is finally concluded that:

1. Higher Education Institutions need to develop strategic plans in line with international QA

standards.

2. Faculty staff is the corner stone for building up QA process.

3. Faculty staff needs regular awareness and updating on the latest QA criteria and

development.

4. Assessment and accountability related to teaching and learning process must always be

considered.

References

Badran, Adnan (2009). Retrieved September11,2009//www.uop.edu.jo/qa/?lang=en&location=QA

Daly, W. T (1994) ―Teaching and scholarship: Adapting American higher education to hard times.‖ Journal of

Higher Education, 65, 45-57

Elton, L. (1992)‖Quality enhancement and academic professionalism.‖ The New Academic, 1, 3-5.

Fiona W.& Alex R.(2002)‖ Using quality assurance to drive a teaching and learning agenda: Taking a risk, meeting

the challenge‖

Gibbs, G. (1992) Creating a teaching profile. Bristol, Avon, U.K.: Technical and Educational Services................

Higher Education Accreditation Council of Jordan(HEAC) , un published literature.

www.uop.edu.jo/qa/?lang=en&location=QA

Manila B. (2009)‖Quality assurance in Philippine higher education; Lessons Learned.(Opinion/Editorial).Retrieved

August 23, 2009 from HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-76827606.html

http://www.uop.edu.jo/qa/?lang=en&location=QA



Reference # 129

Topic # 4

Moodle-based virtual courses in Oman: Current running and future outlooks Victoria Tuzlukova [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Christine Eltayeb [email protected], Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

This paper illustrates the changing attitudes in Oman to the virtual learning environment and its

importance for independent learning skills‘ enhancement. Taking into consideration Omani

educational and socio-cultural factors it focuses on pedagogical implications and orientations that

motivate the use of computer-mediated technologies and demonstrates the creation, current

running and future outlooks on the Moodle based virtual course developed by the Language

Centre teachers for the students at the College of Arts and Social Sciences of Sultan Qaboos

University. It also investigates the experience and benefits of using targeted websites to promote

communicative language learning of pre-service teachers.

Introduction

Recently introduced computer-mediated technologies of open learning environment and

virtual interaction have created many opportunities for language learners worldwide. They have

empowered them with a variety of tools (Scully, 2008) to communicate and work online

dynamically and meaningfully (Nunan, 1987). They have also supplied learners with the

―instruments‖ to overcome psychological barriers, enhance individual learning skills, make

choices and learn autonomously. In addition to having many positive effects on the learners,

these tools and software have also made it possible for the teachers to create a friendly and

interesting learning environment (Aebersol, Field, 1997), better understand their students‘

developmental orientations (Cleborn, 1997) and help them to become motivated.

In spite of a dearth of research it is still not clear how the global network, innovative

targeted websites and technologies affect local communities of learners with regard to creating

new attitudes to virtual learning environments and providing communicative and independent

learning. Therefore, this paper focuses on English language learning in a computer-mediated

environment in Oman to demonstrate that this mode of learning - through its flexibility and

facility of access – enables Omani university students to adapt to the fast changing needs of

modern education. It is in this light that the Virtual General English Course for the students at the

College of Arts and Social Sciences in Sultan Qaboos University is described.

Students‘ Profile

The study of the learner (Littlewood, 1984:1) and the focus on students‘ developmental,

style and cultural orientations, as well as friendly and interesting language learning environment

(Aebersol, Field, 1997) have always been prerequisites in theories of effective language, but in

practice of language the materials, preferred by the teachers have often failed to produce it. This

triggers the need to examine the limitations and contextual constraints and adjust teaching

materials to the needs of the learners.

The students in the College of Arts and Social Sciences, where the medium of instruction

is Arabic, are required to learn the English language for two years as a part of their university



education. They all come from similar backgrounds in Oman and have been educated at

government schools in different parts of the country.

The majority of the students had been taught English at school by Omani or Indian

teachers. When at the university they find themselves in a unique educational, social and cultural

setting in which they have to communicate with the teachers and faculties from diverse cultures

and nationalities. This practice of a foreign language learning ―outside the familiar‖ is not very

easy for the students and sometimes it adds a lot of additional challenges to the students.

The abilities of the students in English are varied. Some of the students, especially those

coming from the capital area of Oman, probably had more exposure to English than other prior

to entering the university. But the majority of the students had little opportunity outside the

classroom to practice what English they had learned in class and contact with English in real-life

situations.

The majority of the students encounter some difficulties with listening and speaking in a

normal situation. They are often at a loss for words and quite often resort to using their native

tongue. They also have difficulties in conveying their thoughts and true ideas both in speaking

and writing as their written reports are immature quite often.

As a rule most of the students are well motivated and willingly take part in different class

activities. But as the authors‘ experience shows the motivation of both male and female students

increases when the content of the assignments is clear to them and conforms to their everyday

life, personal and academic needs.

Teachers‘ Profile

The Language Centre is the largest learning component in Sultan Qaboos University. The

Language Centre has a tremendous asset in human resources since more than 200 well-qualified

and experienced teachers, who come from 29 countries, work there. The Language Centre

prepares students for specialized programs offered by the university colleges in English and

provides various credit programs for Arabic-medium colleges. One of these programs is the

General English Program. This program is offered to the students of the College of Arts and

Social Sciences.

The instructors of the Language Centre, who are teaching in the General English for Arts

program, are committed to developing both integrative language and communicative skills of the

students. This commitment to enhance language learning and empower students with vital

learning skills is currently accomplished with the help of up-to-date innovative teaching

methodologies and integrated information technologies. Interestingly the challenge in this

concern does not lie in pure techniques or latest technologies. In fact, it is rooted, as Jaaffar

states, in an approach that acknowledges the essentially human element of the instructional

process: the learners and the people who help them to learn (Jaaffar, 2002).

Virtual Course Description

Since Fall 2007 a Virtual General English Course has been generated within the General

Arts program. This course is aimed at providing a communicative student-centered language

Tuzlukova & Eltayeb: Moodle-based virtual courses in Oman


environment and encouraging the development of communicative skills, innovative thinking,

independent learning and team work with the help of targeted web-sites (Moodle, WebCT, etc.).

The designed course corresponds to the traditional 16-week General English Course,

though the created electronic materials and assignments could also be used for classroom, self-

study and extra-curricular activities. The users of the course are both false and true beginners.

The course is designed to be utilized by pre-intermediate level students and by students who

want to learn English for academic or career advancement and/or for social or personal reasons.

The course is developed to be customized to meet the needs of a wider cohort of General English

students or for the students that take remedial courses.

It is common knowledge among teachers that though computer-mediated language

learning definitely ensures multiple improvements in the language proficiency of the students

through easily created and designed interactive web-based assignments (Kraus, 2002), this

endeavor happens to require lots of efforts on the part of the teachers, administration and

students. For example, the designers of the Virtual Course for the General Arts students in Sultan

Qaboos University came up with lots of questions. At the beginning it was not clear how the

course can practice functional language and everyday social and cultural situations, and what

activities and contexts can contribute to integrated skills development?

In addition the creators of the course were not sure about the logistics of the course and

wondered where and when the traditional general English course can be better supplemented by

Internet-based resources and assignments and what interactive approaches/activities/assignments

can provide a foundation in the structure of the English language, its phonetics, vocabulary and

grammar. It was also important to integrate into the course and reflect in its content social,

cultural and linguistic realities of Oman today. In addition there was a need to develop a

comfortable communicative classroom that could transform traditional teacher-centered

language-learning experience into an exciting student-based one as well as to transform in a

newly designed virtual course traditional classroom pedagogical implications and principles into

those that could lower students‘ psychological barriers, enhance their communicative and

language skills within computer-mediated, teacher-led, communicative classroom, and deeply

consider language, social and cultural factors within the local educational setting.

Virtual General English Course: Design Principles

The successful integration of communicative and linguistic principles with the principles

of successful learning provides the effective realization of the virtual course objectives. These

principles for the most part correspond to the traditional course goals and objectives.

The Virtual General English Course is designed to make language learning stimulating,

to provide a clear and comprehensible entry into the foundations of the English language

grammar, vocabulary and functions. It is also developed to provide a better understanding of

local culture from different perspectives. Both content and mode of delivery are aimed at

extending the students‘ vocabulary on universal topics, developing their integrated language and

communicative skills as well as giving a better understanding of learning strategies that might

help management of language learning.

These objectives correspond to the principles behind the course that, in line with the

definition in the Macmillan English Dictionary, are viewed as a basic beliefs, theories or rules

that have a major influence on the way in which the virtual course should be designed.

Examination showed that there are several principles to be investigated in making decisions



about the content and design of the virtual course viewed as a communicative classroom. These

are as follows:

1. Personalization and individualization. This means addressing each student‘s needs (mostly

female as is the case in Oman) and finding examples from the students‘ own experience and

culture.

2. Enhancement of language learning and increase of motivation with the effective use of

strategies and procedures of blended learning (face-to-face and computer-mediated).

3. Development of content that exemplifies the students‘ own experience and culture, and

bringing together global and local by incorporating authentic Omani English language

materials.

4. Matching course content with educational environment (multicultural and diverse) and

content of learning (Arts students, Arabic Medium) and adapting the course design and

content to the objectives of integrated skills teaching.

5. Construction of a course that serves as a reference, a source of learning, a support of learning

and one that motivates and stimulates the students.

6. Linking identity, technology and culture (Wood, 2001).

Virtual Course Content and Materials

The Internet contains a wealth of information of particular interest to students including

the stories, articles and advice on an enormously broad array of topics. In spite of their appeal to

students‘ genuine interests, most of these materials were not written from an ELT perspective

and they very often tend to be unusually rich in idioms, colloquialisms, and neologisms -

language which receives inadequate attention in many textbooks. To complement the content of

the Virtual Course and to help the students to find a treasure trove of linguistic, social and

cultural information, the teachers of the General English for Arts Program have conducted an

action research aimed at creating teaching materials that support communicative activities of the

course with a special appeal for the interests of the students.

Though confronted with many special challenges that included but were not limited to

substantial rewriting of the materials to insure their usefulness and content suitability for the

students, their educational environment, content of learning, and devising beneficial language

activities to accompany the adapted readings, the creators of the materials managed for the most

part to cater individual interests, choices and needs, and to promote independent learning. They

also managed to integrate materials that were original and authentic. In addition they covered

regional problems and issues that corresponded to the learners‘ real-life situations and practices.

The term ―authentic‖ is quite frequently used in ESL/EFL research for identifying

genuine real1 materials produced by the native speakers of English. But with the origination of

―world Englishes‖ and further development of English as an international language, the

understanding of ―authenticity‘ is gradually becoming disputable. This variability and diverse

understanding could be traced in different approaches to clarifying the notion of authenticity

brilliantly reviewed and described by Dr. Trabelsi. According to Dr. Trabelsi there are four types

of authenticity:

1 http://www.yourdictionary.com/authentic



a. authenticity of the real social situation of the language classroom

b. authenticity of the learners‘ own interpretation of the tasks

c. authenticity of the tasks leading to language

d. authenticity of the texts which are exposed to learners and considered as input (Trabelsi,

2007).

Although there seems to be a lack of consensus on a varied and broader understanding of

authenticity, authenticity means real communication for social and cultural purposes and has an

unquestionable connection with culture as a pedagogical tool (Lado, 1957). In the context of this

paper culture is understood as ―a particular way of life, which expresses certain meaning and

values‖ (Byram, 1989:80), as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs

and affective understanding that are learned through the process of socialization (Lillejohn and

Windeatt ,1989). These values and attributes are reflected in the language and taught by means

of the language. In this respect authentic materials are viewed as teaching materials that are more

consistent with national/regional culture, students‘ cultural and social perception as well as with

social and cultural diversity.

Learning with regional materials in the English language is not a new concept in the

English language pedagogy (Al Maqrooqi, 2007), though it has not been widely integrated by the

teachers due to many social, cultural and linguistic reasons. When used in the English language

classroom these materials help to personalize the educational process (Key and Jones, 2000),

create a meaningful learning environment and give the students the opportunity to deal with

language created by and for English speaking residents within their own culture. Thus they do

not only expose the students as English language learners to vocabulary and structures that are

real and natural to native speakers, but they also relate to and tend not to contradict the students‘

own cultural and social context. Moreover effectively engaging the with students into highly-

contextualized real life practices, they appear to be sufficient adds for the students who have a

limited language learning experience and have little opportunity to practice their English

language skills outside the classroom.

The opportunities involved in using locally published materials in both traditional and

virtual classrooms as well as challenges the teachers face in this endeavor in different social and

cultural contexts have both common and specific features. They are rooted in present day

English teaching and learning practice, in teachers‘ own language learning experiences and

perceived images, in the aims and objectives of the courses that they teach as well as students‘

profiles, needs, academic and personal interests.

The selection of materials that relate to the students‘ linguistic, academic, social and

cultural profile, integrated language learning methodology and ―nature‖ of the learning context is

not an easy task. It could be described as a sequential process of inquiry, analysis and creation

(synthesis and integration) on the part of the teacher.

The inquiry stage leads the teachers to a clear understanding of their own objectives in

this endeavor and helps them to select the materials that optimally go with them. At first the

teachers have a lot of questions to consider, for example:

a. Do these materials suit my students‘ learning needs?

b. Is the level of the materials suitable?

c. Do the vocabulary and grammar structures of the materials need any rendering?

d. Do the materials correspond to the students‘ learning strategies and learning styles?



e. Can the materials be used for the integrated language learning and thus focus on teaching all

four language skills?

As a rule these questions are not all answered at once. Moreover, the intention to create

and develop teaching materials implies that the teachers must do a great deal of work before

introducing the materials to their students.

The inquiry stage is followed by the search for resources and materials. There is a lot of

very interesting materials available for English language teachers in Oman. Written by both

native and non-native speakers of English it can be found in such popular publications as ―Oman

Tribune‖, ―Times of Oman‖, ―Mirror‖, ―Y‘, ―The Week‖, ―Hi‖ and many others.

When making decisions about the selection of materials it is very useful to investigate

some basic rules or implications that will influence this procedure. For example, such

pedagogical implications and principles as:

a. content ―suitability‖

b. personal, academic and professional interest on the part of the student (Day, 1994)

c. contributing to language learners‘ experience and effective involvement in real life practices

d. relating to the course objectives and structure

e. sensitivity to integrated skills teaching paradigm and individual learning styles

f. matching with educational environment

g. social and cultural sensitivity (Tuzlukova, V., Eltayeb C., 2007).

Later the materials are sorted and classified. Their reliability, content and language are

assessed for further adaptation and adjustment.

The process of adaptation needs a great deal of creativity on the part of the teacher, who

should synthesize, integrate, and design questions and assignments to adapt the materials to suit

teaching and learning needs. Though the materials that the teachers can use in the language

classroom are plentiful and easily available, they still need revision and adaptation. Larry M.

Lynch in ―Creating Materials for the EFL Classroom‖ suggests several key reasons for the

adaptation of existing materials. They include the language level of the materials; their length;

their (possible) irrelevance to the immediate needs and objectives (especially in integrated

language teaching and learning). He also suggests some adjustment procedures, which, as our

experience of teaching materials‘ design shows, are very simple and yet very effective. For

example, the material can be:

a. simplified / rendered if it is too difficult

b. shortened if it is too long

c. supplied by a glossary, definitions or explanations if vocabulary or grammar featured in the

materials are not known to the learners

d. adapted as to correspond to the course/unit/lesson objectives

e. adjusted to the students learning styles within the integrated skills teaching paradigm, e.g.

supporting a reading passage with listening

f. made relevant for the needs and interests of learners to promote meaningful input and output

as well as effective foreign language acquisition



These procedures are very helpful, especially when there is an immediate need to

integrate the newly designed materials into the whole body of the virtual lesson/unit/course and

to give some new perspectives to the students.

Virtual General English Course: Challenges and Concerns

In spite of the fact that the power of such targeted websites as Moodle gives many unique

opportunities for effective language learning, the teachers faced a number of challenges and

verbalized various concerns during the process of the course design. These challenges and

concerns included administrative challenges, organizational concerns, linguistic, communicative

and content concerns, psychological factors and technical problems.

The administrative challenges included the release time that teachers need from their

teaching hours to design and develop the virtual course. Sometimes the developers of the course

felt some interference on the part of the Language Centre management, which included often

enough demand for the follow up of the project progress.

The organizational concerns as the teachers express them are mainly connected with

traditional approaches in foreign language teaching that most of the teachers are used to. The

inquiries on whether independent learning is better that the learning supervised by the teacher

and whether the virtual course is a better alternative to the traditional course (considering the

total amount of time given for the course – 90 hours per semester) were heard many times. The

need for the classrooms/labs arrangements for the virtual course implementation and time

arrangement is also viewed as one of the organizational concerns for effective communicative

classroom.

Linguistic, communicative and content problems were numerous. It is well known that

the foreign language learners struggle a lot with grammar and functional language (vocabulary

and pronunciation). The main concern for the course designers was to find the contexts of the

course that could help students to practice the functional language and develop their integrated

language skills and to design activities that could contribute to the development of these skills. It

was important to bridge a flexible Moodle-friendly model, communicative assignments with

integrated skills development in communicative and dynamic classroom.

The communicative performance and the underlying language proficiency of the students

happened to be dependent on many psychological barriers that caused the concerns on the part of

the teachers. It was noticed that there was some lack of confidence in dealing with the computer

and Internet, feelings of threat, the extra load and lack of motivation on the part of the students.

As interviews with the students showed they were often shy to about verbalizing their problems

with the computer and Internet and often they do not have enough confidence in managing

computer-based assignments. Moreover, the interviews with the teachers who work for the

General English for Arts Program showed that the teachers also needed support in managing the

computer, Internet and targeted Web-sites.

The students also noted that they often felt unhappy and did not always enthusiastically

accept computer-based assignments. These psychological concerns were closely connected both

with lack of computer skills on the part of the teachers and technical problems that the teachers

and the course designers faced including slow Internet, lack of skills and unfamiliarity with using

computer technology and the Internet, inadequacy of search engines for language learning

purposes and uncertainty on the part of the communicative classroom designers on how to



develop the course in a user friendly manner to access the users and facilitate the use of the

course.

Virtual English Language Learning: Lessons Learnt and Solutions

The first data obtained by the virtual course designers through students and teachers

interviews helped not only to gather meaningful responses on the hindrances of the realization of

the idea of a communicative classroom. It also assisted in finding some solutions that are based

on practical ideas for use in the implementation of the virtual course.

Firstly, it is necessary to identify whether the technology is an add on or an integral.

Secondly, it is also important to promote technology and enhance teachers‘ computer and

internet skills. Thirdly, both the teachers and students should be provided with technical

assistance and better internet access. Moreover, the teachers must work as a team and learn

together with their peers and their students. This would increase the students‘ confidence in

using the language and targeted Websites (WebCT, Moodle) for language learning purposes and

mitigate the transfer from the school-based language learning experience to the university

educational environment.

