ORIGINAL PAPER

The potential of small-scale rainfed agriculture to strengthenfood security in Arab countries

Nasri Haddad & Mahmud Duwayri & Theib Oweis &

Zewdie Bishaw & Barbara Rischkowsky &

Aden Aw Hassan & Stefania Grando

Received: 9 November 2010 /Accepted: 30 December 2010 /Published online: 10 February 2011# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. & International Society for Plant Pathology 2010

Abstract In most Arab countries, domestic agriculturalproduction is insufficient. The gap between production anddemand is likely to increase due to climate change andother factors. This review paper examines the challengesand possible solutions to ensuring food security in thefuture. It focuses on rainfed agriculture, which accounts fortwo-thirds of the region’s cropland, the bulk of its foodstaples, and almost all its rangelands. Given the scarcity ofwater and arable land, there are few opportunities in theregion to expand cultivated area. But numerous effective,proven technologies are available that can increase produc-tivity per unit area of land or volume of water. Croptechnologies include, for example, new stress-tolerantvarieties, supplemental irrigation and other techniques toincrease water productivity, and conservation agricultureand other land management methods. Livestock nutritionand productivity could be increased with new forage ordual-purpose varieties, and greater use of alternative feedsources such as feed blocks made from crop by-products.The paper describes some of these technologies, andsummarizes results obtained from on-station and on-farmtesting. The key issue is poor adoption of availabletechnologies. The priority for researchers and policy makers

must therefore be to scale up investments in research andextension; encourage private sector participation; and createenabling policies to encourage technology adoption, marketparticipation and more sustainable use of natural resources,by smallholder farmers.

Keywords Arab countries . Food security . Rainfedagriculture . Technology adoption . Crop varieties .

Livestock productivity . Enabling policy

Introduction

The Arab region, stretching from south of the equator tolatitude 37.5˚ north, covers parts of North Africa, theMediterranean region, West Asia and the Near East. Theregion has a total area of about 14 million squarekilometers, of which more than 87% is desert, with extremearidity and poor vegetation cover. The population, currently353 million, is expected to reach 545 million in 2030.Recent population growth rate (1990–2004) has been twicethe global average (AOAD 2009).

Rainfall is generally low and highly variable, except inthe narrow coastal strips in the Maghreb, the easternMediterranean, southern Sudan and northern Iraq. Theentire region receives an average rainfall of 2,148 km3 peryear. One country—Sudan—accounts for about half of thistotal (FAO 1997). In 1960, per capita water availability inthe Arab region was 3,300 m3/year. By 2025, this isexpected to fall to 500 m3/year (IFAD 2009). Waterresources continue to decline, while demand is increasingstrongly. Agriculture is by far the largest consumer of waterin the region. There are concerns about potential conflictbetween different groups of water users such as farmers,urban households and industry.

N. Haddad (*)International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas,P.O. Box 950764, Amman 11195, Jordane-mail: n.haddad@cgiar.org

M. DuwayriFaculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan,Amman 11942, Jordan

T. Oweis : Z. Bishaw :B. Rischkowsky :A. A. Hassan :S. GrandoInternational Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas,P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria

Food Sec. (2011) 3 (Suppl 1):S163–S173DOI 10.1007/s12571-010-0099-7

Arab agriculture faces a number of severe constraints. Themost important is limited natural resources. Another is theslow progress in crop improvement. The third constraintrelates to globalization and market liberalization, which tendsto reduce the effectiveness of local pricing policies. Fourth,institutional constraints: insufficient budgets for agriculturalresearch and development (R&D), lack of qualified andmotivated research and extension staff, limited infrastructure,weak linkages and coordination, and frequently, an absence ofeffective farmers’ organizations. In addition to these chal-lenges, technology adoption is low. Improved varieties andcrop and resource management practices are available that canimprove yields and quality and reduce production costs. Butadoption of improved varieties has been hindered byinadequacies in seed production and delivery and extension;and adoption of other technologies has been hindered by anumber of biophysical and economic factors.

