TIARAE, DIADEMS AND HEADDRESSES IN THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES. SYMBOLISM AND TECHNOLOGY....

“Tiarae, Diadems and Headdresses in the Ancient Mediterranean Cultures: Symbolism and Technology” is the title of the Interna-tional Seminar held in Valencia in November 2011 under the aus-pices of the Department of Ancient History and Written Culture (University of Valencia) and the Prehistory Museum.

This book is the third volume of the collection “Monographs of the SEMA of Valencia”. Its subject is an important part of the study Dress and Identity of the peoples of the Roman Empire and the neighboring regions.

Some forms of head ornament which are treated throughout these pages, show that there were more contacts between certain territo-ries and their respective fashions than one might think. Headdress-es, the most important part of the body from the symbolic point of

view, tell us about local traditions and ways of public appearance of Europe’s ancient peoples, each with their own peculiarities, yet also showing the influences, more or less obvious, received from the ancient Near East. Such aesthetic contacts constitut e an accurate reflection of the political and social connections that made the Mediterranean Sea a meeting place for new ideas and traditions.

“Tiaras, diademas y tocados en las culturas del Mediterráneo antiguo: simbolismo y tecnolo-gía” es el título del Seminario Internacional organizado en Valencia en noviembre de 2011 bajo los auspicios del Departamento de Historia de la Antigüedad y de la Cultura Escrita y del Museo de Prehistoria y Arqueología.

El libro que presentamos se inserta en la serie de Monografías del SEMA de Valencia (con el número III). Su temática constituye una parte importante del estudio de la Vestimenta y la Identidad de los pueblos del Imperio Romano y regiones vecinas.

Algunas de las formas de ornamento de la cabeza que son tratadas a lo largo de sus páginas, demuestran que hubo más contactos entre determinados territorios y sus respectivas modas de lo que pudiera pensarse. Los adornos de la cabeza, la parte más importante del cuerpo desde el punto de vista simbólico, hablan de las tradiciones locales y formas de mostrarse en público de los primitivos pueblos de la actual Europa, con sus peculiaridades propias pero dejando ver también las influencias, más o menos patentes, recibidas del mundo oriental. Podemos decir que tales contactos estéticos constituyen un reflejo fiel de las conexiones po-líticas y sociales que hicieron del Mediterráneo un lugar de encuentro de ideas y tradiciones.

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TIARAE, DIADEMS AND HEADDRESSES INTHE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES

SYMBOLISM AND TECHNOLOGY

MONOGRAFÍAS DEL SEMA DE VALENCIA, III

Dirección

CARMEN ALFARO GINER

CARMEN ALFARO GINERJÓNATAN ORTIZ GARCÍAMARÍA ANTÓN PESET

(eds.)

TIARAE, DIADEMS ANDHEADDRESSES IN THE

ANCIENT MEDITERRANEANCULTURES

SYMBOLISM AND TECHNOLOGYEN EL MEDITERRÁNEO ANTIGUO

S E M A

VA L E N C I A , 2 0 1 4

Editores:

Carmen Alfaro Giner - Jónatan Ortiz García - María Antón Peset

Reservados todos los derechos. De conformidad con lo dispuesto en los artículos 270-272 del CódigoPenal vigente, podrán ser castigados con penas de multa y privación de libertad quienes reprodujereno plagiaren, en todo o en parte, una obra literaria, artística o científica fijada en cualquier tipo de soportesin la preceptiva autorización.

© Los autores: C. Alfaro, I. Benda-Weber, M. Blay, G. Fortea, D. Constantinidis, L. Karali, M. García,M. Albaladejo, A. Bedini, E. García, M. R. Giuliani, I. A. Rapinesi, D. Ferro, P. Attema, F. di Gen-naro, C. Saliari, A. Kern, K. Grömer, A. Kwaspen, P. Linscheid, M. C. Marín, A. M. Jiménez, M. Belén, J. H. Fernández, A. M. Mezquida, M. A. Mateo, J. Ortiz, J. A. Molina, E. Rodrigo, C. Rueda, I. H. Szabolcs.