It was noticed that in order to solve some organizational problems of the course, some

specific learning strategies should be devised. These strategies should provide organizing

information (charts, diagrams, links to internet-based resources, etc.) in such a way as to help

students to navigate easily and cope with their assignments effectively..In this respect the

designers of the course should aim at personalizing it and making make content meaningful to

learners (use the local literatures, exemplify local culture and traditions, etc.).

It is also important to manage learning and monitor progress with evaluation and self-

evaluation (tests, quizzes, etc.) as well as to provide opportunities for learning with others (chats,

forums, etc.). In this the course should follow the algorithm of the steps of study/self study,

supervised and not supervised practice and practice transfer (scenarios, Web quests, etc.) and

correspond to universal General English Topics (Meeting People, The World of Work, Where

Do You Live? Food You Like, Looking Good, Bigger and Better, Life‘s an Adventure, etc.).

The developers of the virtual courses should focus not only on development or adaptation

of interactive assignments and internet-based activities. Progressive integrated language skills

learning also needs the course content that is more consistent with the culture and traditions of

the students. We would like to exemplify this assumption by an assignment that is included in

one of the units of the Virtual Course. This assignment is based on the extract from the New

Headway English Course by Liz and John Soars published by Oxford University Press. The

students are asked to look at the title of the article (A World Guide to Good Manners. How Not

to Behave Badly Abroad by Norman Ramshaw) which suggests that when in Rome, do as

Romans do, and brainstorm whether it suggests the article will be serious or light-hearted. Then

they are asked to read the article on the screen quite quickly. The article has some tips for the

travelers such as not sitting down in a café in France, until you have shaken hands with everyone

you know; matching your hosts in Russia drink for drink or they will think you are unfriendly;

eating your hamburger in America with both hands and as quickly as possible and not trying to

have a conversation until it is eaten.

To check comprehension, the students are asked to read the article again and answer

interactively some questions, for example: Which nationalities are the most and least punctual?

Why did the British think that everyone understood their customs? Look at the pictures. What



nationality are they? How do you know? An American friend of yours is going to work in Japan.

Give some advice how he/she should and shouldn‘t behave.

Then the students are invited to take part in Discussion Board to share their opinions and

answer some questions: Do you agree with the saying ‗When in Rome, do as the Romans do‘?

Do you have a similar saying in your language? What are the ‗rules‘ about greeting people in

your country? When do you shake hands? What about when you say goodbye? What advice

would you give somebody coming to live and work in your country?

The last question encourages the students to take part in developing a Wiki that is

focused on Omani cultures and traditions. Each student is asked to contribute to writing up this

Wiki by giving ideas about relevant customs in their own villages and towns. They are to

brainstorm and conduct a search on Omani customs and traditions related to receiving guests.

They are to clarify whether these customs differ from one region to another and present some

Omani customs a foreign guest should be aware of. The aim of the Wiki is to explain how

different (Must-Know) Omani customs are related both to local people and foreign guests, thus

bridging the local and the global.

Various assignments and activities of the Virtual General English Course, which are

posted on the Language Centre Moodle platform, are supported by the use of Web-based ELT

resources and materials with the local content developed or adapted by the program teachers.

This approach helps to bring students towards a deeper and clearer understanding about the

world around them in both global and local perspectives. In addition the educational expediency

of the usage of targeted websites and Web-based resources could be traced in the overall effect

of the communicative classroom displayed in the enhancement of motivation, the overcoming of

psychological barriers and the improvement of English language integrated skills, especially in

the areas of communication and the expansion of vocabulary.

Conclusions

Modern advancements in computer and communication technologies have tremendously

enhanced language learning practices within the contexts of local cultures. These technologies

act as educational tools that simulate the innovative environment of open learning and empower

the learners in sense of motivation, enhancement of language learning and overcoming

psychological barriers. Moreover new practices of learning have a tremendous potential for

providing learners with various linguistic, social and cultural experiences and interactive

language learning.

References

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http://www.eslbase.com/articles/creating-materials.asp


Reference # 130

Topic # 4

The charter in the classroom: A study in the design of a learning tool Shirley Van Nuland [email protected], UOIT, Canada

This paper presents the development of an interactive, digital learning tool (The Charter in the

Classroom: Students, Teachers and Rights {CC: STAR}), designed to help learners understand

the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The school-situated modules are based on

‗Charter‘ cases examining freedom, legal, equality, and French-language rights. These are

described in detail with supporting documentation, interviews and activities applicable in

individualized or class-based delivery. Through the specifically designed instructional wrap, the

users view video, read and/or listen to commentary, make choices, and assess their knowledge and

understanding. Learning theories and knowledge acquired which influence learning object design,

and mechanisms used to assess quality and design information were applied and then examined.

Early study results illustrate that the learning tool has significant content, is motivating for student

use, and is very usable.

This paper presents the development of an interactive, digital learning tool, The Charter

in the Classroom: Students, Teachers and Rights (CC: STAR), designed to help learners

understand the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The context and challenges for

planning, development, and design are outlined. The fundamental freedoms, legal rights,

equality rights, and French-language rights as these sections of the Charter apply to teachers and

students form the content basis for CC: STAR. In the learning tool, these freedoms and rights

are described in detail with supporting documentation, interviews, and activities applicable to

individualized or class-based delivery. The custom-designed instructional wrap allows users to

view video, read and/or listen to commentary, and assess their knowledge and understanding.

CC: STAR was developed using recent ideas and theories about learning object design as well

as mechanisms that assess the quality. The initial plans were challenged and modified with the

result that the learning tool has significant content, is motivating for student use, and is very

usable.

Purpose

In developing any learning resources, the most important aspect is recognizing the

question or instructional problem and then identifying ways to answer the question (Shaw,

2002). Typically, in Canadian education faculties‘ Foundation courses or in high school law

courses, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is one of the least understood topics.

This may be due to the perceived complex nature of the Charter and/or the method of teaching

about it which is generally text-based or lecture-based. Print-based or lecture-based materials do

not always adequately reflect the impact of the Charter or ―promote a deeper understanding of or

application of the principles involved‖ (Krauss & Ally, 2005, p. 1). By using interactive

multimedia learning experiences, the various ways that learners receive and process information

are accommodated (Gardner, 2003).

This paper is intended to document the process of creating CC: STAR as a user-friendly,

accessible, and meaningful tool for teaching about the Charter. It provides the theoretical



framework used to develop the learning tool. Linking Theory (Tennyson and Rasch), Social

Learning Theory (Bandura) and Contrstructivist Theory (as first developed by Dewey and

Vygotsky) were applied. The context for developing the learning tool and the method of

development are explained. The challenges of developing the content and the design are

described. This project is not completed and concludes with activities required finalize it.

Theoretical Framework

With a learning tool composed of high quality interactive materials, learners are able to

use different strategies to acquire, and process, new information which then allows them to

develop new skills and attitudes. With the high quality interactivity, students become active

learners rather than passive listeners. According to De Salas and Ellis (2006), learning objects

should be created on the principle that they can be reused many times in a variety of learning

contexts. When learners make active choices as they work with a learning object, when the

learners are actively engaged with the materials, they are better able to reflect on and process the

information (MacDonald, Stodel, Thompson, Muirhead, Hinton, Carson & Banit, 2005). The

learning tool is developed on linking theory directly to the goals of education, to the learning

objectives and to the instructional preparation (Kanuka & Anderson, 1998). The Linking Theory

first proposed by Tennyson and Rasch (1988) includes behavioural, cognitive, and contextual

learning theories with appropriate instructional techniques; this combination permits both

structured and self-regulated learning strategies.

An extension of Linking Theory is Social Learning Theory which allows for ―learning

from others through observation and modeling‖ (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2007, p. 349).

Bandura, the main proponent of Social Learning Theory, argues that learners follow four phases:

attention (i.e., the learner pays attention to the model), retention (i.e., after observation, the

learner repeats or practises the behaviour), production (i.e., the learner replicates the behaviour),

and motivation (i.e., the learner sustains the behaviour through reinforcement: intrinsic, extrinsic

or vicarious) (Morrison et al., 2007, p. 349). Application of the principles associated with Social

Learning Theory improves instruction and learning (Morrison et al., 2007).

Constructivist principles are essential to the design of CC: STAR. In particular, social

constructivism was applied since it is a widely accepted epistemological perspective identified

with online learning (Kanuka & Anderson, 1998). Constructivism is based on the argument that

individuals construct their own understanding and learnings by linking previous experience with

new knowledge. The basis for constructivism emanates from the works of Dewey (1944) and

Vygotsky (1978). Dewey believes that education occurs in situations where students learn from

experiences that have meaning and importance for them. Learnings occur in social contexts

where a community of learners exists to build knowledge collectively and individually.

Vygotsky‘s zone of proximal development, the difference between what a learner can

accomplish alone and with guidance of a more skilled partner, explains that learning is a social

process. Both Dewey and Vygotsky support the idea that learning improves when a meaningful

and authentic context exists, where ―learners construct their own plausible interpretations‖ (Chao

& Stovell, 2002, p. 117), that is, how a person constructs or creates personal meaning.

Van Nuland: The charter in the classroom


Context for Development of the Learning Tool

Between 1994 and 2009, at least fifty cases1 dealing with teachers, school boards, and the

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms came before the Supreme Court of Canada for

adjudication. Had Charter rights and principles been understood and applied, many of these

cases would not have been brought forward; this has highlighted the need to develop teachers‘

and school administrators‘ Charter knowledge. Understanding the Charter, however, cannot be

limited to teachers and administrators; students, too, need awareness and understanding of their

Charter rights and obligations.

Key concepts relating to citizenship, rights and responsibilities are required topics in

Social Studies, Canadian Studies, Canadian History and Civics curricula across Canada at the

grades 9 to 12 levels (Canadian Superior Courts Judges Association, 2004). While many print

documents exist that are helpful in understanding the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

such as those developed by Canadian Heritage (2009), Bernard Funston and Eugene Meehan

(2003), Sarah McCoubrey and Greg Sitch (2001), Alan Borovoy (2001), and Canada‘s

Department of Justice (2005), these materials do not allow for interactive learning or visual

representation of the concepts. Not all learners are able to interact with the print material

available since the print materials do not address differing learning styles. Gardner (1999)

acknowledges that learners receive and process information through at least eight and possibly

nine ways. Good learning materials need to be varied and interactive to support these learning

modalities. In addition, a renewal of resources is required since many materials were developed

in the early years after the enactment of the Charter. To provide learners with the best

opportunities possible to understand the Charter, as it applies to them at their particular level,

learning materials must be engaging, capture the imagination, portray realistic scenarios, and

allow for dialogue, discussion, and debate.

There is a significant gap in teacher education concerning the impact of the Charter in

the classroom. Many teachers receive no instruction on the topic; others are educated only about

their own Charter rights in the school setting. New teachers, and those educated prior to the

development of the Charter, are often uncomfortable in dealing with rights conflicts or teaching

rights to students because of this gap. With increasing pressure on schools to address religious

pluralism, race-based conflict and diverse socio-political pressures, in addition to the obligation

to accommodate students with special needs, teachers are being asked to negotiate these issues

without any training on the rights guarantees they have to deliver. With more knowledge of

Charter applications, teachers have a stronger foundation on which to base their decision

regarding rights in the school setting. All of these solid educational goals require teachers to

understand and feel confident discussing, protecting and teaching rights. Currently, little

opportunity exists for teachers to develop this understanding.

For example, in Ontario there is both a unique opportunity and a unique obstacle to

expanding students‘ rights education. Grade 10 Civics is a mandatory class, introduced into the

curriculum in 1999. It can be (and has been) assigned to any teacher in the school, regardless of

their teaching specialty. Often the teachers introducing the Charter and the concept of balancing

rights are struggling to understand the material themselves, since the majority are unfamiliar with

legal analysis or experience in reading court decisions. The Civics course is often reassigned to

1 Example cases are: Ross v. New Brunswick School District No. 15, [1996] 1 S.C.R.; Zylberberg et al. v. Sudbury

Board of Education, (1988), 29 O.A.C. 23; Multani v. Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys, 2006 SCC 6,

[2006] 1 S.C.R. 256; and Chamberlain v. Surrey School District No. 36, 2002 SCC 86, [2002] 4 S.C.R. 710.

http://scc.lexum.umontreal.ca/en/2002/2002scc86/2002scc86.html



a new teacher the following year, requiring re-education on a regular basis. The resources

available for Civics teachers are primarily classroom resources, not materials to educate

themselves on the material they need to be teaching. These teachers regularly contact the

Canadian Civil Liberties Education Trust and the Ontario Justice Education Network, looking for

assistance or requesting volunteer lawyers to help explain the Charter to their students. This

opportunity to ensure that every Ontarian has a fundamental understanding of its civic structure

is only as effective as the knowledge base of the teachers delivering the course. The need for

expanding students‘ rights education is not limited to Ontario; an effective case can be presented

for every Canadian province or territory which has similar issues.

In noting these needs, a practical, easy-to-use resource addressing the requirements of the

primary audiences, teachers and students would provide tools to deliver foundational Charter

rights education appealing to a variety of learning styles. It is for this reason that the University

of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), the Canadian Civil Liberties Education Trust

(CCLET), Inukshuk Wireless, and the Ontario Justice Education Network (OJEN) partnered to

develop the learning tool, the Charter in the Classroom: Students, Teachers and Rights (CC:

STAR) to assist teachers and students to realize and understand the function of specific sections

of the Charter which can apply to school settings.

The learning tool, The Charter in the Classroom: Students, Teachers, and Rights (CC:

STAR), is flexible, permitting individualized learning or class-based delivery with a modular

approach to allow a teacher or learner to focus on one or all of the Charter sections, depending

on their needs. This flexibility supports the requirement of ―accessibility, ease of use, and

reusability‖ (Kay & Knaack, 2005: 230). Further, a learning tool is adaptive, allowing the user

to decide the ―when‖ of learning and the ―how long‖ of the activity (Kay & Knaack, 2005). The

learning tool engages learners in various aspects of the Charter through the use of text, video and

audio clips, case law, and interactive assessment through quizzes and explore activities. Case

law, as it applies to the Charter, is presented through video clips, re-enactments, screen shots,

photo story, etc. allowing viewers to understand how the case is intertwined with sections of the

Charter. Hosted on-line and free of charge, it is accessible to learners everywhere, regardless of

level of experience or enrolment in an education program.

Method of Development

Planning the Project

The project as initially approved would be carried out over a twelve-month period. To

guide the process, an extensive work plan was generated (see below). The work plan kept the

project on track but the challenges as discussed below forced the request for an extension to

complete the learning tool as planned. In the work plan, the stages of development with start and

end dates, key deliverables, and assigned responsibilities were delineated. Modifications and

changes were made to the work plan as challenges and successes were encountered.



Stages of Development Key Deliverables

Stage 1: Concept Review and Refinement

assemble Advisory Panel

assemble Development Team

establish administrative/reporting systems

recruit and hire project staff

draft preliminary specifications (storyboard) and review

CLOE standards

further develop and refine delivery timeline/work plan

develop process for tracking content–when needs to be

reviewed and who should review it

review existing content development protocols

obtain all approvals and secure core resources including

digital copies of relevant legislation/ case law as well as

links to relevant provincial and federal sites

specifications of site

report outlining all known resources/ materials

to support deliverables

approvals of use of core resources external to

partners

timeline/work plan of various stages

Stage 2: Design Development Concurrent with Content

Development

utilize CLOE criteria for quality learning design

development of storyboard

script writing of module template (use Module 3: The

Freedoms) for consistency in all modules

contact possible content reviewers

contact possible speakers (e.g. Upper Canada Law Society,

Supreme Court Justices) for video and audio taping

contact school boards for scenario acting

internal/external peer review of script and revise

develop paper/digital prototypes with user feedback to

evaluate design at each stage

identify missing tools and resources, priorities for

development.

digital phase development with placeholders (feedback,

revise, test)

characteristics of quality learning objects

script for prototype (using Module 3: The

Freedoms)

storyboard

peer review report

revised script for prototype

template prototype

reports of testing and revisions

Stage 3: Content Development Concurrent with Design

Development for Prototype

review content and update for currency

develop/edit video, audio, animation (Flash), text

components; feedback, revise, test

create content assessment component

create narration script, incorporate changes while recording

create shooting script and incorporate changes

videotaping and audio recording

peer review

prototype completed

video, text, content assessment, and audio

segments for prototype completed

peer review report(s) completed

some video and audio segments completed for

other modules

Stage 4: Prototype Module Evaluation

focus group testing and SME review

evaluation of prototype module (and review lessons

learned)

develop mid-project report

focus group reports

report on learnings from the prototype

development

mid-project report ~ Day 185



Stage 5: Subsequent Module Development

further 11 modules developed using prototype template

with quality monitoring, peer review and evaluation (repeat

Stages 3 & 4 for modules)

field test each module on completion

11 modules completed

field test reports

Stage 6: Publish the Site

user review and refinement ongoing

prepare status report and communication materials

evaluate process and results with participants in workshop

format

present at CAPSLE, CHLOE, MERLOT, CSSE, AERA

conferences

final project report

celebrate completion

site functional with all modules completed

launch of learning objects

communication materials

evaluation report

participants workshop: write-ups about

feedback received to be incorporated into the

final project report

final report to Inukshuk

Stage 7: French Language Development

based on securing additional funds, develop the concepts

for French first language users.

The Challenge of Developing Content

The content for CC: STAR was based initially on the work of Sarah McCoubrey and

Greg Sitch, The Charter in the Classroom Students‟ Rights Resource, which they presented at the

13th

Annual Conference of the Canadian Association for the Practical Study of Law in Education

(CAPSLE). This content was updated from 2001 to ensure a current Project Outcome and

expanded to meet sector needs. McCoubrey and Sitch (2002) included a short introduction on

the background of the Charter, and dealt with sections 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 25, 27, 28 and 32

of the Charter. For each section, they provided an explanation, the school context, cases that

apply to the section and are specific to schools, boards, students, teachers, or education, and

commentary or discussion of case law application. The learning tool expanded on the work of

McCoubrey and Sitch to include further information on the background and development of the

Charter, and s. 23, Minority Language Educational Rights.

Initially CC: STAR was planned as 12 modules (see below) with modules 1 to 8

examining the sections of the Charter and 9 to 12 looking at discipline, student speech,

protection from discrimination, and student diversity. This structure would follow closely the

work of McCoubrey and Sitch, specifically modules 2 – 7 and 9 – 12.

Module 1: The Constitution Act Background

A brief background outlining the origins of the constitution, what comprises the

constitution, its fundamental principles, and the significance of the entrenchment of the Charter.

Module 2: The Limitations: Sections 1, 25, 27, 28, and 32

The explanation of limitations of the Charter in a school context is presented.



Module 3: The Freedoms

The fundamental freedoms ―of conscience and religion‖, ―of thought, belief, opinion and

expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication‖, ―of peaceful

assembly‖; and ―of association‖ outlined in section 2 within the school context are considered.

The following modules (4 – 8) are explained providing a school context and commentary:

Module 4: ―Life, Liberty and Security of Person‖ s. 7

Module 5: Search or Seizure s. 8

Module 6: Detention and Punishment ss 9, 10, and 12

Module 7: Equality Before and Under the Law s. 15

Module 8: French Language Rights Enshrined in s. 23

Modules 9 - 12 will apply the relevant sections of the Charter under specific examples

that teachers address on a daily basis.