The challenges to agriculture and food security are likelyto grow as a result of external factors. Climate changemodels predict higher temperatures, lower rainfall and morefrequent drought in the region. This will impact directly oncrop and livestock productivity, especially in rainfed andpastoral systems. Similar impacts in food-exportingcountries, and the possible diversion of food crops to thebiofuel industry, could lead to shortages and/or high pricesof grain in international markets. Arab countries, whichimport a large part of their food, are particularly vulnerable.There is an urgent need to reduce this vulnerability byincreasing domestic and regional food production.

This paper discusses the potential of rainfed agriculture—especially the smallholder sector—to contribute to foodsecurity in the region, in the context of climate changeimpacts. The paper covers crops as well as small ruminants(sheep and goats), which are an integral part of rainfedsystems. It presents examples of technologies developed byICARDA and its partners in Central and West Asia and NorthAfrica (the CWANA region), and the lessons learnt. It alsooutlines priority areas that need to be addressed in order toachieve food security in the Arab region.

Status of food security in Arab countries

All Arab countries, except Syria, are classified as fooddeficit (Shideed 2008) but there are large differences inaccess to food among the 22 countries of the Arab League.In 2008 there were 31 million food-insecure people (10%of the population) in the Arab countries. This is an increaseof 6 million over the World Food Summit reference period(1990–92). The prevalence of hunger is highest in Yemen(32%) and Sudan (21%) (FAO 2008).

The Arab countries import more than half the foodcalories they consume (FAO 2008) and are therefore highly

vulnerable to swings in commodity prices. This vulnerabil-ity could increase in the coming years as a result of strongpopulation growth, low agricultural productivity, andcontinued dependence on global commodities markets.Over the last 30 years, Arab countries’ per capitaproduction of staple cereals has dropped by 0.3% annually,while consumption has increased by 0.6%. Imports rose by170% between 1980 and 2008. The region’s cereal importbill grew from US$ 11 billion in 2003/04 to US$ 25.5billion in 2007/08.

A recent study by the Arab Organization for AgricultureDevelopment (AOAD 2009) estimated the food gap(difference between production and consumption) on thebasis of projections to 2030. The annual food gap isexpected to increase from US$ 11.8 billion in 1990 to US$71 billion in 2030 (Table 1). Figure 1 illustrates thegrowing gap in wheat—the most important commodity—in recent years.

Cereal demand in the region is expected to increase from84 million tonnes in 2000 to nearly 142 million tonnes in2030 (World Bank 2009). It is therefore critical to increaselocal production. This, in turn, can be achieved only byincreasing crop yields per unit of land and water.

Potential of rainfed agriculture in Arab countries

Rainfed agriculture is defined as the practice of growingprofitable crops without irrigation in areas with annualrainfall of 500 mm or less (FAO 2010). About 80% ofglobal cultivated area is rainfed, and produces 62% of theworld’s staple foods (FAO 2005). Despite predominatelydry climates, many Arab countries depend mainly onrainfed agriculture. About 68% of the region’s cropland israinfed, 20% is irrigated, and 12% is occupied bypermanent trees. Cereal production is mostly rainfed: atleast 80% in Sudan and Yemen, and half to two-thirds inthe Mashreq countries (FAO 2008).

The key to food security in Arab countries is to improve theproductivity and reliability of rainfed agriculture. Despiteproductivity growth in recent decades, cereal yields in theregion are lower than in other food-importing developingcountries, and only half the global average (Fig. 2).

Factors limiting productivity

Rainfed agriculture in the Arab region is practiced mainly insemi-arid temperate dry areas. Rainfall during the growingseason is generally low (250–600 mm) and poorly distributed,with frequent dry spells causing severe moisture stress. Withlow soil water, the options for using inputs such as fertilizerand responsive varieties are limited. The result is low yieldsand low rainwater productivity. This situation is likely to be

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exacerbated by climate change, which is expected to lead tohigher temperatures, lower rainfall, more extreme events suchas drought, and shorter growing seasons.

In addition, other biophysical, socioeconomic, andpolicy and institutional factors prevent rainfed agriculturefrom reaching its full potential. Some of these factors willbe discussed in the following sections. They include:

& Land degradation and desertification& Poor soil nutrient status& Poor water management& Low use of inputs& Risk aversion and inability to invest in productivity-

enhancing technologies, by resource-poor farmers& Weak farmer and community participation in R&D

activities& Low private sector investment& Governmental policies, incentives and investment were

historically directed toward irrigated agriculture becauseof the perceived higher returns and the inability ofcommunities in rainfed areas to influence the decisionmaking process

& Weak extension systems and ineffective disseminationof new technologies

& Weak seed production and delivery systems for im-proved crop varieties.

