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International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) Volume 11, Issue 11, November 2020, pp. 315-325, Article ID: IJARET_11_11_026 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJARET?Volume=11&Issue=11 ISSN Print: 0976-6480 and ISSN Online: 0976-6499 DOI 10.34218/IJARET.11.11.2020.026 :

© IAEME Publication Indexed Scopus

TIRES RUBBER AS A USEABLE MATERIAL IN CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS :

AN OVERVIEW Amin Al-Fakih, Bashar S. Mohammed and M.S. Liew

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,

Seri Iskandar, 32610, Perak, Malaysia

ABSTRACT Enhancing concrete by adding different types of suitable materials is a very

attractive field within concrete research society. The use of waste tires was introduced into concrete to reduce its brittle nature and its loading toughness. Scrap tires

consider the current significant discarded waste which results in major environmental issues where researchers and environmentalists have taken seriously. This study

provides an overview about the tires rubber as a useful material in civil engineering applications. It can be inferred that tire rubber particles, in the form of tire chips used to substitute coarse aggregate and crumb rubber particles, used as substitution for the fine aggregate in concrete. Findings also have reported that the inclusion of rubber particles (fine or coarse) reduce the compressive and tensile strength. The utilization

of worn tires in civil engineering applications results in problems diminishing associated with scrap tire management all over the world.

Keywords: Crumb rubber, recycling, civil engineering applications, ECC Cite this Article: Amin Al-Fakih, Bashar S. Mohammed and M.S. Liew, Tires

Rubber as a Useable Material In Civil Engineering Applications: An Overview, International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 11(11), 2020, pp. 315-325. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJARET?Volume=11&Issue=11

1. INTRODUCTION The total global volume of waste production is around 1.3 billion tonnes per annum, with a projected annual rise of about 2.2 billion tonnes by the year 2025 [1]. According to Agamuthu [2] 12.8 million tons of waste was produced in 2015 in Malaysia. Furthermore, a report stated that 8 million tires reach their end-of-life stage every year in Malaysia where most of it ended up in landfill or dumpsite [3]. Yet, this quantity is increased up to 15.60 million tons by this

year [4]. Organic and plastic waste, representing approximately 45% and 24% of the total waste generated, respectively, is Malaysia s most abundant waste. Several studies revealed ’

Tires Rubber as a Useable Material In Civil Engineering Applications: An Overview


that among the discarded wastes are scrap tires. Scrap tires do not decompose easily under natural conditions. Their accumulation becomes breeding grounds for mosquitoes and insects that transmit many diseases and pollute the air and water. [5, 6].

Due to the vast numbers of used tires disposed of every year, many research was carried out to investigate and develop the use of recycled rubber from tires in the concrete mixes. The studies indicated that the inclusion of crumb rubber increases the impact resistance and

toughness. On the other hand, the modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture and splitting tensile strength reduces when crumb rubber is presented to the concrete mixture [7]. in

Regarding workability, the findings were acceptable while using fine rubber particles, while it exhibits more ductility that plain concrete [8].

The issue of waste tires is significant due to its bulkiness as it occupies huge spaces when disposed of, it is non-biodegradable and susceptible to fire and to shelter insects and insects that are known to be a health problem. Efforts are conducted to increase its recycling ways and one of them is utilizing rubber as coarse aggregate in the form of rubber chips or utilizing it as fine aggregate in the form of crumb rubber. Different terminologies such as rubbercrete, rubberized concrete and rubbercrete were used to denote concrete containing waste tires as

partial replacement of aggregate. This study has reviewed the issues of waste tires and its application in civil engineering.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE OF WASTE TIRE STOCKPILES After decades of the industrial revolution and the invention of rubber tires for cars and

vehicles, the number of tires that are out of use is expanding rapidly, millions of tires are considered waste every year. About 1.4 million tires enter are our environmental system every year and eventually, a similar amount is out of use to be considered waste [9].

