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Art History 1A

Brigitte Pawliw-Fry

Professor Pentcheva

Ravi Binning

Unified Christian Temporalities

in the Codex Aureus at St. Emmeram 1

I. INTRODUCTION

The Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, dated precisely to 870 CE, is the most opulent of

codices produced for the Carolingian Court.2 It was written by Beringar and Liuthard either in

the palace school of Charles the Bald, the grandson of Charlemagne, or the abbey of St. Denis3 to

commemorate Charles the Bald’s brief command over Aachen.4 After his death, the codex came

into the possession of King Arnulf of Bavaria in 893 who later presented the book to the

monastery of St. Emmeram in Regensburg.5 The Codex Aureus became a model for a

sacramentary for the Ottonian king, King Henry II. 6

II. FORMAL ANALYSIS

Christ in Majesty is depicted on plate 12 of Volume 1 of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram.

Richly colourful and ornately detailed, the miniature depicts Christ in mandorla, accompanied by

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1 I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Beatrice Kitzinger for guiding me in my research process, Ravi Binning for meeting with me extensively to discuss my paper, and Professor Pentcheva for providing essential direction in my paper. 2 Calkins, Robert G. "The Imperial Gospel Book." Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1983. 121-142. Print. P. 121 3Ibid. p. 121 4 Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. P. 91 5 Ulrich Kuder. "Codex Aureus of St Emmeram." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed March 4, 2015, http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T018408. 6Ibid. p. 91

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the four prophets of the Old Testament, and the four evangelists of the New Testament with their

tetramorphs.

A. EVANGELISTS

The four evangelists, the witnesses and affirmers of the life of Christ – Matthew, Mark,

Luke, and John – occupy the four corners of the Carolingian miniature. None emerges more

prominent than another; they each are depicted in uniformity. The evangelists are seated upon

wooden architectural pediments writing their gospels into a codex.

All are swathed in white tunics with orange stolas. Their heads are encircled by a golden

halo, alluding to high divinity. Beheld by candlelight, these figures would shimmer and appear to

come alive to the viewer, inspiring divine nearness and presence. 7 Each evangelist fixes his gaze

on his respective symbolic representation, separated by the pink cosmic dust of clouds.

In the upper left corner appears Matthew (first gospel) who stares at his spiritual

representation, the winged man, or angel – the symbol of Jesus’ incarnation. 8 In the upper right

corner sits John (fourth gospel) who turns his head to face an eagle perched upon a marble

column. The bird represents Jesus’ ascension into the Heavens. 9 In the lower left corner appears

Mark (second gospel) who fixes his eyes upon a winged lion –the representation of Jesus’

resurrection. 10 The lower right corner features Luke (third gospel) gazing at a calf. 11 The animal

represents Jesus’ sacrifice in his passion and crucifixion.

B. PROPHETS

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""7 Pentcheva, Bissera V. The Performative Icon. The Art Bulletin. Vol. 88, No. 4 (Dec., 2006) , pp. 631-655. Published by: College Art Association 8 Dutton, Paul Edward, and Herbert L. Kessler. "A Reedition and First Translation." The Poetry and Paintings of the First Bible of Charles the Bald. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan, 1997. 109-115. Print. P. 109 9 Ibid. p. 109 10 Ibid. p. 109 11 Ibid. p. 109

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The four prophets of the Old Testament – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel – feature

within the Christ in Majesty. The prophets situate themselves around Christ’s mandorla in a

compass-like figuration. Isaiah occupies the North, Daniel the South, Ezekiel the West, and

Jeremiah the East. A golden sphere encircles each of them. These spheres are connected by two

parallel golden lines, which enclose red geometric pattern. The unusual frame allows for close

contact between prophet and Christ. 12

Ezekiel, Jeremiah, and Daniel fix their eyes upon Christ, holding their prophecies written

upon scrolls. However, Isaiah subverts their position. He looks towards the viewer. His frontality

echoes the position of Christ. These two figures are the only ones depicted as peering outwards

into the space of the viewer, while the other anthropomorphic figurations observe either Christ or

their symbolic incarnate. Christ and Isaiah’s stola fall similarly on their chests and they both hold

their arms upwards with divine symbols. A spiritual and emphatic link is made between Christ

and Isaiah.

