The Technological Gaze

THE TECHNOLOGICAL GAZEIN ADVERTISING

Norah Campbell

This article is concerned with what a technological gaze might mean; whatregimes of truth and what new modes of subjectivity are filtered through it.By drawing on television and print advertising, vs e can see thepervasiveness of a gaze that is technological in contemporary Westernconsumer culture. This article argues that, far from being a simple'high-tech' effect, a technological gaze is a way of seeing that may bedeconstructed.

To this end, it will call on visual culture studies, feminism, film theory andDerridean deconstruction to highlight how high-tech images are culturalartefacts, which underscore contemporary imaginings about bodies ondenvironments. The technological gaze uses specific methods to put itsmeaning together - impossible subjeci^positioning, the codification of flesh,a visualisation of scientific narratives and the aestheticisation of information- all of >vhich tell us about a longer line of cultural fantasies aboutinformation, code and technology.

IntroductionEverything said is said by an observer.

Maturana and Vareta, 1980, p. xxii

This research is an attempt to introduce conceptu-ally the theoretical discourse ofa technological gazeto marketing communications theory. The gaze is atechnical term that describes the ways in which wevisually consume images of people and places, aswell as the ways images are constructed to entertainand encourage certain ways of seeing. Its use hasbeen primarily in psychoanalytic investigations infilm, most influentially Laura Mulveys seminal workon cinema (Mulvey, 1975). The gaze, she argues, isthe way in which the camera acts as the eyes and earsofthe spectator, presenting a particular way of fram-ing the world (Mulvey, 1992, p. 748). This is nevera neutral position, but a power-laden one, where acertain understanding of the world is assumed, man-ifested in how the camera frames places and bodies(Schroeder, 1998). Mulvey uses psychoanalysis toargue that cinema has always favoured a masculineviewing position. Schroeder tells us that 'to gazeimplies more than to look at - it signifies a psycho-logical relationship of power, in which the gazer issuperior to the object ofthe gaze' {Schroeder, 1998,p. 208). Advertising, often in lifestyle magazines,presents various gazes of bodies, spaces and places,inviting the individual to share by visually consum-ing them (Patterson and Elliot, 2002).

In recent years, theorists across many disciplines havebeen interested in how 'human' ways of experiencingthe world are gradually being integrated with non-human, technological ways of perceiving and under-standing reality. In critical theory, Baudrillard (1991,p. 71) speaLs ofa virtual gaze, while the philosopherof war Paul Virilio (1994, p. 96) refers to the 'autonia-tion of perception' that comes with advances in warweaponry, when we in the west have technologies soadvanced we achieve absolute vision, while seeingnothing. For his part, the media theorist Lunenfeld(zooi, p. 93) talks about how a 'mobilised virtual gaze'evolved in eighteenth century painting when the per-spective of panorama was developed, allowing theviewer a sense of movement without physical travel.In a more contemporary vein, the feminist AntiBalsamo (1999} talks about how new visualisationtechnologies, such as those used in cosmetic surgery,exercise a new form of dominance - replacing themale gaze with a normative, 'disembodied technicalgaze'.' The feminist technologist Donna Haraway

I Balsamo (1999, p. 58). 'Cosmetic surgeons use technologi-cal imaging devices to reconstruct the female body as asignifier ofthe ideal feminine beaury: "difference" is madeover into sameness. The technological gaze refashions thematenal body to reconstruct it in keeping with culturallydetermined ideals ot Western feminine beauty.'

© Mercury Publications

Irish Marketing Review Volume 19 Number i Sf 2 2007

(2000, p. 56) meditates on the power relations thatare produced by a 'technocratic gaze', while the arthistorian Barbara Stafford (1993, p. 28) documents atrend, starting in the Enlightenment, towards an'automated spectral isation' in the visual presentationofthe world - where the intention and purpose ofthe gaze became medicalised and technologised. Fromtechnoscience to Feminism, theorists have noticed asplicing o( direct and tactile human perception of real-ity with another reality, one that is mediated andtechnical; producing a new reality that negotiates theindividual's knowledge ofthe utiiverse in diverse andcomplex ways.

