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THE ROLE OF INDIAN FILMS IN THE CREATION OF INDIAN IDENTITY IN TRINIDAD:

MEMORY, INDIAN FILMS AND INDIAN IDENTITY IN TRINIDAD.

INTRODUCTION

EAST INDIANS IN TRINIDAD.

The British brought 143,939 Indian indentured immigrants to Trinidad mainly

from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and other areas during the period 1845 – 1917,

after the abolition of slavery in 1838. Four out of every five of these

indentured immigrants decided to make Trinidad their new home. By 1935

almost one third of the population of the country was made up of ex-Indian

indentured immigrants and their descendants. 1Today that figure is closer

to 41% of the population of the country.2

Until 1935, they were largely cutoff from India and therefore maintained

minimal contacts with their ancestral roots. In Trinidad, most of them

lived in areas far removed from the towns in what were called “Indian

settlements”.

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It was in the interest of the colonialists to encourage the ex-indentured

immigrants to stay in Trinidad when their period of indentureship had ended

as their labour was sorely needed. Those who decided to stay in Trinidad

were given plots of land in lieu of the return passage to India. In

addition, from1869, the East Indians were later allowed to purchase land

and by the 1900s, became one of the larger land owning classes of people

in the country. It was perhaps this land ownership system that engendered

in them a feeling of confidence and identity and, encouraged by their “

ownership of a piece of Trinidad,” they began he task of building a society

in their new land..

CULTURAL MEMORY

They sought to maintain their links with the motherland in various ways and

practiced, from memory, almost in replicated form, many of the cultural,

social and religious practices they had brought from India. They kept alive

the memory of India among themselves through their songs, music, dances,

dress,language, artifacts and religious traditions. Out these and other

concepts they collectively created “an imagined India" that they passed on

from one generation to the next.

According to Raviji (a local Hindu thinker,social worker and Religious

leader 1944- ) They were starved of things Indian and kept alive the India

of the memory and to a large extent they sought to re-create as close as

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possible as far as the memory could assist the India that they had left

behind. 3 But they longed for India, to see India, to make contact with

India of the memory that had been passed on from one generation to the next.

Within the framework of the eclectic Trinidadian society the East Indians in

Trinidad contextualized their presence within the context of the British

Empire and the Trinidadian society. From the evidence gathered the East

Indians were part of the Trinidadian society, yet they remained apart from

it and lived in their settlements away from the rest of the society .

Nevertheless they were influenced by their affiliation and close

approximation to the larger society and their participation in that society

in various ways. For the greater part they were passive participants whose

labor was needed to save the economy and for which they were originally

brought to the island. Largely therefore the only item of importance for the

rest of the society as far as the East Indian were concerned was their

labor.

. It was this left “aloneness” that allowed the East Indians to develop

their settlement societies as "a society within a society" based mainly on

memorial recollections of the India that they had left behind where they

were able to practice their religion and culture unhindered.

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Now every culture exists within larger structures which frame the individual

and the group’s "worldviews.". Clark in her book In Search of Human Nature

defines worldviews as "beliefs and assumptions by which an individual makes

sense of experiences that are hidden deep within the language and traditions

of the surrounding society."4 (5).The shared values, customs, norms and

institutions of the particular society comprise the worldviews that are

communicated through myths, narratives, metaphors and other aspects of

society's cultural life.

For the East Indians in Trinidad that worldview was framed by the settlement

societies that they lived in [ which were away from the major towns in the

country] and the information they gathered from their affiliation with the

wider society. The broad cultural frame of the settlement society enclosed

their shared values, customs, norms, institutions and other aspects of their

lives almost wholly to the exclusion of the rest of the society. The broad

settlement society cultural frames therefore represented all aspects of

their traditional,cultural and religious life.

CULTURAL FRAMES

The cultural frame is a device used to help understand information about

difficult or complex situations as was the case with the East Indians in

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Trinidad where they found themselves living in a society that needed their

labor, but rejected their presence, their traditional cultural patterns and

to a large extent ostracized them... They therefore lived in in their

settlements in a “society within a society” but apart from the larger

society.

Just as a picture frame defines what is and what is not included in the

picture the cultural frame defined for the East Indians in Trinidad within

the context of their settlement societies what was important or not

important within the context of their own society and the wider society

within which they found themselves.