Module 9: Application of the Charter: The Discipline Example

Module 10: Application of the Charter: The Student Speech Example

Module 11: Application of the Charter: The Accommodation of Difference Example

Module 12: Application of the Charter: The Protection from Discrimination Example

The developers soon realized that the initial content work plan (cited above) which called

for twelve modules to be completed with section 7, section 8, and sections 9, 10, and 12

developed as three separate modules (modules 4, 5, and 6) was not feasible. Given the overlap

of case law situated in a school setting for each of these sections, it was decided to build better,

more coherent, and more robust modules by incorporating these sections into two modules and

thus they were collapsed. Separating the Charter sections and case law from application of the

Charter as provided by McCoubrey and Sitch also proved to be unworkable. Therefore

modules 9 – 12 were incorporated into modules 3 – 7. ―The Freedoms‖ is much richer than could

be summarized into one module so the decision to expand this module into two was made.

Further discussion ensued on a third module on ―the freedoms‖. Sufficient case law existed to

support another module but the question concerning time to complete it within the timeline was

the issue. Ultimately, a third ―freedoms‖ module was developed. The content for module 7

(Equality Before and Under the Law) proved to be extensive. Developing only one module

(protection from discrimination) would mean losing another key consideration, that of

accommodation of difference. Thus, module 7 was enlarged to two, each with its own theme.

These significant changes from the initial work plan were used to develop the current content

framework as outlined below:



Concept 1: The Constitution Act Background

A brief background outlining the origins of the constitution, what comprises the

constitution, its fundamental principles, and the significance of the entrenchment of the Charter

are discussed.

Concept 2: The Limitations

The explanation of limitations of the Charter in a school context is presented.

Concepts 3 – 5: The Freedoms

The fundamental freedoms ―of conscience and religion‖, ―of thought, belief, opinion and

expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication‖, ―of peaceful

assembly‖; and ―of association‖ within the school context are considered. The relevant sections

of the Charter with specific examples that teachers and students manage on a daily basis are

analyzed.

Concepts 6 & 7: Life, Liberty and Security of Person; Search or Seizure; Detention and

Punishment

Student discipline is reviewed in one module and the other explores actions of a

principal.

Concepts 8 & 9: Equality Before and Under the Law

Accommodation of difference and protection from discrimination are examined.

Concept 10: Minority Language Education Rights

Rights to a French language education is considered.

These concepts deal with issues that students and teachers face regularly. While the

cases presented have been resolved, questions concerning these cases are presented so that

teachers and students may understand the importance of the Charter.

The Challenge of Design

Design Phase 1: Inspiration

During planning, the view or ―the look‖

of the learning tool changed many times. In the

initial design phase, existing sites and resources

were scoured for content presentation. The PBS

site, Commanding Heights, provided inspiration

for the desired content categories. Other sites

contributed ideas of style to be included in the

learning tool.

Design Phase 2: Mapping the Design

Once the content was identified, decisions on how it should be designed and organized

for learning needed to be made. Mindmaps, flowcharts and story boards to brainstorm how the



information should be organized into

manageable ―blocks of content‖ or learning

―chunks‖ were developed.

The way information is presented and

organized becomes just as important as the

content itself (Wurman, 2001). Since short term

memory can handle about five to nine chunks at

a time, the decision concerning which chunks

went where is vital since ‗chunking‘ in

instructional design can aid student processing

and increases the likelihood of understanding and retention. This principle was applied in the

design mapping phase.

Design Phase 3: Initial Design

The information was organized or

―chunked‖ in a consistent manner for each

module.

The global navigation on the side bar of

the page was consistent across the site.

Initially there were five areas:

Home page: short description of the site, its

purpose and how to navigate;

Modules: grouped under the key subject

areas of Introduction to the Charter,

Limitations, Freedoms, Equality, etc.;

People: Short biographies of key

individuals featured on the site;

Ideas: lesson plans and additional background information and resources; and

Contact.

Within each Module were six smaller chunks or elements: Introduction, Interpretation /

Explanation, Scenario, Choices, Reflections, and Teachers. The local navigation found in the

horizontal bar across each module page allows the learner to navigate within the current selection

(module). The content follows a developmental learning related sequence, that is, the learner

will be presented gradually with new information and build prior learning to reach an appropriate

understanding of the topic. Learners first receive a general introduction to the module, then the

topic is interpreted by a subject matter expert (SME); next, it is applied in a case scenario. The

learner then interacts with the information gained by completing the Choices segment,

investigates and reflections on a further application of the information through Reflections and,

finally, has the option to gain additional information under the ―Teachers‖ resource section.

Once the learner has been presented with a manageable chunk of information, they need

to interact with it to help them transfer it to long term memory. The tool itself supports

exploration and interactivity by allowing learners to navigate as they wish, play interactive

games, watch videos etc. The tool gives users a certain degree of control over their learning

environment.

While it was designed to follow a developmental sequence, learners choose how they

want the material presented (i.e., watch a video, listen to audio, read the scripts, etc.). By



providing choice in a meaningful and authentic context, improved learning occurs (Dewey,

1944).

Design Phase 4: Aesthetics

Once the organization of the learning

tool was developed, aesthetics needed to be

addressed. Based on initial feedback, a change

was needed to make the view more appealing

and less like a staid presentation. Additional

graphical design elements and a new logo were

included. The organization really remained

unchanged in this version.

Design Phase 5: Streamlining the Design

Through editing and peer review, the

learning tool was further streamlined to its

most current version. Following the design

principle of ―less is more‖ (Browning 1855),

good learning tools are easy to use and

navigate. Information needs to be presented in

a manageable way and with fewer items

competing on the screen, learners can

concentrate more on the content.

The following steps were taken to

effect ―less is more‖:

Eliminated Global Navigation from side

bar and changed the elements to tabs. This

gave more space for content, and more whitespace between elements, to create a more

balanced layout by creating a natural break between the elements to make reading easier.

Eliminated some of the site elements that were redundant or could be addressed in a better,

more efficient, user friendly way. Rather than a separate section on people, a rollover could

provide the information and the learner would not need to open another page.

Combined Teachers and Ideas into Resources. ―Teachers‖ restricted the content in this area

to just one part of the audience; this resource area should be accessed by everyone, students

and teachers alike. By providing articles, etc., organized more logically within each concept

would allow the learner to find additional information about a specific concept, more easily

within that concept screen.

Applied clear and concise text for titles to be more descriptive: Modules became

Concepts; Scenarios became Case Studies; and Choices became Explore.

Addressing the content and design challenges assures that each concept is more precise



Building the Concept Elements

With the work plan established, the general scope of the content determined, and the

design created, each concept or module needed to be built. Each concept consists of an

―Introduction‖, ―Interpretation/Explanation‖, ―Case Study‖, ―Explore‖, ―Reflections‖ and

―Resources‖.

The ―Introduction‖ provides a brief overview of the elements of each concept to be

presented. The language used in the learning tool is easily understood by the users, that is, free

of legal terms or where such terms are needed, an explanation is immediately available through a

glossary tool tip, ‗roll-over‘.

In the ―Interpretation‖ section, the scenario, case or idea on which the concept is based is

explained further by a subject matter expert, an individual known to the legal or education

community with knowledge of either the case law or section(s) of the Charter under discussion.

The video clip is transcribed to allow learners easy access to the text, and, where required in the

text, an explanation of any term that is not readily known can be accessed through a glossary tool

tip.

The ―Case Study‖ is a representation of a specific case and a specific provision of the

Charter. The specific case relates to a school issue with application to a school setting and

resulted that the original case was decided before a lower court or the Supreme Court of Canada.

For example, there are several cases that could be used for ―freedom of conscience and religion‖.

These include, among others, Ross v. New Brunswick School District No. 15, [1996] 1 S.C.R.,

Canadian Civil Liberties Association v. Ontario (Minister of Education) (1990), 71 O.R. (2d)

341; or Multani v. Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys, 2006 SCC 6, [2006] 1 S.C.R.

256.



In creating selected modules, activities included writing a script based on case law, acting

out the script, videoing, and developing a reflection or commentary (if appropriate). Case

scenarios are presented as videos with actors or voice over or photo stories with voice over.

Before the video of the scenario was taped, the script was vetted for accuracy by a lawyer

familiar with the case. This review ensured authenticity of the adaptation of the case law.

Certain ‗creative licence‘ occurred in aspects of the writing but the intent was to recreate the

context of the case as accurately as possible. While the ideal would have a student of the school

involved in developing the scenario provide the voice over for the scenario, this inclusion was

not always possible.

When the video clip or photo story is accessed, the script or text that accompanies these

is also on screen (see below). The viewer can read what is being said or, at a later time, can scan

the text for review instead of listening to the voice over or dialogue of the video or photo story.

The ―Explore‖ section includes activities to allow users to answer questions related to the

case study scenario. These activities are presented to develop student learning and strengthen

their understandings. The game pictured below provides an example of interactive learning. In

this instance, after the learners have read the Introduction, listened to the audio and viewed the

video associated with the concept‘s Interpretation and Case Study, the learner determines what

relative level of privacy one might expect, from low level to high level, in a given setting or

situation.



―Reflections‖ or ―what does this mean to me as a student or teacher-candidate or teacher

or legal expert‖ is a short video clip or writing of an individual outlining the personal /

professional impact of this particular section on her/him in their current role. The reflection may

also include what the individual has learned personally and/or professionally about the section of

the Charter that was examined.

In the ―Resources‖ section, lesson plans, guiding questions, activities, challenges, and so

on are available for use in teaching and understanding this module further. Resource materials

(e.g., articles from the Education and Law Journal, links to relevant websites, research papers,

booklets, pamphlets, essays, and books) that support the information presented in each concept

are provided through links or as PDF files.

Conclusion

As a bilingual nation, Canada‘s two languages require representation in education. Since

very little has been developed concerning the application and impact of the Charter in French-

language classrooms, one of the next steps is to adapt the learning tool for use in French-

language classrooms. Funding for this is being sought.

Linking theory, social learning theory and constructivist theory have been applied

‗theoretically‘ to the learning tool. These have been used to build a rich environment for

authentic learning. At the time of writing, each building block for the learning tool has been

developed individually but not yet completed to as a comprehensive learning tool. Once the

learning tool is utilized in a classroom setting or through individual application, feedback will be

sought. Only then can it be determined how well the theory has been applied to and supports the

learning tool.



Future research is needed to test the efficacy and effectiveness of this learning tool. The

categories of presentation design, organization and layout, learner control (with pace of

learning), levels of difficulty or challenge, audio, usefulness of instructions, and quality of

support materials require study (Kay & Knaack, 2005). In addition, sociological factors

(cultural beliefs and values), psychological factors (motivation, self concept), connections

between learner experience and concepts, along with how well the tool is usable for learners with

low vision or low hearing (Nash, 2005) necessitate investigation.

A learning tool is only as effective as the distribution plan to ensure that it is available to

those who would find it useful. CC: STAR is freely available, freely shared, and openly

accessible on the host servers. Since the widest distribution within Canada is desirable, the

largest target education audience is sought including faculties of education, university faculties

outside of education, professional conferences, teachers and teachers‘ federations, school boards

and professional subject associations, curriculum websites, and the public accessing from

Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching (MERLOT) learning object

repository.

More and more learning is becoming individualized and often Internet-based with

reusability as a key characteristic. The mixed-modes model integrating classroom teaching and

technology allow for various activities to meet learner needs. Kay and Knaack (2005) cite

Butson (2003) who believes that by condensing learning to ―small chunks‖ hampers learning and

takes ―the meaning and holistic nature of discovery out of education. He advocate[d] a more

open-ended, context-based, non-prescriptive design‖ (pp. 240 – 241). What has been attempted

in creating this learning tool is to provide a tool that is open-ended, context-based and non-

prescriptive.

References

Borovoy, A. (2001) The Fundamentals of Our Fundamental Freedoms. Toronto: Canadian Civil Liberties

Educational Trust.

Canadian Civil Liberties Association v. Ontario (Minister of Education) (1990), 71 O.R. (2d) 341.

Canadian Heritage. (2009). The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Available from

http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/pdp-hrp/canada/frdm-eng.cfm

Canadian Superior Courts Judges Association. (2004). Try Judging. Ottawa: Canadian Superior Courts Judges

Association.

Chao, T., & Stovel, B. (2002). Nothng but the Blues: A Case Study in the Use of Technology to Enrich a Univeristy

Course. In P. L. Rogers, Designing Instruction for Technology-Enhanced Learning (pp. 114 - 133).

Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.

De Salas, K., & Ellis, L. (2006). The development and implementation of learning objects in a higher education

setting. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 2, at 3.

Department of Justice. (2005). The Minister of Justice Marks the 20th Anniversary of Section 15 of the Canadian

Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Available from http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/news-nouv/nr-

cp/2005/doc_31442.html

Dewey, J. (1944). Democracy and Education. New York, NY: Free Press.

Funston, B.W., & Meehan, E. (2003). Canada‘s Constitutional Law in a Nutshell. Toronto: Thomson Carswell.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Kanuka, H., & Anderson, T. (1998). Online social interchange, discord and knowledge construction. Journal of

Distance Education/Revue de l‘enseignement à distance. Retrieved July 7, 2006 from

http://cade.athabascau.ca/vol13.1/kanuka.html

Kay, R., & Knaack, L. (2005). Developing Learning Objects for Secondary School Students: A Multi-Component

Model. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects Vol 1, 229 - 254.

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http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/news-nouv/nr-cp/2005/doc_31442.html

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11, 2008 from http://find.galegroup.com.uproxy.library.dc-

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MacDonald, C.J., Stodel, E., Thompson, T.Y., Muirhead, B., Hinton, C., Carson, B., & Banit, E. (2005). Addressing

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McCoubrey, S., & Sitch, G. (2001a). The Charter in the Classroom Students‘ Rights Resource. Unpublished.

McCoubrey, S., & Sitch, G. (2001b). Stay in your seat: The impact of judicial subordination of students‘ rights on

effective rights education. Education and Law Journal 11(2), 173 – 202.

Morrison, G., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2007). Designging Effective Instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Johyn Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

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Innovations in Instructional Technology (pp. 219 - 235). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Publishers.

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Wurman, R.S. (2001). Information Anxiety 2. Indianapolis, IN: Que.

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Reference # 131

Topic # 2

Professional standards of Communication Teachers in knowledge society Niranjana Vanalli [email protected], Salalah College of Applied Science,

(Ministry of Higher Ed.), Oman

Modern day media education in the knowledge society is ICT based, Design based, and language

based. It requires certain level of professional standards to succeed as a teacher in communication.

Standards have to be set keeping the future of communication education and educators. The

techniques of teaching cannot be stagnant, be it communication or teacher education. It has to

change according to the needs of the time and industry. The requirements of a communication

teacher have changed over the years. This paper tries to formulate qualities to standardize

professionalism among communication teachers in the so called ‗knowledge society‖.

Introduction

Mass media in the form of folk media existed from time immemorial. The modern mass

media like news papers, magazines, film, radio television, and video and niche media are of

recent origin. The mere presence of media did not give rise to media education. The idea of

media education was a later development. It took some time to take shape and many up and

downs before it reached the present day status.

Communication education world over began to spread around 1920s. In some countries

it began as film education and in other countries it was journalism education in its days of

infancy. While France, which was the mother land of film art, saw its first media course (film

education) as earlier as 1922, Russia in 1920s and America and England followed. Then motion

pictures had taken an entry and the world was amused about this medium. It was not surprising

that the art and technique of film became a teaching course and became a starting point of media

education.

But by that time journalism had already spread too many countries in the world. News

papers (at least magazines if not daily news papers in some countries) were in circulation in

different parts of the world. The literary writers, had taken the lead role in writing for the papers,

and the art of editing was to be learnt by practice and according to the need of the hour. As the

print medium gained momentum it felt the need of professionals and the need to train journalists

to work in news papers and magazines was felt. This slowly gave rise to journalism education.

For a long time, media education was called as journalism education.

Now it is no more called journalism education. The media have grown very rapidly in

20th

century. The growth of plurality of media in fact lowered the importance of print media, we

can say. The supremacy of newspapers in the world of media ended with the arrival of electronic

media and hence journalism education gave birth to media education, comprising all the media

and all aspects of media.

As media touch all aspects of human activity, it has forced media education to become

very vast and complex. The boundaries of media education are blurred. The growth of

specializations in media have made media education more complicated. Earlier it was said that

journalism includes everything under the sun and above the sun. Now this statement is befitting

to media education, whether it is a comment or complement, let people decide on their own.



When media education has grown to be very vast and complex, we need competent

teachers to handle these courses. This is a combination of theories and professional skills. A

teacher in communication has to be a master both in theories and practicalities of the media.

Even after eight decades of media education, it seems media education lacks clear cut

ideas as to who should teach in media schools and what are the basic requirements of the

communication academicians. There is a wide gap between what the media industry expects and

what is being imparted as media education.

We need teachers who could fill up these gaps. This paper is an effort to standardize the

requirements of a communication teacher. If any Tom, Dick and Harry can not become media

personnel, they can not become teachers who produce future media personnel too. This paper

should serve as a model for the future efforts in this direction.

Communication

Communication is the name we give to the countless activities we undertake to keep in

touch with the inside and out side world. Communication is the exchange of ideas, information,

knowledge, opinions, feelings, emotions etc from one end to the other end. Communication is the

first activity the child gets involved in when he or she is born. Communication is the last activity

a person does when he or she dies. This can be put in another way also. The first and the last

activities a man or woman does in their life time is communication. To make it simple, we may

say anything we do in life, it communicates. That will explain the importance of communication

in life. One basic thing we have to understand about communication is that ‗it is impossible to

not to communicate‘ Respiration and communication are the two things we will be doing

continuously through out our life time, without our knowledge and without our control.

Interestingly, in our life time, we will be involved in communication at different levels.

The first level is intrapersonal level, where we communicate within ourselves.

The count less monologues, the dreams we see during sleep are fine examples of

intrapersonal communication.

The second level is the interpersonal level, where we communicate with other persons.

The letters we write to our friend, the telephonic conversation with some one are examples of

interpersonal communication.

The third level is group communication where we are trying to communicate in a group.

A class room of 20-30 students is a fine example of group communication.

The fourth level is mass communication or public communication .Here we try to reach a

huge number of people at a time. This level requires a medium of mass communication. It may

be a mike which amplifies our voice to reach more number of people or the internet which

allows you to interact with people anywhere in the world.

The mankind has developed a number of mass media for its credit. The folk media, the

print media, the electronic media and the present day multimedia are the products of man‘s urge

to communicate effectively the media are the tools in our hands. It can be used for good or for

bad. Hence there was a need to train professionals to handle these media, for the optimum use of

the media. There rose the need for media education.

Right from the days of beating drums to the days of global reach of the internet, the

features of the mass media became more and more complex. That is why there was a need to

bring communication and media of communication under academic discipline. Of course,

Vanalli: Professional standards of Communication Teachers in knowledge society


communication was not a new thing in life till then people were involved in communication

without knowing about it. Our interest in understanding the world posed several questions

regarding human communication. That led to thinking about the techniques of improving one‘s

communication skills and the ability to use the media for the best of its effectiveness.