lmagin(in)g TechnologiesDuring times of intellectual and artistic upheaval,new and surprising modes of imagining the humanbody and mind emerge (Tofts et al., 2002,Halberstam and Livingston, 1995; Featherstone andBurrows, 199s; Thomas, 1995). Technologies gener-ate new images of the body and its environment,which in turn bring about a redefinition of our placein the world, and the status of the human in theprism ofthe technological. The discipline of cyber-netics, which emerged in the United States in the1950s and 1960s, is a good example of such a ten-dency. From the 1950s on, the concept of cybernet-ics constituted a fundamental change in thinkingabout control, communication, information, andlife itself, spawning a new language ('feedback','autopoiesis', 'cellular automata', 'neural net'). Itreflected a new Zeitgeist which has given the cul-tural imaginary of the west a new way of thinkingabout life, and a new arsenal of images to thinkabout the human. At the time when cybernetics wasconceived as a philosophy and a scientific discipline,two things were happening in the world. Computerswere gaining a pre-eminent place in science and inwider culture, being used for the first time to modelexperiments (Heims, 1993), and gaining a powerfulsentience in feature film (200/; A Space Odyssey, TheAndromeda Strain). Secondly, cybernetics was visu-alised at a time information was beginning to be the-orised about, when Bell Laboratories technicianClaude Shannon sought to provide a theory of com-munication that would universalise it in computersand humans (Gieick, 1998). Cybernetic theory, then,was one which stressed that information patternswere more important in understanding organismsthan materiality. In a cybernetic view ofthe world,emphasis lies not in material absence and presence,but in information coded in pattern and random-

ness (Hayles, 1999). In such a paradigm, the dis-tinction between the human and the technologicalis not ultimately important, as both are seen as infor-mational tntmes (Wiener, 1948). Radically, for cyber-netics, the difference between human and non-human is not important, for both sides are measuredin terms ofthe information they process. For cyber-netics then, it is more apt to conceive ofthc humanas a cybernetic organism - a cyborg.

What is important to note here is that cybernetics,or other technological discourses, do not remain asreified technical discourses that are understood andused by an elite professional few. Discourses of sci-ence and technology are increasingly influential inthe art and literature of recent decades (deLaurentis,1980). In the field of visual studies, it has beenargued that advertising borrows from existing arti-facts in art and literature to establish meaning (forexample, Schroeder, 2002; Berger, 1972), but littleresearch to date has addressed how the discourses ofscience and technology - their narratives, metaphorsand symbols — are used in advertisements to createmeaning. So how do science and technology becomepart ofthe visual environment that people experi-ence in everyday life? During the 1960s and 1970s,medical journals in the west began to reproduceimages ofthe body that had been made with vari-ous technologies, such as Roentgen imaging (X-Ray), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and com-puted tomography (CT) (Cartwright, 1995; vanDijck, 2001, p. 223; Haraway, 1995, p. 320), inau-gurating a new representational practice in visuali-sation ofthe body.

Technological imaginings did not stay put in theclinic, but seized the social imagination, and soonappeared in films, magazines and elsewhere in pop-ular culture, sometimes generating debate about thevery entities being seen 'for the first time', and nearlyalways reinforcing the awesome power of technol-ogy to capture reality, objectively and without anyagenda. We became fascinated with the landscapeofthe inside ofthe human body. Van Dijck (2001)analyses the influence ofa technological way ofseeing in the film Fantastic Voyage (1966). In thefilm, a medical crew are miniaturised and dispatchedinto a body with the purpose of curing a disease. Sheargues that the film acts as a trope which reflects apopular fascination with envisioning the body ftoma different perspective, with the aid of imaging tech-nologies. Similarly, Donna Haraway (1995) shows

The Technological Gaze in Advertising

Image 1 Lennart Nilsson, 'The drama of life before birth', Ufe, April 1965

how Lennart Nilsson's book A Chilli is Bom (1965)presented a landmark in the photography o f thealien habitat of inner space' (Haraway 1995, p. 3Z0).Nilsson's images ofthe foetus in the early weeks ofexistence astounded the pubhc when they were pro-duced in Life magazine in 1965. The images pro-voked a public debate about abortion in the UnitedStates as new 'realities' of life were revealed to thepublic eye. A glance at one of Nilsson's images tellsus a lot.

There are intentions at work in this technologicalgaze. The foetus floats in a black and white spacewhich is almost celestial, occluding the other bodythat exists intrinsically with it - that ofthe mother.The absence of evidence ofthe mother in such animage is not a reality objectively transmitted throughthe conduit of technology, but a construction thatdecides what is to be included and excluded. It is anexample of how science and cultural studies mergeto give new meanings to dramas and stru^Ies aboutthe body - for example the status ofthe foetus -meanings whose legitimacy comes from technolog-ical systems of perception. Cartwright and Sturken(2001, p. 280) suggest a strange paradox in the useof technologised images in consumer culture:'[m]uch ofthe meaning of camera-generated imagesis derived from the combination ofthe cameras rolein capturing the real and its capacity to evoke emo-tion and present a sense ofthe unattainable - inother words, to appear to be both magical and truth-

fiilAt once' (emphasis added). Images such as thisintroduce new subjectivities into the marketplace(Cook, 2003).

