Understanding and Applying Mechanisms

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Copyright © 2019 Ministry of Education, Singapore. All rights reserved.

This is an online instructional material for Singapore secondary schools. No part of this publication may

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Designed and produced by

Design & Technology Unit

Sciences Branch

Curriculum Planning and Development Division

Ministry of Education

Republic of Singapore

Acknowledgements

Guangyang Secondary School

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Understanding and Applying Mechanisms

What you will learn in this chapter

Understanding Mechanisms 01 Basic Principle Behind Mechanisms Mechanisms in Everyday Life as Machines Analysing Mechanisms in ProductsMechanisms in Everyday Life: A Brief Analysis 07How Mechanisms Work - The Ice Cream Scoop Mechanism 11How Mechanisms Work - The Fan-tastic Oscillating Mechanism 23Find Out How It Works - The Locking Mechanism Revealed 41Guide to Know How Things (with mechanisms) 43Guide for Applying Mechanisms in D&T Projects 44

1 Understanding and Applying Mechanisms

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Understanding Mechanisms

Figure 3.1 shows one of the rides at a theme park where visitors pull themselves up easily to the top of the tower using a rope. Do you think you can pull your own weight above the ground with just a rope? With two persons sitting on each of the hanging platform, how did they do it? How is this possible?

Maybe Figure 3.2 could give you a clue.

Raising the flag in Figure 3.2 and pulling up the hanging platform in Figure 3.1 can only be possible with mechanisms. While the mechanisms used in both situations work in a similar way (both use a pulley system), they vary in terms of design. The design of the pulley

Figure 3.1 A theme park ride where visitors pull their own weight up

Figure 3.2 Flag raising

system used in the theme park ride makes it easy to lift a 120kg-load (approximate weight of two persons), as easy as pulling up a 0.8kg-load (the flag)!

This is the wonder of using mechanisms, it makes work easier, simpler and faster; to make life more practical and efficient.

With the knowledge of mechanisms, you will be able to apply them to perform practical and appropriate functions for your design-and-make projects and make daily life better.


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Basic Principle Behind Mechanisms

What is the basic principle behind mechanisms?

Mechanisms are designed to perform tasks. The basic principle behind mechanisms is the transformation of energy when a force is applied over a certain distance to do work.

In other words, the user applies a certain amount of force on the mechanism and it becomes a tool that helps to do some form of work over a certain distance. As this happens, energy changes from one form to another. In D&T, this form of change is observed as transformation of motion. Look at Figure 3.3 below.

To understand and apply mechanisms, we need to ask ourselves some important questions:

What is the basic principle behind mechanisms?What does mechanisms look like in everyday life? How can we identify mechanisms in products?How do things with mechanisms work? How do we analyse the workings of a product?How can we apply (modify/adapt/combine) mechanisms for a specific purpose?

The above questions will guide your thinking in learning mechanisms.

Figure 3.3 Illustration of transformation of energy on a family cargo bike


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Mechanisms in Everyday Life as Machines

What does mechanisms look like in everyday life? How can we identify mechanisms in products?

The cargo bike is made up of mechanisms and parts that operate together as a two-wheeled vehicle - a machine that we are familiar with. This machine that we call bicycle is made of many different mechanisms that function together.

It is important to note that mechanisms create motion but not necessarily perform tasks. However, a machine, possibly made up of different mechanisms, performs task. To identify mechanisms in products, there is a need to understand the simplest form of mechanisms that performs tasks. These are known as simple machines. Shown in Figure 3.4 is the combination of some simple machines that make it possible for a bicycle to work.

Three types of simple machines can be identified on a bicycle: the lever, the pulley, and the wheel-and-axle. The pedals and the crank arm work together as the lever, they were designed to be part of the chainring too. When force is applied to the pedals, the crank arms and chainring turn. The turning of the chainring synchronises with the cog (which is connected to the rear wheel) by the means of a chain. The chain wraps around the teeth of the chainring and the cog; this combination functions as the pulley system. When the cog spins, the axle turns and makes the rear wheel turn, moving the bicycle. This is the wheel-and-axle at work.