All these factors highlighted the need for the development of communication studies as

an academic discipline. Communication education was a need of the hour of media world. But it

was not until 1920s the media education in one form or the other, became a reality.

That is how the idea of communication education materialized. The discipline which

started as film education in some countries and as journalism education else where has grown in

very big way to include everything on earth you name that is concerned with the media. It has

been called by different names in different countries and at different times, but the core concern

of the media education remains the same. Even now the nomenclatures of departments teaching

mass communication courses or so called schools of journalism are varied. This paper refers to

all of them as communication courses. All those people who are in the profession of teaching in

schools of journalism and mass media, including newspapers, radio, television, advertising,

public relations .., etc are considered as communication teachers for all practical purposes in this

paper.

Media education definition

The UNESCO definition says - Media education

-deals with all communication media and includes the printed word and graphics, the sound,

the still as well as the moving image, delivered on any kind of technology:

-enables people to gain understanding of the communication media used in their society and

the way they operate and to acquire skills using these media to communicate with others.

Ensures that people learn how to

analyze, critically reflect upon and create media texts:

identify the sources of media texts, their political, social, commercial and /or cultural interest

and their contexts:

interpret the messages and values offered by the media:

select appropriate media for communicating their own messages or stories and for reaching

their intended audience:

gain or demand access to media for both reception and production

Media education is part of basic entitlement of every citizen in every country in the world, to

freedom of expression and the right to information and is instrumental in building and

sustaining democracy (As quoted by Alexander Fedorow, 2008)

The definition given by UNESCO is all encompassing and befitting the importance and

vastness of the present day media education.



Scope of media education

―Media education has to seen as a n umbrella term which includes media studies courses

and indeed any other forms of teaching about the media‖ (Cary Bazalgette (1989)

The present day communication education is very vast and it covers all the areas

concerned with media. Basically it is mass communication divided into print media, electronic

media, folk media, and new media. From the history of communication to the theories of

communication and from newspapers to internet everything comes under the umbrella of

communication education. Here is a list of subjects usually covered by media education. The list

is not conclusive as some media schools may still differ.

But the common courses taught under the banner of mass communication or

communication is,

Basics of Communication including models, types, and techniques

Basics of History, Economics, Political Science, and sociology

Print media (the reporting, writing, editing, production and circulation of Newspapers and

magazines)

Electronic media (covering film, radio, television and video)

Communication theories and research

Advertising

Public Relations

Graphic Design

Multimedia productions

Communication and society

Inter cultural communication …….etc

Mediator role

Well known Canadian communication theorist Marshall MCLuhan‘s concept of ‗global

village‘ became a reality perhaps even earlier than he anticipated. We are living in a global

village where each person can remain connected to the other all the time. The struggle for

existence and the struggle to communicate have become synonym in the long history of

mankind. If mankind had felt satisfied with whatever they have at any point of time, then further

development would not have taken place. It would have stopped there itself. Dreaming for

progress, the struggle for betterment and the dissatisfaction about what we have, through ought

the history has brought the mankind to this level, where it is today.

Modern world has brought the information to every body‘s doorsteps, even at the remote

corners of the world. Information comes to you, whether you want it or not. If you make use of

it, it is good. If you don‘t make use of it, others are not bothered. Earlier there were only two

categories- educated and uneducated persons or literates and illiterates. Now two more categories

have been formed in the society. They are computer literates and computer illiterates. The

primitive man had a limited access to information and knowledge. In the beginning the

information and knowledge was passed to the next generation on one to one basis, through inter

personal means. The addition of media between the sender and receiver was a later addition.



The modern man is full of information that comes from all the sides. The information

comes from newspapers, magazines, radio, television, film, video, internet, intranet, and mobile

to name a few.

Because of these facilities the world is changing fast. The world is changing physically

and psychologically. The first generation computers are totally outdated today. They are only

museum pieces. Even the old generation telephone sets, the mobile sets, the radio sets and black

and white television sets which we watched like a wonder box….all are worth keeping in

museums. Even the old generation people are becoming museum pieces!

As a result of these developments the traditional schools and colleges where we teach

have also changed. Earlier there were instances where classes could be conducted under a tree. A

teacher could achieve wonders just with a piece of chalk and a black board. Even now wonders

could be achieved under a tree provided you have a computer and internet connection.

But gone are those days where a teacher teaches and it was the bounden duty of the

student to sit quietly and listen and accept what the teacher says. Because of the exposure to

world information and knowledge, sometimes the student will be more knowledgeable than

teacher, the student starts substituting, helping and guiding the teacher. Especially the students

will be more advanced than the old time teachers in surfing the internet and culling out

information from it. There is nothing to be repented about it. The teachers who do not update

themselves in their knowledge and skills will become outdated very fast. They have to cut a

sorry figure in front of the students. Accepting this change, the teacher, has to convert himself to

be a facilitator, than to be a teacher. Of course, even that requires up gradation of knowledge and

skills. He or she has to inform, educate and entertain students regarding the knowledge

resources, and its where about. Some times he is just a mediator between knowledge producers

and knowledge consumers.

Born and made

The role of media teacher is all the more difficult in the present day world. Thanks to the

early works of media teachers of the past, the days of questionable existence of media education

are gone. In those days, when media education was merely journalism education, people used to

say that ―journalists are born and not made‖ Hence the idea of‘ making journalists in the class

room‘ was not received well. The first generation journalists were critical of the idea of

journalism education because they were not trained to become journalists and they did not feel it

necessary. They sincerely thought, journalism can not be taught and it has to come by birth. They

were making fun of journalism students by suggesting them to unlearn everything they learnt in

the college before entering a newspaper office. Hence there were basic questions regarding the

necessity and validity of media education itself.

But over the years it has been proved beyond doubt that media persons are born and also

made. The born journalists are made better journalists by media training. The products of

journalism schools will be better equipped than the people who enter the media without any

training.

The challenges of teaching in the media schools lies in the fact that media are concerned

with everything on earth. It is all encompassing subject. We used to say ―Journalism is art in

writing, design in makeup, science and technology in printing and business in sales. It applies to

the whole media world. Not every day, every minute the media world is changing in all its



spheres. Earlier people believed that the principles of the profession remain the same though

techniques of the profession keep on changing. But that has been proved wrong in the profession.

Even the principles, including the basic concept of news has undergone a sea change over the

years.

Look at the developments the science and technology has brought in the field of media,

especially in printing technology, F M radio, digital television, (H D TV) and satellite

communication. The present day students of media can not believe if we say that letters were

composed by hand and pictures were printed in the halftone process with the help of wooden

blocks. Now everything is computer based, except the thinking process of the media personnel.

The soft wares used by newspapers for designing and printing keep on changing often. This

applies to all other media also. The media teacher has to be alert about these changes taking

place in his field. He has to be an artist, a techno savvy person, a researcher, a business man and

an all rounder to be a successful media academic, because you can not separate them from media

teaching.

From the beginning media education has been taken with a pinch of salt by media

industry. Their complaint is that there is a gap between what is taught in the schools of media

and what is practiced in the media. This happens if teachers and policy makers of media

education do not have practical knowledge of the field. In the early days of media education, no

doubt, the teachers were mainly theory masters. They were teaching journalism just like any

other subject under arts faculty. Basically these teachers lacked professional experience. Hence

the industry professionals were pooh pooling media schools. Unlike other disciplines in

journalism teaching, people with professional background and without academic background or

people with academic background and no professional experience would become journalism

teachers and the practice has continued. This has really spoilt the name of media education.

People who could not write a word on their own were teaching writing skills.

Requirements

Keeping the requirements of the profession in mind, it is high time we set the minimum

standards to become media teachers. This paper tries to list the pre requirements of the present

and future communication faculty in the knowledge society.

Theory and practice

Communication faculty to be appointed must be academically and professionally sound.

Working experience in the media industry after getting a graduate or post graduate degree from a

recognized media school must be made compulsory to become media teachers. This pre

condition will save the media education from the unwanted comment that those who can not

survive in media would become media teachers.

Techno savvy

They are required to be well trained with the latest technologies and use of soft wares for

the production of either print or electronic media programs. For example those teachers who can

not work with quark express can not teach news paper design.



English

English has become international language of communication. Though there are media

houses of local languages and some media schools are teaching in their language, (for example

Ee naadu school of journalism in India) it is absolutely necessary that there exists a common

language of communication. Even when people are working with other languages English

language skills to the level of TOFFEL is a must for a modern communication teacher.

Knowledgeable

He must get updated everyday regarding national and international affairs. Now

information is available everywhere in the form of different media outlets. But unless we make

use of them it is of no use having them. It is said self help is best help. Yes, unlike in the past,

now knowledge resources are at a mouse click away. But it can not be a substitute for reading

and accomplishing knowledge. These days students are very knowledgeable and they will know

more things than teachers. So if we are not updated as far as current affairs are concerned we are

unfit in the teaching profession.

Intercultural competence

Working in the media houses require keen interest in the world culture .A person who is

not interested in cultural studies should not become a media person. So is the case with media

teachers. Now intercultural communication is part and parcel of media education .Intercultural

competence of the teacher in communication will largely benefit the students of media.

That is why while appointing teachers in communication the intercultural competence of

the candidates must be considered.

Specialization in any one media

There are different media and it may not be possible to have a mastery over all media. It

is better if the teacher has a control over at least one medium.

Knowledge society

We are living in the knowledge society. We have come a long way from information

society. Knowledge society refers to any society where knowledge is the primary production

resource instead of capital and labor. A knowledge society creates, shares, and uses knowledge

for the prosperity and well being of the people. Today‘s people are more knowledgeable than

people of yester years. They have no choice but to become knowledgeable. regardless of whether

they want it or not. Knowledge society is the term used to emphasize the importance of

knowledge. Knowledge is the motor for social, economic, cultural and political development and

change in the society.

This knowledge must be made available to the common masses through the modern

media of mass communication. For that we require people who are skilled, updated, empathetic,

to serve the media industry. The teachers of communication must be more qualified with all

those abilities and they must remain employable by the industry at any time in his or her career.

That is a sign whether you are fit to be in this field or not. This will ensure media teachers will

not be outdated.



Let me end with a personal experience which has a direct link with the present topic.

Though I have been teaching communication for the past 20 years, my methods of teaching were

primitive. I still believe in the black board and white chalk wonders. In fact I had no occasion to

use the power points in the colleges I served but when I entered my class in Oman it was a

different experience. It was an all girls batch I was teaching. The class was set for slide projector

and a large white screen was hanging against the wall. The white board was behind the screen.

For the time being I needed white board and not the screen. I had to fold the screen to use the

white board. But I did not know how to fold it. I was searching for the switch. Coolly one girl

from the last bench stood up. While others stood admiring, she walked towards the screen

straight. A thread was hanging down which I had not noticed. She pulled the thread and the

screen folded. The girls clapped as I stood watching the screen going up. I thanked the girl for

helping me and cursed my ignorance for not knowing the simple thing.

Future of communication education

At the beginning of 21st century media education has not remained what it was earlier. It

is going hand in hand with ICT education. This is because most part of media depends on ICT

now we can not imagine media without the support of ICT.

At the beginning of the present century media education has gained firm ground in most

part of the world. Taking into account the fact that UNESCO defines media education as the

priority field of the cultural educational development in the 21st century, media literacy has good

prospects in Russia (Federov Alexander: 2008) It is so in other parts of the world too. Media

education is fast progressing in both the eastern and western world. From the days of

questionable existence, media education has grown into days of becoming part and parcel of

general education too. Hungary has become the first European country to introduce obligatory

media education courses in secondary schools. The latest trend else where is also to introduce

media in the curriculum at high school level.

.In the modern world the media is becoming more and more important. It is the cause for

many developments and it is the solution for many things too. Media houses are going to

dominate the global scene. Media is considered one of the soft powers with which the world is

being ruled.

Hence the role of media is going to be more significant in all the countries irrespective of

whether they are democracies or not. So naturally more and more media persons are required

and they have to be trained professionally to handle the modern media of mass communication.

In that way we can say that the world will be looking for media schools to perform well and

produce better media professionals they are looking for.

Conclusion

Let communication teachers around the world understand that they will be watched by

the media and by the general public. Their performance will be under constant scrutiny by the

society .More than any other teacher, communication teacher will be in lime light because they

are very near to the media. Both good and bad things about the media schools will be reported

instantly, if not glorified.



Communication teachers should become hundred percent professionals and 99 percent is

not accepted. They must prove themselves in both the theory and the practical aspects of mass

media. This will prove the worth of communication education.

References

Bazalgette. C.Bevort, E Savino. J (Eds) (1992)Media Education World Wide. Paris: UNESCO, 256 p

Brian Firth (1968): Mass media in the class room

Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter, Edwin R.McDaniel (2007) Communication between Cultures, Wadsworth

Cengage Learning, 462p

Len Masterman: (1960) Teaching the media

McLuhan, M (1967). The Gutenberg Galaxy: London: Rutledge and Kegen Paul.292p

Niranjana Vanalli (1999): Journalism Education :( In Kannada language): University of Mysore, India

Walsh Bill :( 2007): a Brief History of Media Education: Center for media literacy, Billerica


Reference # 133

Topic # 5

Diagnostic and feedback-providing system

for self-directed learning of medical students,

Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand Phongthara Vichitvejpaisal [email protected], Mahidol University, Thailand

Suphak Piboon [email protected], Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand

Somkid Promjui [email protected], Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand

This research work developed a diagnostic and feedback-providing system for self-directed

learning together with an assessment of its quality/efficiency. The system established students‘

learning weaknesses and offered guidelines for their improvement until all such weaknesses were

corrected. Assessment of the system was based on students‘ learning achievement, an open-ended

questionnaire, and instructors‘ in-depth interviews.

This work revealed that the investigated system promoted self-directed learning processes and can

be applied to all levels of students. The system was found to be efficient under the evaluation

standard of propriety, feasibility, accuracy, and utility. Finally, students‘ learning achievement

was considered high.

Background and Significance

The medical curriculum of the Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University,

consists of six academic years, namely Year 1 for ‗premedical‘ studies, Years 2 and 3 for

‗preclinical‘ studies (in which students lack hands-on patient-care experience), and Years 4 to 6

for ‗clinical‘ studies (in which students were responsible for both their studies and in-patient

care).

Preclinical and clinical studies link theoretical to practical classes, in which medical

students should be equipped with retentive knowledge to cope with patients‘ real-life problems.

However, the diversity and complexity of current medical information require preclinical

students to be on the alert for progress in self-directed learning. In addition, to master an

overwhelming volume of subjects in a relatively short period, most medical students experience

physical stresses, depressive illnesses, anxiety, paranoia, and obsessive compulsive behavior

(Richman, J.A. and Flaherty, J.A.: 1990; Wolf, T.M., et al.: 1990; Bramness, J.G. et al.: 1991,

and Samkoff, J.: 1993). The resulting lack of preclinical knowledge therefore prevents clinical-

year medical students from full learning achievement, thus wasting time and opportunities for

higher education.

In academic year 2008, we performed a survey among 250, 210, and 80 medical students

from Year 4, Year 5, and Year 6 respectively to gauge their potential problems and needs

regarding the teaching and learning at Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital. A total of 115

(46%), 109 (51.90%), and 36 (45%) students from Year 4 to Year 6 volunteered to take part in

the survey, indicating two specific problems and needs.

Regarding the specific problems, first, the present preclinical curriculum hardly inspired their

confidence since it was tough for them to grasp the core knowledge of a vast number of

subjects in a very short period. Also, without patient-care experience, they were deprived of

a direction for their studies and ended up learning by rote. Second, for lack of analytical



thinking and a creative thinking process, they hardly performed self-assessment in clinical

knowledge and searched for novel information.

Specific needs had to do with essential knowledge beyond the normal curriculum. First, the

respondents mentioned general knowledge, particularly ethics and virtue, patients‘ rights,

consumer protection laws, public communication skills, and human resources. Second, for

the medical knowledge implicit in the curriculum, they were keen on the patient referral

system, community-based psychology, and the procedure of medical investigation, such as

arterial blood gases (ABGs) and electrocardiogram interpretation.

According to a recent consensus of the Consortium of Thai Medical Schools (CTMS),

increasing intra-curriculum credits appears unfeasible, as the CTMS would like medical students

to spend more time on extra-curricular activities, particularly social ethics and virtue of

humanistic medicine and people-centered health care policies.

Another solution is to establish an online system for medical students and provide them

with current, relevant medical information. This ‗anytime, anywhere‘ system can assess their

knowledge, diagnose their weaknesses, and provide clues for searching and retrieving solutions –

resulting in continual self-directed learning and self-assessment in education to the point of

mastery of a given subject.

We have proposed to investigate a diagnostic and feedback-providing system for self-

directed learning by medical students, with patients‘ rights/consumer protection laws (PCLs) and

ABGs interpretation chosen as prototype subjects. PCLs are currently hot issues for general

practitioners seeking to prevent litigation for negligence over medical management, whereas

ABGs interpretation is a procedure to assess the pathophysiological changes in respiratory, renal,

cardiovascular, or metabolic systems of critically ill patients.

Objectives

1. To develop a diagnostic and feedback-providing system for self-directed learning by medical

students at the Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital.

2. To assess the quality and efficiency of such a system.

Procedure

A prospective, experimental research and development study was carried out among

third-year medical students at the Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital; in class, each first

completed a pretest of 40 short answers on ABGs and 20 multiple-choice questions on PCLs

within a total of one and a half hours. After the pretest, each student continued participation by

submitting an application via the [email protected] address for a personal password,

and then logged on under his or her identification number (ID) and the given password to the

www.siriraj-evaluation.in.th website to spend his or her free time studying ABGs and PCLs at

his or her own pace during the next four weeks. ABGs and PCLs each consisted of three

consecutive diagnostic exercises/tests that students were asked to run step by step. To qualify for

the next level, a student must complete each exercise/test with a score of no less than 80%. After

finishing each exercise/test, he or she was able to see his or her score in order to modify his or

her study strategies. During the study, students could discuss the topic among friends or read

supplementary articles. No efforts were made to evaluate whether students completed their


http://www.siriraj-evaluation.in.th/

Vichitvejpaisal, et al.: Diagnostic and feedback-providing system for self-directed learning


assignments, as the computer program not only established their weaknesses and urged them to

explore for core knowledge, but also recorded profiles (name, ID and password, frequency, date

and time of access, the number of exercises, and scores earned).

After four weeks, a post-test was given in class to those that finished their studies and

were still keen on participation. The contents of the pretest and post-test reflected the

educational objectives of clinical practice. Afterward, students were required to complete an

additional English standard test of 20 multiple-choice questions on ABGs and answer 36

questions using a five-level Likert scale (poor, insufficient, fair, good, very good) about the

effectiveness of the system, along with open-ended questions for additional comments on the

procedure.