These tires are to be considered of the most challenging and problematic sources of waste, because of their bulkiness as they occupy vast spaces when disposed of, and the fact that they are non-biodegradable, and finally as they create a health issue as tires landfills are attractive

shelters for mosquitos and other harmful insects. The American Environmental Protection Agency records in 2003 the production of 290 million waste tires. Of the 290 million, 45

million were used for car and truck hydraulic refurbishments. Figure 1 shows a waste tires landfill under fire at the Riverton City landfill in St Andrew, USA [10].

Figure 1: Fire rages at the Riverton City landfill in St Andrew [10]

Amin Al-Fakih, Bashar S. Mohammed and M.S. Liew


Today, the majority of the waste tires that are neither reused nor recycled is incinerated as tire-derived fuel (TDF). The attitude to tire recycling consequently has been following the paths of least resistance with few technological developments of consequence. Figure 2 shows the breakdown of the percentages of the types of destiny facing waste tires.

Figure 2: Waste tires usage breakdown, USA

3. STRUCTURE OF TIRE RU BBER The three constituents of a tire are the elastomeric compound, fabric and steel. The

importance of steel and fabric is to form the support and the skeleton of the tire while the rubber forms the main body of the tire. This combination is essential to develop rubber into an invention that can maintain safety, durability and acceptable performance. Rubber in its natural state is a sticky material that deforms easily when affected by high temperatures and brittle in low temperatures. This takes us back to the point of combining it with fabric and steel to improve its physical properties [9].

Traditionally in rubber recycling, trucks tires are preferred as the percentage of rubber to the other materials that form the tires is high when compared to passenger cars which

comprise of more synthetic materials which are weak in terms of their reusability.

4. RECYCLING OF SCRAP TIRES Scrap tires recycling categorized into two, where the scrap tires are being used as whole is a or in the form of mechanically modified shapes. Scrap tires can be used as the whole tire for slope stability and as boat bumpers to protect the ship from scratching or hitting the wharf [11]. Meanwhile, the mechanically modified scrap tires can be used as infill materials for the embankment. Recycled scrap tires also can be used in several applications such as moulded rubber products. The potential applications of scrap tires have been listed such as for electrical coating, sports field surface, rubber product, rubberized bitumen and playground surface [12]. Besides that, the life span of tires can be prolonged through retreading but eventually, they

will still become scrap tires. However, used tires sent for retreading are considered as the most resource-efficient strategy as it is a material and energy-saving method [13].

In South Australia, if the tires are not suitable for recycling purposes, it will be shredded or chopped into pieces of 250 mm or finer before disposal in landfills [14]. As of today, one of the environmental friendly methods of recycling scrap tires is to convert them into crumb rubber by shredding and granulating tires into smaller crumbs where its usage can be found as



tire-derived aggregate (TDA) in civil engineering applications, materials for building insulation (noise and vibration insulation) and also in the road surface.

However, tires are not entirely made of rubber. 70% of car and truck tires can be salvaged into crumb rubber and the rest as steel and fiber [15]. In the United States alone, 975 000 tons of scrap tires have been used in the ground rubber applications in the year 2013, while in 2015; the amount rises to 1,020,000 tons. The ground rubber application consumed 26% of the total scrap tires generated while 7% has been used in civil engineering application [16].

In conclusion, most of the countries in the world are facing problems in disposing scrap tires. Each country has taken steps to overcome the scrap tires problem. As for Malaysia,

government agencies must encourage and implement the recovery and proper management system of scrap tires by providing specifically designed disposal facilities for scrap tires to reduce the stockpiling problem.

4. CRUMB RUBBER PRODUCTION Waste tires or scrap tires can be recycled into crumb rubber before being used in other

application. Scrap tires consist of rubber, steel wire and textile. In order to utilize scrap tires in other application, it must undergo a process to cut the tires into smaller pieces. There are two methods in tire processing which is the mechanical and cryogenic process. For the mechanical process, the crumb rubber production involves shredding, chipping and grinding of scrap tires into small sizes [17-19] In comparison, cryogenic processes involve liquid nitrogen before . reducing the size to freeze tire chips or rubber particles. In this research, the crumb rubber

used from tires processed through mechanical means. Therefore, the procedure for the ismechanical process will be more emphasized.