C. CHRIST

Christ, enthroned in majesty, becomes the figure of emphasis within the Carolingian

miniature due to spatial configuration and scale. His mandorla creates a trompe l’oeil: the

lozenge projects him out of the miniature. He emerges within the physical space of the viewer, as

a divine presence judging their faith and their deeds. He is also the most immense figure of the

piece – emphasized by the diminutive presence of his neighboring prophets. He expands

outwards in his position, with knees bent and legs outstretched, and his eyes peering into the

space of the viewer.

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""12 Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. P. 95

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In his left hand, he holds the disc of the Eucharist, suggesting that his material body and the

Eucharist are connected. In his right hand, he holds a codex, showing the unity of the Old and

New Testament. He sits upon the globe of the world, depicted as he will be at the end of time,

before the Last Judgment comes. A golden orb with a crimson and gold cross, which encircles

the head of Christ, reveals high divinity.

D. REALMS OF TEMPORALITY

The inclusion of prophets, evangelists, Christ, and tetramorphs create four Christian

temporalities. The oldest temporality – the Old Testament – is brought forth by the

representation of the four prophets, situated in golden orbs. Behind their heads and torsos lie

green and blue spheres – alluding to a natural, and organic world. The second temporality is the

New Testament – the birth and life of Christ, affirmed by the gospels of the four evangelists. The

prophecies of the prophets are fulfilled within these gospels. They, too, are situated on the green

richness of Earth. The third realm – the divine, symbolic one – is fulfilled by the presence of the

tetramorphs, the representative figures of the evangelists. The pink clouds of the cosmos divide

the evangelists from their symbols, creating the allusion of a heavenly realm. The last realm of

temporality is the future – in which Christ is the King of Kings. The revelations of Christ have

become fulfilled – he sits atop the orb of Earth, its divine ruler, before the Last Judgment.

III. PART II

As this image features four intertwining temporalities, it becomes apparent that the

miniature is not a purely literal representation of the life of Christ. The miniature is an exegetic,

symbolic, and eschatological representation of the Bible as a whole. Art historians Herbert

Kessler and William L. Diebold provide essential understanding of the symbolic image in

Carolingian art.

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Kessler, in his book, Spiritual Seeing: Picturing Gods Invisibility in the Middle Ages,

describes works of Carolingian art as “spiritual seeing.” In the Carolingian era, Kessler argues, it

was not a question of whether images were to be allowed, but of how they were to function. Did

images partake in the spiritual? 13 Could they be interpretative or merely historical? Some

affirmed that art is superficial and less meaningful than text. 14 Others believed in the power of

art to foster interpretation and representation of divine subjects,15 bringing the viewer towards

divine presence.16

On the other hand, Diebold’s book, Word and Image, explores meaning in Medieval Art.

He argues that images reveal meaning that text cannot due to its visual medium.17 An image can

convey a Christian interpretation of the Bible: that the Old Testament “prefigures” the New.18

Rather than a linear conception of time, medieval Christians saw past, present and future

occurring in reference to Christ’s place in the Scriptures.19 When a worshipper observes the

Eucharist, they are transported back to the time of Christ.20 The distance between temporalities

diminishes, and the past enters the realm of the now. 21

Diebold and Kessler argue that an image can function more than a text and convey

symbolic, typological, and eschatological meaning. Yet how is the Carolingian experience of

time represented in Christ in Majesty?

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""13 Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print. P. 149 14Ibid. p. 150 Quote of Agobard of Lyons, 850 15Ibid. p. 151 16 Ibid. p. 153 17 Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. Ibid. p. 74 18 Ibid. p. 75 19 Ibid. p. 76 20 Ibid. p. 76 21 Ibid. p. 76

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PROPHECIES

The visuals of Christ in Majesty reveal the interaction and unity between distant

temporalities of Christianity, in ways texts cannot. The experience of time in the miniature then

becomes circular and in reference to Christ’s place in the Scriptures. Saint Jerome writes about

the predestination of the Bible in his preface, which emerges as a symbolic theme in the

miniature:

Christ, himself, hidden in mystery, was predestined before time, predestined and prefigured in the law and the prophets. That is why the prophets were called “seers” (videntes), because they saw Him who the others did not see.” 22

The image conveys that Christ was predestined before time by rendering physical nearness of

prophecy and gospel writers to Christ. They become immediate and present to one another.23 The

life of Christ prophesized in the Old Testament become realized in the gospels of the evangelists.