Observe any bicycle for better clarity. Note the movement of parts in your observation.

Figure 3.4 Examples of simple machines in a bicycle


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Simple machines are the building blocks of all machines we know today. It is the foundation of how machines work. See figure 3.5 for an overview of simple machines.

Figure 3.5 Overview of simple machines


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Over time, the basic mechanisms in simple machines have been modified, adapted, combined and even re-invented to become complex machines or functional mechanical parts that we use today. While there are rapid changes in these machines, the principle of how it works never change. Every machine have mechanisms in them that transform motion to work.

This is the focus in D&T; to analyse and know how motion is transformed. Knowing this would help you understand how mechanisms work and eventually design products with mechanisms.

In a nutshell, mechanism transform motion in the following ways: transmit, control and convert. See Figure 3.6 below.

Mechanisms can be used to change the place of movement: transmitting motion from one part to another.

Mechanisms can be used to control motion in terms of affecting change in: 1. speed 2. direction 3. distance 4. force produced

Mechanisms can be used to convert one type of motion into another.The four types of motion are:

motion along a straight line; it

moves along the same axis and

does not change direction

a up-and-down and back-and-forth linear

motioncircular motion with respect to a fixed point; it moves in a path

of a circle

a forward and backward motion in the path of an arc,

just like a swing

Figure 3.6 Motion Transformation in Mechanism

Analysing Mechanisms in Products

How do things with mechanisms work? How do we analyse the workings of a product?

It is important to note that all machines transmit and control motion to do work but not all machines convert motion. Conversion of motion takes place only when the required output motion is different from the input motion.


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In the bigger picture, the changes of motion you would see within a product would not happen without the user initiating the motion. Thus, before you analyse the motion changes within the product, be sure to study how the product works in a simplified manner - by describing the user action and the work done by the product. See Figure 3.8.

Thus, how do we explain the transmission of motion and control of motion that happen in mechanisms? How do we know that there is conversion of motion in mechanisms of a product? How do we analyse the changes of motion in a product?

Every motion begins with a person or thing that gives rise to the action, this is the starting point for movement to take place. Every product that has mechanisms in them are affected by some kind of motion, from the beginning to the end. To understand how things work, you need to identify its input motion, the output motion and the changes that happen in between. See Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 Input to Output Motion Analysis Diagram

Figure 3.8 User Action and Work Done Analysis Diagram

Figure 3.6 to 3.8 are illustrations that could help you think and learn about mechanisms. As a guide, when you study a product:

1. understand its use and purpose by identifying the user action and work done, refer to Figure 3.82. think about how it transmits, controls and converts motion (if any), refer to Figure 3.63. lastly, sketch to think through in detail the input motion, output motion and the changes in

between, as defined in Figure 3.7 - the explanation here would give you better clarity on how the mechanisms in the product transmit, control and convert motion (if any)

To understand how to study products better, let’s do a brief analysis of 4 products that you would see everyday, in the next section.


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Mechanisms in Everyday Lives: A Brief Analysis

Have you ever wondered the workings behind the products that you see and what makes them work well? If you pay attention to objects around you, you will be surprise by the different kinds of mechanism that you can discover in everyday objects. Figure 3.9 to 3.12 illustrate the analysis of how 4 products work.

Figure 3.9 Brief Analysis of the Screwdriver


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Figure 3.10 Brief Analysis of the Glue Stick


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Figure 3.11 Brief Analysis of the Correction Tape


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Figure 3.12 Brief Analysis of the Hole Puncher

The ability to analyse mechanisms in products will allow you to be more sensitive to things around you. This means that you need to know the basic principle behind mechanism, identify them in products and acquire an idea of how different products works.

In D&T, you are working towards putting together mechanisms or any other technology for your design-and-make projects. Thus, you could apply mechanisms in your own way by modifying, adapting, combining or even make your own unique mechanisms to serve a purpose. To do this, you need to understand how things work in more detail through some interesting products in the next section.