© SEMA, Universitat de València, 2014

Imagen de portada: Anne Kwaspen.

I.S.B.N.: 978-84-370-9452-6Depósito legal: V. 1.739 - 2015Artes Gráficas Soler, S. L. - www.graficas-soler.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introducción ...................................................................................................

Introduction ....................................................................................................

Abbreviations .................................................................................................

E. RODRIGO y G. FORTEA, El recogido femenino como elemento de diferen-ciación social en la Grecia Clásica ............................................................

M. R. GIULIANI, I. A. RAPINESI, D. FERRO, P. ATTEMA and F. DI GENNARO, Mi-crometric-Scale Investigations on a Headdress of the Orientalizing Periodfrom Tomb 232 - Monte del Bufalo, Crustumerium (Rome) ....................

I. A. RAPINESI, D. FERRO, A. BEDINI and M. R. GIULIANI, Elementi di oreficerianelle acconciature femminili da rinvenimenti in sepolture nell’area diRoma. Approfondimenti sulla tecnologia di fabbricazione ......................

A. KERN and K. GRöMER, Early Iron Age Headdress in the Central and EasternAlpine Area ...............................................................................................

M. GARCíA SáNCHEz y M. ALBALADEJO VIVERO, Diademas, tiaras y coronasde la antigua Persia: formas de representación y de adopción en el mundoclásico .......................................................................................................

I. BENDA-WEBER, Non-Greek Headdresses in the Greek East .......................

M. C. MARíN CEBALLOS, A. M. JIMéNEz FLORES, M. BELéN DEAMOS, J. H.FERNáNDEz GóMEz y A. M. MEzqUIDA ORTí, El tocado en las figuras deterracota acampanadas de la cueva-santuario de Es Culleram (Ibiza) ......

C. RUEDA GALáN, The Hairstyles and Headdresses of the Iberian Bronze Ex-votos in the Territory of Cástulo ...............................................................

C. ALFARO GINER, El tocado de la Dama de Baza y sus orígenes mediterrá-neos ...........................................................................................................

D. CONSTANTINIDIS and L. KARALI, Floral Emblems on Hellenistic Crowns:Significance and Meaning .........................................................................

M. BLAy y G. FORTEA, Diademas alejandrinas: sincretismo de dinastías hele-nísticas .......................................................................................................

7

9

15

21

25

41

51

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79

95

115

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155

175

185

E. GARCíA BENAJES, Ornamentos para el cabello conservados en el Museo deArqueología de Barcelona .........................................................................

M. A. MATEO DONET y J. ORTIz GARCíA, Coronae diaboli, coronae domini:el pensamiento cristiano sobre la coronación funeraria en el marco de lareligiosidad antigua ...................................................................................

I. H. SzABOLCS, The Physical Appearance of the Ante-Nicene Christians ....

P. LINSCHEID, Early Byzantine Female Headcoverings: Appearance and Func-tion ............................................................................................................

L. KARALI and C. SALIARI, Men in Power: the Crown of the Emperor in theByzantine Empire. An Interdisciplinary Archaeological Approach ..........

J. A. MOLINA GóMEz, Las dos coronas de Paulo: elementos simbólicos devestimenta y poder durante el reinado de Wamba ....................................

A. KWASPEN, Features and Analysis of Sprang Hairnets ...............................

8 Índice

199

217

231

243

255

263

273

I N T R O D U C T I O N

ORgaNIzeD by the Department of ancient History and Written Culture in col-laboration with the Valencia Museum of Prehistory, the twelfth meeting of the

