The Study of Matter and Its Changes - GBV
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CHEMISTRY The Study of Matter and Its Changes JAMES E. BRADY St. John's University, New York JOHN R. HOLUM Augsburg College, Minnesota ® JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. NEW YORK / CHICHESTER / BRISBANE / TORONTO / SINGAPORE
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Transcript of The Study of Matter and Its Changes - GBV
CHEMISTRY The Study of Matter and Its Changes
JAMES E. BRADY St. John's University, New York
JOHN R. HOLUM Augsburg College, Minnesota
® JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
NEW YORK / CHICHESTER / BRISBANE / TORONTO / SINGAPORE
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1/INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 What Is Chemistry? 1 1.2 Chemistry and the Scientific Method 3 1.3 Matter and Energy 5
1.4 Properties of Matter 7 1.5 Units of Measurement 8
1.6 Scientific Calculations and Significant Figures 16
1.7 Density and Specific Gravity 23
Summary 26
Tools You Have Learned 27
Thinking it Through 28
Review Exercises 28
Chemicals in Use 1/Gypsum 32
CHAPTER 2/THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER: ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS 34
2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 35 2.2 Dalton's Atomic Theory 41
2.3 Atomic Masses 44 2.4 A Modern View of Atomic Structure 46 2.5 The Periodic Table 50 2.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 56
2.7 Reactions of the Elements; Formation of Molecular and lonic Compounds 60
2.8 lonic Compounds 65
2.9 Properties of lonic and Molecular Compounds 69 2.10 Inorganic Chemical Nomenclature 71
Summary 76
15 Tools You Have Learned 77
Thinking it Through 77
Review Exercises 78
page 39 Chemicals in Use 2/Sodium Chloride 84
XXIV
Contents / XXV
CHAPTER 3/STOICHIOMETRY: QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL RELATIONSHIPS 86
3.1 The Mole Concept 87 3.2 Measuring Moles of Elements and Compounds 90 3.3 Percentage Composition 96 3.4 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 97 3.5 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 103 3.6 Using Chemical Equations in Calculations 106 3.7 Limiting Reactant Calculations 111 3.8 Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield 113 3.9 Reactions in Solution 114 3.10 Molar Concentration 116
3.11 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Solution 122
Summary 124
S. Tools You Have Learned 125
Thinking it Through 126
Review Exercises 127 page 104
Chemicals in Use 3/Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrochloric Acid 134
CHAPTER 4/ENERGY AND THERMOCHEMISTRY 136 4.1 Kinetic and Potential Energy Revisited 137 4.2 Kinetic Theory 139
4.3 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 141
4.4 Heats of Reaction; Calorimetry 142
4.5 Enthalpy Changes: Heats of Reaction at Constant Pressure 149
Summary 161
-X Tools You Have Learned 162
Thinking it Through 163
Review Exercises 164
Test of Facts and Concepts/Chapters 1-4 168
CHAPTER 5/ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE 170
5.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Atomic Spectra 5.2 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 180 5.3 Wave Properties of Matter and Wave Mechanics
171
183
XXvi / Contents
page 215
5.4 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 189 5.5 Electronic Structures of Multielectron Atoms 191 5.6 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 193 5.7 Some Unexpected Electron Configurations 198 5.8 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 198
5.9 Variation of Atomic Properties with Electronic Structure 201