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How Mechanisms Work | The Release Mechanism of an Ice Cream Scoop

Have you ever scrutinised the ice cream scoop and wondered how every part of it works? Scan the QRC 3.1 to see how the ice cream scoop works.

While this is a simple device, there is much to learn about its mechanisms and how they work. Let’s study the movements of parts in Figure 3.15 while it is in use.

QRC 3.1How things work - The Ice Cream Scoop

Figure 3.13 An ice cream scoop

Figure 3.14 User Action and Work Done Analysis Diagram for the Ice cream Scoop


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Figure 3.16 shows the three key mechanisms that make the ice-cream scoop work. Let’s learn more about it in the next section.

Can you identify the simple machines or any interesting combinations of simple machines that make it work? What are they and how do they function?

Figure 3.16 Key mechanisms found in ice-cream scoop

Figure 3.15 Movements of parts of the ice cream scoop


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The Lever Mechanism (the handle)

When the user squeezes the handle, the handle rotates about the pivot and compresses the spring. See Figure 3.17. The positions of the fulcrum, load and effort on the handle is shown in Figure 3.18. Recap the definiton of the lever and compare its position of effort, fulcrum and load with that of the ice cream scoop shown in Figure 3.18.

Figure 3.18 Position of the fulcrum, load and effort on the handle of the ice cream scoop

Why does the position of the effort, fulcrum and load shift for different products? Why is it necessary?

Figure 3.17 Movement of the parts of the handle acting as a lever


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The function of the lever is to change the strength of the force produced to make work easier. This is determined by the position of the load and the effort from the fulcrum, which is the load distance and the effort distance, defined in Figure 3.19.

Figure 3.20 Load and effort distance on the lever mechanism (the handle)

For example, when the effort distance is longer than the load distance, the force is applied over a longer distance to resist the load. This means that the weight of the load is distributed over the length of the lever, which makes compressing the spring easier. Hence, lesser force is applied (lesser effort). See Figure 3.20.

Figure 3.19 Definition of load distance and effort distance


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Since the ice cream scoop has a number of mechanical parts that transform motion throughout the device, it is important to understand how each part works on its own. This will help you figure out how it affect the other parts eventually.

Figure 3.21 shows the analysis of the handle of the ice cream scoop.

Analysing the lever mechanism on the ice-cream scoop

Figure 3.21 Analysis of the handle of the ice-cream scoop (which act as a lever)

The handle which act as a lever is the starting point of the sequence of movements for the scoop. As you have known by now, it does not work alone, it is causing motion to other parts of the scoop. It is transmitting motion to other mechanical parts. What are the parts and how was it done?


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The Rack-and-Pinion (as part of the handle)

The next part for discussion is the rack-and-pinion. This mechanism is found at the base of the ice-cream scoop. The rack is attached to one part of the handle and it meshes with the pinion, which is connected to the other handle. See Figure 3.22.

Figure 3.22 Close-up of the rack and pinion

Linear motion is converted to rotary motion when the rack causes the pinion to move. What if the pinion causes the rack to move? What would be the conversion of motion?

The rack-and-pinion works in such a way that when the rack moves, the pinion rotates or vice versa. See Figure 3.23.

Figure 3.23 Movement of a typical rack-and-pinion


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Why is the rack-and-pinion used for the ice-cream scoop? What caused it to move and what other parts does it cause to move? How does it do so?

As illustrated in Figure 3.15, the rack moves with the handle as it is attached to each other. This means that the rack follows the motion of the handle where the user squeezes. Thus, instead of moving in a linear motion as shown in Figure 3.23, the rack moves in a rotary motion. See Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.24 Movement of rack-and-pinion on the ice cream scoop

Figure 3.25 Peculiar movement of rack on the ice cream scoop


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The rack causes the pinion which is attached to the rod and the scraper, to rotate. It rotates at 90o to the rack. See Figure 3.26. This means that the rack transmits motion through 90o to the pinion.

Figure 3.26 Rack transmit motion through 90o to the pinion

Thus, the scraper sweeps across the bowl when the pinion rotates. What determined the scraper to sweep exactly across the inner surface of the bowl? How it is controlled?