The mediation of visual phenomena through theeye of technology has given us a new set of truthsabout the body and its environment. In many dis-courses, a disembodied technological gaze looks atthe body. It assembles and interprets the humanbody, from practices as diverse as blood screeningand heart monitoring (Gromala, 1996), cryogenics(Scurlock, 1992) and body building (Balsamo, 1999),as well as determining the meaning of seemingly apriori terms like 'life' and 'death' (Waldby andSquier, 2003; Lai et al., 2006). As Braidotti (1996,p. 13) eloquently puts it:

[t]he tcchno-bodies of late postindustrial societies canand should be understood in rhe light of the increas-ingly complex amount of information that contem-porary science has heen able to provide about them.With reference to molecular biology, genetics andneurology - to mention just a few - the body todaycan and should be described adequately and with seri-ous credibility also as a sensor; an integrated site ofinformation networks. It is also a messenger carryingthousands of communication systems: cardio-vascu-lar, respiratory, visual, acoustic, tactile, olfectory, hor-monal, psychic, emotional, erotics, etc.

As advertisements become more highly finished,excessively produced and artificialised (cf Schroeder

Irish Marketing Review Volume 19 Number i & 2 2007

and McDonagh. 2005), a technological gaze is foundin the discourse of advertising too. What does it tellus about the cultural imagination of the west today?This research argues that scientised and technolo-gised images celebrate a particular view of life asinformation.

Research Project and MethodologyThis research is part of a larger project whichexplores technology and visuality. It takes as its start-ing point film criticism and literary theory, espe-cially the work of Jacques Derrida and deconstruc-tion, and their relevance to image research, as wellas drawing on theories within the field of critical sci-ence and technology studies. Derrida's thoughts arehelpful in a number of ways. Often, his decon-struction of texts focuses not only on what is therein the text, but what is not there, for the momentsof excess, of equivocation, of aporia (Derrida, 1995,2004). This is especially useful for thinking abouttechnological images - which are often thought ofeither as being more real, objective and transparentthan the human eye, or as a mere representation,behind which no other meaning exists. Derridaargues that logocentrism permeates every aspect ofwestern thought, making alternative ways of organ-ising the world difficult to conceive (1997, p. 12).This is why technological images are often not seenas projects for deconstruction, they are just simply'there'. However, critical visual culture shows thatevery discourse sets up assumptions and ideas, evenscientific ones. Metaphor and analogy abound inscience as much as they do in other discourses (LeysStepan, 2000; Latour, 1987). For example, Shohat(1998) shows how the images and discourses of med-ical and popular texts about endometriosis ('per-plexing', 'enigma', 'mystery') perpetuate the ritualof measuring the unruly female body against thenorms of an observing scientist. Eighteenth-centuryscience acts as a good example of how humans havea tendency to naturalise the 'natural' biologicalgrounds for differences between the male andfemale, and black and white {Leys Stepan, 2000;Halberstam, 1995).

This research adopts a critical visual cultureapproach to the image. One of the most difficultmethodological problems in working with imagesis how to access useful information from them(Jewitt and van Leeuwen, 2002; Prosser, 1998). Thereis a need in visual culture research to show that thereare important connections between abstract theory

and 'lived aesthetic experience' (Stafford, 1996, p.45). Marketing communications have a pervasiveand culturally defming role that can tell us a lotabout the imaginary of the contemporary west. Inthis spirit, the literature that theorised the bodythrough the lens of technology was related to whatwas happening in the images we encountered inmarketing communications. Tropes emerged thatoccurred repeatedly in the image sample. These weregrouped into clusters of overarching themes.

While engaging with the theory, we undertooksearches of advertisements which came from news-papers and magazines, as well as ad agency websitesand graphic design magazines. For this part of theproject, three motion advertisements were purpo-sively sampled. Tbe nature of this sampling mightbe best categorised under 'critical case sampling',which selects cases on tbe basis that they can makea particular point (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill2003, p. 170). Added to this, a portfolio of otheradvertising images was collected and used as anextensive intertextual resource for the primary mate-rial, illustrating that certain visualising strategieswere not exclusive to the primary ads, but resonantthroughout many others. The insights of this arti-cle draw on both the primary and the intertextualsources. The following section examines the contextof the primary material, intertextually linked witbsupporting images.

The Primary Sample ofAdvertisements - Les Jumelles, Eye D(Nike), Transformer (Toyota)In 2003, Nike commissioned fifteen filmmakers tocreate The Art of Speed campaign for the 2004Summer Olympics. The brief asked the creativeteams to interpret the idea of speed. Les Jumelles andBye D are the contributions of KDLAB, a New Yorkgraphic design agency. Les jumelles is a two-minuteadvertisement, which was launched in cinemas inJune 2004 in the US to mark the release of Nike'sSwift training suit and shoes. The advertisement isset in a futuristic world, depicting the experience ofa female running at the speed of light while her twinremains in their gothic high-tech laboratory home.