Summary 209
S Tools You Have Learned 210
Thinking it Through 210
Review Exercises 211
Chemicals in Use 4/Lasers in Chemistry 214
217
CHAPTER 6/CHEMICAL BONDING I 216 6.1 Electron Transfer and the Formation of lonic Compounds
Electron Bookkeeping: Lewis Symbols 222 Electron Sharing: The Formation of Covalent Bonds 224 Electronegativity and the Polarity of Bonds 229 Drawing Lewis Structures 231 Formal Charge and the Selection of Lewis Structures 235 Resonance: When Lewis Structures Fail 241
6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7
JS Summary 243
Tools You Have Learned 245
Thinking it Through 245
Review Exercises 246
Chemicals in Use 5/Silicate Minerals and Soil 250
page 265
CHAPTER 7/CHEMICAL BONDING II 252 7.1 Some Common Molecular Structures 253 7.2 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules: VSEPR Theory 256 7.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 265 7.4 Wave Mechanics and Covalent Bonding: Valence Bond
Theory 268
7.5 Hybrid Orbitals 272 7.6 Double and Triple Bonds 283
7.7 Bond Energies and Their Measurement 290 7.8 Molecular Orbital Theory 293 7.9 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals 298
7.10 Bonding in Solids 300
Summary 303 2
Tools You Have Learned 304
Thinking it Through 305
Review Exercises 305
Chemicals in Use 6/Molecular Structure and the Computer 310
CHAPTER 8/PROPERTIES OF GASES 312 8.1 Qualitative Facts about Gases 313
8.2 Pressure 314 8.3 Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships for a Fixed
Amount of Gas 317 8.4 The Ideal Gas Law 323 8.5 The Stoichiometry of Reactions between Gases 328 8.6 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 331 8.7 Graham's Law of Effusion 334 8.8 Kinetic Theory and the Gas Laws 336
8.9 Real Gases: Deviations from the Ideal Gas Law 341
Summary 344
Tools You Have Learned 345
Thinking it Through 345
Review Exercises 346
4 ) Chemicals in Use 7/Air as a Natural Resource 352
CHAPTER 9/INTERMOLECULAR ATTRACTIONS AND THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 354
9.1 Why Gases Differ from Liquids and Solids 355 9.2 Intermolecular Attractions 356 9.3 General Properties of Liquids and Solids 361 9.4 Changes of State and Dynamic Equilibrium 367 9.5 Vapor Pressures of Liquids and Solids 368 9.6 Boiling Points of Liquids 371 9.7 Energy Changes during Changes of State 373
9.8 Dynamic Equilibrium and Le Chätelier's Principle 379 9.9 Phase Diagrams 380 9.10 Crystalline Solids 383 9.11 X-ray Diffraction 386
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9.12 Physical Properties and Crystal Types 388
9.13 Noncrystalline Solids 392
Summary 393
Tools You Have Learned 395
Thinking it Through 395
Review Exercises 396
Test of Facts and Concepts/Chapters 5 - 9 402
CHAPTER 10/SOLUTIONS 404 10.1 The Formation of Solutions 405 10.2 Heats of Solution 409 10.3 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility 414 10.4 The Effect of Pressure on the Solubilities of Gases 416 10.5 Concentrations of Solutions 419
10.6 The Effect of a Solute on the Vapor Pressure of a Solution 428 10.7 The Effects of a Nonvolatile Solute on the Freezing Point and
the Boiling Point of a Solution 433 10.8 Dialysis and Osmosis; Osmotic Pressure 436 10.9 Colligative Properties of Solutions of Electrolytes 440
10.10 Colloidal Dispersions 444
Summary 449
Tools You Have Learned 450
Thinking it Through 451
Review Exercises 451
| Chemicals in Use 8/Glass 456
CHAPTER 11/ACID-BASE AND IONIC REACTIONS 458
11.1 Electrolytes 459
11.2 Acids and Bases as Electrolytes 460 11.3 lonic Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 467 11.4 Predicting When Metathesis Reactions Will Occur 471 11.5 Stoichiometry of lonic Reactions: Acid-Base Titrations 480 11.6 Bronsted Concept of Acids and Bases 487 11.7 Trends in the Strengths of Br0nsted Acids 492 11.8 Lewis Acids and Bases 498