Cultural frames allow us to make sense of the East Indian’s presence in

Trinidad in arriving at relevant conclusions about their cultural

evolutionary processes in their “ Society within a Society” where they

made a deliberate attempt to maintain and practice their traditional culture

and religion. The term “cultural frames” would be used in the rest of the

paper to refer to specific cultural practices

They generally lived and practiced their culture and religion out of the

glare of the rest of the population because they were at times ridiculed and

made to feel unwelcomed within the national framework because of the strange

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cultural patterns, the language, the dress and the general cultural and

religious frames. It was within this context therefore that they developed

their own identity structures that framed their “settlement society”. While

their identity frames kept them apart from the rest of the society those

very cultural frames allowed them to make sense of the world in which they

lived and in so doing contextualized their presence within the broader

framework of the national landscape.Their cultural frames gave them a

dictinct identity and in the process kept them apart “framed” away from

the rest of the society.

What were the prevailing identity cultural frames operational among the

East Indians in Trinidad in the period Leading up to 1935?

Some of the prevailing identity cultural frames operational among the East

Indians in Trinidad in the period Leading up to 1935 songs, Language,

dances ,musical instruments ,clothing,make-up,jewelry and

artifacts ,religions , religious texts, religious festivals and religious

paraphanalia.5

. Much of the cultural frames that they operationalized and

institutionalized within their new society were from memory and because of

this some may have been skewed from the original cultural frames from which

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they were taken due to factors such as distance, time, space , lack of

reinforcement by teachers and general memory loss.

However the cultural frames that they developed in their settlement

societies in Trinidad bore a close resemblance to the cultural frames that

existed in the areas of India from which the East Indian indentured

immigrants originated.

IDENTITY IN INDIAN FILMS

Indian movies were initially produced for Indian audiences in India and

as such its cultural frames [identity markers] reflected the local Indian

landscape .Arguably though while most of the early Indian film productions

were tradition-based and used the religio -- socio - cultural frames some

of those traditional identity cultural frames ceased to be employed as

identity markers after the 1930s as the sound films became more and more

popular. However, certain basic identity symbols remained intact and

continue to the present time as cultural frames within the Indian film

industry.

What were some of the cultural frames that were used in the Indian movies

particularly in the early period?

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Language: early Indian films were produced in the Hindi from the Bombay

studios. Later films were produced in other Indian languages such as

Telugu, Tamil, and Bengali.

Clothing: Indian movies sought to portray Indians wearing Indian clothing

such as the Sari, Ghangri, Capra, dhoti, orhni, and kurta

Artifacts: Indian movies sought to portray Indian's in the everyday way of

life using, the Indian implements such as jaata, Dhenki, while living in mud

huts with thatched roofs.

Music and Songs: early Indian movies were silent movies but after Alam Ara

(1931) music and songs became an integral part of Indian movies utilizing

numerous folk based songs and filmi compositions.

Dances: Indian dances have been used in numerous films in various forms both

classical and non-classical.

Musical instruments: musical instruments provided the basis for Indian music

in Indian films and many of these instruments such as the tabla, harmonium,

and sitar have been portrayed in various song and dance filmi sequences.

Make up and jewelry: Indian movies have tended to portray various aspects of

the makeup and jewelry that reflect basic Indian standards with the use of

Mehndi, bindi, bangles and other such frames.

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Religion and religious texts: religion and religious texts have always

provided crucial ingredients for Indian movies and have been reflective of

the two major religions in India- Hinduism and Islam - and has included

Christianity within its framework.

Other identity markers: other identity markers such as places in India for

example the Himalayas, the Ganges, temples, mosques, the Taj Mahal and the

uniqueness of the streets in India and the countryside landscapes also has

identity markers within the Indian film industry.

To a large extent Indian movies, though a commercialized entity, inculcated

within its celluloidic body, a range of cultural and traditional frames that

were taken from among the people. In addition, it created many commercially

oriented appealingly cultural frames within its celluloid reels that, while

it had no basis in actual Indian society cultural frames, it nonetheless

created its own cultural celluloid frames that provided entertainment value

for viewers.

Now these Indian traditional cultural frames and filmi created commercial

cultural frames existed side by side in the Indian celluloid world and had a

tremendous impact on the East Indians in Trinidad.