The scrap tires are collected from tire retailers and sent to the factory for processing. The scrap tires are sorted beforehand based on their size. The process starts by separating the steel

wires from the sidewalls by using rotating corrugated steel drums or cracker mill [02] . The shredding process of tires reduced the size of rubber into 100 mm to 50 mm. The first and second stage of the granulation process then further reduced the size from 50 mm to 10 mm [21]. The screen and gravity separator are used to remove the steel fiber [20]. The tires chips are grinded to smaller size to produce crumb rubber. Generally, the processed scrap tires a were classified according to size such as for rubber chips which range between 25 mm to 50 a

mm and rubber powder which ranges between 4.75 mm to 0.075 m [22]. According to m Najim and Hall [18], rubber chips size represents equivalent coarse aggregates size,

meanwhile, crumb rubber ranges from 4.75 mm to 0.425 mm and ground rubber size is smaller than 0.425 mm as shown in Figure 3.

The end product of recycling scrap tire makes it possible for concreting applications as crumb rubber can be used as a substitute for aggregates in concrete. The implementation of crumb rubber has various effects on the properties of concrete depending on several factors such as the amount of aggregate substituted and the size of the crumb rubber. Figure 4 shows various sizes of scrap tire products are being used in civil engineering application.



Figure 3 Crumb rubber production process (Tire shredding) [23]

Figure 4 Various size of scrap tire products [24]

5. APPLICATIONS OF CRUMB RUBBER 5.1 Crumb rubber in concrete Managing waste tires is considered a significant environmental issue in many countries, not only because of the direct environmental harm but also due to the fact that it presents a high risk of fire and considered a breeding ground for mosquitoes, mice and rats [25].

The interest in recycling waste tires rubber along with the desire to enhance concrete properties encouraged and pushed a lot of researchers to discuss and investigate the utilization of rubber from worn tires in concrete mixtur [8]. Regarding workability, Khaloo, Dehestani es

and Rahmatabadi [8] have stated that for rubberized concrete with coarse rubber the workability is reduced as the rubber content is increased. In contrast, while using fine rubber particles, the workability is acceptable compared to plain concrete.



Rana and Rughooputh [26] have reported that the presence of crumb rubber in the concrete mix does not affect the workability significantly. Figure 5 shows the results of the slump test obtained for each concrete mix. It is witnessed that the results for all the mixes are

within the acceptable range of 135-155 mm. Although a slim increase in workability is exhibited with higher rubber content, there is no substantial change in the workability and thus the uniformity of the mixtures.

Figure 5 Variation of the slump with rubber content [26]

Mohammed et al. [27] have tested the fresh and mechanical characteristics such as slump, air content, unit weight, compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the concrete comprising crumb rubber (rubbercrete). As part of the substitution of fine aggregates, the crumb rubber content was 0 30% per volume. The study –

found that crumb rubber concrete (rubbercrete) accomplishes a workable mix in terms of manipulation, positioning and finishing compared to the traditional concrete mix. In addition, as the content of the crumb rubber increases, rubbercerete weight decreases. In comparison, compressive bending, and splitting tensile strength and young modulus have been diminished

as the crumb rubber content has increased by substitution with fine aggregates. A similar trend of findings has been reported by another researcher [28-31].

A study has conducted experiments that concluded to the fact that compressive strength and tensile strength dropped by 85% and 50%, respectively, when coarse aggregate was

completely replaced by coarse rubber chips. The sample lost 65 percent and 50 percent of its compressive strength and tensile strength, respectively, when the fine aggregate was fully

replaced by crumb rubber. It was also noticed that while doing the compressive strength testing the specimen did not exhibit brittle failure [25].