Summary 504
S
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Tools You Have Learned 505
Thinking it Through 505
Review Exercises 506
4 ) Chemicals in Use 9/Limestone and Limestone Caverns 512
CHAPTER 12/OXIDATION - REDUCTION REACTIONS 514
12.1 Oxidation and Reduction 515 12.2 Oxidation Numbers 517
12-3 Balancing Equations for Redox Reactions: The lon-Electron Method 522
12.4 Reactions of Metals with Acids 527
12.5 Displacement of One Metal by Another from Compounds 530 12.6 Periodic Trends in the Reactivity of Metals 534 12.7 Periodic Trends in the Reactivity of Nonmetals 535 12.8 Molecular Oxygen as an Oxidizing Agent 536
12.9 Redox Reactions in the Laboratory 539
Summary 543 A 6
•
Tools You Have Learned 544
Thinking it Through 545
Review Exercises 545
Chemicals in Use 10/Photography 550
CHAPTER 13/THERMODYNAMICS 552 13.1 Introduction 553 13.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions—A Second Look 554 13.3 Spontaneous Change 560 13.4 Enthalpy Changes and Spontaneity 561 13.5 Entropy and Spontaneous Change 562 13.6 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 567 13.7 The Gibbs Free Energy 570 13.8 Standard Free Energies 573 13.9 Free Energy and Maximum Work 575
13.10 Free Energy and Equilibrium 577
Summary 584
Tools You Have Learned 585
Thinking it Through 585
L
A
Review Exercises 586
Chemicals in Use 11/Synthetic Diamonds and Diamond Coatings 590
CHAPTER 14/KINETICS; THE STUDY OF RATES OF REACTION 592
14.1 Speeds at Which Reactions Occur 593 14.2 Factors That Affect Reaction Rates 594 14.3 Measuring the Rate of Reaction 596
14.4 Concentration and Rate 599 14.5 Concentration and Time 606
14.6 Theories about Reaction Rates 612 14.7 Measuring the Activation Energy 617 14.8 Collision Theory and Reaction Mechanisms 620
14.9 Catalysts 625
Summary 628
Tools You Have Learned 629
Thinking it Through 629
Review Exercises 630
Test of Facts and Concepts/Chapters 10-14 636
CHAPTER 15/CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM — GENERAL CONCEPTS 638
15.1 Dynamic Equilibrium in Chemical Systems 639 15.2 Reaction Reversibility 640
15.3 The Equilibrium Law for a Reaction 641 15.4 Equilibrium Laws for Gaseous Reactions 645 15.5 Calculating Equilibrium Constants from Thermodynamic
Data 646
15.6 The Relationship between Kf and Kc 651 15.7 The Significance of the Magnitude of K 653 15.8 Heterogeneous Equilibria 654
15.9 Le Chätelier's Principle and Chemical Equilibria 656 15.10 Equilibrium Calculations 660
Summary 671
Tools You Have Learned 672
Thinking it Through 672
Review Exercises 674
4 ) Chemicals in Use 12/Ammonia 678
IS
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Contents / x x x i
CHAPTER 16/ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA 680 16.1 The Ion Productof Water 681 16.2 ThepHConcept 683 16.3 Solutions of Strong Acids and Bases 688 16.4 Acid Ionization Constants 690 16.5 Base Ionization Constants 701 16.6 Buffers: The Control of pH 706
16.7 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs and Their Values ofK, and Kb 714 16.8 Solutions of Salts: Ions as Weak Acids and Bases 716
16.9 Acid-Base Titrations Revisited 720
Summary 730
Tools You Have Learned 732
Thinking it Through 732
Review Exercises 733
4 ) Chemicals in Use 13/Sodium Carbonate 736
CHAPTER 17/SOLUBILITY AND SIMULTANEOUS EQUILIBRIA 738
17.1 Ionization of Polyprotic Acids 739
17.2 The pH of Solutions of Salts of Polyprotic Acids 742 17.3 Solubility Equilibria for Salts 744 17.4 Solubility Equilibria for Metal Oxides and Sulfides 754