Eye D is an experimental companion piece to LesJumellesy and speculatively promotes Nike's proto-type of the same name - a personal communicationsdevice that will not be commercially available until2014. This advanced prototype, showcasing cutting-


Figure 1 Visual Strategies of the Technological Gaze

Impossible subject-positioning infotmated body

Data body

Body born of technology

Visualisingthe unseen

Aestheticisation of information

Mathematical ^ ^ Scientific Spacetnarrative

Non-linear narrative

ime >f N v Chaosnarrative

edge technology, may be used in sport to simulatewhat a top athlete sees and feels, incorporating dig-ital video displays and stereo haptics. The promo-tional literattire accompanying this product advancesan interesting discourse of a cyborgic physicality:'Nike has always been about MOTIVAT'ION. Theadvancement of technologies and strategic partner-ships will enable Nike to compel consumers toexplore new physical futures' (Nike 2004, emphasisin original). The advertisement features the same setof twins. This time, one is on a running track wear-ing the Eye D companion device, while the other'experiences' and monitors the other's performancefrom the comfort of a seat at home.

In November 2003, ATTIK (a global branding andcommunications group in San Francisco), unrolledits marketing communications campaign for thelaunch of Scion - a new car model from Toyota.Ambience Entertainment, a Sydney-based visualeffects and design company, was commissioned tocreate the advertisement Transformer. This adver-tisement tracks the movement of a particle througha wholly electronic, nanobotic environment. As theparticle colludes and collides with other elements inthe space, it evolves into a cyborg animal, whicheventually transmogrifies into a car.

Visual Strategies ofthe TechnologicaJ GazeThis section describes some ofthe ways in which atechnological gaze is performed in advertising. Byclose-reading our sample, it became clear that cer-tain aesthetic techniques are implicitly used in adver-tising which recur, rendering the image through atechnological gaze. This research argues that thetechnological gaze is enacted through the followingvisual techniques: impossible subject-positioning,the presentation of an 'informated' body, non-linearnarratives and the aestheticisation of information(see Figure i).

I. Impossible Subject-PositioningIn this selection of advertisements, there is a ten-dency to centre the viewer in a complex world thatwould be impossible in human experience. It cotildof course be argued that this has always been thecase. Hayles (2005b), for example, comments thathumans have used prostheses to create new sensoryexperiences for hundreds of years. Even before this,art has long been responsible for placing the view-ing subject in vistas beyond direct experience(Lunenfeld, 2000). The difference is that since theEnlightenment, technologies have been developedto interrogate the microscopic and the cosmic levels,taking the place of art to speak the truth about inte-rior and exterior space. In Les jumelles, the viewingsubject takes up a position that is theoreticallyimpossible to envision, because the advertisementis attempting to articulate visually Einstein's GeneralTheory of Relativity - that travelling at an extremelyhigh speed causes time to slow down. The viewer isencouraged to identify with the female who runs atthe speed of light - a theoretical impossibility. Asshe speeds up, time stands still for her, while manyyears pass for her twin on Earth. When science isconfronted with intellectual changes on a paradig-matic level, it puts the discipline momentarily at aloss to find the metaphors, the pictures to articulatethem, to externalise them. The concept of a space-time dimension - counter-intuitive for the human- is often brought into visuality using a thoughtexperiment involving human twins (Hawking, 2001,pp. 9-10). How the public understands scientificconcepts becomes interesting when we see that suchconcepts (complexity, chaos, the cyborg, relativity,spacetime, nanotech and so on) are culturally appro-priated, and have a massive impact on individualand collective understanding of life.

In the sample, we find that the viewing subject isoften manoeuvred into spaces where human phe-


Image 2 Scion Transformer

nomenology does not extend. In the openingsequence of the advertisement Transformer (Image2), tbe viewer is positioned in a nanobotic spacewhere sub-atomic particles collide in an environ-ment tbat is wholly technological, yet seems to teemwith life, with a 'mechanical viscerality' (Campbellet al., 2006). It is a world that is infinitesimallysmall and yet the viewing subject is given a placewithin it. 1 his, we argue, is part of a broader ten-dency in contemporary culture to fetishise quan-tum levels of existence, a fascination that is evi-denced in present-day filmography, advertising andtelevision, where tbe gaze is focused on electroniccircuitry, pulsating electrons and the seemingly vasthorizons of microscopic space. Colin Milburn callsthis fascination, and the implicit assumptions itmakes about life, 'nanologic' (Milburn, 2002). InTransformer^ spatial orientation is nearly impossi-ble, further signifying an environment where clas-sical physical laws do not hold. The shifting,ephemeral spatiality of the tunnel tbat is visualisedin the last sequence is especially interesting here. Itstrongly connotes a collapse of traditional, physicalnarratives of space (Image 3).