A review study has carried out on the works done to investigate rubbercrete properties in both fresh and hardened characteristics. The study concluded that rubbercrete has enhanced workability and freeze/thaw resistance while reducing its strengths. Lower drying shrinkage was noticed in the crumb rubber concrete (rubbercrete). Moreover, the fatigue load cycles and toughness of rubbercrete make it suitable for roller compacted rigid pavement. Rubbercrete possesses high sound absorption, high electrical resistivity and lower thermal conductivity s [32]. Issa and Salem [33], based on test results, have concluded that the compressive strength

concrete with rubber contents lower than 25% was acceptable. Moreover, due to the low density of rubber, the total density of the concrete exhibited 8% reduction at 25% rubber

substitution. The results also exhibited enhanced insulation, enhanced damping properties and enhanced ductility which is considered a huge advantage for concrete used in highway



barriers and other shock-resisting materials. On the other hand, the compressive strength drops significantly when using more than 25% rubber content in replacing crushed sand as fine aggregate, which excludes the usage in structural and non-structural elements. Another issue is the fact that failure in this material is unpredictable due to the fact that stress vs. strain doesn’t follow a specific pattern in experiments.

5.2 Crumb rubber in masonry bricks Researchers have made remarkable efforts towards the creation of various types of bricks

containing different types of waste materials including crumb rubber, to decrease environment pollution, minimize the amounts of waste produced and protect raw material from

degradation, thus contributing to sustainable development and more eco-friendly approaches. Yilmaz and Degirmenci [34] reported that utilizing worn tires is an effective approach to

produce masonry bricks that comply with the requirements of the standards which result in providing an opportunity to reuse these wastes and thus to attain sustainability and healthy

environment. Moreover, several studies have examined the potential utilization of crumb rubber in construction materials involving rubberized concrete [28, 35-41], concrete pavement [35, 42, 43] and in the production of geopolymer masonry blocks [44].

Al-Fakih et al. [40, 41] have investigated the physical and mechanical properties of rubberized concrete interlocking brick. Authors developed it by the inclusion of 10.0% crumb

rubber by volume as partial replacement of fine aggregate. The results revealed that rubberized concrete interlocking brick is considered as medium-weight concrete and has

higher water absorption because of the present of crumb rubber which has a low specific gravity (0.95) and hydrophobic behaviour that trap air around its surface and prevent water.

The study also concluded that compressive and tensile strength of rubberized concrete interlocking brick was reduced compared to the conventional concrete brick, but still

considered as a load-bearing unit. Turgut and Yessilata [45] have developed a low cost, lightweight and high thermal resistance rubberized solid brick that behaves similar to the

autoclaved aerated concrete. Authors have studied the Physico-mechanical performance of concrete bricks incorporated crumb rubber ranged from 10.0 percent to 70.0 percent by

volume. The findings show that increasing the amount of crumb rubber increases water absorption and porosity. Unit weights and UPV values are decreasing, while the crumb rubber content is increasing. Likewise, the strengths of compression, bending and splitting tensile have declined considerably as the crumb rubber content has increased. The study concluded that 30% of crumb rubber is high enough to produce rubberized bricks that comply with the requirements given for load-bearing masonry units as prescribed in ASTM C90 [46].

Moreover, rubberized hollow blocks were produced by utilizing 10% to 40 % of crumb rubber (CR) as aggregate in a dry-mix mortar [47]. Sodupe-Ortega et al. [47] examined the use of CR as a partial replacement of fine aggregate in the development of rubberized hollow blocks and bricks using automated compacting machines at various water to cement ratios (0,7, 0,8, and 0,9). The findings showed that, with an increase in crumb rubber content, the dry density of the rubberized samples decreased from 2042.0 kg/m3 to 1724.0 kg/m3 (up to

16.0 percent). There was also a drastic decrease in compressive strength at a ratio in 0.80 water to cement ratio with a rubber content increase (19.24 - 7.56 MPa) at 28 days, with the addition of above 20 per cent crumb rubber in particular. The study suggested a maximum of 20 percent of crumb rubber with a w/c ratio of 0.90 in order to produce a rubberized hollow block that followed the international standards.