CINEMA

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The first Indian movie that came to Trinidad was Bala Joban in 1935.6 This

movie was an average ordinary Indian movie in India. It is not even

mentioned in the top movies of the decade of the 1930s in India. But for

the East Indians in Trinidad it was a classic case of destination country --

India.7 They came from every corner of the country to the main city center

in Port-of-Spain to see the first Indian movie. Reports indicate that they

traveled by train, by bus, by carts by whatever means to view the first

Indian movie in Port-of-Spain. Every show was sold out. When it was shown

at the other cinemas, every show was sold out as the Indians came out in

large numbers to see this first Indian movie.8

As Indian movies continued to arrive, they continued to support the

exhibition of these films. The exhibition of Indian movies became such a

popular pastime for the East Indians in Trinidad that several new cinemas

were established in the rural communities for the main purpose of

exhibiting Indian movies to the East Indians. In addition, entrepreneurs

took several of the Indian movies to many of the rural communities through

the tent cinemas with great success.

With the exhibition of Indian movies in Trinidad, Destination “identity”

India seemed to have been the operative concept among the East Indians in

Trinidad. While the movies did not set out to create the concept of

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Destination India, and while they were commercial productions, the

“Destination Identity India” concept among the East Indians in Trinidad was

embedded within the movies because of the fact that the movies came from

India. Many of them went to see those movies because they were Indian

movies.9

However, why was it that Indian movies were so successful in its initial

venture in Trinidad among the East Indians?

To a people who were starved of things Indian, who pined for India, who had

created an imagined India and who sought to re-create among themselves the

India that they had left behind the coming of this new Indian movie to

Trinidad in 1935 was like "India coming to them in Trinidad" or "a slice of

India" coming to them in Trinidad. That slice of India contained within it

“Destination identity India” that fulfilled many of the longings which they

harbored over the years and which was transmitted from one generation to the

next. For example, the people in the movie were just like them, wore

clothing and jewelry with which they were familiar, spoke Hindi that was

their link language with India, sang in Hindi language, and used Indian

musical instruments such as tabla, sitar with which they were familiar.

A COMPARISON BETWEEN TRINIDAD EAST INDIAN CULTURAL FRAMES AND INDIAN FILMI

CULTURAL FRAMES

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The cultural frames in existence in Trinidad were quite familiar, even

similar, to those in existence in India because the East Indians in Trinidad

were descendants of Indian indentured immigrants even though the East

Indians in Trinidad lived in a heterogeneous society and their ancestors in

India lived in a homogenous society. However, since the East Indians in

Trinidad generally lived in settlement societies far removed from the

established order many of their religious, cultural, and social practices

were kept almost intact.

As Indian movies continued to arrive in Trinidad East Indians drew parallels

between their local cultural frames and cultural frames of India that they

saw in the movies. For example when they saw frames such as the Jaata

(stone mill), Dhenki (rice thrasher), goblet (clay vessel) and chulha

(fireside) in the films they were able to relate those frames to similar

ones that existed in their own homes or in their villages. When they saw

arranged marriages, the panchayat system, gender issues such as the woman's

place in society “seen but not heard” and caste system issues in the films

they were able to relate those events to similar ones in their own local

society in Trinidad reinforcing them in the process. They used the films to

reinforce many identity links with India and the Images of “destination

India” that were embedded in the Indian movies served as a mirror of

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cultural frames, contexts, value systems and places in India which they

found similar to the own cultural frames in Trinidad.

However there was a disconnect with the newer cultural frames such as the

filmi songs and dances in the Indian films which did not generally reflect

the state of Indian society in India, but was more or less a commercial

entity that romanticized many aspects of Indian life. Despite that

disconnect the East Indians in Trinidad were able to link their own identity

in Trinidad to Indian identity frames in India through the films by

connecting other aspects of their identity frames as mentioned above.

There was an amazing similarity between the cultural frames that existed

among the East Indian indentured immigrants in Trinidad and those that

existed in the Indian movies for example Hindi was common to both cultural

frames. In addition they wore Indian clothing , used similar artifacts,

jewelry, played similar musical instruments , used similar religious texts

and practiced similar religions to those cultural frames that they

encountered in the Indian Movies.

Because of those similarities in “cultural frames” between the East Indians

in Trinidad and the Indian films, the Indian movies were readily accepted by

the East Indians in Trinidad as a socio- religio- cultural identity link

with India. The Indian movies acted as a connector between the cultural

frames that existed among the East Indians in Trinidad and the cultural

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frames of India. To the East Indian in Trinidad, the Indian movie

represented India and served as “surrogate” replacement for the Indian

identity cultural frames that were in existence in the Indian subcontinent

at the time.