Seminar on the Study of Women in antiquity (SeMa) was celebrated November11-12, 2011. This seminar, which was born out of the desire to pull together doctorallevel work written by students at the University of Valencia between1997-2008,underwent a transformation vis-à-vis its content after 2009. For various scholarlyreasons, we specifically reoriented the seminar towards the broad area of women’sclothing in antiquity. Our goal was to convert the SeMa into another way of pub-lishing the colloquia organized under the auspices of the european Union-fundedproject, “Clothing and Identities: New Perspectives on Textiles in the Roman em-pire” (www.dressid.eu), where the University of Valencia is a participant. From2007 to 2013 the seminar dealt with the topic of dress as a symbol of personal iden-tity in the Roman world as well as in nearby historically-related cultures and terri-tories. a large group of researchers delved into the study of various aspects of thistopic. On the one hand, they examined diverse kinds of dyes, the chronology ofsome de-contextualized artifacts, the extraction of primary materials, their elabo-ration and commercialization, and the manufacture of various parts of clothing orthe self-same finished clothes. On the other hand, the seminar was able to advancegreatly our understanding of social and symbolic aspects of dress and power, age,religion, legislation, luxury, etc.

Nonetheless, it seemed to us that there was lacking an overall vision of themethods that were used in antiquity to protect, cover, and adorn the head. Sincethe most remote times, the head (caput) was considered the most important part ofthe body. For this reason, we thought it is necessary to focus more in depth on oneof the most evocative elements of clothing from all cultures and time periods: whatwe call the head covering or headdress. The headdress conceivably is the one pieceof clothing that almost always allows for the most unambiguous statement of per-sonal identity. Without a doubt this has contributed to the custom of placing theheads of monarchs, priests, and others on coins, medallions, engravings, cameos,

15

or imagines clipeatae used in the decoration of mosaics, frescos, triumphal archesand other important civic monuments which could serve as models for citizens to follow.

Over the two days of the Symposium, we tried to understand more in depth thelarge variety of forms and types of ancient headdresses that are described in sourcesderived from the ancient world. The objective was to relate the following two ele-ments: 1) the names given in the classical texts and information afforded by epig-raphy related to covering the head with 2) the physical forms of differentheaddresses known from iconography and archaeology. We are dealing with an ex-ercise that frequently is difficult to carry out. and the same thing occurs in the so-cial, political, and religious meaning that is hidden behind each one of these formsof adornment. One could have told us that the title we gave our symposium, Tiaras,Diadems, and Headdresses, was a bit on the short side, since it should have includedmany more specific names. Put simply, it was a practical way of looking for con-cision. apart from that, we believe the topic to be of considerable interest becauseas far as we know it has not received treatment in monographic form while at thesame time it is very broad. It is true that the existing bibliography on crowns ormilitary helmets, which strictly speaking are relatively distinct from clothing, isample and of good quality. However, there was lacking a vision of the headdressas part of actual clothing and personal identity. It is difficult for the papers presentedhere to cover completely such a wide panorama. Nonetheless, we are confident thatthe results of this effort will permit us to advance our understanding of adornmentsfor the head, a crucial aspect of ancient dress. Symbolism and technology were thetwo topics we examined. Many papers focused just on the first of these two topics;others have tried to unite the two themes. This publication does not include all ofthe papers that were presented at the Symposium. Below we describe briefly thosewhich appear in this book.

The two possible influences on the creation not only of the styles but also thenames for many of the parts of headdress, the Mediterranean and ancient Middleeast, are the subject of the interesting and well-executed essay by Manel garcía(University of Barcelona) and Manuel albaladejo (Freiburg University), “Diade-mas, tiaras y coronas de la antigua Persia: formas de representación y de adopciónen el mundo clásico” (“Diadems, Tiaras, and Crowns in ancient Persia: Means ofRepresentation and adoption in the Classical World”). The article examines the el-ements of headdress particular to the asian world which wound up having a hugeimpact on the West, such as the evolution of crowns and other royal headdressesthroughout the three periods of Persian history, the achaemenid, Parthian, andSasanian. The authors underscore a difficulty which subsequently turned up in al-most all of the papers: the confusion over terminology that existed among greekand Roman authors when it came to describing the apparel of their rivals (foreignto their culture) and, as a result, frequently criticized or not understood.