Figure 3.27 Scraper sweeps across bowl - how is it controlled?


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To rotate half a revolution, the pinion needs to mesh with 5 teeth on the rack. This is because 10 teeth makes one revolution. Thus, 5 teeth on the rack will suffice to rotate half a revolution. However, the rack has 7 teeth. Why is this so? See Figure 3.28 for the explanation.

Figure 3.27 Gearing of the rack-and-pinion for the ice cream scoop

The ice cream scoop is designed such that the scraper goes across the inner profile of the bowl, which is half a revolution. This movement is determined by the number of teeth of the pinion and the rack. See Figure 3.27.

The rack for the ice cream scoop has 7 teeth as the first two teeth is for the pinion to anchor on. The design of the scoop factored this in so that the rack sits well on the pinion when not in use.

Figure 3.28 How teeth of the rack and pinion is meshed to control the movement of the scraper


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Analysing the rack-and-pinion mechanism on the ice-cream scoop

While the movement of the rack-and-pinion is caused by other parts of the scoop, and it caused some other parts to move, let’s study the rack-and-pinion in the ice cream scoop as a standalone mechanism. Figure 3.29 shows its analysis.

Figure 3.29 Analysis of the rack-and-pinion of the ice-cream scoop

We studied closely how the lever and the rack-and-pinion worked in the scoop. There is one more mechanism that makes the ice cream scoop worked as a complete product. It is the spring.

What does it do and how does it transform the motion eventually?

Figure 3.30 Spring mechanism - how does it transform motion?


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Spring

As you have seen in the video at QRC 3.1, the spring in the ice cream scoop served as an important mechanism to ensure the scraper goes back to its initial position after every cycle of use. This is to allow users to serve ice cream with a simple scoop-squeeze-release action.

Let’s study what the spring does in the ice cream scoop. See Figure 3.31.

This particular spring used in the ice cream scoop is called a compression spring. It opposes the squeezing force applied by the user, which also known as the compressive force. Hence, when the force pressing on the handle of the ice cream scoop is released, the compression spring returns to its original length. This also makes the handle and the scraper return to its initial position.

Figure 3.31 Spring used in the ice cream scoop


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Figure 3.32 Analysis of the ice-cream scoop as a whole

Now that we have studied all the key mechanisms in the ice cream scoop, Figure 3.32 shows how it works as a whole.

While many may not think much of the simple ice cream scoop, it served as a good example to learn mechanisms and how they worked together to make work easier for users.

Let’s move on to another product which has more mechanisms that work together in a more complex way. Something that you can find at home - the oscillating mechanism of a table fan.


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Figure 3.33 and 3.34 shows a typical table fan and its oscillating feature. The fan head oscillates when the oscillation knob is pressed. The oscillation stops when the knob is pulled up. What makes it work that way?

How Mechanisms Work The Fan-tastic Oscillating Mechanism

Figure 3.33 The table fan with an oscillation feature

With these questions in mind, scan QRC 3.2 to watch the video on how it works. Take down notes on key points on your own before proceeding.

Figure 3.34 User Action and Work Done Analysis Diagram for Fan Oscillating Mechanism

QRC 3.2How things work -The Fan-tastic Oscillation Mechanism


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Figure 3.35 Main parts of the oscillating mechanism

The video would have given you a sense of the where the mechanisms are and a basic idea of how the parts work together. Let’s look closely at these parts and learn more about them.

See Figure 3.35 for the main parts and 3.36 for the breakdown of the movement of parts.


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Figure 3.36 Sequence of movements for the fan oscillating mechansim


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When the fan switches on, the motor which drives the fan blade also drives the motor shaft. This means that the speed of the rotation of the fan blade is directly related to the speed that the motor shaft rotates. The motor shaft is also the main cause of movement for the rest of the parts in the fan. This is because one end of it is the worm gear. See Figure 3.38.

Motor shaft as the starting point

There are many learning points behind the workings of the oscillating mechanism in the fan. Each phase for the sequence of movements, shown in Figure 3.37 below, will be analysed further.