This act of linking their traditional cultural frames to those seen in the

Indian movies, while it gave meaning and identity to their existence it also

complicated the very processes because the East Indians in Trinidad did not

consciously distinguish between the genuine traditional cultural frames that

were in existence in India and those that were created in the films for

entertainment purposes. The result was that the new filmi cultural frames

that were not present in their local “cultural settings” were taken from the

celluloid world and made part of their “new cultural frames”.

This "slice of India"[Indian movies] which to them represented India and

which they mistook for the real “Indian cultural frames” also became the

catalyst for many evolutionary cultural changes that subsequently occurred

within the cultural frames that existed in the East Indian community at

the time in Trinidad . This was essentially so because they initially

saw Indian movies as representative of the Indian cultural frames

existent in India but the reality was that the movies were commercial

entertainment entities that were exported from India which contained

aspects of Indian cultural frames that were most times viewed in

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isolation , and taken out of context from its original moorings. For

example, Sandra Sookdeo, a local Trinidadian Kathak dancer trained in India,

argued that folk songs that were portrayed in Indian movies were not

representative of the folk culture in India yet the East Indians in Trinidad

took those folk songs to represent the original folk culture of India.

Those filmi folk songs she argued, while its portrayal did in fact have some

basis in the original folk culture it was nevertheless adulterated and

presented for entertainment purposes in the commercialized Indian cinema.

The same was also true of Classical dance sequences in those films. In

addition the playback songs by singers such as Saigal, Mohammed Rafi and

Lata Mangeshkar which were composed for the movies, were commercial

entities in themselves and did not , for the most part , reflect

existing cultural frames within the Indian society. They were cultural

frames that existed in an “imagined celluloid Indian cultural frame “in an

“imagined India” of the commercialized filmi world that the East Indians in

Trinidad internalized as “Indian cultural frames” in their own society.

For a people who were essentially cut off from their roots for almost 90

years to the time when the first Indian movie came to Trinidad, the Indian

movies seemed to them a plausible surrogate link with India and things

Indian. Within that context, therefore they mimicked many of the

commercialized filmi cultural frames such as songs and dances. Numerous

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filmi singing competitions were held on the island and referred to for

example as “The Mohammed Rafi Imitation Singing Contest” or “The Mukesh

Imitation Singing Contest.” 10 so that the local East Indians in Trinidad

were in fact imitating the cultural frames from the Indian movies in various

ways .This mimicry of the commercialized filmi cultural frames would later

translate itself into new identity cultural frames in the East Indian

society in Trinidad as mentioned above.

Those “imagined celluloid Indian cultural frames “ that existed only in

the filmi world provided cultural fodder for, and was the source of many

cultural changes that evolved within the cultural frames that existed

among the East Indians in Trinidad . Taking the example of the songs

rendered by the playback singers in the movies , while there were certain

linkages with prevailing cultural frames among the East Indians in

Trinidad such as the music [tabla, sitar, harmonium] it did not fit into any

of the genres of music that were in existence within their cultural frames

at the time. This music was catchy, rhythmic and melodic and appealed to

the majority of people when compared to the classical and folksongs to which

they were accustomed. It was a new genre of music, filmi music that had a

popular appeal among the people but did not fit into existing cultural

frames and therefore created cultural frames of its own in the society. In

short time these new filmi musical cultural frames largely replaced the

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classical and folksongs that had hitherto been the mainstay of cultural

programming at public functions such as cooking and wedding nights ,

family gatherings and other public shows. In addition after 1938, scores

of local Indian orchestras sprung up throughout the country that served to

create new cultural frames within which these playback filmi songs were

incorporated. These new cultural frames that incorporated the filmi

playback songs were further expanded in the 1940s when the Mike men appeared

on the scene and played East Indian filmi songs throughout the country at

most East Indian functions.11 To a large extent after the 1940s, the Mike

men became a staple compliment of most East Indian functions and were the

main factor in the spread and institutionalization of these filmi songs as

part of the cultural framework of the East Indians in Trinidad. From 1947

when Indian Radio programmes commenced in Trinidad, and after 1993, when

Indian formatted Radio stations became a reality in the country, the

majority offerings in their programming over the years were filmi songs. At

present, there are seven Indian formatted radio stations in the country and

they all play Indian film songs most of the time.