The wide spectrum of ornaments that we know from antiquity ranges from thesimple methods used by large numbers of people to cover or protect the head to themost baroque means of identifying members of the élite (important political andreligious dignitaries). The Mediterranean world is rich in these complex forms of

16 C. Alfaro Giner, J. Ortiz García and M. Antón Peset

adornment and many of the papers given reflect that fact. The joint-author contri-bution, “Micrometric-scale Investigations on a Headdress of the Orientalizing Pe-riod from Tomb 232 – Monte del Bufalo, Custumerium, Rome,” by María Ritagiuliani (ISCR), Ida anna Rapinesi (SaR), Daniela Ferro (CN), Peter attema (Uni-versity of groningen), and Francesco di genaro (Pigorini National Museum of Pre-history and ethnography), demonstrates what outcomes are possible whenarchaeology is combined with a good handling of analysis, restoration, and inter-pretation of the objects, resulting in a deeper understanding of the decorative ele-ments used to adorn the head throughout the history of the Mediterranean World.The article, “Non-greek Headdresses in the greek east”, by Isabella Benda-Weber(austrian archaeological Institute, Vienna) offers a precise analysis of non-greekheaddresses from Hellenic asia Minor. The formal analysis of headgear compli-ments perfectly garcía and albaladejo’s article as it describes in detail the evolutionof the mitra, the pilos or polos, the alopekis, the kynée, the cuasia (the famous Phry-gian or liberty cap), the Scythian pointed hat, etc.

Three papers were dedicated to the greek world. In the first, esther Rodrigoand gemma Fortea (ICaC–Tarragona) take on a very interesting topic, “Femaleenclosure as an element of Social Differentiation in Classical greece”. Based onfeminine iconography that we find embedded in attica ware and terracotta fromBoeotia, hair itself and the elements that hold it in place were frequently employedas the only adornment. The authors ask if there existed a preference for this simplesolution among the various social and ethnic classes of Classical athens, with ananswer in principle of “no”. Dora Constantinidis and Lilian Karali (Universities ofathens and Sidney, “Floral emblems on Hellenistic Crowns: Significance andMeaning”), while following a line of research within their specialty of environmen-tal studies, put into context the natural world and the forest that is behind the useof gold crowns typical among greek élites during the Hellenistic period. The iden-tification of floral elements in these exquisite golden pieces allows us to perceivethe phenomenon of the pairing of the leafy-floral crown with the crown conceivedas an outward sign of power and wealth. This occurs precisely at a moment wheninfluences from asia spur the greeks to renounce their plain nature-inspired stylesof decoration for the head. Following in a very similar vein is the work by MeritxellBlay and gemma Fortea (ICaC, “alexandrine Diadems: Syncretism in HellenisticDynasties”). according to the authors, despite the fact that the images based on at-tica vascular iconography and small-scale statues, and above all Boeotian terracotta,are idealized images that do no reproduce a concrete reality, in this paper they an-alyzed some peculiar instances which make one question the actual value of thesefeminine headdresses as an element of social differentiation. They analyze equallythe state of the question with the objective of establishing some preliminary con-clusions about the use of feminine headdress in relation with a social class or forone or the other of the many ethnic groups that lived in greece, more specificallyin athens during the Classical age.

One fairly common aspect of hairdressing and decoration during the Romanperiod, such as spiraled rings, is the subject of two articles. The first, “elements ofgoldwork in Women’s Hairstyles from Discoveries in Roman Tombs. Insights on

Introduction 17

Manufacturing Technology”, we owe to Ida anna Rapinesi (SaR), Daniela Ferro(CNR), alessandro Bedini (SaR) and María Rita giuliani (ISCR). employing ex-cellent methodology, they analyze interesting fragments of gold jewelry with a tech-nical focus on the method of producing these metal pieces, commenting on theirchemical composition and the methods that were employed to create them, all thewhile remaining within the field of ancient jewelry. elisenda garcía Benajes (au-tonomous University of Barcelona) offers a study of similar pieces conserved inBarcelona (“Hair Ornaments Conserved at the Barcelona Museum of archaeol-ogy”). In a descriptive manner, the author shows how women’s hair styles can withcareful observation be deduced from the grave goods that are found in gravesitesaround the city’s environs, and their possible connection to Italian parallels.

anne Kwaspen (“Features and analysis of Sprang Hairnets”), who works atthe antwerp Katoen-Natie Foundation, presents an analysis of a complete collectionof decorative egyptian hairnets owned by the foundation which date from the lateegyptian period. Kwaspen very clearly describes how all of these pieces were cre-ated using a refined and tight sprang technique, which allows one to see the varietyof complex system of weaving that existed at the time. The pieces under analysisare very well preserved, including the original colors, which allows us to contem-plate them today almost in their original state.