Figure 3.37 Overview of the phases for sequence of movements

Figure 3.38 Close up of the motor shaft and worm gear as the main cause of movement


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Worm Gear & Worm Wheel (Oscillation not Engaged)

Figure 3.39 Close up of the worm gear and worm wheel and its purpose

As mentioned, the worm gear is part of the motor shaft, it is the threaded section of the motor shaft that meshed with the toothed wheel, which is called the worm wheel. See Figure 3.39.

Unlike any typical gear configurations, the transmission of motion from worm gear to worm wheel cannot be reversed. This means that worm wheel cannot drive the worm gear. See Figure 3.40 for the explanation. This is useful for systems that require only one direction of movement or one main cause of movement and not from other causes, just like the fan.

Figure 3.40 Transmission of motion from worm wheel to worm gear is not possible


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The worm gear and worm wheel mechanism also significantly reduces the rotary speed at its output. One revolution on the worm gear moves only one teeth on the worm wheel. Thus, it would take 24 revolutions on the worm gear to complete 1 revolution on the worm wheel. See explanation on how speed is reduced in Figure 3.41.

Why is this necessary for the oscillating mechanism?

Since the motorshaft follows the speed of the fan blade and it is the main cause of movement for the rest of the parts, the speed of rotation needs to be reduced to create an oscillation speed that is suitable for users. Imagine if the oscillation is the same speed as the motor, it would not be as fan-tastic.

Figure 3.41 Speed reduction - worm gear revolution is equal to teeth movement on worm wheel

Another important characteristic of the worm gear and worm wheel is how torque is produced. It has an inverse relationship with speed. The significant reduction of speed in the worm wheel leads to a significant increase in torque. The torque-speed relationship can be represented by a downward slope on a graph. See Figure 3.42.

Figure 3.42 Torque-speed relationship in worm gear and worm wheel mechanism

The increase in torque is necessary in the oscillating mechanism because the fan head is heavy.


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Figure 3.43 Analysis of the worm gear and worm wheel mechanism

The worm gear (which is part of the shaft) and the worm wheel make up to be one of the first key mechanism of the oscillating mechanism. Study Figure 3.43 for its analysis based on the discussion so far.

Analysing the worm gear and worm wheel mechanism


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When the oscillation knob is pressed, the worm wheel no longer freewheels, it becomes part of the compound gear now. This is made possible through the worm wheel lock. Pushing the knob downwards inserts the worm wheel lock into the worm wheel, making it turn together. See Figure 3.44.

Worm Gear & Compound Gear (Oscillation Engaged)

Figure 3.44 Worm wheel lock engaged worm wheel to make the compound gear rotate


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Figure 3.45 Analysis of worm gear and compound gear

Now that worm wheel lock is engaged to the worm wheel, it becomes the compound gear. The worm gear now drives the compound gear. See Figure 3.45 for its analysis. Note the similarities with Figure 3.43.

Analysing the worm gear & compound gear


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At the bottom of the compound gear is a small spur gear. The rotation of the compound gear will result to the small spur gear meshing with the bigger spur gear. See Figure 3.46.

Figure 3.46 Use of spur gears in the oscillating mechanism

Spur gears of different sizes are meshed together to produce different speed and torque. For the 60-teeth spur gear to complete one revolution, the 12-teeth spur gear needs to spin 5 revolutions. The ratio of the no. of teeth between the two spur gears result to a reduction in speed. The size of the bigger spur gear affects the torque produced, in other words, the bigger the gear, the higher the torque. See Figure 3.47.

Figure 3.47 Effect of speed and torque in the oscillating fan spur gears mechanism

Small to Big Spur Gear


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Figure 3.48 Analysis of small spur gear and big spur gear

The small spur gear at the bottom of the compound gear meshes with the bigger spur gear in a way that it changes speed and torque. Study Figure 3.48 for its analysis.

Analysing the spur gears


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Figure 3.49 Parts of the linkage system

The big spur gear is the next cause of movement for the linkages. It is connected via the linking bar, where one end of the linking bar is connected to the edge of the big spur gear.