Regarding the system quality, the propriety standard was judged by the students‘ returned

questionnaires, the feasibility standard was assessed by the students‘ returned questionnaires and

through the students‘ intention of learning found in the recorded computer profiles, the accuracy

standard was evaluated through the construct and concurrent validity of the tests, and the utility

standard was judged by the students‘ returned questionnaires and instructors‘ in-depth interviews

as well as confirmed by the students‘ learning achievement and the percent growth of

knowledge.

Statistics

A statistical analysis was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

for Windows, release 13, with scores expressed as means and standard deviation values. Within-

group pretest and post-test scores were compared through the ‗paired t‘ test, with a P value of <

0.05 considered statistically significant.

The accuracy and suitability of the test were assessed by three educators external to this

study and with at least 10 years of experience in educational studies. For additional review, the

questions were administered to 21 nursing students and 25 residents in anesthesiology to verify

criterion-referenced test item difficulty, discrimination, validity, and reliability. The outcome

was measured through scores graded by three non-physician evaluators. The pretest and post-

test scores were computed for growth of knowledge (Kanjanawasee, S. 1989).

Results

One hundred and seventy out of 232 medical students (73.28%) of the third-year medical

students took the pretest, after which 58 volunteered to join the four-week study, whereas two

dropped out midway through the project. On the post-test date, 36 actually completed the

examinations in class; however, a review of the recorded computer profiles showed that six had

to be excluded from the study because of irregular participation. Only 30 therefore qualified as

the final study group, being 12.93% of the third-year students, aged 20-22, and consisting of 10

males and 20 females.

The validation and reliability of the tests showed highly acceptable criterion-referenced

assessment of item difficulty, discrimination, construct and concurrent validity, and reliability in

internal consistency.

It was found that the post-test scores on both ABGs and PCLs significantly exceeded

scores on the pretests. On ABGs, the pretest and post-test scores were 6.10 1.99 and



26.33 6.49, whereas on PCLs, they were 7.83 1.64 and 15.67 1.32. Also, the percent

growth of knowledge on both subjects showed a gain of more than 50% (Table 1).

The correlation coefficient by Pearson Product moment between the post-test scores and

standard test scores on ABGs, reflecting in construct and concurrent validity, was 0.85.

Table 1. The pretest, post-test scores and percent growth of knowledge on ABGs and PCLs

of 30 medical students of the third (preclinical) year (mean S.D.)

Subject

Pretest

score

Post-test

score

Paired

sample t

Growth of

knowledge (%)

Arterial blood gases (ABGs) 6.10 1.99 26.33 6.49 16.54* 59.35 19.25

Patients‘ rights/consumer laws (PCLs) 7.83 1.64 15.67 1.32 30.83* 64.59 9.01

* P value < 0.05

Discussion

On account of their low records of activities in self-directed learning and very low scores,

six students were dropped out. The remaining 30 students who had volunteered to enroll in the

study, however, worked laboriously to show their intention of self-directed learning the new

subjects. According to the Office of Registration, Records and Evaluation, these well-organized

and qualified participants generally achieved good grades. This agreed with Schublova, Marketa

(2008), who stated that a problem-based learning (PBL) method via computer simulation

promoted active learning via critical thinking, and that students with high scores tended to show

their self-directed learning and problem-solving ability.

It was found, however, probably because they felt free from daily rounds and less worried

about the privacy of self-directed learning tuition and online communication, most participants

preferred to study in the evening hours through midnight. This finding differed from Healy,

D.G. et al. (2005), who said students favored day-time over the rest of the day for self-directed

learning.

An online diagnostic and feedback-providing system represents a technological

innovation that can change the learning process, as seen in the presence and accessibility of a

growing number of online courses and programs in higher education today. The increasing

globalization of online education needs timely responsiveness and deficiency improvement in the

face of abundant educational data. The developed system therefore stimulates and challenges

participants to express their learning deficiency and then feeds back accurate information to

progress their knowledge. Yet, the success of the system is tied to individual students‘

enthusiasm and self-directed learning ability in particular. Medical students should believe that

they themselves were truly responsible for what they have learned while remaining open to

dedicated learning and to earnestly learning new skills alike. A study by Zsiga, Peter L. (2007)

confirmed that individuals with self-directed learning tendencies can be expected to apply

thinking strategies, that strategic thinkers reflected self-directed learning behavior, and that

leadership efficiency was supported by strategic thinking and self-directed learning skills.

By helping students correct problems they found hard to comprehend, the feedback

mechanism apparently plays a key role in students‘ self-efficacy and achievement. In 2005,

Gallien, Tara L. proved that students who received personalized feedback were more satisfied

and performed academically better than those who received collective feedback. In 2008,

Hagstrom, Robert P. said that neither immediate nor delayed feedback impacted students‘ level



of anxiety, while in the same year, Huang, Tzufang classified feedback mechanisms into two

groups: verification and task-specific adapted knowledge of response feedback. The former

gave participants information only about the accuracy of their answers; the latter gave

participants feedback while guiding them toward correct answers. At any rate, neither feedback

method was significantly better in bringing about content understanding and achievement; we

attributed it to either cognitive overload, limited functionality of the tools, or learner control of

the trial-and-error strategy. On the other hand, our system yielded personalized and immediate

feedback, which did not simply show the actual answer once the test was finished, but revealed

the answer by linking it to a specific webpage or lesson page, where one can find detailed clues.

Therefore, students must read the matters thoroughly before getting the correct information.

Through this means, students were supported in content understanding, problem-solving

strategies, retention of knowledge, and learning success. This idea agreed with the study

performed by Tzu-Hua, Wang in 2008.

It was found that the difficulty, discrimination, content, construct and concurrent validity,

and the reliability of the exercises/tests under this study was classified as good. This was quite

acceptable in a diagnostic and feedback-providing system to reflect the accuracy standard of

evaluation and confirm the confidence of measurement. It was further confirmed by a study

conducted by Mutschlecner, Timothy M. in 2007.

The quality of the tests appeared to be valuable tools for formative assessment of the

students and charting their course of self-directed learning – the heart of the test – particularly

the concurrent validity of ABGs, which reflected real-time evaluation of the test. Unfortunately,

the concurrent validity of the PCLs exercises/tests was confirmed neither by comparison with a

standard test nor by the approval of an expert, implying the natural complexity of the subject and

its context, which became a barrier to supporting the test validity.

Despite the differences in students‘ knowledge, their learning achievement was

satisfactory, which implied that criterion-referenced assessment under this study was able to

categorize student performance levels for the selected subjects (Jacobson, Renee Y.: 2008). This

is further confirmed by the capacity to distinguish performance into proficiency of ABGs by the

final scores of 60-70% - which were statistically the same as that of the study group. This

implied that the system provided efficient steps of learning in which students could keep up their

own pace of study. Besides, the final scores of 60-70% implied the students‘ unfamiliarity to the

new subjects, for which they required more experience and practice with patients to master the

core knowledge.

The online system was a key success factor for this study, as students showed their

eagerness to log on, as seen in the recorded computer profiles and comments to the open-ended

questions. We agreed with the studies performed by Torre, D. et al. (2004), Gallien, Tara L.

(2005), McNulty, J.A. et al. (2006), Snarski, Rebecca D. (2008), and Peterson, Debra S. (2008)

that the satisfaction factors included user-friendliness, self-directedness, technological efficiency,

interactivity of learning materials, timely private feedback, and confidence in overcoming

challenging assignments. Also, the ‗anytime, anywhere‘ convenience of online learning –

wherever there is the internet and availability of a home or dormitory computer – played a

crucial role for students. The opportunity of downloading materials freely also helped students

learn individually and comfortably with or without a computer in their spare time. We also

shared the opinion suggested by Peterson, Debra S., regarding the application of technology to

help develop learning packages, and that by Huang, Tzufang (2008), who advocated improved

design feedback in both visual and auditory modes.



Self-directed learning was another key success factor under this study. Learning

achievement is measured by online intervention assignments, exercises/tests, a post-test

measuring content understanding, problem-solving strategies, individual help-seeking strategies,

and self-regulation. Through self-directed learning, the students were encouraged to develop

critical thinking with discretion for self-assessment and keep on studying with a sense of self-

actualization and self-esteem in education.

Summary

Having planned this project for months, we communicated by assorted means with

students and study population to understand our objectives and prepare their programs in

advance. Since all participants were engaged in many activities, such as license and

comprehensive tests, national tests, and daily rounds, it was virtually impossible for them to set

up study time when they were absolutely free, which might explain why very few students joined

this study. However, we remained satisfied with this authentic assessment, with students

besieged by problems on several fronts; we hoped that participating students are well-organized

enough in both theory and practice to cope with unexpected problems facing patients.

Despite the system‘s ease for online learning, accuracy in data processing, and

streamlining of operational research steps, the pretesting and post-testing of learning materials in

class were still required. If future innovations could verify the identity of exercise/test takers and

information submitters, then an educational research via online systems will be filled with

maximum quality and efficiency.

References

Bramness, J.G., Fixdal, T.C. and Vaglum, P. (1991) Effect of Medical School Stress on the Mental Health of

Medical Students in Early and Late Clinical Curriculum. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 84(4), 340 -

345.

Consortium of Thai Medical Schools (CTMS) (2008), Retrieved on January 1, 2009, from

http://www.si.mahidol.ac.th/office_d/meded/meded8/meded8n.html

Gallien, Tara L. (2005) Personalized versus collective feedback in online health courses : Does type of

instructor feedback student satisfaction, performance and perceived connectedness with the

instructor? (Ph.D. dissertation) Texas Woman‘s University, Texas:USA

Hagstrom, Robert P. (2008) Effects of immediate and delayed feedback on students’state anxiety during a

teacher certification assessment. (Ph.D. dissertation) Northern Arizona University, Arizona: USA.

Healy, D.G. et al. (2005) Electronic learning can facilitate student performance in undergraduate surgical education:

a prospective observational study. Published online 2005 June 29. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-5-23.

Huang, Tzufang. (2008) The role of task-specific adapted knowledge of response feedback in algebra problem

solving online homework in a college remedial course. (Ed.D. dissertation) University of Southern

California, California: USA.

Jacobson, Renee Y. (2008) Examination of the potential of selected norm-referenced tests and selected locally

developed criterion-referenced tests to classify students into performance categories. (Ed.D.

dissertation) The University of Nebraska – Lincoln, Nebraska: USA.

Kanjanawasee S. (1989) Alternative strategies for policy analysis : an assessment of school effects on students’

cognitive and affective mathematics outcomes in lower secondary school in Thailand. Doctoral

Dissertation. Los Angeles : University of California: USA.

McNulty, J.A., Espiritu, B., Halsey, M., Michelle, M. (2006) Personality preference influences medical student use

of specific computer-aided instruction (CAI). BMC Med Educ. 6: 7.

http://www.si.mahidol.ac.th/office_d/meded/meded8/meded8n.html



Mutschlecner, Timothy M. (2007) Construction, Validation and Administration of a Diagnostic Test of Cello

Technique for Undergraduate Cellists. (Ph.D. dissertation) University of Florida, Florida: USA

Peterson, Debra S. (2008) Meta-analytic study of adult self-directed learning and online nursing education: a

review of research from 1995 to 2007. (Ph.D. dissertation) Capella University, Minnesota: USA.

Richman, J.A., Flaherty, J.A. (1990) Gender Differences in Medical Student Distress Contributions of Prior

Socialization and Current Role-Related Stress. Social Science & Medicine 30(7): 777 – 787.

Samkoff, J. (1993) Understanding the Impaired Medical Student. Pennsylvania Medicine 96(7): 34 – 37.

Schublova, Marketa (2008) The effect of using computer simulations as self-directed learning on critical

thinking levels in entry-level athletic training students. (Ph.D. dissertation) Ohio University, Ohio:

USA.

Snarski, Rebecca D. (2008) Teaching self-directed learning theory to enhance online course satisfaction:

Preparing graduate level information technology students. (Ph.D. dissertation) Capella University,

Minnesota: USA

Torre, D., et al. (2004) An assessment of the impact of multimedia technology-based learning tools on the cardiac

auscultation skills of third-year medical students. Available Med Educ Online [http://www.med-ed-

online.org]; 9: 22.

Tzu-Hua, Wang (2008) Web-based quiz-game-like formative assessment: Development and evaluation. Computers

& Education 51: 1247-1263. Available online at http://www.sciencedirect.com

Wolf, T.M., Almen, T.K., Faucett, J.M., Randal, H.M. and Franklin, F.A. (1990) Psychosocial Changes during the

First Year of Medical School. Medical Education 25(3): 174 – 181.

Zsiga, Peter L. (2007) Self-directed learning readiness, strategic thinking and leader effectiveness in directors

of a national nonprofit organization. (Ph.D. dissertation) Florida Atlantic University, Florida: USA.

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Reference # 137

Topic # 1

Educators as 21st Century learners: The community partnership imperative Deborah Wooldridge [email protected], Bowling Green State University, USA

Gloysis Mayers [email protected], Zayed University, United Arab Emirates

Sandra Poirier [email protected], Middle Tennessee State University, USA

Sharo Shafiae [email protected], Southeast Missouri State Unversity, USA

Developing an engaged community partnership base is essential in preparing the 21st educator.

Preparing educators as 21st century learners requires that faculty and students must master core

subjects, demonstrate learning, thinking, and life skills and build upon results of assessments. We

must provide educators with meaningful experiences through field experiences. Providing

meaningful and purposeful experiences through the development of a strong and engaged

partnership between the University and community partners is essential. During this presentation,

we will discuss partnership building from three distinct educator preparation levels: Unit level,

program level and international program. We will touch on the 21st century learners, developing

and nurturing the partnership base using various strategies.

Developing an engaged community partnership base is essential in preparing the 21st

educator. We must provide educators with meaningful experiences through practicum and other

forms of field work. Providing meaningful and purposeful experiences through the development

of a strong and engaged partnership between the University and community partners is essential.

The purpose of this session is to discuss the preparation of the 21st century educator. We will

discuss the importance of building partnerships that provide inclusive excellence, to meet the

requirements of the 21st century learner and preparing educators who can master core subjects,

demonstrate learning, thinking, and life skills and build upon results of assessments.

Bowling Green State University, USA

We will discuss partnership building from the unit level at Bowling Green State

University. BGSU, through the Office of Research and Field Experiences in College of

Education and Human Development has formal agreements with over 300 schools in over 90

school districts to collaboratively design, deliver, and evaluate field experiences and clinical

practica. Such partnerships include schools, districts, and community agencies within an

approximately 50 mile radius of Bowling Green, as well as specially chosen ―abroad‖ sites,

including Our Lady of Mercy School in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and two school systems in Texas:

Aldine ISD outside Houston, Texas, and Lamar CISD in Lamar, Texas. Unit partners also

include other clinical and field experience sites that collaborate in the work of our graduate and

specialized programs, such as the Wood County Board of Mental Retardation & Developmental

Disabilities and the Perrysburg Heights Community Association. Because this 50 mile radius

encompasses urban school districts such as Toledo, Findlay, Fostoria, Fremont, as well as rural

districts across Wood, Henry, Lucas, Hancock, Sandusky, and other counties, our candidates

have sufficient opportunities to secure a placement of diversity somewhere along their teacher

education field experience.



BGSU currently participates in several partnership programs that illustrate the rich and

innovative ways that professionals work collaboratively to develop and refine mutually

beneficial experiences for candidates, school and university faculty, and the students and families

in the greater community. In these special partnerships, which span the range from early field

experiences to later methods field experiences to capstone clinical experiences, candidates tutor,

teach, clinically assess, and teach assessment to veteran classroom teachers. The following

special partnerships GEARUP, PCC, Literacy Serve and Learn, Help-A- Child, the Reading

Clinical Assessment, the Toledo School for the Arts and Woodmore Local School District

Professional Development School provide a developing and nurturing the partnership base using

various strategies to the 21st century learners.

School and university faculty jointly assume ―mentoring‖ responsibility for structuring

learning activities and environments so candidates develop and hone the skills, knowledge, and

dispositions needed to be effective practitioners in today‘s classrooms. This partnership approach

reflects our philosophical shift away from traditional terms such as ―cooperating teacher‖ and

―university supervisor‖ to terms that reflect equality of contribution in the mentoring partnership:

classroom mentor and university mentor.

In addition to the mentoring provided by classroom mentors, school partners play a

central role in the design and development of our field experience program, through two

advisory panels established by the ORFE to guide and shape our collaborations with local

schools and other entities. These two panels are the School Partnership Group, and the Field

Experience Advisory Council. The purpose of the School Partnership Group—a voluntary group

of school principals and superintendents, educator prep faculty and RFE staff—is generally to

guide field policies and process by serving as a representative voice for the outside partners in

establishing the goals and parameters by which the BGSU and community partners interact. It

meets periodically to discuss partnership matters and, as necessary, to troubleshoot solutions to

issues that may arise. For example, the ―co-teaching‖ language emphasized in the recent

substantial revision of the Student Teaching/Internship Handbook evolved from this group‘s

discussion of three key interrelated issues: 1) problems in recruiting field sites, 2) concerns of

schools for accountability on pupil performance, and 3) the need for authentic classroom

responsibility for novice teachers. The Field Experience Advisory Council, also comprised of

university and field mentors, meets monthly to guide the more routine functioning of the field

experience partnerships, such as form changes, the scheduling of methods and student teaching

experiences, or issues brought forth by particular programs.

Zayed University, United Arab Emirates

The stated mission of the College of Education at Zayed University is ―to graduate

competent, committed, reflective and creative new educators to lead and serve education in the

United Arab Emirates‖. Partnership and collaboration with community programs, is a

cornerstone towards achieving this goal as it is at Bowling Green State University. Our students

participate in international study abroad internships involving programs in the USA and in New

Zealand, which are supportive of cross-cultural relationships. It is important that our partner

programs reflect our goals and are supportive of our learning outcome. Through these

international field placements, opportunities for cross-cultural experiences are achieved.

Wooldridge, et al.: Educators as 21st Century learners


In the College of Education at Zayed University, the Field Placement Coordinator

spearheads the placement coordination. Prior to student placement, the desired program is

comprehensively vetted; past placement experiences are reviewed, faculty contacts provide

feedback, school/ program visits are made, supervisors are interviewed and supervisor

orientation on Zayed University‘s College of Education mission and expected student outcomes

are undertaken. We maintain a continuous relationship with programs identified as providing

excellent experiences for our students. Through dedicated faculty supervisors who work along

with our placement coordinator, we continue to maintain these relationships. School and

university faculty jointly assume ―mentoring‖ responsibility for students‘ field experiences.

A unique aspect of our school collaboration is students‘ completion of their graduation

capstone project during their field placement experiences Students participate in projects that

contribute not only to their own learning experiences but that also provide valuable information

which can be applied to program improvement at their placement sites. These activities benefit

not only the students but also the institutions involved. Relevant projects undertaken include

action research, health campaigns and teaching resource development.