As illustration, Isaiah prophesizes the birth of Jesus in the Old Testament:

Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel (7:14:). 24

Christ’s birth is fulfilled in the gospels of Luke:

To a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; and the virgin's name was Mary. And the angel came in unto her, and said, Hail, thou that art highly favoured, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women. And, behold, thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shalt call his name Jesus. 25 1:27-31

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""22 Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print. P. 164 23"Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. P. 76 "24"Holy Bible. New International Version. Colorado Springs: Biblica, 2011. Print. (7:14:) "25"Ibid. 1:27-31"

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The arrival of Christ is therefore an interchange between distant moments in space and

time and two realms of Old and New. This transposition is revealed by the closeness of prophet

and evangelist to Christ. They are depicted within the same physical space – though separated by

temporal realms. Second, the prophecies of the revelations are realized in the depiction of Christ

as the King of Kings – creating an interplay from past and future temporalities of Christianity. In

Isaiah’s prophecies:

For a child will be born to us, a son will be given to us; And the government will rest on His shoulders; And His name will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace. (Isaiah 9:6): 26

In the revelations, Christ’s divine position is also prophesied:

And on His robe and on His thigh He has a name written, "King of Kings, Lord of Lords" (Revelation 19:16). 27

Their prophecies become fulfilled in Christ’s figuration. He sits atop a spherical Earth, its eternal

ruler. Presented as a prophecy realized, Christ enacts agency in the realm of the present. 28 The

titulus further conveys biblical unity and fulfillment:

The Heavenly king gleams worthily, and the prophets [also shine] Here, and the four evangelical heralds. 29

Therefore, prophecies and revelations are fulfilled in this miniature, which reveal the union

between temporalities of Christianity, and the synthesis of God’s plan.30 The temporalities play

and perform against the other – no time is separate. However, one time becomes more important

than another in the image to Christianity: the New Testament.

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""26"Ibid. (9:6) 27"Ibid. (Revelation 19:16)"28"Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print. P. 163"29 Ibid. P. 163 30 Ibid P. 155

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Christ in Majesty conveys that the New Testament is superior to the Old. The use and

depiction of a codex makes an argument about the superiority and modernity of Christianity

compared to Judaism and other pagan religions. While the prophets hold scrolls, an outdated

technology, all of the New Testament figures (the evangelists, their symbols, and Christ) hold

codices, the modern book.31 Therefore, the image reinforces the modernity of Christianity to its

Carolingian viewers. Just as the page depicts a codex, the viewer is physically reminded of the

superiority of Christianity as they hold a codex of the gospels in their hands.

The belief in the superiority of the New Testament over the Old Testament becomes clear in

the poetry of the first Bible of Charles the Bald. The poet of the Bible, theorized to be Audradus,

writes: 32

113 “This New Testament, which is added to the earlier one, is rightly esteemed, [For] the earlier of the [Testaments] is a shadow, the later one its reason. Thus the journey is double, [but] the achievement of both is in one. While the poet recognizes the unity of the Bibles in one physical and visual union, the

New Testament is the reason for the “shadow of the Old Testament.” Through visual and

physical argument, the time and writings of the New Testament become superior to the

Carolingian viewer, reaffirming the supremacy of Christianity.

In Carolingian art, the past, present, and future of Christianity are harmonized. Time is

not linear, but circular and interactive. While temporalities are unified within Christ in Majesty,

the representation of the New Testament makes an argument about the superiority and modernity

of the Christian doctrine. For a Carolingian viewer, this argument affirms their religion and their

experience of time.

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""31 Ibid. p. 82 32 Dutton, Paul Edward, and Herbert L. Kessler. "A Reedition and First Translation." The Poetry and Paintings of the First Bible of Charles the Bald. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan, 1997. 109-115. Print. P. 109

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Sources:

Calkins, Robert G. "The Imperial Gospel Book." Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages.

Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1983. 121-142. Print. P. 121

Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and

Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print.

Dutton, Paul Edward, and Herbert L. Kessler. "A Reedition and First Translation." The

Poetry and Paintings of the First Bible of Charles the Bald. Ann Arbor: U of

Michigan, 1997. 109-115. Print.

Holy Bible. New International Version. Colorado Springs: Biblica, 2011. Print.

Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual

Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art.

Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print.

Pentcheva, Bissera V. The Performative Icon. The Art Bulletin. Vol. 88, No. 4 (Dec., 2006) , pp.

631-655. Published by: College Art Association

Ulrich Kuder. "Codex Aureus of St Emmeram." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online.

Oxford University Press, accessed March 4, 2015,

http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T018408.

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Plate 12 of Volume 1 of Codex Aureus, Christ in Majesty, viewed in Art and Art History Library, Stanford University