Despite those limitations there is potential to significantlyimprove productivity in rainfed systems, as illustrated later.

Improving productivity in rainfed agriculture

There are few opportunities to expand cultivated area.During most of the twentieth century, cultivated area inArab countries expanded faster than the world average.This growth has slowed since 1990, except in Sudan, wherethere are still large opportunities to expand (Fig. 3). Thus,any increase in food production will have to come mainlyfrom higher productivity per unit area.

For example, rainfed wheat yields in West Asia andNorth Africa are typically 0.5 to 1.5 t/ha. However,experimental fields and on-farm demonstrations haveachieved double and triple this yield level (Oweis andHachum 2009). This success can be replicated on a widerscale with a combination of water harvesting, supplementalirrigation, improved water-use efficiency, high-yieldingvarieties and improved crop management.

Improving yield and adaptation of rainfed crops

ICARDA has a wealth of experience in crop improvementin wheat, barley and food legumes (chickpea, lentil andfaba bean), using conventional plant breeding methods as

Fig. 1 Production and con-sumption of wheat in the Arabregion, 1995–2007

Year

Actual Expected

1990 2000 2005 2010 2020 2030

Population (millions) 223.0 282.0 317.0 353.0 439.0 545.0

Food gap (billion US$) 11.8 13.5 18.0 27.0 44.0 71.0

Index number for gap 100.0 114.0 152.0 229.0 373.0 601.0

Table 1 Food gap in the Arabcountries, 1990 to 2030

AOAD 2009

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well as biotechnology tools. Improved germplasm fromICARDA breeding programs is shared with nationalresearch centers. Around 380 improved crop varieties,developed through partnerships with national researchcenters, have been released in Arab countries (ICARDA2009). These include varieties of durum and bread wheat,barley, lentil, chickpeas, faba bean, field pea, vetches, andother forage species. Most of these varieties are targeted atrainfed systems, and have high and stable grain and strawyields, high levels of resistance to important prevailinginsects and diseases, and high drought tolerance.

Ongoing partnerships are helping to develop germplasmadapted to diverse ecologies. To improve yield and yieldstability, sources of resistance genes for major pests anddiseases (and new pathogen strains or races) are beingidentified. The breeding program also focuses on improvingtolerance to drought, extreme temperatures and salinity, aswell as input responsiveness and efficiency of water andnutrient use. A number of successes have been achieved,for example management of Hessian fly in Morocco(Lhaloui et al. 2005), genomic studies to improve water-use efficiency in wheat, and development of heat-tolerantvarieties for Sudan. Another example is of wheat produc-tion in Syria. Over 80 improved wheat varieties have beenreleased by the national program, and now cover about

90% of the country’s wheat area. Yields have increasednearly four-fold since the 1970s, generating gains of overUS$ 350 million per year, and making Syria not only self-sufficient but even an exporter of wheat (MAAR 2008).

ICARDA also has a specialized Seed Unit that addressesseed system constraints. The objective is to strengthen bothformal and informal seed systems by: (a) supporting thepublic seed sector to become more effective and compet-itive, (b) stimulating private sector participation, (c)designing alternative seed delivery systems for resource-poor farmers in dry areas, and (d) training and capacitydevelopment in the seed sector.

Biotechnology and crop improvement

Biotechnology provides an excellent opportunity for Arabcountries to increase crop yields, produce disease-free seedsand seedlings, and improve resistance to diseases andabiotic stresses. When developed, tested and disseminatedcorrectly, genetically modified varieties can substantiallyincrease productivity, reduce the use of chemicals, andincrease farmers’ revenues. Most crop varieties developedusing biotechnology are modified only for a single trait,such as herbicide tolerance or pest resistance (Baum 2004).However, the rapid progress being made in genomics will

Fig. 2 Cereal productivity inArab countries (World Bank2009)

Fig. 3 Expansion of cultivatedarea in Arab countries (WorldBank 2009)

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help identify more functional genes, and strengthenbreeding programs for complex traits such as drought andsalt tolerance, that are controlled by multiple genes, and forwhich conventional breeding methods have not beensuccessful in most food crops.