2. The Informated BodyTraditional philosophical conceptions often thoughtof the internal body as a 'dark continent' (Doane,1986; Stafford, 1996, p. 129). As van de Vail (2004)argues, '[tlhe body was part of an impenetrableNature resisting the self-clarifying power of Reason;it cotild be subjectively felt but it could never be sub-jectively seen'. In this way, up until the Enlighten-ment times, the unseen body was socially con-structed as an ineffable, sacred space, protected fromthe Other's gaze.

Visualising technologies have a profotmd impact onhuman self-conception, creating debate about therelationship between knowledge of technology andhow technology creates knowledge (see Latour,1987). In otber words, the transformation of thehuman into data questions what new forms of mean-ing the body visually creates as it is mediatedthrough technology. This in turn has been exploredin art, such as 'Divining Fragments: Reconciling theBody' - an exhibition held at the Center forPhotography in New York in 2003. The exhibitionexamines how the imaging and re-imaging of thebody through technology have a profound impacton human self-understanding and behaviour farbeyond the technical realm.

Cartwright (1995) sees such mediation as part of abroader tendency in society towards a mentality oftechnological surveillance that encourages a disciplin-ing of both the individual body and the social body.The era of the Enlightenment witnessed a strongdesire to cast light on dark and invisible depths ofknowledge across many disciplines. This pervasivedesire to penetrate, to know, to count and accountfor the body, was what Stafford calls an 'inscape' —escaping into the body in the hope of discoveringthe answers to human existence (Stafford, 1996, p.131). Concomitant to this was the development of anaesthetics of geometry and rationality in intellectualthought. Stafford (1993, p. 9) explains that this reori-entation towards the body brought with it a newapproach to knowledge: 'the problem of how to getfrom where you are to where you are not, or cannotreach, entailed the invention o^ Logos'. The way todo this was informed by a rational, authoritarian,disembodied and ordering eye that has continued to


Image 3 Scion Transformer

inform deeply how (body) knowledge is 'uncovered','discovered', 'created' or 'legitimated'. Exploring thisidea, Waldby (1995) argues that contemporary cul-ture is still implicitly trusting of modernist truthclaims about science and technology as truth - coldand simple. This leads to an enframing ofthe bodywithin the logic of the given technology, whichaffects the knowledge that is collected about it. Asshe puts it, '... in today's world the computer actsnot merely as an imaging tool, but as a 'cyberneticphilosophy and praxis' which enframes the bodywithin the logic ofthe computer and sets out theterms in which the body is to be understood' (seealso Thomas, 1995; Hayles, 1999).

We find that the advertising texts examined herereveal a tendency in visual culture to conceive of thebody as information. This is of course pervasive inconsumer culture, where the body is often counted,assessed or legitimated according to calories,glycemic indices or body mass indices. We fmd inadvertising that the body is informationalised, or pre-sented as data. The viewer is encouraged to gazeupon the body not as flesh and blood, but as anamalgamation of code (Image 4), as well as an objectthat can be assimilated into, or constituted out of,an information background (Image 5). Such gazesdisrupt the humanist compulsion to think of tech-nology as a tool developed and controlled byhumankind, as these bodies imply that technologywas here first, and the human evolved from it,instead ofthe other way round.

Some theorists have suggested the various ways inwhich the traditionally 'ineffable' nature of life itself

is conceived as information in contemporary dis-course (Lash, 2001; Hayles, 1999, 2005a). This couldnot be more obvious than in certain contemporaryArtificial Life (AL) discourse. Take for example thetheory of the AL scientist Hans Moravec in his 1990book Mind Children. Moravec argues convincinglythat in a future era, the human brain will be slicedinto small parts, its information read and uploadedonto a computer. Human consciousness will leavethe body behind, existing instead in a computerprogramme. Today, we live in a society wbere dis-courses involving the body are becoming increas-ingly technological, where seemingly '[e]very aspectofthe human is being converted into computerinformation, whether it is blood, gas compositions,heart rates, brain waves, or the genetic code itself(Hables Gray, 2001, p. 70). One effect of this entan-glement is that Code becomes a discourse whichspeaks a true language, a 'lingua franca' (Hayles,2005a, p. 5) that mirrors both what occurs in natureand generates nature itself. The worid has beentranslated into a problem of coding, a common lan-guage which links all systems, 'evidenced in thecybernetic systems theories that are applied to tele-phone technology, computer design, weaponsdeployment or database construction and mainte-nance, molecular genetics, ecology, immunobiol-ogy' (Haraway, 2004, p. 23). Instances of thisinclude the Human Genome Project, which sys-tematises the complexity of human life into a seriesof digital codes, and the Visible Human Project -an interactive computer program funded by the USHealth Department, allowing the user to visuallyenter and 'experience' what it would be like to beinside a human body (Thacker, 1998). Waldby calls


Image 4 Orange

this 'the most recent and thorough attempt toenframe the body within the logic of the computer'{Waldby, 1995, p. 42).

