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Art History 1A
Brigitte Pawliw-Fry
Professor Pentcheva
Ravi Binning
Unified Christian Temporalities
in the Codex Aureus at St. Emmeram 1
I. INTRODUCTION
The Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, dated precisely to 870 CE, is the most opulent of
codices produced for the Carolingian Court.2 It was written by Beringar and Liuthard either in
the palace school of Charles the Bald, the grandson of Charlemagne, or the abbey of St. Denis3 to
commemorate Charles the Bald’s brief command over Aachen.4 After his death, the codex came
into the possession of King Arnulf of Bavaria in 893 who later presented the book to the
monastery of St. Emmeram in Regensburg.5 The Codex Aureus became a model for a
sacramentary for the Ottonian king, King Henry II. 6
II. FORMAL ANALYSIS
Christ in Majesty is depicted on plate 12 of Volume 1 of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram.
Richly colourful and ornately detailed, the miniature depicts Christ in mandorla, accompanied by
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1 I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Beatrice Kitzinger for guiding me in my research process, Ravi Binning for meeting with me extensively to discuss my paper, and Professor Pentcheva for providing essential direction in my paper. 2 Calkins, Robert G. "The Imperial Gospel Book." Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1983. 121-142. Print. P. 121 3Ibid. p. 121 4 Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. P. 91 5 Ulrich Kuder. "Codex Aureus of St Emmeram." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed March 4, 2015, http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T018408. 6Ibid. p. 91
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the four prophets of the Old Testament, and the four evangelists of the New Testament with their
tetramorphs.
A. EVANGELISTS
The four evangelists, the witnesses and affirmers of the life of Christ – Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John – occupy the four corners of the Carolingian miniature. None emerges more
prominent than another; they each are depicted in uniformity. The evangelists are seated upon
wooden architectural pediments writing their gospels into a codex.
All are swathed in white tunics with orange stolas. Their heads are encircled by a golden
halo, alluding to high divinity. Beheld by candlelight, these figures would shimmer and appear to
come alive to the viewer, inspiring divine nearness and presence. 7 Each evangelist fixes his gaze
on his respective symbolic representation, separated by the pink cosmic dust of clouds.
In the upper left corner appears Matthew (first gospel) who stares at his spiritual
representation, the winged man, or angel – the symbol of Jesus’ incarnation. 8 In the upper right
corner sits John (fourth gospel) who turns his head to face an eagle perched upon a marble
column. The bird represents Jesus’ ascension into the Heavens. 9 In the lower left corner appears
Mark (second gospel) who fixes his eyes upon a winged lion –the representation of Jesus’
resurrection. 10 The lower right corner features Luke (third gospel) gazing at a calf. 11 The animal
represents Jesus’ sacrifice in his passion and crucifixion.
B. PROPHETS
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""7 Pentcheva, Bissera V. The Performative Icon. The Art Bulletin. Vol. 88, No. 4 (Dec., 2006) , pp. 631-655. Published by: College Art Association 8 Dutton, Paul Edward, and Herbert L. Kessler. "A Reedition and First Translation." The Poetry and Paintings of the First Bible of Charles the Bald. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan, 1997. 109-115. Print. P. 109 9 Ibid. p. 109 10 Ibid. p. 109 11 Ibid. p. 109
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The four prophets of the Old Testament – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel – feature
within the Christ in Majesty. The prophets situate themselves around Christ’s mandorla in a
compass-like figuration. Isaiah occupies the North, Daniel the South, Ezekiel the West, and
Jeremiah the East. A golden sphere encircles each of them. These spheres are connected by two
parallel golden lines, which enclose red geometric pattern. The unusual frame allows for close
contact between prophet and Christ. 12
Ezekiel, Jeremiah, and Daniel fix their eyes upon Christ, holding their prophecies written
upon scrolls. However, Isaiah subverts their position. He looks towards the viewer. His frontality
echoes the position of Christ. These two figures are the only ones depicted as peering outwards
into the space of the viewer, while the other anthropomorphic figurations observe either Christ or
their symbolic incarnate. Christ and Isaiah’s stola fall similarly on their chests and they both hold
their arms upwards with divine symbols. A spiritual and emphatic link is made between Christ
and Isaiah.
C. CHRIST
Christ, enthroned in majesty, becomes the figure of emphasis within the Carolingian
miniature due to spatial configuration and scale. His mandorla creates a trompe l’oeil: the
lozenge projects him out of the miniature. He emerges within the physical space of the viewer, as
a divine presence judging their faith and their deeds. He is also the most immense figure of the
piece – emphasized by the diminutive presence of his neighboring prophets. He expands
outwards in his position, with knees bent and legs outstretched, and his eyes peering into the
space of the viewer.