In “Hairdress on Bell-shaped Terracotta Figurines from the Cave-Sanctuary ofes Culleram, Ibiza” a group of colleagues, María Cruz Marín Ceballos, ana MaríaJiménez Flores, María Belén Deamos (all from the University of Sevilla), Jordi H.Fernández gómez and ana María Mezquida Ortí (from the Museum of archaeol-ogy of Ibiza and Formentera) collaborated on a joint project involving some Punicterracotta from the northeastern part of the island of Ibiza. With careful attentionto methodology, they study the technical execution of these cult objects and proposea typology based on the various iconographic motifs which they present.

During Late antiquity, all of the Church Fathers declared that women shouldcover their heads. Fashion and morals led to an environment rich in decorativeforms. The papers presented on this topic were quite varied. Dr. amparo MateoDonet and Jónatan Ortiz garcía (predoctoral fellow at the University of Valencia),enter into the study of the symbolism behind the funeral crown (“Coronae Diaboli,Coronae Domini: Christian Thought on Funeral Coronations in the Context of an-cient Religion”), explaining their evolution, significance, and forms on the basisof their description in written sources. also using written sources and Christianiconography, in “The Physical appearance of Pre-Nicene Christians,” Ingrid H. Szabolcs (University of Vienna) portrays the outward appearance of Christians inthe period before the Council of Nicaea (325 C.e.). The Christian sources reveal theideal physical appearance for Christians, which also can be seen in the Late antiqueportraits from the egyptian Fayum mummies, catacomb paintings, inscriptions,coins, golden glass flakes on glass backgrounds, ceramics, mosaics, and lesser ob-jects such as glass ointment jars. Combined, these diverse objects permit the authorto describe exactly this environment, typical of a period of emerging wealth butalso one of religious withdrawal and the desire to comply with the austere style ofdress proposed by Christian authors.


José antonio Molina gómez (University of Murcia) introduces us to a momentin history when the Classical world was still present in the collective memory ofMediterranean people, but when at the same time conflicting ideas about identitymore appropriate to the Visigoths began to appear. The author bases his work onjust one episode from the life of King Wamba (fl. 672-680 C.e.) (“Paulo’s TwoCrowns: Symbolic elements of Dress and Power During the Reign of Wamba”)and demonstrates how it is difficult to establish just when the Visigoths began toemploy the coronation ceremony as ritual of power. Dux Paulo’s rebellion againstthe king as narrated by Julian of Toledo raises an interesting problem concerningthe outward representations of power, more concretely, the function of crowns dur-ing this period. Paulo causes himself to be crowned using a votive crown which herobbed from a church. The sacrilege committed by the theft of the heavy crown isthe reason why after his political defeat, Paulo was forced to carry out a sacrilegiousexhibition, dressed in harapos and made to wear a burlesque crown – irreverentsymbolism for anyone who attempts sedition!

In her article, “early Byzantine Female Head Coverings: appearance and Func-tion,” Petra Linscheid explores the ways in which some women covered their headsfrom Late antiquity to the beginning of the Byzantine period (300-600 C.e.). Ofthe types analyzed, small hairnets (the majority coming from egypt) stand out onaccount of their sheer volume, but equally interesting are the headdresses, caps,hats, hoods, etc. The author pays particular attention to the technical aspects ofthese clothing elements, while always keeping in mind the social context of thefind and its adoption by different social classes. How these pieces were placed leadsto a better understanding of some materials that we consider to be very significantmarkers of identity among women at a time of transition in the way people dressed.Lilian Karali and Constantina Saliari (“Men in Power: The emperor’s Crown inthe Byzantine empire. an Interdisciplinary- archaeological approach”) engage ina formal study of the crown as an ornament among Byzantine royalty. The authorspropose an interdisciplinary study of these symbols of power from an environmentalpoint of view. To do this, they trace how the manufacture of these crowns changedover time, starting with their origin as metal wreaths in Hellenistic and Roman-eragreece. at the same time, the utilization of designs taken from nature (semi-pre-cious stones, metals, leather and cloth) allows one to see how design changes wererelated to the availability of the most expensive materials and how over timecheaper materials were substituted, for example leather replacing gold.