Other areas such as filmi dress, filmi make up, filmi jewelry, filmi

decorations and artifacts soon became embedded as parts of the new cultural

identity frames of the East Indians. In terms of dress, the influence was

seen in a shift to the wearing of the Sari, Kurta, and Shalwar at East

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Indian functions. Nasaloo Ramaya points out that before Indian movies came

very few East Indians were seen wearing these outfits but after the advent

of Indian movies these outfits became very popular in Trinidad.12 In

addition, East Indians sought to purchase, either locally or in foreign

markets, styles of clothing they had seen in Indian movies. Sandra Sookdeo

argued that in terms of makeup and jewelry many East Indians copied

hairstyles and facial makeup from the Indian movies. She pointed out that

many East Indians purchased and adorned themselves with identical jewelry

and clothing outfits that were seen in Indian movies such as Doli, Ham Aap

Ke Hai Kaun, and Bhagbaan. 13 Mrs. Sarjoo argued that it had become

fashionable even into the late 1940s for Indo Trinidadian women to wear the

large Bala Joban earrings, which they had seen in the Bala Joban movie,

which was shown in Trinidad in 1935.14

The East Indians in Trinidad saw the Indian movie as a link between

themselves and India. To them it was their only real cultural link with

India until Indian artistes such as Hemant Kumar, Mohammed Rafi, Mukesh and

Lata Mangeshkar began visiting Trinidad in the mid-1960s.

It was one thing for Indian movies to be shown in Trinidad and for the East

Indians to gravitate towards them but what was amazing was the resulting

cultural frame linkages that were created involving the Indian movies, East

Indians and India.

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This triangulation of these cultural frames and their spinoffs became the

catalyst in the evolution of a new identity for East Indians in Trinidad.

The identity with the earlier traditional cultural frames changed

drastically with the influence of the Indian filmi cultural frames after

1935. The changes were more predominant in certain areas such as songs,

music, dances, dress, and religion.

What in effect happened was that while many of the prevailing cultural

frames among the East Indians were mirrored on the Indian silver screen

through the Indian movies many other aspects of the commercialized filmi

cultural frames were in fact transplanted over time into the Indo

Trinidadian society. So that while on the one hand Indian movies mirrored

aspects of the Indo Trinidadian cultural frames that were prevalent in the

society and were seen as identity markers new cultural frames from the

movies were eventually mirrored in the Indo Trinidadian society through the

process of mimicry in terms of what they took from the movies and infused

into their society. Those reflections of new cultural frames from the

commercial filmi firmament in the Indo Trinidadian society through their

mimicry of the filmi cultural frames eventually led to the creation of new

cultural frames among East Indians to the point where those new filmi

cultural frames became new identity markers for the Indo Trinidadian

community Trinidad.

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That was perhaps a response to the fact that they saw the Indian movies as

representing a “slice of India” [Narsaloo Ramaya] that was brought to the

East Indians here in Trinidad. It presented images of India, an imagined

India that had lived in their collective memory and which was passed on from

one generation to the next. Largely therefore it is assumed that they did

not discriminate between the traditional cultural frames and the

commercialized filmi cultural frames that came with the Indian movies and as

such used both sets of cultural frames in their society and in the process

created new identity markers with those cultural frames, particularly the

commercialized filmi cultural frames for the East Indians in Trinidad.

These new identity markers that were largely influenced by the commercial

filmi cultural frames became new ways by which East Indians were identified

in the country over the last 75 years, more so within the last few decades.

What they saw in the Indian movies therefore reminded them largely of their

own traditional cultural frames here in Trinidad. Those identity markers

were further reinforced when they saw them in the Indian movies, which had

the effect of creating tremendous linkages between themselves and India.

SUMMARY OF IDENTITY CHANGES

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By the 1970s, there were many noticeable changes in the East Indian identity

symbols in Trinidad. Largely, the period between 1935 and 1970 can be

ascribed as the new consolidation period when many facets of the evolving

East Indian cultural identity frames that are still prevalent today were

crystallized.

In terms of their songs and music many began to sing the new fast paced and

catchy filmi tunes/melodies that came from the movies and to a large extent

several of the older traditional songs such as classical singing, hori, and

wedding songs were gradually pushed into the background as “the new music”

became the mainstay of Indian cultural programming. In addition, the Indian

Orchestras and the “Mike Men” assisted in the spread of these filmi songs

among the people.