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""12 Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. P. 95
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In his left hand, he holds the disc of the Eucharist, suggesting that his material body and the
Eucharist are connected. In his right hand, he holds a codex, showing the unity of the Old and
New Testament. He sits upon the globe of the world, depicted as he will be at the end of time,
before the Last Judgment comes. A golden orb with a crimson and gold cross, which encircles
the head of Christ, reveals high divinity.
D. REALMS OF TEMPORALITY
The inclusion of prophets, evangelists, Christ, and tetramorphs create four Christian
temporalities. The oldest temporality – the Old Testament – is brought forth by the
representation of the four prophets, situated in golden orbs. Behind their heads and torsos lie
green and blue spheres – alluding to a natural, and organic world. The second temporality is the
New Testament – the birth and life of Christ, affirmed by the gospels of the four evangelists. The
prophecies of the prophets are fulfilled within these gospels. They, too, are situated on the green
richness of Earth. The third realm – the divine, symbolic one – is fulfilled by the presence of the
tetramorphs, the representative figures of the evangelists. The pink clouds of the cosmos divide
the evangelists from their symbols, creating the allusion of a heavenly realm. The last realm of
temporality is the future – in which Christ is the King of Kings. The revelations of Christ have
become fulfilled – he sits atop the orb of Earth, its divine ruler, before the Last Judgment.
III. PART II
As this image features four intertwining temporalities, it becomes apparent that the
miniature is not a purely literal representation of the life of Christ. The miniature is an exegetic,
symbolic, and eschatological representation of the Bible as a whole. Art historians Herbert
Kessler and William L. Diebold provide essential understanding of the symbolic image in
Carolingian art.
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Kessler, in his book, Spiritual Seeing: Picturing Gods Invisibility in the Middle Ages,
describes works of Carolingian art as “spiritual seeing.” In the Carolingian era, Kessler argues, it
was not a question of whether images were to be allowed, but of how they were to function. Did
images partake in the spiritual? 13 Could they be interpretative or merely historical? Some
affirmed that art is superficial and less meaningful than text. 14 Others believed in the power of
art to foster interpretation and representation of divine subjects,15 bringing the viewer towards
divine presence.16
On the other hand, Diebold’s book, Word and Image, explores meaning in Medieval Art.
He argues that images reveal meaning that text cannot due to its visual medium.17 An image can
convey a Christian interpretation of the Bible: that the Old Testament “prefigures” the New.18
Rather than a linear conception of time, medieval Christians saw past, present and future
occurring in reference to Christ’s place in the Scriptures.19 When a worshipper observes the
Eucharist, they are transported back to the time of Christ.20 The distance between temporalities
diminishes, and the past enters the realm of the now. 21
Diebold and Kessler argue that an image can function more than a text and convey
symbolic, typological, and eschatological meaning. Yet how is the Carolingian experience of
time represented in Christ in Majesty?
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""13 Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print. P. 149 14Ibid. p. 150 Quote of Agobard of Lyons, 850 15Ibid. p. 151 16 Ibid. p. 153 17 Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. Ibid. p. 74 18 Ibid. p. 75 19 Ibid. p. 76 20 Ibid. p. 76 21 Ibid. p. 76
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PROPHECIES
The visuals of Christ in Majesty reveal the interaction and unity between distant
temporalities of Christianity, in ways texts cannot. The experience of time in the miniature then
becomes circular and in reference to Christ’s place in the Scriptures. Saint Jerome writes about
the predestination of the Bible in his preface, which emerges as a symbolic theme in the
miniature:
Christ, himself, hidden in mystery, was predestined before time, predestined and prefigured in the law and the prophets. That is why the prophets were called “seers” (videntes), because they saw Him who the others did not see.” 22
The image conveys that Christ was predestined before time by rendering physical nearness of
prophecy and gospel writers to Christ. They become immediate and present to one another.23 The
life of Christ prophesized in the Old Testament become realized in the gospels of the evangelists.