17.5 Complex Ion Equilibria 759
Summary 762
Tools You Have Learned 763
Thinking it Through 763
Review Exercises 764
% Chemicals in Use 14/The Carbonate Buffer in Blood 766
CHAPTER 18/ELECTROCHEMISTRY 768 18.1 Electricity and Chemical Change 769 18.2 Electrolysis 769
18.3 Stoichiometric Relationships in Electrolysis 774
18.4 Industrial Applications of Electrolysis 777 18.5 Galvanic Cells 783 18.6 Cell Potentials and Reduction Potentials 787 18.7 Using Standard Reduction Potentials 792 18.8 Cell Potentials and Thermodynamics 797
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page 754
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18.9 The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential 799 18.10 Practical Applications of Galvanic Cells 803
Summary 807
^ % j Tools You Have Learned 808
Thinking it Through 808
Review Exercises 809
Test of Facts and Concepts/Chapters 15-18 814
CHAPTER 19/SIMPLE MOLECULES AND IONS OF NONMETALS: PART I 816
19.1 The Prevalence of the Nonmetallic Elements 817
19.2 Hydrogen 818 19.3 Oxygen 822 19.4 Nitrogen 833
19.5 Carbon 847
Summary 85 7
Review Exercises 858
4 ) Chemicals in Use 15/Ion-Selective Electrodes 864
CHAPTER 20/SIMPLE MOLECULES AND IONS OF NONMETALS: PART II 866
20.1 Sulfur 867 20.2 Phosphorus 879 20.3 The Halogens 888
20.4 The Noble Gases 897
Summary 901
Review Exercises 903
4 ) Chemicals in Use 16/Ozone in the Stratosphere 906
CHAPTER 21/METALLURGY AND THE REPRESENTATIVE METALS 908
21.1 Metallic Character and the Periodic Table 909
21.2 Metallurgy 910
21.3 The Metals of Group IA: the Alkali Metals 917
Contents / XXXÜi
21.4 The Metals of Group IIA: the Alkaline Earth Metals 924
21.5 The Metals of Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA 930
Summary 941
Review Exercises 942
Chemicals in Use 17/Iron and Steel 946
page 936
CHAPTER 22/TRANSITION METALS AND THEIR COMPLEXES 948
22.1 The Transition Metals: General Characteristics and Periodic Trends 949
22.2 Properties of Some Important Transition Elements 953 22.3 Complexes of the Transition Metals 966 22.4 Isomers of Coordination Compounds 969
22.5 Bonding in Complexes 972
Summary 979
Review Exercises 981
Chemicals in Use 18/Optical Activity 986
CHAPTER 23/NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND THEIR ROLE IN CHEMISTRY 988
23.1 Conservation of Mass-Energy 989 23.2 Nuclear Binding Energies 991 23.3 Radioactivity 992 23.4 The Band of Stability 1000 23.5 Transmutation 1004 23.6 Detecting and Measuring Radiations 1006 23.7 Applications of Radioactivity 1013
23.8 Nuclear Fusion 1017 23.9 Nuclear Fission 1020 23.10 The Breeder Reactor 1026
Summary 1027
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page 956
l£ Tools You Have Learned 1028
Review Exercises 1029
Test of Facts and Concepts/Chapters 19 -23 1032
CHAPTER 24/ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1034
24.1 The Nature of Organic Chemistry 1035 24.2 Hydrocarbons 1041 24.3 Alcohols and Ethers, Organic Derivatives of Water 1052 24.4 Amines, Organic Derivatives of Ammonia 1057 24.5 Carbonyl Compounds 1058
24.6 Organic Polymers 1063
Summary 1071
3 Tools You Have Learned 1073
Review Exercises 1073
Chemicals in Use 19/Inorganic Polymers 1078
CHAPTER 25/BIOCHEMICALS 1080 25.1 The Major Types of Biochemicals 1081
25.2 Carbohydrates 1082
25.3 Lipids 1085
25.4 Proteins 1089
25.5 NucleicAcids 1094
Summary 1104 U Tools You Have Learned 1105
Review Exercises 1106
Chemicals in Use 20/Ethyl Alcohol 1108
APPENDICES A I A Review of Mathematics A-l B Electron Configurations of the Elements A-7 C Equivalent Weights and Normality A-8 D Answers to Selected Review Exercises A-l2 E Tables of Selected Data A-33
GLOSSARY G l
PHOTO CREDITS P I
INDEX 1-1