Since off campus site supervisors volunteer their time and share their expertise with our

students, the University community acknowledges such support. We provide a stipend to each

site supervisor, make university services available and recognize them at a formal Teacher

Appreciation Luncheon. The opportunity to apply theory to practice is a critical component to

our teacher education program. Partnerships and collaborative relationships with our community

and international programs are therefore valuable components to the success of our teacher

preparation program

Conclusion

Preparing educators as 21st century learners requires that faculty and students must

master core subjects, demonstrate learning, thinking, and life skills and build upon results of

assessments. We must provide educators with meaningful, complex, and real world problems,

access the tools and expertise that assist the development of multiple potential solutions, and

establish the means to evaluate the effectiveness of those solutions. Furthermore, understanding

the learning processes, knowing various influences on learning, and becoming an effective

learner are keys to becoming a life-long learner. All of this learning must take place in schools,

community agencies and community organizations. Developing an engaged community

partnership base is essential in preparing the 21st educator at BGSU, MTSU or ZU. Our power

point presentation would expand on this summary and elicit sharing from the audience regarding

unique collaboration initiatives in which they are involved.

References

Bowling Green State University. (2009). Bowling Green State University Centers of excellence, Bowling Green:

OH: AuthorBransford, J. D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind,

experience and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Burnaford, G., Fischer, J., & Hobson, D. (2001). Teachers doing research: The power of action through inquiry.

Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence.

Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington.



Fueyo, V., & Koorland, M. A. (1997). Teacher as researcher: A synonym for professionalism. Journal of Teacher

Education, 48 (5), 336-344.

Gardner, H. (2006). Five minds for the future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Hargreaves, D. (1998). Creative professionalism: The role of teachers in the knowledge society. Tampa, FL: Book

Production Resources Publishing.

Kennedy, M. M. (1997). The connection between research and practice. Educational Researcher, 26 (7), 4-12.

McKinsey & Company. (2009). The Economic Impact of the Achievement Gap in America‟s Schools: Summary of

Findings.

Mertler, C. A. (2005). Action research: Teachers as researchers in the classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.

Murrell, P.D., Jr. (2001). The community teacher: A new framework for effective urban teaching. New York:

Teachers College Press.

Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2008). Framework for 21st century learning. Available at:

http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/

Williams, D.A., Berger, J.B. & McClendon, S.A. (2005). Toward a model of inclusive excellence and change in

postsecondary institutions. Washington D.C.: Association of American Colleges and Universities. Bowling

Green State University. (2009-210). Zayed University Catalog, Zayed University, UAE: Author

http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/


Reference # 138

Topic # 1

Service learning and the 21st Century educator Deborah Wooldridge [email protected], Bowling Green State University, USA

Nancy Sonlietner [email protected], University of Tennessee-Martin, USA

Gloysis Mayers [email protected], Zayed University, United Arab Emirates

A learning community where students develop the knowledge, skills and abilities needed for

meaningful and successful 21st century work and life is the vision for higher education programs.

A successful learning community of faculty members, students, and site supervisors in the variety

of community programs are working together to achieve this objective, and are jointly engaged in

the pursuit of excellence and the development of human potential. This paper describes models

emphasizing community service learning, how to implement these models in teacher education

prior to the student teaching experience, provide analysis of student reflections and describe

community service learning initiatives at BGSU and UT-Martin.

This paper describes models emphasizing community service learning, how to implement

these models in teacher education training prior to the student teaching experience and describes

community service learning initiatives at BGSU and UT-Martin. BGSU currently participates in

several partnership programs that illustrate the rich and innovative ways that professionals work

collaboratively to develop and refine mutually beneficial experiences for teacher candidates and

the community. UTM, on the other hand, is in the initial phases of establishing service learning

and building community partnerships. In these partnerships community service learning, a form

of experiential education occurs through a cycle of action and reflection. Students work with

others through a process of applying what they are learning to community problems while, at the

same time, reflecting upon their experience as they seek to achieve real objectives for the

community and deeper understanding and skills for themselves (Eyler & Giles, 1999).

Zlotkowski (1998) defines service learning as:

…a course-based experience in which students (1) participate in an organized service activity that

meets indemnified community needs, while (2) reflecting on that service activity in such a way as

to gain further understanding of the course, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an

enhanced sense of civic responsibility (p.xiv).

The following special partnerships GEARUP, PCC, Literacy Serve and Learn, Help-A-

Child, the Reading Clinical Assessment, the Toledo School for the Arts and Woodmore Local

School District Professional Development School at BGSU provide a developing and nurturing

partnership base using various strategies to support 21st century learners. The University of

Tennessee Martin is a regional university located in a remote section of NW Tennessee. The area

is impoverished, and the economic changes that affect the U.S. are having a harder impact in the

area. Students at UTM are typically first generation students and UTM has a higher percentage

of minority students than is represented in the regional population. Otherwise, the demographics

of UTM students are similar to those found at other four-year colleges. One of the community

partnerships being developed at the University of Tennessee Martin includes the local Housing

Authority‘s after school program for elementary and high school students, one of the few

remaining Housing Authorities in the U.S. with after school programs.



Service learning is an increasingly significant component of academic programs on many

college campuses (Smith-Paríolá & Góké- Paríolá, 2006). As colleges seek to link community

service learning to their educational mission, the local, national, and institutional cultural

contexts need to be considered. This planning process must include community aspects such as

the history of the area, demographics, geography, norms, and values of the local community so

that a reciprocal relationship between the institution, faculty, students and the community can

develop. Berman (1999) found that successful higher education community service learning

programs entails a clear articulation of mission, consistency with organizational goals, faculty

driven plans for program implementation, creative means to integrate service with study, long-

term goals and plans, and open communication systems.

Community service learning supports the ability of students to process concepts, develop

positive attitudes toward life long learning and problem solving (Godfrey & Grasso, 2000). In

addition, students are involved in an interactive process, which enhances learning. Stevens

(1999) suggests that community service learning projects must provide students with

opportunities to apply and practice new skills, allow them to problem solve, provide a needed

service within the community, develop a holistic understanding of the community and develop

workplace skills such as cooperation, responsibility, dependability and the like. What is

important to note is that service learning provides a bridge that links theory to practice.

Community service learning links academic learning civic engagement and allowing students to

address real community issues. Building on these principles, teacher candidates can experience a

ray of experiences with a combination of community service learning, early field experiences

and student teaching.

References

Alberto, A., Bosworth, K. & Kwandayi, H.P. (2006). Civic service through schools: An international perspective,

Compare, 36, 23-40.

Berry, H.A. & Chisholm, L.A. (1999). Service learning in higher education around the world: An initial look. New

York, NY: The International Partnership for Service Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.

ED439654).

Bowley, E. & Meeropool, J. (2003). Service-learning in higher education: Trends, research and resources, National

Youth Leadership Council. Retrieved August 31, 2009, from the world wide web at www.nylc.org.

Conrad, D. & Hedin,D. (1981). National Assessment of Experiential Education: Final Report, St. Paul, MN: Center

for Youth Development and Research, University of Minnesota.

Eyler, J. and D.E. Giles, Jr. (1999). Where‟s the Learning in Service Learning?, San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass

Publishers.

Ghannam, M.T. (2007). Integration of teaching and research with community service for engineering programs,

European Journal of Engineering Education, 32, 227-235.

Godfrey, C.P. & Grasso, E.T. (2000). Working for the common good: Concepts and models for service learning

management [Monograph No. 15]. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education.

Shumer, R. (2005). Service learning research: What have we learned from the past, National Youth Leadership

Council, Growing to Greatness 2005. Retreived August 31, 2009, from the world wide web at www.nylc.org.

Smith-Paríolá, J. & Góké- Paríolá, A. (2006). Expanding the parameters of service learning: A case study. Journal

of Studies in International Education, 10, 71-86.

Stevens, L.S. (1995). The complete guide to learning through community service. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and

Bacon.

Tovey, J. (2001). Building connections between industry and university: Implementing an internship program at a

regional university. Technical Communication Quarterly, 10(2), 225-239.

Zlotkowdki, E. (1998). Preface. In R.G. Bringle & J.A.Hatcher (Eds.), Successful service-learning programs: New

models of excellence in higher education (pp.xiv-xvii). Boston: Anchor.


Reference #143-145

Topic #3

Symposium

Commonwealth-UNESCO

Migration and education:

Teacher recruitment and recognition of qualifications Roli Degazon-Johnson [email protected],

Commonwealth Secretariat, UK

Kimberly Ochs [email protected], Benefactory LLC, Germany

Akemi Yonemura, [email protected], UNESCO, France

James Keevy [email protected], The South African Quality Authority (SAQA), South Africa

The goal of this initiative is to broaden knowledge about the impact of migration on education and

recognition of qualifications with the aim to facilitate a better recognition of migrants‘ higher

education in host countries to avoid loss of educational training and professional skills, and to

provide better integration of migrants in terms of employment and working conditions. This

symposium will address the issues of teacher recruitment, teacher qualifications and professional

recognition by bringing together representatives from the Commonwealth Secretariat, UNESCO,

and the National Education Association (NEA, USA) to facilitate discussion, based on the findings

of papers addressing the topic.

The teacher shortage and teacher loss have become a major concern in many countries across

the world. The increasing international migration of skilled professional teachers is aggravating

this situation, particularly for developing countries, striving to reach the goals of Universal

Primary Education by 2015. At the same time, it is acknowledged that international teacher

migration can benefit school systems and contribute to the professional development of teachers.

This symposium will address the issues of teacher recruitment, teacher qualification and

professional recognition. It is organized by presentation of research papers and initiatives by three

organizations: the Commonwealth Secretariat, UNESCO, and the National Education Association

of the United States (NEA) to facilitate discussion based on the findings of papers addressing the

topic.

In 2004, the Ministers of Education of the Commonwealth countries formally adopted a

Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol (CTRP). This Protocol offers an international

standard for teacher recruitment and has been adopted by all 53 Commonwealth member

countries and in some non-Commonwealth states as well. It aims to balance the rights of

teachers to migrate internationally, on a temporary or permanent basis, against the need to

protect the integrity of national education systems, and prevent the exploitation of scarce human

resources in developing or low-income countries. Since 2004 much has changed in terms of the

ebbs and flows of teacher recruitment and migration, including the increased migration of

Commonwealth teachers to Middle Eastern states to take up teaching positions.

With the request of Education Ministers, the Commonwealth Secretariat initiated

research on: (1) teacher qualifications to investigate the extent to which teacher qualifications

and professional status are recognized and transferable across Commonwealth member states;

and (2) review of the implementation of the Protocol to evaluate the implementation status, and

advocate and support future actions relating to the Protocol (Morrow & Keevy, 2006; Ochs,

2009).




Teacher Qualifications Comparability Study

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) conducted a comparability study on

teacher qualifications in 32 Commonwealth countries between 2008 and 2009. As an outcome of

the research, a Commonwealth teacher qualifications comparability table was developed, which

could contribute to the migration of teachers from developing to more developed countries. This

is because the comparability table makes information on qualifications and professional

requirements in Commonwealth countries available to governments, employers, professional

associations and teachers within a common frame of reference that will allow for the comparison

of like with like. In this sense, it is important to realise that the primary purpose of the

comparability table is not to address migration and brain drain, but rather to promote the positive

benefits associated with teacher migration and to share the wealth of human resources within the

Commonwealth, as envisaged in the Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol, by

facilitating the fair and equitable recognition and appointment of teachers in receiving countries.

The comparability table provides a transparent mechanism by which to compare the

qualifications of teachers obtained in any of the Commonwealth countries. This information will

inform decisions made by competent recognition authorities (higher education institutions,

professional councils, non-statutory professional bodies, employers and associations, and

national information centres) (Keevy, 2008).

The Implementation of the Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol

This paper reports on a review of the implementation of the Commonwealth Teacher

Recruitment Protocol across Commonwealth member states, assesses what has been achieved by

this Protocol, and suggests what more must be done for the future. The evaluation reflects

updated information on current recruitment practices, levels of Protocol implementation within

Commonwealth member states, initiatives by non-government stakeholders to implement the

Protocol, and new data to address shortcomings identified in previous research. Key findings in

this report include the new dimension of research on recruitment agencies and pan-

Commonwealth sample teachers, the experiences of migrant teachers, and cross-national

comparisons of teacher status, which provide new insights into perceived obstacles for Protocol

implementation (Ochs, 2009).

Symposium: Migration and education



Index of Authors & Reference Numbers

Reference #

Aal-Sa'eed, Taghreed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 44

Abbaszadeh, Mir Mohammad (University of Urmia, Iran) .................................................................................. 52

Abd El Basit, Hussein (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 1

Abdelraheem, Ahmed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 2

Abdhulla, Aishath (Republic of the Maldives) ..................................................................................................... 95

Abdhulla, Zeema (Aboobakuru School, Republic of the Maldives) ..................................................................... 95

Abo Tayeh, Shanaz (Jordan) ................................................................................................................................. 115

Abu Bakar, Kaseh (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (National University of Malaysia), Malaysia) .................. 66

Abu-Jaber, Majed (Higher Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC), Jordan) ........................................... 3

Abu-Rahmah, Mohamed Ismail (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................... 4




Adepoju, Taiwo (Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria) .................................................................................. 109

Adnan, Zeenaz (Gn TRC Hafiz Ahmed School, Republic of the Maldives) ........................................................ 95

Ahmad, Ahmad Abelraahman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................... 7

Akinwumi, Femi Sunday (University of Ibadan, Nigeria) .................................................................................... 8

Al Belushi, Shadia (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 53

Al Busaidi, Suaad (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 53

Al Ghanboosi, Salim (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................... 9

Al Hinai, Harith (The College of Applied Sciences - Rustaq, Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) ................. 10

Al Humaidi, Salma Hamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................... 11

Al kharusi, Badar (Curtin University of Technoliogy, Australia) ........................................................................ 12

Al Masri, Safwan (Columbia University Middle East Research Center, Jordan) ................................................. 140

Al-Amri, Mohammed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 13

Al-Bahrani, Muna (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 21

Al-Bahrani, Muna (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 44

Al-Balushi, Suleiman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 45

Albarwani, Thuwayba (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 35

Al-Barwani, Thuwayba (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................ 14

Al-Barwani, Thuwayba (Sultan Qaboos University, College of Education, Oman) ............................................ 15

Albashaireh, Zeid (Mutah Univesity, Jordan) ....................................................................................................... 16

Alblushi, Rahma Khamis (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................. 17

Al-Bulushi, Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................. 18

Al-Bulushi, Sana (Ministry of Education, Oman) ................................................................................................ 44

Albusadi, Aida Mohammed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................... 19

Al-Busaidi, Omayma (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................... 44

Al-Busaidi, Saleh (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 20

Al-Busaidi, Saleh (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 33

Aldhafri, Said (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................... 21

Aldhafri, Said (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................... 22

Aldhafri, Said Suliman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................. 17

Aldhafri, Said Suliman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................. 19

Al-Dhafri, Said (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................. 33

Al-Dhafri, Said (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................. 65

Aldhafry, Saeed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................ 44

Al-Fazari, Manal (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 44

AlGhafri, Mohammed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 33

Alghafri, Rashid (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................... 23

Al-Ghatami, Suleiman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 24

Alghazo, Emad (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................. 7



Alhamouri, Waleed (The University of Jordan, Jordan) ....................................................................................... 25

Al-Harahsheh, Mohammad (Al al-Bayt University, Jordan) ................................................................................ 26

Al-Harthi, Aisha (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................... 27

Al-Harthi, Hamood (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 28

Alhashmi, Abdullah (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ..................................................................................... 29

Alhayek, Sadiq (The University of Jordan, Jordan) .............................................................................................. 30

Al-Humaidi, Salma Hamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................... 5

Al-Husseini, Suleiman (Ibri College of Technology, Oman) ............................................................................... 24

Al-Issa, Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................................... 31

Al-Jabri, Khalfan (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 27

Al-jaid, Nourah (Jordan) ....................................................................................................................................... 115

Aljamali, Fawzia (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 86

Al-Jamali, Fawzia (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 44

Alkharusi, Hussain (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 32

AlKharusi, Hussain (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 44

Alkharusi, Hussain (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 21

Al-Kindi, Ahmed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 92

Al-Mahrazi, Rashid (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 33

Al-Mahrazi, Rashid (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 65

Al-Mahrooqi, Maryam (Ministry of Education, Oman) ....................................................................................... 41

Almamari, Afaf (Ministry of Education, Oman) .................................................................................................. 22

Al-Mamari, Khalid (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 34

Al-Mamari, Khawla (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ..................................................................................... 44

Al-Mashhadani, Skreen (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................ 44

Almehrizy, Rashid (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 44

Al-Mekhlafi, Abdo (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 35

Al-Mekhlafi, Abdu (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 36

Al-Mekhlafi, Abdu (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 107

Al-Nabhani, Hilal (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 65

Al-Nabhany, Hilal (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 44

Al-naibi, Salim (Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) ....................................................................................... 37

Al-Nofli, Mohammed (Ministry of Education, Oman) ......................................................................................... 38

Al-Rasbi, Zahra (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................ 39

Al-rawahi, Nasser (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 40

Al-Shareefi, Abbas (Middle East University for Graduate Studies (MEU), Jordan) ............................................ 59

Al-Shuaili, Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .............................................................................................. 41

Alsuleimani, Humaira (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 44

Al-Tauqi, Mansoor (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 92

Aly Nassra, Mohamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 42

Al-Yahyai, Fakhriya (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ..................................................................................... 13

Al-Yamani, Hala (Bethlehem University, Palestine) ............................................................................................ 43

Alzubaidi, Abdulqawi (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 44

Alzubiadi, Abdulqawi (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................. 21

Ambusaidi, Abdullah (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 33

Ambusaidi, Abdullah (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 45

Amer, Aly (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ..................................................................................................... 14

Amer, Talal (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................................... 46

Ananda, S. (Salalah College of Applied Science, (Ministry of Higher Education), Oman) ................................. 47

An-Nasralla, Muayyed (Zarka Private University, Jordan) .................................................................................. 48

An-Nasralla, Muayyed (Zarka Private University, Jordan) .................................................................................. 49

Ashour, Mohammed Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................... 50

Atweh, Bill (Curtin University of Technology, Australia) ................................................................................... 12

Ayid Alawadi, Muna (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................... 51

Azizan, Asmuni (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia) ....................................................................................... 121

Azizi Nejad, Bahareh (University of Urmia, Iran) ................................................................................................ 52

Ba'Abood, Aisha (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 53



Bakr, Laila (Stockholm University and Mälardalen University (MDH), Sweden) ............................................... 69

Bakr, Yousef (Petra University, Jordan) ............................................................................................................... 126

Baporikar, Neeta (College of Applied Sciences, Salalah, Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) ........................ 122

Batsh, Moh'd Walid (Higher Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC), Jordan) ........................................ 3

Bin Yusof, Md. Yusnan (International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Malaysia) ..................................... 54

Bin Yusof, Md. Yusnan (International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Malaysia) ..................................... 55

Binti Mat Daud, Romaini (SMK Sungai Pusu, Malaysia) .................................................................................... 54

Binti Mat Daud, Romaini (SMK Sungai Pusu, Malaysia) .................................................................................... 55

Bwalya, Charity Mbolela (Ministry of Education, Zambia) ................................................................................. 56

Câmara, Jacira da Silva (Catholic University of Brasilia - UCB, Brazil) ............................................................. 57