Nike's advertisement Eye D presents an imaginedfuture social order where the body and its functionsare closely regulated and understood through tech-nology. During the ad, the body is broken downinto different parts, exposing a tendenq' to think oftbe body not as a holistic entity, but one where partscan be metrically divided and numerically ordered— a logic of rationality and logos which began duringthe Enlightenment (Stafford, 1993, p. 17). In this ad,each body part - the ears, feet, wrists and eyes — isindividually enhanced with a technological device(Image 6); these devices form a feedback loop to aremote console in the home - making it difficult todistinguish the controller from the controlled.Through digitised rendering, the ad encourages usto gaze upon the body as an object that can beprocessed. The body is relegated to a secondaryorder compared to the technology which measuresit, which enhances It and which, in sum, speaks the'truth' about it. A similar episteme is celebrated inLes Jumelles. The runner's suit and trainers connotea 'second skin\ a skin which is actually more prizedthan the original because it radically enhances therunner's performance. Performance is translated intoinformation which is measured and displayed astechnological ordering on the screen. In both cases,the viewer is encouraged to gaze upon the body asa thing to be processed, and the technologies formthe focus both of the message and of the society thatis presented in the ads.

Further, what constitutes bodily performance in thisimagined society is closely aligned to the principlesand capabilities of the machine. Speed is directlylinked with our notions of progress and achieve-ment. Paul Virilio (1986) argues that speed, ratherthan commerce and the urge for wealth, constitutesthe foundations of human society. Speed and preci-sion are the values that are privileged in technology,and these are precisely the two that connote theworth of the body in the posthuman age. It isimportant to note the type of speed the body per-forms in these two ads. 7 he body moves seamlessly,effortlessly through space; exhibiting no signs ofhuman decomposition; sweat, grimaces and breathare all absent here. It is also important to note thatLes Jumelles ^2LS commissioned for the occasion oftbe 2004 Olympics, a world event that reflects an

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Image 6 Nike Bye D

intention to push the body to the limits of humanphysicality.

The findings in this research also reveal that a tech-nological gaze exposes and aestheticises formerlyinvisible processes in the universe. Imaging systemsare integrated into forms of visuality and becomepart ofthe way the world is perceived and under-stood. Note for example the sequence of split-secondvisions that the runner in Les Jumelles experiences(im 32sec-im 36 sec). These consist mainly ofimages that are experienced by and through tech-nology, which here includes night vision, thermalvision and satellite imaging. Imaging technologiessuch as the X-Ray have been used in advertising withthe suggestion that the way we can find out what isreally human is not by gazing on a deceptive 'sur-face' with human eyes, but in penetrating its depthsthrough a technological lens. Such a way of seeingis implicit in GE's advertisement in Image 7. 'Thedoctor can see you now' implies that technology willprovide a truer set of eyes with which to penetratethe body. Such kinds of images (see also Image 8)effectively draw attention from their mediatednature, by accompanying ad text which always sug-gests that technology is not a medium (a step awayfrom the real), but a truer, deeper and more realreflection of all that is human.

3. Non-linear NarrativesNarratives of linearity and cause-and-effect that weredeeply rooted in the modernist consciousness areslowly being displaced by the effects of technology(Turkle, 1996; Hayles, 1999, p. 35; Venkatesh et al..

2002). Technological forms of life are non-linear(Brooks, 2005; Lash, 2001, pp. 110-16; Brown, 1995,p. 81; Pepperell, 1995). Lash (2001), for example,talks about the various ways technology compresses,speeds-up, dis-embeds and stretches out linearity.Visualising non-linearity has become an inherentpart not only of scientific work, but also of recentcultural theory, organisational theory and market-ing management research, because non-linearity dis-rupts the inclination to order, and, by extension, tocontrol systems (Nowotny, 2005; Nelson, 2002).Non-linearity problematises the imagination of telos,the illusion of perfect predictability, as well asuncovering alternative histories, identities andknowledges at work in any given system. Non-linearvisions in organisational theory and marketing man-agement are still marginal though, perhaps because,as Hayles (2005a, p. 31) suggests, '[t]he contempo-rary indoctrination into linear causality is so strongthat it continues to exercise a fatal attraction formuch of contemporary thought. It must be con-tinually resisted if we are to realize the implicationof multicausal and multiiayered hierarchical sys-tems, which entail distributed agency, emergentprocesses, unpredictable coevolutions, and seem-ingly paradoxical interactions between convergentand divergent processes.'