As illustration, Isaiah prophesizes the birth of Jesus in the Old Testament:
Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel (7:14:). 24
Christ’s birth is fulfilled in the gospels of Luke:
To a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; and the virgin's name was Mary. And the angel came in unto her, and said, Hail, thou that art highly favoured, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women. And, behold, thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shalt call his name Jesus. 25 1:27-31
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""22 Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print. P. 164 23"Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print. P. 76 "24"Holy Bible. New International Version. Colorado Springs: Biblica, 2011. Print. (7:14:) "25"Ibid. 1:27-31"
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The arrival of Christ is therefore an interchange between distant moments in space and
time and two realms of Old and New. This transposition is revealed by the closeness of prophet
and evangelist to Christ. They are depicted within the same physical space – though separated by
temporal realms. Second, the prophecies of the revelations are realized in the depiction of Christ
as the King of Kings – creating an interplay from past and future temporalities of Christianity. In
Isaiah’s prophecies:
For a child will be born to us, a son will be given to us; And the government will rest on His shoulders; And His name will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace. (Isaiah 9:6): 26
In the revelations, Christ’s divine position is also prophesied:
And on His robe and on His thigh He has a name written, "King of Kings, Lord of Lords" (Revelation 19:16). 27
Their prophecies become fulfilled in Christ’s figuration. He sits atop a spherical Earth, its eternal
ruler. Presented as a prophecy realized, Christ enacts agency in the realm of the present. 28 The
titulus further conveys biblical unity and fulfillment:
The Heavenly king gleams worthily, and the prophets [also shine] Here, and the four evangelical heralds. 29
Therefore, prophecies and revelations are fulfilled in this miniature, which reveal the union
between temporalities of Christianity, and the synthesis of God’s plan.30 The temporalities play
and perform against the other – no time is separate. However, one time becomes more important
than another in the image to Christianity: the New Testament.
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""26"Ibid. (9:6) 27"Ibid. (Revelation 19:16)"28"Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print. P. 163"29 Ibid. P. 163 30 Ibid P. 155
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Christ in Majesty conveys that the New Testament is superior to the Old. The use and
depiction of a codex makes an argument about the superiority and modernity of Christianity
compared to Judaism and other pagan religions. While the prophets hold scrolls, an outdated
technology, all of the New Testament figures (the evangelists, their symbols, and Christ) hold
codices, the modern book.31 Therefore, the image reinforces the modernity of Christianity to its
Carolingian viewers. Just as the page depicts a codex, the viewer is physically reminded of the
superiority of Christianity as they hold a codex of the gospels in their hands.
The belief in the superiority of the New Testament over the Old Testament becomes clear in
the poetry of the first Bible of Charles the Bald. The poet of the Bible, theorized to be Audradus,
writes: 32
113 “This New Testament, which is added to the earlier one, is rightly esteemed, [For] the earlier of the [Testaments] is a shadow, the later one its reason. Thus the journey is double, [but] the achievement of both is in one. While the poet recognizes the unity of the Bibles in one physical and visual union, the
New Testament is the reason for the “shadow of the Old Testament.” Through visual and
physical argument, the time and writings of the New Testament become superior to the
Carolingian viewer, reaffirming the supremacy of Christianity.
In Carolingian art, the past, present, and future of Christianity are harmonized. Time is
not linear, but circular and interactive. While temporalities are unified within Christ in Majesty,
the representation of the New Testament makes an argument about the superiority and modernity
of the Christian doctrine. For a Carolingian viewer, this argument affirms their religion and their
experience of time.
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""31 Ibid. p. 82 32 Dutton, Paul Edward, and Herbert L. Kessler. "A Reedition and First Translation." The Poetry and Paintings of the First Bible of Charles the Bald. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan, 1997. 109-115. Print. P. 109
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Sources:
Calkins, Robert G. "The Imperial Gospel Book." Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages.
Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1983. 121-142. Print. P. 121
Diebold, William J. "Books for the Illiterate? Meaning In Early Medieval Art." Word and
Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder: Westview, 2000. 71-99. Print.
Dutton, Paul Edward, and Herbert L. Kessler. "A Reedition and First Translation." The
Poetry and Paintings of the First Bible of Charles the Bald. Ann Arbor: U of
Michigan, 1997. 109-115. Print.
Holy Bible. New International Version. Colorado Springs: Biblica, 2011. Print.
Kessler, Herbert L. ""Facies Bibliothecae Revelata": Carolingian Art As Spiritual
Seeing." Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God's Invisibility in Medieval Art.
Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2000. 149-164. Print.
Pentcheva, Bissera V. The Performative Icon. The Art Bulletin. Vol. 88, No. 4 (Dec., 2006) , pp.
631-655. Published by: College Art Association
Ulrich Kuder. "Codex Aureus of St Emmeram." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online.
Oxford University Press, accessed March 4, 2015,
http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T018408.
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