Capanema, Cléia de Freitas (Catholic University of Brasilia - UCB, Brazil) ....................................................... 57

Clément, Rob (Madares Al Ghad, United Arab Emirates) ................................................................................... 58

Colquhoun, Derek (University of Hull, United Kingdom) ................................................................................... 124

Colquhoun, Derek (University of Hull, United Kingdom) ................................................................................... 125

Dawani, Kamal (Middle East University for Graduate Studies, Jordan) .............................................................. 59

Degazon-Johnson, Roli (Commonwealth Secretariat, United Kingdom) ............................................................. 143

Desai, G. (College of Applied Sciences, Oman) .................................................................................................. 60

Dunhill, Ally (University of Hull, United Kingdom) ........................................................................................... 124

Dunhill, Ally (University of Hull, United Kingdom) ........................................................................................... 125

Edwards, David (National Education Association (NEA), USA) ......................................................................... 145

El-Okda, Mohamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 15

El-Okda, Mohamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 61

Eltayeb, Christine (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ......................................................................................... 129

Ezzaki, Abdelkader (Academy for Educational Development, Washington D.C. USA, Morocco) ..................... 141

Faheem, Ahmed (H.Dh. Atoll Education Centre, Republic of the Maldives) ...................................................... 95

Flores, Maria (University of Minho, Portugal) ..................................................................................................... 69

Flores, Maria Assunção (University of Minho, Portugal) .................................................................................... 62

Flores, Maria Assunção (University of Minho, Portugal, Portugal) ..................................................................... 132

Foo, Say Fooi (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia) ........................................................................................... 121

Franco, Elize Keller (Centro Universitário Adventista de São Paulo- UNASP, Brazil) ....................................... 89

Gaeta, Cecilia (University Center Senac, Brazil) ................................................................................................. 88

Gaeta, Cecília (Centro Universitário SENAC, Brazil) ......................................................................................... 89

Gallagher, Kay (Emirates College for Advanced Education, United Arab Emirates) .......................................... 63

Girod, Mark (Western Oregon University, USA) ................................................................................................. 64

Gkitsaki, Christina (UNESCO Chair of Applied Research in Education, United Arab Emirates) ....................... 68

Gomaa, Nariman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 73

Gomes, Karina Barra (Centro Universitário Fluminense- Uniflu/Fafic, Brazil) ................................................... 99

Greenberg, James (University of Maryland, USA) ............................................................................................... 80

Grinspun, Mirian Paura Sabrosa Zippin (Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro- Uerj, Brazil) ...................... 99

Hasan, Abdulhameed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................... 44

Hassan, Abdulhamid (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................... 65

Hassanein Ahmed, Ismaiel (International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Malaysia) ................................ 66

Hayudini, Jahara (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................... 67

Henry, Barbara (Bowling Green State University, USA) ..................................................................................... 136

Hilton, Annette (The University of Queensland, Australia) ................................................................................. 68

Hilton, Gillian (Middlesex University London England, United Kingdom) ........................................................ 69

Hoban, Gary (National University, USA) ............................................................................................................. 70

Horck, Jan (World Maritime University, Sweden) ............................................................................................... 71

Hussain, Shafqat (Government College for Elementary Teachers, Pakistan) ....................................................... 116

Ibrahim, Mahmood (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ....................................................................................... 44

Imig, David (University of Maryland, USA) ........................................................................................................ 80

Imig, David (University of Maryland, USA) ........................................................................................................ 98

Ismail, Omer (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................................. 72

Issa, Abdulrahman (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 29

Issan, Salha (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................................... 73

Kalash, Sabeeh (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................. 74



Kamali, Tayeb (Higher Colleges of Technology, United Arab Emirates) ............................................................ 142

Kazem, Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................................... 21

Kazem, Ali Mahdi (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 44

Keevy, James (The South African Quality Authority (SAQA), South Africa) ..................................................... 143

Khader, Fakhri (Petra University, Jordan) ............................................................................................................ 75

Kilani, Hashem (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ............................................................................................. 76

Kissock, Craig (EducatorsAbroad Ltd., USA) ...................................................................................................... 77

Kissock, Natalia (Edina High School, USA) ........................................................................................................ 78

Koay, Teng-Leong (University of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam) ....................................................... 79

Koziol, Stephen (University of Maryland, USA) ................................................................................................. 80

Koziol, Stephen (University of Maryland, USA) ................................................................................................. 98

Kukreti, Mohit (Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) ........................................................................................ 123

Lahlou, Moncef (Al Akhawayn University, Morocco) ......................................................................................... 81

Mafumiko, Fidelius (University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania) ............................................................................. 105

Mahafza, Sameh (The Hashemite University, Jordan) ......................................................................................... 82

Mahoney, Marita (CSU San Bernardino, USA) ................................................................................................... 83

Majeed, Nahida Taha (University of Tikrit, Iraq) ................................................................................................. 84

Mandadi, Keshav (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 85

Mansy, Mahmoud (Alexandria Unversity, Egypt) ............................................................................................... 86

Maseko, Jabulani Solomon (University of South Africa, South Africa) .............................................................. 87

Masetto, Marcos (Catholic Universidade of Sao Paulo, Brazil) ........................................................................... 88

Masetto, Marcos (Pontifícia Universidade Catòlica de São Paulo- PUC-SP, Brazil) ........................................... 89

Mathew, Viju (Ministry of Higher Education, College of Applied Sciences, Oman) .......................................... 90

Mayers, Gloysis (Bowling Green State University, USA) ................................................................................... 136

Mayers, Gloysis (Zayed University, United Arab Emirates) ................................................................................ 137

Mayers, Gloysis (Zayed University, United Arab Emirates) ................................................................................ 138

McMahon, Margery (University of Glasgow, Scotland) ...................................................................................... 91

Metcalf, Ann (Mills College, USA) ...................................................................................................................... 135

Mishra, Amitabh (Ministry of Higher Education, College of Applied Sciences, Oman) ..................................... 123

Mitchell, Edna (Mills College, USA) ................................................................................................................... 135

Mohd Rouyan, Nurazan (International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Malaysia) ..................................... 66

Moheeb, Hisham (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 92

Monteith, Steve (British Council, Oman) ............................................................................................................. 93

Moosa, (Baa Atoll Education Centre, Republic of the Maldives) ....................................................................... 95

Moreira, Maria Alfredo (University of Minho, Portugal) ..................................................................................... 94

Moreira, Maria Alfredo (University of Minho, Portugal) ..................................................................................... 95

Moroney, Mike (University of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam) ............................................................ 79

Moursy, Hala Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 96

Mouswi, Ali (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .................................................................................................. 46

Mulenga, Athanasius (Ministry of Education, Zambia) ....................................................................................... 97

Mzumara, Betty (Ministry of Education, Zambia) ............................................................................................... 56

Narozhnaya, Katya (University of Maryland, USA) ............................................................................................ 98

Nogueira, Sonia Martins de Almeida (State Un. of Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro- Uenf, Brazil) .................. 99

Obiozor, Williams (Bloomsburg University, USA) .............................................................................................. 100

Ochs, Kimberly (Benefactory LLC, Germany) .................................................................................................... 143

Okwako, Eric (Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya) ................................................ 101

O'Meara, James (University of Ballarat, Australia) .............................................................................................. 102

Ono, Yumiko (Naruto University of Education, Japan) ....................................................................................... 103

Onuigbo, Anselm U. (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria) ........................................................................... 104

Osaki, Kalafunja (University of Dodoma, Tanzania) ........................................................................................... 105

Osman, Mohamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 33

Osman, Mohamed (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ........................................................................................ 106

Perur Nagaratnam, Ramani (Ministry of Manpower, Sultanate of Oman) ........................................................... 36

Perur Nagaratnam, Ramani (Ministry of Manpower, Sultanate of Oman) ........................................................... 107

Piboon, Suphak (Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand) .............................................................. 133

Pimenta, Maria (Universidade de Uberaba, Brazil) .............................................................................................. 108



Pimentel, Gabriela Sousa Rego (Catholic University of Brasilia - UCB, Brazil) ................................................. 57

Poirier, Sandra (Middle Tennessee State University, USA) ................................................................................. 137

Popoola, Bayode (Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria) ................................................................................. 109

Porcaro, David (University of Georgia and Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................... 110

Prata-Linhares, Martha (Universidade de Uberaba, Brazil) .................................................................................. 89

Promjui, Somkid (Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand) ............................................................ 133

Quezada, Reyes (University of San Diego, USA) ................................................................................................ 111

Ragheb, Emad (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .............................................................................................. 112

Raji, Ruqaya Hamzah (The Ministry of Education, Iraq) ..................................................................................... 139

Raji, Zeinab Hamzah (Baghdad University, Iraq) ................................................................................................ 139

Ramnarain, Umesh (University of Johannesburg, South Africa) ......................................................................... 113

Richardson, Paula (EducatorsAbroad Ltd., England) ........................................................................................... 77

Riggs, Iris (CSU San Bernardino, USA) .............................................................................................................. 83

Ryan, Karen (British Council, United Arab Emirates) ......................................................................................... 93

Sabbagh, Samah (American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates) ........................................................ 114

Sabbagh, Sumailah (Balqaa Univ. Geographic Center, Jordan) ........................................................................... 115

Saeed, Muhammad (University of the Punjab, Pakistan) ..................................................................................... 116

Sales, Gregory C. (Seward Incorporated, USA) ................................................................................................... 18

Sandlin, Ruth (CSU San Bernardino, USA) ......................................................................................................... 83

Sathya Singh, Vindhya (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................. 117

Scatolini Apostolo, S. Sergio AbdusSalâm (International University College, Belgium) .................................... 118

Schreck, William (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .......................................................................................... 119

Schulze, Thiago (Pontifícia Universidade Catòlica de São Paulo- PUC-SP, Brazil) ............................................ 89

Scully, James (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ................................................................................................ 120

See, Boon Ping (INTI University College, Malaysia) .......................................................................................... 121

Shafiae, Sharo (Southeast Missouri State Unversity, USA) ................................................................................. 137

Shah, Iqtidar Ali (College of Applied Sciences, Salalah, Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) ........................ 122

Sharma, Anshuman (Ministry of Higher Education, College of Applied Sciences, Ibri, Oman) ......................... 123

Shaw, Angela (University of Hull, United Kingdom) .......................................................................................... 124

Shaw, Angela (University of Hull, United Kingdom) .......................................................................................... 125

Shawareb, Aseel (Petra University, Jordan) ......................................................................................................... 126

Shibana, Aishath (Seenu Teacher Resource Centre, Republic of the Maldives) .................................................. 95

Sillitoe, James (University of Ballarat, Australia) ................................................................................................ 102

Sonlietner, Nancy (University of Tennessee-Martin, USA) ................................................................................. 138

Spreen, Carol Anne (University of Virginia, USA) .............................................................................................. 145

Strong, Michael (Universtiy of California, Santa Cruz, USA) ............................................................................. 127

Sulaman, Suad (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .............................................................................................. 44

Swaminathan, Balaji.S.K (College of Applied Sciences - Ibri, Oman) ................................................................ 128

Tuzlukova, Victoria (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 53

Tuzlukova, Victoria (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) ...................................................................................... 129

Tyler, Clifford (National University, USA) .......................................................................................................... 70

van Leeuwen, Colette (College of Applied Sciences - Rustaq, Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) ............... 10

Van Nuland, Shirley (UOIT, Canada) .................................................................................................................. 130

Vanalli, Niranjana (Salalah College of Applied Science, (Ministry of Higher Education), Oman) ..................... 131

Veiga Simão, Ana Margarida (University of Lisbon, Portugal) ........................................................................... 62

Veiga Simão, Ana Margarida (University of Lisbon, Portugal) ........................................................................... 132

Vichitvejpaisal, Phongthara (Mahidol University, Thailand) ............................................................................... 133

Waghid, Yusef (Stellenbosch University, South Africa) ...................................................................................... 134

Warda, Aminath (Republic of the Maldives) ........................................................................................................ 95

Wardak, Susan (Ministry of Education, Afghanistan) .......................................................................................... 135

Weera, Seddiq (Ministry of Education, Afghanistan) ........................................................................................... 135

Wooldridge, Deborah (Bowling Green State University, USA) ........................................................................... 136



Yaseen, Wathiq Abdul Kareem (Mustansiriyah University, Iraq) ........................................................................ 139

Yonemura, Akemi (UNESCO, France) ................................................................................................................ 144



Yousif, Yousif (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman) .............................................................................................. 21

Yusuf, Harun-Al-Rashid (College of Applied Sciences - Rustaq, Ministry of Higher Ed., Oman) ..................... 10

Zukowsky-Tavares, Cristina (Centro Universitário Adventista de São Paulo- UNASP, Brazil) ......................... 89



Index of Titles

Reference #

A case of study on parental awareness of children's spiritual development among level one

students in Kelantan Islamic Foundation Secondary School ......................................................................... 54

A proposal for a program for Baccalaureate of Art Education to face future needs and challenges ...................... 42

Accreditation, quest for quality, and implications for faculty development: The case of

the Language Center of Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, Morocco .......................................................... 81

Advising and field placement: Using technology and data .................................................................................... 136

An evaluation of the educational component of the Arabic teachers' preparation program

in the College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University ................................................................................ 29

An introduction to simulation in Nursing Education .............................................................................................. 67

Assessing reflection in EFL student teachers' e-portfolios ..................................................................................... 61

Assuring quality teaching when addressing students in a diversified classroom .................................................... 71

Between annihilation and reinvention: Making the right choice in teacher education in Oman ............................. 28

Building communities of learning .......................................................................................................................... 140

Bullying behavior in adolescents' public secondary schools .................................................................................. 87

Can Quality Audits be used to build learning organizations? An academician's perspective

to sytems thinking .......................................................................................................................................... 128

Challenges and strategies of implementing service learning teacher education: The case of Oman ..................... 35

Challenges, collaboration and change: Teacher education and international influence

in post-conflict Afghanistan .......................................................................................................................... 135

Change and quality assurance in Teacher Education (TE): A Moroccan perspective ............................................ 141

Cheating on exams: Reflecting about teachers' education and ethics .................................................................... 108

Classroom management: Its vital role in student-centred teaching and learning outcomes ................................... 10

Collaborative knowledge building in an Omani preservice course ........................................................................ 110

Contemporary issues in teaching students with learning disabilities through the use of Arts (Ceramic):

The era of school ........................................................................................................................................... 7

Contemporary Physical Education and sports concepts in Islamic civilization ...................................................... 92

Critical inquiry in language teacher education towards learner autonomy ............................................................. 94

Cross-cultural validation of the Web-based Learning Environment Instrument (WEBLEI) .................................. 79

Design a virtual physics laboratory based upon experimental simulated as interactive environment .................... 139

Design education for the information society ......................................................................................................... 60

Designing effective programs for late-entrant low-literacy students ...................................................................... 78

Developing educational leadership skills of schools' administrators at Sultanate of Oman ................................... 9

Developmental aspects for Omani adolescents (12-18 years): Piloting instruments and initial findings ................. 21


Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand ............................................................ 133

Difficulties in teaching and learning grammar in an EFL context .......................................................................... 36

Do we know an effective teacher when we see one? Designing a measure of teacher effectiveness

that predicts student outcomes ....................................................................................................................... 127

Drama as a good medium in developing the understanding of teachers to the progressive

education in Palestine .................................................................................................................................... 43

Educational institutions as learning organizations: Going beyond active connections .......................................... 106

Educational reform: The need for effective school leaders ................................................................................... 72

Educational reforms for sustainable development in third world nations: A case for special

and vocational education programs in the public schools .............................................................................. 100

Educators as 21st Century learners: The community partnership imperative ........................................................ 137

Effect of different teaching styles on the performance of female undergraduate students

in the 100-meter hurdles (In Arabic) ............................................................................................................. 96

Effectiveness of three techniques for assessing the performance of student-teachers

during teaching practice ................................................................................................................................. 4

Emirati teachers and the language of teaching in the UAE .................................................................................... 63

Empowering students: A key to successful teaching ............................................................................................. 85



Enhancing the teaching of Arabic reading through the use of effective reading strategies:

Implications for teaching and research .......................................................................................................... 66

Entrepreneurship attitudes of secondary school graduates in the Sultanate of Oman:

Implications for teacher education ................................................................................................................. 27

Ethical standards for the use of computers and the Internet by faculty members in the Arab World ..................... 46

Factors affecting technology integration in teaching as perceived by faculty members ......................................... 2

Fostering motivation of student teachers through self-assessment ......................................................................... 5

Future perspective of Management Education: Strategic issues and imperatives .................................................. 47

Generating interest and motivation for continuing professional development ....................................................... 53

Global teacher recruitment and retention: Teacher qualifications comparability study and the implementation of the

Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol ............................................................................................. 143

Grammar instruction and foreign language learning .............................................................................................. 107

How could physical educators contribute to the Omani society? (In Arabic) ....................................................... 76

Impact of a training program on improving students' vocational decision making skills in Oman ........................ 17

Implications of leadership on the school curricular dynamics as perceived by the administrative

staff and the faculty ....................................................................................................................................... 57

Inclusion of American National Science Education Standards (NSES) in Physics content of

Omani Science textbooks .............................................................................................................................. 41

Integrating educational technologies into instruction in Chemistry: Technological Pedagogy

Content Knowledge development and implications for teacher education .................................................... 68

International borrowing and lending of educational ideas and practices: The case of lesson study ....................... 103

International teacher recruitment and mobility: Teachers and the Global Knowledge Economy ........................... 145

Internationalization of teacher education through an innovative faculty development and

curriculum transformation program ............................................................................................................... 80

Introducing e-learning in teacher education: The case of Zambia .......................................................................... 97

Investigating oral presentation skills and non-verbal communication in UAE classrooms .................................... 114

It is time to internationalize teacher education ....................................................................................................... 77

Knowledge economy skills needed for Physical Education students' daily life at Jordan Universities .................. 30

Knowledge work supervision and Omani teacher performance: A way to school as a

learning organization ..................................................................................................................................... 73

LD teachers' burnout in relation to efficacy beliefs ................................................................................................ 22

Learner autonomy in the curriculum ...................................................................................................................... 20

Management of teacher education in Nigeria: Issues, problems and prospects ..................................................... 8

Managing teacher shortage in secondary schools in Southwestern Nigeria ........................................................... 109

Maximizing the effectiveness of microteaching at SQU ........................................................................................ 11

Migration and education: Quality assurance and mutual recognition of qualifications ......................................... 144

Moodle-based virtual courses in Oman: Current running and future outlooks ...................................................... 129

National educational policies in Brazil: The 2009 federal program

to foster public school teachers‘ qualification ............................................................................................... 99

New developments in the Scottish Standards continuum ....................................................................................... 91

Nigerian curriculum and capacity building: The counsellors role .......................................................................... 104

Omani Physical Education teachers' beliefs about teaching styles and difficulties in classroom practice ............... 40

Online reading strategies of Omani EFL university students ................................................................................. 14

Peer Coaching as reform model of professional development for school teachers ................................................. 39

Perceptions of primary school teachers about their professional competencies, expectations and needs ................. 116

Personality traits for university students across Arabic cultures ............................................................................ 86