Visualising alternative ways of thinking is difficult.When science creates new paradigms (as was the casewith quantum mechanics at the beginning ofthetwentieth century), new ways of understanding space,time, motion and presence ensue; ways which ofteninvolve a detachment from our intuitive, human-

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Imagination at work

based models.^ In this sample of ads, two narrativestructures emerge as aestheticisations of theoreticalprinciples - one which visualises a chaotic system,and one which envisions spacetime dimensionality.

(i) Chaotic narrative: The first 30 seconds ofTransformer consist of a sequence of events that drawon, and give aesthetic value to, principles of chaostheory, visualising the processes of randomness,entropy and emergence that arise from non-lineardynamic systems. The camera follows the movementof a single element in the technological environmentand imagines how a coherent system (the car) canmaterialise from the disorder that surrounds it.There is no Archimedean point in tbis narrativesequence; it is evident that there are other chaoticelements that are self-organising in the background(Image 9). The physical principles of the theory arereflected in the advertising narrative,(ii) Space-time narrative. Les Jumelles aestheticises the

2 This was certainly truf in the case of quantum dynamics,where one of its main proponents, Werner Heisenberg,worried that the theory 'labours under the disadvantage ofnot being directly amenable to a geometrically intuitiveinterpretation [amchauliche interpretiert] since the motionof electrons cannot be described in terms of the familiarconcepts of space and time' (Heisenberg, 1925, in Miller,1996, p. 97).

narrative of a space-time dimensionality. Accordingto Einsteinian relativity, an object travelling at nearlythe speed of light will cause time to dilate, relativeto the time experienced by surrounding objects. Thisadvertisement attempts to map this complex andnonoptical theory by disrupting the normal ideas ofnarrative that are presented within the visual text.Here, we see that a long time passes for the twin inthe building while the runner experiences only abrief period.

The concept of uniform, linear time is deeplyingrained in the western world-view (Lomax, 1994),but narratives such as these open up new conceptu-alisations of experience in the popular imagination,and alternative comprehensions of time, space andteleology. In these instances, we can see how scien-tific theory becomes an aesthetic influence on theadvertisements narrative. In this way, scientifictheory becomes part of popular visual culture.

4. The Aestheticisation of InformationThis selection of ads reveals a tendency in advertis-ing to use technical detail as a visual aesthetic.Mathematical and scientific symboiogy has beenintegrated into popular culture as a visual device,and its inherent meaning is not as important as itspresence as authority. Of course, Baudrillards (1981)postmodern vision of semiotics - the order of sim-ulacra - reveals that in the contemporary world,

12


Image 8 Reebok

images often do not refer to some external reality.This does not mean that they are false or counter-feit; they exist as simulacra; their reality is withinthemselves (and this is a powerful status because itcan affect conceptions within the 'real' world).Technical and mathematical detail can be discon-nected from its original context and act as a free-fioating signifier that can be attached to any object(Fitchett et al., 1998; The Guardian, 2005). This isapparent in the aesthetic value given to the surfeitof information presented in Les Jumelles und Eye D.Many images in the ad are technical (Image 10), andcarry little value in terms of what they actuallydenote, but they form part of an important signify-ing strategy which connotes a world where techni-cal information gives the impression of high levelsof specialisation and expertise. This tendency is res-onant in other advertising texts, especially for cos-metic products, which carry with them a type of'non-informational information'; the numbers, sym-bols and diagrams are not textual, rather their aes-thetic shape and form is more important than theircontent (see Thompson, 2004).

Implications of the TechnologicalGaze in AdvertisingIn her critique of the visual possibilities of'techno-scientific culture'. Donna Haraway (2000) su^eststhat certain things as we know them, such as planet

Earth or the human foetus, acquire an existence onlybecause of fundamental changes in visual culture.In effect, technology has had a revolutionary impacton perception:

Both the whole earth and the foetus owe their exis-tence as public objects to visualising technologies.These technologies include computers, video cam-eras, satellites, sonography machines, optical fibretechnology, television, micro cinematography, andmuch more. The global foetus and the sphericalwhole earth both exist hecause of, and inside of,technoscientiHc culture.

Haraway, 2000, p. 222

Imaging technologies encourage the viewer to adopta new, tech no-logical perspective towards the bodyand its environment. This is firstly because previ-ously 'unseen' objects have entered Into the visualfield, (like the image ofthe distant planet in LesJumelles), and secondly, because existing objects(such as the body) assume a new significance.

Every new technology that opens new landscapes andbodyscapes also restricts or undermines others (vanDijck, 2001, p. 223). Technological gazes determinenot just what is seen, but what can be seen, thus, ina way, what is permitted to be seen. Haraway arguesthat the world as it is filtered through technologyshatters any idea of passive vision (Haraway, 1991, p.