Carmen Rueda galán (University of Jaén, “The Hairstyles and Headdresssesof the Iberian Bronze ex-Votos in the Territory of Cástulo”) and Carmen alfaroginer (University of Valencia, “The Dama of Baza’s Headdress and Its Mediter-ranean Origins”), present their research on the ways of decorating the head in fun-damental pieces of Iberian culture, the bronze ex-votos from Jaén and one of themost famous examples of Iberian sculpture, the Dama of Baza. The former authorunfolds her argument from various points of view. given the territoriality of sanc-tuaries, with different types of headdress according to the offerings given to them,the author is convinced that ex-votos are a reflection of the social reality that ac-

Introduction 19

companies them. according to the author, such narrative pieces underline the con-trast between élites and their subordinates, point out the fact that the stylistic dif-ferences in the hair pieces vary according to the type and finally, shows that thereexists a close relationship between rituals and certain types of headdresses. Thestudy on the hair dressing of the Dama of Baza attempts to point out three precisetopics: the importance of experimenting with reconstruction when dealing with thetopic of clothing, the similarity between the Dama’s hair dress and some greekmodels, and the prevalence of the textile elements in the headdress of this emblem-atic sculpture.

Finally, we would like to thank Dr. Helena Bonet, Director of the Museum ofPrehistory and archaeology of Valencia, for the collaboration and material assis-tance given to us at every moment during the time when the Seminar was cele-brated. Dr. M. Julia Martínez garcía acted as secretary and was responsible for theorganizing the conference.

C. aLFaRO, J. ORTIz aND M. aNTóN


A B B R E V I A T I O N S

AAA Archaiologica Analekta Athinon.AAH Acta Archaeologica Hungarica.ABSA Annual of the British School of Athens.AcI Acta Iranica.A&Cr Antigüedad y cristianismo: monografías históricas sobre la Anti-

güedad tardía.ACSS Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia.AJA American Journal of Archaeology.AJN2 American Journal of Numismatics. Second Series.AM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische

Abteilung.AMI Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran.AnMurcia Anales de Prehistoria y Arqueología. Universidad de Murcia.ANRW H. Temporini and W. Haase (dir.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der rö-

mischen Welt, Berlin – New York.ArchLaziale Archeologia Laziale.Arctica Arctica: Studia Ethnographica Upsaliensia.ArsIsl Ars Islamica.ARV J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-figure Vase-painters, Oxford, 1963.ARW Archiv für Religionswissenschaft.ASAE Annales du Service des antiquités de l’Égypte.Assaph Assaph – Studies in Art History.ATN Archaeological Textiles Newsletter.AW Antike Welt.BAPA Beiträge zur Archäozoologie und Prähistorischen Anthropologie.BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique.BIEG Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Giennenses.BM British Museum.BMSAES British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan.

21

BRAH Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia.

CdE Chronique d’Égypte.

CF Museo del Cau Ferrat, Sitges.

CIETA Centre International d’Étude des Textiles Anciens.

CNR Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.

CPAG Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la Universidad deGranada.

CQ Classical Quarterly.

CRAI Comptes-rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions etBelles-Lettres.

Cuad.Hist.Esp Cuadernos de Historia de España.

DOP Dumbarton Oaks papers.

DS Ch. Daremberg, E. Saglio and E. Pottier (eds.), Dictionnaire desAntiquités Grecques et Romaines, Paris, 1877-1919.

Edad Media Edad Media. Revista de Historia.