Hundreds of Indian orchestras sprang up throughout the country providing a

new kind of entertainment, largely displacing many of the dance dramas,

classical singing, and other events that were normally found in the Wedding

night or the cooking night or at East Indian functions.15 The majority of

songs performed by singers that accompanied the Indian orchestras were film

songs, which were hugely popular with audiences. These songs continue to be

played on a 24/7 basis by most of the seven Indian formatted radio stations

in the country today.

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Many Western instruments found its way into the Indian orchestras in

Trinidad and replaced most of the traditional instruments that were found in

musical groups that existed before Bala Joban. The harmonium was eventually

replaced with the synthesizer; the mandolin, sitar, and other stringed

instruments were replaced with guitars. The Bongo Drums and the trap-sets

replaced the dholak or hand drum.

Religious Film songs (Bhajans) had also infiltrated many religious occasions

such as Ramayan and Bhagwat Yaagnas, pujas and Festivals such as Phagwa,

Divali, and Ramleela where filmi bhajans became the order of the day. In

the case of Public Divali celebrations, other non-filmi songs were often

heard at these functions, sometimes forming the bulk of the orchestral

entertainment.

Individual and group filmi dances largely replaced the dance dramas of the

earlier days that were gradually pushed aside and relegated to special East

Indian occasions. Those dances were generally choreographed locally using

the film songs as backup music.

Dress styles, including sari, shalwar, and kurta, make up, jewelry and

hairstyles were greatly influenced by what people saw in the Indian movies.

For example where before very few people wore a Sari or a kurta before Bala

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Joban, by the 1970s these had become commonplace among East Indians

attending Indian weddings, religious functions and other East Indian related

events. The wearing of the filmi influenced bindi also became commonplace

as local and Indian traders sought to provide items for local consumption as

was the case for Mehndi. In addition, in many cases decorations for

weddings and other occasions were copied or largely influenced by what

people saw in the Indian films.

In sum, the Local East Indians linked the cultural frames that they saw in

the Indian movies to their traditional local cultural and religious frames

in the settlement societies and in addition created new cultural frames out

of what they saw in the Indian movies. Many of those cultural frames not

only reinforced their identity but also became new identity markers for them

in Trinidad.

The creation of this new identity therefore saw many aspects of the older

cultural frames such as folk songs, Classical Singing, dances and other

cultural practices pushed into the background and replaced by filmi

motivated cultural frames such as the sari, shalwar. Kurta, catchy filmi

music, songs, dances and other aspects of the Indian filmi paraphernalia.

Many of these today remain some of the major pillars of Indian Identity in

Trinidad.

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CONCLUSION

Indian movies have influenced almost every aspect of East Indian life in

Trinidad and have played a key role in keeping Indian culture alive in the

country. It became a new identity symbol for the East Indian community and

for many East Indians in Trinidad going to see an Indian movie was an

identity marker in itself.

Indian movies became an intrinsic part of the East Indian community’s life

in Trinidad and later functioned as an agent of reinforcement and change for

many of their social, cultural, and religious practices.

It changed many of their identity cultural markers from mainly traditional

cultural frames to filmi influenced cultural frames in terms of the songs,

music, dances and dress over the years.

ENDNOTES

1 CSO, Census – 1946 Trinidad and Tobago2 CSO 20073 interview with Raviji (1944--)(Hindu thinker,social worker and Religious leader).66 YRS?4 Clark, Mary E. In Search of Human Nature. London: Routledge, 2002.pg .5 Print5 . LANGUAGEThey brought Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Tamil,Konkanese (spoken in Maharasthra,Kerala and Karnataka) and other Indian languages but spoke mainly Bhojpuri among themselves. SONGSThey practiced folk songs such asBiraha (a type of folk song found among the Ahir people who raised cattle for milk.);Chowtal (a type of folk song with our beats done at Phagwa time);Bhajans (a Hindu religious song);Qaseedas ( Islamic religious song) and their own compositions andClassical songs such as Thumri( a romantic song in Hindustani classical music);Gazal: (a short lyrical Indian song of about 5 to 15 couplets);Drupads: (one of the oldest forms of Indian classical music);Tarana (a highly rythmic form of music from northern India.);Khayal:(a traditional song from the northern part of the India)