Pre-service teachers' beliefs about teaching: Predicting factors that influence teachers‘ performance .................. 33

Professional standards in the Contemporary Art Education ................................................................................... 13

Professional standards of Communication Teachers in knowledge society ........................................................... 131

Promoting culturally responsive practices through international student teaching experiences ............................. 111

Proposal for upgrading the quality of outputs of Art Education Department, SQU, through

application of a model of field co-living ........................................................................................................ 51

Prospective effective teachers' characteristics, skills and competencies ................................................................ 82

Psychometric properties of GATES for identification of superior and talented students in Oman ........................ 44

Qualities and characteristics of the best teachers .................................................................................................... 119



Qualities of the good language teacher as perceived by prospective teachers of English

in the Arab World .......................................................................................................................................... 6

Quality assurance and accreditation in Jordanian higher education institutions ..................................................... 3

Quality assurance driving teaching and learning at Petra University ..................................................................... 126

Quality Issues in higher education: A case of Oman .............................................................................................. 122

Recontextualizing standards to sustain international research in the knowledge society ....................................... 102

Reflecting on teacher quality: Findings from a European project .......................................................................... 69

Reflection through peer collaboration: A study from Omani ELT classrooms ..................................................... 31

Reflections on Social Studies in the Basic Education Reform in Oman ................................................................. 38

Researching teaching and learning experiences in higher education: Issues of collaboration

and reflection ................................................................................................................................................. 132

Schools of the future: Grappling with change ........................................................................................................ 58

Selected determinants of career maturity of undergraduates in private universities in Malaysia ........................... 121

Service learning and the 21st Century educator ..................................................................................................... 138

Shifting students towards greater autonomy in scientific investigation: Developing a model

of teacher support .......................................................................................................................................... 113

Social anxiety disorder among Sultan Qaboos University Students and its relationship to

some demographic variables .......................................................................................................................... 34

Standardization of the Snigders-Oomen Non-verbal Intelligence (SON-R 5.5-17) for

deaf children in the Sultanate of Oman .......................................................................................................... 65

Strategies and roadmap for effective higher education reform in Jordan ............................................................... 75

Student-centered pre-service teacher training in Oman .......................................................................................... 18

Study of the relationship between the usage of Information Technology and students'

satisfaction in the colleges and faculties of Urmia University of Iran ........................................................... 52

Sultan Qaboos University students' knowledge of plastic art culture ..................................................................... 74

Supervision of instruction in the Republic of the Maldives: Striving towards more

learner-centred teaching ................................................................................................................................. 95

Sustainable capacity building in a CCM-oriented EFL methods course at SQU .................................................... 15

Systemic approach effect on achievement of Tafila schools students in Science ................................................... 16

Teacher education, hope and responsibility: The case of Stellenbosch University ................................................ 134

Teachers' and educational supervisors' perceptions of characteristics for the 21st century leadership ................... 115

Teachers' classroom assessment skills as a function of gender, teaching area, teaching level,

teaching experience, and inservice assessment training ................................................................................ 32

Teachers' conception of educational research in Sultanate of Oman ...................................................................... 24

Teachers' experience in enhancing students' civic participation in the Sultanate of Oman .................................... 12

Teachers who made a difference: A study with higher education students ........................................................... 62

Teachers, students and eLearning: From stereotypes to autonomy ........................................................................ 120

Teaching employability skills through English for Business Purposes: Pathways towards

a knowledge society in Oman ........................................................................................................................ 117

Teaching professionalism in undergraduate courses in tourism in Brazil .............................................................. 88

Technological advantage and teaching needs: Learner centered education ............................................................ 90


The challenges of training teachers of Islamic Religious Education in Belgium ................................................... 118

The advisability of using English-Arabic code switching as a teaching strategy in

EFL university classroom: A case study ........................................................................................................ 48

The bachelor of education (TASL) programme at the Institute of Education, International Islamic University

Malaysia (IIUM): The PKPG (in-service teacher) students' perceptions ...................................................... 55

The challenge of Science and Mathematics Education in Tanzania ....................................................................... 105

The charter in the classroom: A study in the design of a learning tool ................................................................... 130

The cooperative curriculum in Engineering: Curricular innovation and professors development ......................... 89

The effect of a teaching program using reciprocal teaching and the co-performance

feedback on the down start, cube control and 100m sprint performance ....................................................... 25

The effect of using three types of groupwork on students' achievement in English ............................................... 84

The effects of transformation leadership on student achievement .......................................................................... 123

The future leadership roles for school principals in Oman: Practice study ........................................................... 23



The impact of globalization on translation with special reference to English- to- Arabic

and Arabic- to- English translation ................................................................................................................ 49

The impact of the correlation between art and science at the trends of contemporary design graphic ................... 112

The impact of token reinforcers on the learning of speech in the severely mentally retarded pupils ..................... 56

The perception of principals and teachers at the public secondary schools at Irbid Governorate

to apply Senge‘s Disciplines in the learning organization ............................................................................ 50

The place of ICT in initial teacher education in Oman ........................................................................................... 37

The place of information and communications technology in second language teacher education ........................ 101

The role of Art Education in developing of the technological approach of student teachers:

Study through the art of sculpture .................................................................................................................. 1

The Total Quality Management (T.Q.M) and its applications in higher education institutions ............................. 26

The use of transformational decision making in secondary schools as perceived by school

principals in Jordan ........................................................................................................................................ 59

Towards a new professional doctorate in education: A position paper .................................................................. 98

Trainee-led as opposed to trainer-fed teacher education ......................................................................................... 93

Using an electronic portfolio to improve field work in educational administration ............................................... 70

Using DASTT-C tool for identifying the mental images about teaching among student teachers

of science at SQU .......................................................................................................................................... 45

Using teacher work samples to demonstrate empirical connections between teaching and learning ..................... 64

Validation of the Teaching Anxiety Scale (TCHAS (1) – 29) for the Omani context ............................................ 19

What are the implications for teacher education of encouraging participation by young people

in their learning? ............................................................................................................................................ 124

Why would anyone want to do Educational Studies? ............................................................................................. 125

Workplace conditions of first and second year K-12 teachers in a new teacher induction program: Differences in

number of challenges, type of school, and academic performance ................................................................ 83



Index by Topic Reference #

Topic #1: Teacher education and societal partnership

A case of study on parental awareness of children's spiritual development

among level one students in Kelantan Islamic Foundation Secondary School ................................................ 54

Challenges, collaboration and change: Teacher education and international influence

in post-conflict Afghanistan ............................................................................................................................ 135

Educators as 21st Century learners: The community partnership imperative .......................................................... 137

Effectiveness of three techniques for assessing the performance of student-teachers

during teaching practice ................................................................................................................................... 4

Fostering motivation of student teachers through self-assessment ........................................................................... 5

International borrowing and lending of educational ideas and practices: The case of lesson study ......................... 103

LD teachers' burnout in relation to efficacy beliefs .................................................................................................. 22

Management of teacher education in Nigeria: Issues, problems and prospects ....................................................... 8

Maximizing the effectiveness of microteaching at SQU .......................................................................................... 11

Omani Physical Education teachers' beliefs about teaching styles and difficulties in classroom practice ............... 40

Pre-service teachers' beliefs about teaching: Predicting factors that influence teachers‘ performance .................... 33

Promoting culturally responsive practices through international student teaching experiences ............................... 111

Qualities of the good language teacher as perceived by prospective teachers of English

in the Arab World ............................................................................................................................................ 6

Service learning and the 21st Century educator ....................................................................................................... 138

Teacher education, hope and responsibility: The case of Stellenbosch University .................................................. 134

Teachers' conception of educational research in Sultanate of Oman ........................................................................ 24

Teachers who made a difference: A study with higher education students ............................................................. 62

The advisability of using English-Arabic code switching as a teaching strategy

in EFL university classroom: A case study...................................................................................................... 48

The bachelor of education (TASL) programme at the Institute of Education, International Islamic University

Malaysia (IIUM): The PKPG (in-service teacher) students' perceptions ........................................................ 55

The challenge of Science and Mathematics Education in Tanzania ......................................................................... 105

The perception of principals and teachers at the public secondary schools at Irbid Governorate

to apply Senge‘s Disciplines in the learning organization ............................................................................... 50

Topic #2: Standards for professionalism in the knowledge society

Accreditation, quest for quality, and implications for faculty development:

The case of the Language Center of Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, Morocco ......................................... 81

An evaluation of the educational component of the Arabic teachers' preparation program

in the College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University .................................................................................. 29

Challenges and strategies of implementing service learning teacher education: The case of Oman ....................... 35

Do we know an effective teacher when we see one? Designing a measure of teacher effectiveness

that predicts student outcomes ......................................................................................................................... 127

Ethical standards for the use of computers and the Internet by faculty members in the Arab World ...................... 46

Generating interest and motivation for continuing professional development ......................................................... 53

Internationalization of teacher education through an innovative faculty development

and curriculum transformation program .......................................................................................................... 80

Managing teacher shortage in secondary schools in Southwestern Nigeria ............................................................. 109

New developments in the Scottish Standards continuum ......................................................................................... 91

Professional standards in the Contemporary Art Education ..................................................................................... 13

Professional standards of Communication Teachers in knowledge society ............................................................. 131

Qualities and characteristics of the best teachers ...................................................................................................... 119

Quality assurance and accreditation in Jordanian higher education institutions ....................................................... 3

Recontextualizing standards to sustain international research in the knowledge society ......................................... 102

Reflecting on teacher quality: Findings from a European project ............................................................................ 69



Selected determinants of career maturity of undergraduates in private universities in Malaysia ............................. 121

Teaching employability skills through English for Business Purposes: Pathways towards

a knowledge society in Oman .......................................................................................................................... 117

Teaching professionalism in undergraduate courses in tourism in Brazil ................................................................ 88

The cooperative curriculum in Engineering: Curricular innovation and professors development........................... 89

Topic #3: Educational reform: Needs and future challenges

A proposal for a program for Baccalaureate of Art Education to face future needs and challenges ........................ 42

An introduction to simulation in Nursing Education ................................................................................................ 67

Assuring quality teaching when addressing students in a diversified classroom ...................................................... 71

Between annihilation and reinvention: Making the right choice in teacher education in Oman............................... 28

Bullying behavior in adolescents' public secondary schools .................................................................................... 87

Cheating on exams: Reflecting about teachers' education and ethics ...................................................................... 108

Contemporary Physical Education and sports concepts in Islamic civilization ........................................................ 92

Design education for the information society ........................................................................................................... 60

Designing effective programs for late-entrant low-literacy students ........................................................................ 78

Educational reforms for sustainable development in third world nations: A case for special and

vocational education programs in the public schools ...................................................................................... 100

Effect of different teaching styles on the performance of female undergraduate students in

the 100-meter hurdles (In Arabic) ................................................................................................................... 96

Emirati teachers and the language of teaching in the UAE ...................................................................................... 63

Enhancing the teaching of Arabic reading through the use of effective reading strategies:

Implications for teaching and research ............................................................................................................ 66

Entrepreneurship attitudes of secondary school graduates in the Sultanate of Oman:

Implications for teacher education ................................................................................................................... 27

How could physical educators contribute to the Omani society? (In Arabic) ......................................................... 76

Inclusion of American National Science Education Standards (NSES) in Physics content

of Omani Science textbooks ..................................................................................................................................... 41

Investigating oral presentation skills and non-verbal communication in UAE classrooms ...................................... 114

It is time to internationalize teacher education ......................................................................................................... 77

National educational policies in Brazil: The 2009 federal program to foster

public school teachers‘ qualification ............................................................................................................... 99

Nigerian curriculum and capacity building: The counsellors role ............................................................................ 104

Peer Coaching as reform model of professional development for school teachers ................................................... 39

Proposal for upgrading the quality of outputs of Art Education Department, SQU,

through application of a model of field co-living ............................................................................................ 51

Quality Issues in higher education: A case of Oman ................................................................................................ 122

Reflection through peer collaboration: A study from Omani ELT classrooms ....................................................... 31

Reflections on Social Studies in the Basic Education Reform in Oman ................................................................... 38

Schools of the future: Grappling with change .......................................................................................................... 58

Strategies and roadmap for effective higher education reform in Jordan ................................................................. 75

Teachers' classroom assessment skills as a function of gender, teaching area, teaching level,

teaching experience, and inservice assessment training .................................................................................. 32

Teachers' experience in enhancing students' civic participation in the Sultanate of Oman ...................................... 12

The impact of globalization on translation with special reference to English- to- Arabic

and Arabic- to- English translation .................................................................................................................. 49

The impact of token reinforcers on the learning of speech in the severely mentally retarded pupils ....................... 56

The role of Art Education in developing of the technological approach of student teachers:

Study through the art of sculpture .................................................................................................................... 1

The use of transformational decision making in secondary schools as perceived by school

principals in Jordan .......................................................................................................................................... 59

Towards a new professional doctorate in education: A position paper.................................................................... 98

Using teacher work samples to demonstrate empirical connections between teaching and learning ....................... 64



What are the implications for teacher education of encouraging participation by young people

in their learning? .............................................................................................................................................. 124

Why would anyone want to do Educational Studies? ............................................................................................... 125

Workplace conditions of first and second year K-12 teachers in a new teacher induction program:

Differences in number of challenges, type of school, and academic performance .......................................... 83

Topic #4: Emerging technologies in teacher training

Assessing reflection in EFL student teachers' e-portfolios ....................................................................................... 61

Factors affecting technology integration in teaching as perceived by faculty members ........................................... 2

Integrating educational technologies into instruction in Chemistry: Technological Pedagogy Content Knowledge

development and implications for teacher education ....................................................................................... 68

Introducing e-learning in teacher education: The case of Zambia ............................................................................ 97

Moodle-based virtual courses in Oman: Current running and future outlooks ........................................................ 129

Online reading strategies of Omani EFL university students ................................................................................... 14

Study of the relationship between the usage of Information Technology and students' satisfaction

in the colleges and faculties of Urmia University of Iran ................................................................................ 52

Teachers, students and eLearning: From stereotypes to autonomy .......................................................................... 120

The charter in the classroom: A study in the design of a learning tool ..................................................................... 130

The effect of a teaching program using reciprocal teaching and the co-performance feedback on

the down start, cube control and 100m sprint performance ............................................................................. 25

The place of ICT in initial teacher education in Oman ............................................................................................. 37

The place of information and communications technology in second language teacher education.......................... 101

Using an electronic portfolio to improve field work in educational administration ................................................. 70

Topic #5: Teaching education for student-centered environments

Advising and field placement: Using technology and data ...................................................................................... 136

Classroom management: Its vital role in student-centred teaching and learning outcomes ..................................... 10

Collaborative knowledge building in an Omani preservice course .......................................................................... 110

Contemporary issues in teaching students with learning disabilities through the use of Arts (Ceramic):

The era of school ............................................................................................................................................. 7

Critical inquiry in language teacher education towards learner autonomy ............................................................... 94

Cross-cultural validation of the Web-based Learning Environment Instrument (WEBLEI) .................................... 79

Design a virtual physics laboratory based upon experimental simulated as interactive environment ...................... 139

Developmental aspects for Omani adolescents (12-18 years): Piloting instruments and initial findings ................. 21


Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand .............................................................. 133

Difficulties in teaching and learning grammar in an EFL context ............................................................................ 36

Drama as a good medium in developing the understanding of teachers to the progressive education

in Palestine ....................................................................................................................................................... 43

Empowering students: A key to successful teaching ............................................................................................... 85

Future perspective of Management Education: Strategic issues and imperatives .................................................... 47

Grammar instruction and foreign language learning ................................................................................................ 107

Impact of a training program on improving students' vocational decision making skills in Oman .......................... 17

Knowledge economy skills needed for Physical Education students' daily life at Jordan Universities .................... 30

Learner autonomy in the curriculum ........................................................................................................................ 20

Perceptions of primary school teachers about their professional competencies, expectations and needs ................. 116

Personality traits for university students across Arabic cultures .............................................................................. 86

Prospective effective teachers' characteristics, skills and competencies .................................................................. 82

Psychometric properties of GATES for identification of superior and talented students in Oman .......................... 44

Researching teaching and learning experiences in higher education: Issues of collaboration

and reflection ................................................................................................................................................... 132



Shifting students towards greater autonomy in scientific investigation: Developing a

model of teacher support ................................................................................................................................ 113

Social anxiety disorder among Sultan Qaboos University Students and its relationship to

some demographic variables ............................................................................................................................ 34

Standardization of the Snigders-Oomen Non-verbal Intelligence (SON-R 5.5-17) for

deaf children in the Sultanate of Oman............................................................................................................ 65

Student-centered pre-service teacher training in Oman ............................................................................................ 18

Sultan Qaboos University students' knowledge of plastic art culture ....................................................................... 74

Supervision of instruction in the Republic of the Maldives: Striving towards more

learner-centred teaching ................................................................................................................................... 95

Sustainable capacity building in a CCM-oriented EFL methods course at SQU ...................................................... 15

Systemic approach effect on achievement of Tafila schools students in Science ..................................................... 16

Technological advantage and teaching needs: Learner centered education .............................................................. 90


The challenges of training teachers of Islamic Religious Education in Belgium ..................................................... 118

The effect of using three types of groupwork on students' achievement in English ................................................. 84

The effects of transformation leadership on student achievement ............................................................................ 123

The impact of the correlation between art and science at the trends of contemporary design graphic ..................... 112

Trainee-led as opposed to trainer-fed teacher education .......................................................................................... 93

Using DASTT-C tool for identifying the mental images about teaching among student teachers

of science at SQU ............................................................................................................................................ 45

Validation of the Teaching Anxiety Scale (TCHAS (1) – 29) for the Omani context .............................................. 19

Topic #6: Developing leadership for Learning Organizations

Can Quality Audits be used to build learning organizations? An academician's perspective to sytems thinking ... 128

Developing educational leadership skills of schools' administrators at Sultanate of Oman ..................................... 9

Educational institutions as learning organizations: Going beyond active connections ............................................ 106

Educational reform: The need for effective school leaders ..................................................................................... 72

Implications of leadership on the school curricular dynamics as perceived by the administrative

staff and the faculty ......................................................................................................................................... 57

Knowledge work supervision and Omani teacher performance: A way to school as a

learning organization ....................................................................................................................................... 73

Quality assurance driving teaching and learning at Petra University ....................................................................... 126

Teachers' and educational supervisors' perceptions of characteristics for the 21st century leadership ..................... 115

The future leadership roles for school principals in Oman: Practice study ............................................................. 23

The Total Quality Management (T.Q.M) and its applications in higher education institutions ............................... 26

Building communities of learning ............................................................................................................................ 140

Change and quality assurance in Teacher Education (TE): A Moroccan perspective .............................................. 141

Global teacher recruitment and retention: Teacher qualifications comparability study and the implementation

of the Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol ..................................................................................... 143

International teacher recruitment and mobility: Teachers and the Global Knowledge Economy ............................. 145

Migration and education: Quality assurance and mutual recognition of qualifications ........................................... 144

Using DASTT-C tool for identifying the mental images about teaching among student teachers of...

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