Sadek and El-Attar [48] have studied the properties of solid bricks constructed using tires rubber waste with the proportion of (0 - 50)% and (0 - 100)% by volume of fine and coarse aggregate respectively. At the same time, the structural performance of rubberized walls was



tested under axial load. and walls The study revealed a major effect on the brick’s properties structural behaviour based on the size and content of waste tires. Depending on the rubber size and the cement content, the unit weight values ranged from 1510.0 to 2280.0 kg/m3. For brick containing 20% to 100% coarsely aggregated rubber relative to unrubberized bricks, the unit weight decline ranged between 8.10% and 32.30%, while the decrease ranged between 3.10% and 13.90% for bricks containing 10 and 50 percent fine rubber. The low gravity of the crumb rubber and the tendency of its particles to return air to its surface are responsible for

this reduction. Similarly, the compressive strength of rubberized solid cement bricks was reduced systematically with the increment of rubber contents. Moreover, the compression test results on rubberized bricks showed a large deformation without total crushing and remained relatively intact after failure while increasing the stain after failure. These responses are due to the presence of rubber which has the ability to rotate and stretch around its axes. The water absorption was found to be increased regularly with the increment of coarse rubber contents due to the weak bonding between rubber particles and cement paste. In contrast, water

absorption decreased with the increase of fine rubber up to 20% due to the high fineness corresponds to the fine rubber which fills the voids in the produced bricks and affords a

denser structure with decreased absorption.

5.3 Crumb rubber in engineered cementitious composites (ECC) ECC consists typically of cement, fly ash, sand, fibres and additives. The recycled fibres,

which are extracted from waste tires in the form of tire wire, were used as a substitute for the industrial steel fibres. These fibres have increased the shear properties and toughness

behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete ( FRC) [49, 50]. New hybrid fibre reinforced cement composite built in combination with PVA fibres and tires wires as waste materials. The fresh

and hardened characteristics were examined and found that the compressive, flexural, and tensile strength increased highly with the rise of tire wire as well as the young’s modulus.

Crumb rubber has been used in the production of engineered cementitious composites (ECC) and has attracted the attention of the researchers [51-58]. Mohammed et al. [52]

examined the impacts of crumb rubber (CR) in the deformation characteristic of ECC. The content of CR replacement to fine aggregate was 0% - 5% by volume. The results show that the compressive strength and young modulus of ECC decreased with the increase of crumb

rubber content, while the Poisson’s ratio and drying shrinkage of rubberized ECC were significantly increased. Khed, et al. [54] have investigated the properties of the rubberized cementitious composite. The study incorporated crumb rubber (extracted from scrap tire as )

partial replacement of sand. As a result of this, the increase in fly ash and crumb rubber positively affected the workability in terms of self-compaction and reduced compressive and bending strength. Sabapathy, et al. [51] have used the crumb rubber with a percentage range

of 0 10% and graphene oxide with a percentage range of 0.01 0.05% by volume in the – –production of engineered cementitious composite (ECC). The study investigated the acid and sulphate attacks on the rubberized ECC with the inclusion of graphene oxide. Results showed

that the rubberized composite such as the graphene oxide-engineered cemented composite yielded better results than the usual rubberized cementitious composite. In conclusion, nano-graphene in the form of graphene oxide can strengthen the properties of the crumb rubber integrated into an engineered cementitious composite and overcome them. As a drawback, the

incorporation of crumb rubber in engineered cementitious composite degraded the elastic modulus of ECC, therefore the fatigue might happen at any time without prior notice [55].

6. CONCLUSION The disposal of scrap tires results in environmental issues worldwide. Therefore,

reusing/recycling of these wastes as a partial replacement of natural aggregate was the aim of



all the reviewed studies. The compressive strength of rubber concrete decreases with the increase in particle size and rubber content. A majority of the studies showed the same trend in the decrease of compressive strength with an increase in particle size. The utilization of crumb rubber in civil engineering applications show encouraging results and confirmed an acceptable fresh, physical and mechanical characteristic.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Petronas Malaysia for granting the

project under Yayasan UTP (YUTP) with grant Cost Centre: 015LC0-097.

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