DANCESThey performed Dances [drama] such as Raja Harischandra (drama based on king Harischandra);Sarwanneer ( story based on Sarwan Kumar);Garba (an Indian form of dance that originated in the Gujarat region);Jharoo ( a broom dance.)Indarsabha ( a drama based on lord Indra);Rahas Mandal( Indian dance drama);Ahir Dance ( traditional dance accompanied by Nagara drums);Prahalad ( Dance Drama based on life of prince Prahalad)These dances were in the form of dance dramas full of dialogues, songs, dance movements, and narrations.They were performed by men only and were to be found at most weddings and Indian functionsMUSICAL INSTRUMENTSThey played musical instruments such as dholak (type of Indian drum) tabla ( pair of Indian drums);harmonium (An organlike keyboard instrument);sitar (Indian stringed instrument with6 or 7 metal playing strings ;Bulbul (a stringed instrument played on keys like a typewriter) dhantal (Iron rod struck by “u” shaped piece of iron) Jhanj ( large traditional Indian cymbals used in playing tassa);Mandolin (a musical instrument of the lute family, with four to six pairs of strings stretched over a fretted neck ); majeera ( a pair of small hand brass cymbals); tassa (a one-sided drum played with two sticks and usually worn around the player's neck);sarod (A northern Indian stringed lute instrument of the lute family played with a plectrum) Bansuri ( Indian flute) ;Sarangi (a violinlike instrument used to accompany classical dancing);Veena(An Indian musical stringed instrument with a gourd at eachend );Santur (an Indian-Kashmiri stringed musical instrument with seventy strings played with a pair of curved mallets that produces a sound similar to the harp or piano.).

CLOTHING,MAKE-UP,JEWELRY AND ARTIFACTS

.They adorned themselves with Clothing such as Dhoti [A loincloth originally worn by Hindu men in India]; Kurta (an Indian long loose garment like a shirt worn without a collar and falling just below the knee); Pagree (a turban ) ;Ghangri ( a long dress worn by early indentured immigrants);Jhula (long loosely fitting blouse); orhni (East Indian head covering or veil);

jama-jora (Hindu bridegroom outfit) while some of their common Jewelry and make-up items included Bera [wrist bangle];churia {bracelet] ;Ghungroos (ankle bellsfor dancing); khanpul (type of earrings);Nakhphool (a nose ring) ; Sindoor (red powder);Kaajar (a type of Indian mascara); bindi (dot on forehead of women) ; Some of the artifacts found in common use among the East Indians then included items such as goglet [an earthenware jug]; dhekhi (Indian rice threshing tool);chulha (earthen fireside); simta (type of Indian tweezer);jaata (Indian stonemill); taawa (Indian flat iron); sil and lorha (stone tools used for grinding seasoning etc.); ookhri and moosar (mortar and pestle); jharoo (Indian broom);peerha (small wooden bench); ajoupa (Indian house covered with carat leaves);kholoo (homemade cane mill);lotah and taria (brass vessels used for eating or for ceremonial purposes);

6 The story of how Ranjit Kumar brought the first Indian Movie to Trinidad is told in his Autobiographical book: Ranjit Kumar: Thoughts and Memories of Ranjit Kumar. Inprint Caribbean ltd. 19817 Destination country is a concept used by many countries to promote physical and cultural aspects of the country through films. For example, "Lord of the rings" used the setting of New Zealand as a tourist destination setting. Other movies such as Destination Tokyo and Slumdog Millionaire have used similar devices to create positive country awareness among viewers from other countries. In some cases, the concept is also used for internal awareness of country destination and this is especially applicable to large countries such as USA, Australia, and India.

8 Trinidad Guardian.5/12/19359 Interview with Kenneth Lalla (1926--) 28/07/08.10 Filmindia.1966.

11 Mike Men.The Mike Men were a group of music enthusiasts who played songs on a Public Address system consisting of a turntable amplified through a pair of funnels.The funnels were usually placed atop a motor car or hooked unto the tent at the wedding. They also made announcements for various occasions.

12 Interview with Narsaloo Ramaya (1920--) 05/05/0813 Interview with Sandra Sookdeo. (1954-)31/03/10.14 Interview with Sarjoo Jhagroo (1923--)09/08/0815 Cooking Night. The “cooking night” was usually the night before a Hindu Wedding when friends and relatives was invited invited to the home og the Bride and/or groom. Performances were arranged with Dance groups or Orchestras or other performers. Food was cooked and served to all

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