The linkages are made up of bars that are connected together with a combination of fixed pivots and movable pivots. By observing closely the parts of the fan and the oscillating mechanism, the fixed and movable pivots can be easily identified. See Figure 3.49.

Big Spur Gear to Linkages for Oscillation


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However, the linkage system used in the oscillating mechanism may not be easily seen. To help you see and understand this better, let’s look at an existing linkage system that is commonly used for the oscillating fan, the 4-bar linkage. See Figure 3.50 for the definition and example of a 4-bar linkage.

Figure 3.50 The 4-bar linkage definition and example

Compare Figure 3.49 and 3.50, do you see any similarities? Can you identify the 4 bars that exist in the linkage system of the oscillating mechanism? See Figure 3.51 for the reveal.

Figure 3.51 The 4-bar linkage in the oscillating mechanism


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For better clarity, observe the movement of the linkages by observing the animation (scan QRC3.3). Understand how it moves from the animation before studying Figure 3.52, which shows how the 4-bar linkage converts rotary motion at the big spur gear (blue circle) to an oscillating motion at the fan head (green bar).

QRC 3.3 Animation of 4-bar linkage movement

Figure 3.52 Movement of the 4-bar linkage in the oscillating mechanism


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It may be hard to visualise how each bar reacts to the rotary motion of the big spur gear. You may use ice cream sticks, cardboard and paper fasteners to make a mock-up that will simulate the movement. This could help you further in understanding how the 4-bar linkage works. See Figure 3.53 on how the mock-up may look like. Watch QRC 3.4 for its movement.

Figure 3.53 Mock-up of the 4-bar linkage in the oscillating mechanism

Figure 3.54 Analysis of big spur gear and the 4-bar linkage

As discussed, the big spur gear caused the movement of the linkages that creates the oscillation. Figure 3.54 shows the analysis of the the motion created by the big spur gear and the 4-bar linkage.

Analysing the big spur gear and the 4-bar linkage

QRC 3.4 Movement ofmock-up.


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Figure 3.55 Analysis of fan-tastic oscillating mechanism

Let’s see how the oscillating mechanism works as a whole in Figure 3.55. Observe its input and output motion and the changes that happen in between.


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Find Out How it Works The Locking Mechanism Revealed

QRC 3.4How things work -The Locking Mechanism Revealed

The padlock is an everyday object that may seem like an ordinary clunk of metal but what lies beneath is an intriguing locking mechanism.

Think about it:How does a twisting action of the key push out the shackle? Why are there notches at the shackle? What are they for?Only the correct key can unlock it, why not other keys?

Study the parts of the padlock in Figure 3.56 before watching the video at QRC 3.4 to see how it works.

Figure 3.56 The parts of the padlock


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• How was motion transformed? How did it transmit and control motion? In what way did it convert motion (if any) ?

Use the guiding questions to figure out how the locking mechanism works:

• What is the purpose of the padlock? What was the user action and work done?

• How would you describe the sequence of events from the input to the output and the changes in between? How do the different parts work together to create the resulting output? • How could you explain how it works concisely through quick sketches? As you think through with the guiding questions, use sketches to visualise and think through the way it works. You may use simple 2D/3D sketches to represent the parts.


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Not all products are the same, they work in different ways for different purposes. The more you know how different things work with respect to mechanism, the better you get at applying mechanism in your own projects. Thus, there is a need to acquire the disposition to figure out how things work. See Figure 3.57 for the guide to figure out how things work. Do it often and it will becomes a habit and a way of thinking.

Figure 3.57 Guide to Figure Out How Things Work


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As mentioned earlier, you are working towards applying mechanisms or any other technology to resolve design opportunities through your design and make projects. It may involve modifying, adapting and combining different mechanisms that you researched about to work towards a design solution. Thus, how do you do so with the learning so far?

Use the guide in Figure 3.58 to help you in your application of mechanisms in your design and make projects.

Figure 3.58 Guide to Apply Mechanisms in Projects

Understanding and Applying Mechanisms

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