Image 9 Toyata Transformer

187). Every set of eyes, be they human or technolog-ical, is telling a story, for, as Maturana and Varelapowerfully suggest above, 'Everything that is said issaid by an observer'. All 'eyes' are perceptual systemsand there is no unmediated reflection in scientificaccounts of the body. This leads to the idea that cer-tain discourses are more privileged than others inthese imag(in)ings. Eye D, for example, encouragesgazing upon a regulated, measured and measurablebody. The visual measurement of objects in the worldwhich have been hitherto beyond the human per-ceptual system encourages the regularisation of whatStafford terms, 'irregular, shadowy, and complexbodies in the name of an authoritative and correctivetheory' (Stafford, 1993, p. 12). The technological gazemight intuitively, because of notions of technologi-cal progress, be considered liberatory. Instead, ourresearch suggests that this gaze can be liberatory andpersecutory. advanced and primitive.

The technological gaze is difficult to deconstruct asit is embedded in the cultural unconscious as beinga direct and authoritative conduit to knowledge, but,as van Dijck (2001) points out, technological ren-derings are not really a step closer to the 'real', butrather a mediation of it: 'society is willing to abdicaterationality and responsibility to science and technol-ogy in the creation of machines that we are led tobelieve will tell us the truth about ourselves ... Thespecialist is no longer looking directly at the insidesof a real body - its organs and intestines laid openthrough an incision in its skin - but a mediated body:mediated by the camera and a video display hangingover the operating site' (van Dijck, 2001, pp. 223-4).

Concluding Remarks

The process of representing objects, ideas and iden-tities shapes how we chink of them; in a way, repre-sentation enters into the very constitution of thingsand categories.

Schroeder and Borgerson, 2005, p. 594

Technology and culture are not discrete entities, astechnology is part of culture and draws on it in itspractice (Cartwright and Sturken, 2001, p. 280). Aswe move in (and into) an era of high technology, weneed to learn about the logic of technoculture, whichoften defies human classiflcatory and intellectual sys-tems. In visual culture, we learn how to interpretimages in sophisticated ways; we learn things likeimpressionist aesthetics, realistic aesthetics and sur-realist aesthetics, but methods also need to be devel-oped for interpreting technological aesthetics. AsScott (1994) points out, 'the X-ray or the extra-plan-etary image, are special sorts of photographs, whilebased [on] something out there, present pictures andspectra that one must know bow to interpret' (Scott,1994, pp. 261-2). Attendant problems come withtechnological imagery. Struggles exist over the cul-tural authority and cultural Inscription of such tech-nologies (Treichler et al., 1998). We have shown herehow the logic under which certain technologies oper-ate can frame the way the body is conceptualised ineveryday advertising.

We have argued that the technological gaze in adver-tising is part of a broader tendency in society towardthe technological surveillance, management andphysical transformation of the individual body and


Image 10 Nike Les Jumetles

the social body. This gaze is achieved through vari-ous visualising strategies that have been identifiedin the paper, namely through the production ofimpossible states of being, the codification of fleshand blood as technical data, the disruption of linearnarrative, and the growing incorporation of techni-cal symbolism as a visual aesthetic.

The visual consumer has learned to interpret high-tech, often medical, images as they begin to pervadepopular culture. However, as imaging technologiesbecome the key way for obtaining informationabout the shape, location and composition of peopleand objects in discourses as diverse as healthcare,security and advertising, it is becoming increasinglyvital to question what 'truths' these visions tell aboutthe body and its environment. The concept of thehuman body is changing in its mediation through

technology. Mediation of course implies a discon-nection from 'real' or direct gazes. Even before theadvent of imaging technology, the technical gaze wasbelieved to be imbued with a truth that could riseabove the distractions of society and humans, a truththat could uncover an underlying 'reality' about thebody (Foucault, 1975, p. 45). We are not trying tohark back to an idealised day when experience wasunmediated - such never was the case. Instead, thispaper attempts to develop some ways to look criti-cally at technology and question its position as adirect conduit to truth. Imaging technologies oftendistract attention away from their mediated natureand claim to offer a more real, more immediateexperience of the world. Further research mayuncover the politics of this arbitration, investigat-ing which discourses are celebrated and which arerestricted.

Ackno^edgementThe author would like to thank Olivia Freeman,Aidati O'DriscolI, Mike Saren and Cormac Deanefor many helpful comments and suggestions on ear-lier drafts of this paper.

AuthorNorah Campbell is a researcher in the school ofmarketing at Dublin Institute of Technology. Herresearch centres on posthumanism, theories oftechnology, and advertising images. She hastaught courses in consumer behaviour andmarketing communications at DIT, TrinityCollege Dublin and Leicester University.

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