EIr Encyclopaedia Iranica, London, 1982.

E-Spania E-Spania. Revue électronique d’études hispaniques médiévales.

ETF(ant) Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Serie II, Historia Antigua.

FGrHist F. Jacoby (ed.), Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker,

Berlin, 1923-1968.

FlorIlib Florentia Iliberritana: Revista de estudios de Antigüedad clásica.

IA Iranica Antiqua.

ICAC Institut Català d’Arqueologia Clàssica.

Iran Iran. Journal of British Institute of Persian Studies.

ISCR Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione e il Restauro.

IstMitt Istanbuler Mitteilungen. Estambul.

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature.

JdI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Institutes.

JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.

J. Exp. Bot. Journal of Experimental Botany.

JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies.

JIAN Journal International d’Archéologie Numismatique.

JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology.

KTN Katoen Natie, Antwerp.

LÄ W. Helck and E. Otto (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Wiesbaden,

1975-1992.

LIMC P. Müller, Chr. Auge and J.-R. Gisler (eds.), Lexicon Iconographi-cum Mythologiae Classicae, Zurich – Munich – Düsseldorf, 1981-

2009.

MAC Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, Barcelona.

MAEF Museu Arqueològic d’Eivissa i Formentera, Ibiza.

MAGW Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien.

MAN Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid.

MannGeschBl Mannheimer Geschichtsblätter.

22 Abbreviations

MARQ AyM MARQ, Arqueología y Museos.MCV Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez.MEFRA Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité.MFA Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.MH Museum Helveticum.MMAP Memorias de los Museos Arqueológicos Provinciales.MMFP Monuments et Mémoires de la Fondation Piot.MNC Museo Nacional, Cartago.NAH Noticiario Arqueológico Hispánico.NDPAC A. di Berardino (dir.), Nuovo Dizionario Patristico e di Antichità

Cristiane, Genoa – Milan, 2006.ÖJh Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in

Wien.OLP Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica.OM Optical microscopy.ParPass La parola del passato.PV I C. Alfaro, J. P. Wild and B. Costa (eds.), Purpureae Vestes, Actas

del I Symposium Internacional sobre Textiles y Tintes del Medite-rráneo en época romana (Ibiza, 8 al 10 de noviembre, 2002), Pur-pureae Vestes I, Valencia, 2004.

PV II C. Alfaro and L. Karali (eds.), Vestidos, textiles y tintes. Estudiossobre la producción de bienes de consumo en la Antigüedad, Pur-pureae Vestes II, Valencia, 2008.

PV III C. Alfaro, J. P. Brun, Ph. Borgard and R. Pierobon Benoit (eds.),Textiles y tintes en la ciudad antigua (Nápoles, 13 al 15 de noviem-bre, 2008), Purpureae Vestes III, Valencia – Naples, 2011.

RDAC Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.RE A. Pauly et al. (eds.), Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertums-

wissenschaft, Stuttgart, 1894-1978.REA Revue des Études Anciennes.RGF Römisch-Germanische Forschungen.RIN Rivista Italiana di Numismatica e Scienze Affini.RMAH Royal Museum for Art and History, Brussels.RMA Recerques del Museu d’Alcoi.RSF Rivista di Studi Fenici.SAR Sopraintendenza Archeologica di Roma.SEM Scanning electron microscopy.SEMA I C. Alfaro y A. Noguera (eds.), Actas del Primer Seminario de Es-

tudios sobre la Mujer en la Antigüedad (24-25 Abril, 1997), Valen-cia, 1998.

SIMA Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology.SNR Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau.ST Studia Troica.TdP Trabajos de Prehistoria.TerraAntBalc Acta Associationis internationalis “Terra antiqua balcanica”.

Abbreviations 23

TM Travaux et Mémoires.UF Ugarit Forschungen.ZDMG Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.ZRG GA Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, Germanistische

Abteilung.ZRG RA Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, Romanistische

Abteilung.

24 Abbreviations

TIARAE, DIADEMS AND HEADDRESSES IN THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES. SYMBOLISM AND TECHNOLOGY....

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