Improving rainwater productivity

Although rainfed systems dominate world food production,investments in rainfed agriculture have been neglected infavor of irrigated agriculture over the past 50 years. Anumber of studies (e.g. Cooper et al. 1987; Harris et al.1991) show the huge potential for improving waterproductivity in smallholder rainfed agriculture, with watersavings of 15–20% possible over the coming decade. Smallinvestments will enable farmers to provide supplementalirrigation to rainfed crops, increasing yield and yieldstability, and allowing better use of inputs. In combinationwith soil fertility management and improved varieties,supplemental irrigation can more than double waterproductivity and yields (Oweis and Hachum 2009).

Supplemental irrigation Research results from ICARDA(Oweis and Hachum 2009) and other institutions, as well asharvests from farmers’ fields, illustrate the substantialincreases in yields in response to the application ofrelatively small amounts of supplemental irrigation. Wheatgrain yield under low, medium and high rainfall atICARDA’s Tel Hadya station increased by 400%, 150%and 30% with supplemental irrigation of 180, 125 and75 mm respectively. In farmers’ fields in Syria, averagewheat yields increased from 1.25 t/ha under purely rainfedconditions, to 3 t/ha with supplemental irrigation. In 1996,over half of national wheat production was attributed to thispractice. The optimal quantity of supplemental irrigationneeded depends on rainfall, and has been determined forvarious conditions. The optimal is about 75 mm in areaswith 500 mm annual rainfall, and 250 mm in areas with250 mm rainfall (Fig. 4).

Conservation agriculture Conservation agriculture—acombination of reduced or zero tillage, mulch retention,crop rotations and cover crops—offers multiple benefits forfarmers in dry rainfed areas: control of soil erosion, betterdrought tolerance and improved soil nutrient levels. Resultsfrom research stations as well as farmer’ fields have shownincreases in crop water availability, productivity, soilorganic matter and nutrient availability, and pest control,together with savings in labor and fuel costs. There isgrowing interest in the region in testing and disseminatingthese conservation agriculture methods for dry areas.ICARDA is implementing several projects in the Arabregion, and in Central Asia and the Caucasus. In one

project, for example, adoption of conservation agriculturein Iraq and Syria has increased from zero to 11,500 habetween the 2006–07 and 2009–10 seasons (Piggin et al.2010). Encouraging results have also been obtained inSudan and Morocco (Mrabet 2002), with potential foroutscaling to other parts of the region.

Improving soil fertility

Soil degradation can lead to sharp declines in yield, througha combination of various factors such as nutrient depletion,loss of organic matter, reduced rainfall infiltration and plantwater uptake (Henao and Baanante 2006). Studies on arange of rainfed crops in dry areas in India havedemonstrated substantial yield improvements with theapplication of appropriate fertilizers (Rego et al. 2005),and increases in water productivity with a combination ofland and water management methods and improvedvarieties (Wani et al. 2003). ICARDA’s work has focusedon two areas: the use of legumes in crop rotations toimprove soil fertility, and ‘technology packages’ thatcombine fertilizer application with supplemental irrigation.For example, experiments in nitrogen-deficient Mediterra-nean soils showed substantial increases in wheat yields andwater productivity with a combination of supplementalirrigation and 50–100 kg/ha of nitrogen (Oweis 1997).

Bridging the yield gap in rainfed agriculture

In many rainfed crops in dry areas, there are large differencesbetween potential yields and those actually achieved byfarmers. Differences as large as four-fold have been recorded

Fig. 4 Impact of supplemental irrigation on rainfed wheat yield innorthern Syria in dry, normal and wet years, where supplementalirrigation of 183, 120 and 75 mmwas applied, respectively (Oweis 1997)

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in rainfed wheat in North Africa and West Asia. One study byICARDA (Sing et al. 2009) focused on rainfed wheat inMorocco, Syria and Turkey. To estimate what gains could beachieved in practice, the study measured two kinds of yieldgaps: between research stations and farmers’ fields, andbetween simulated potential yield and farmers’ yield. Thestudy concluded that using currently available technologies,wheat yields could be increased by 60% to 150% in differentparts of Morocco, 70% to 100% in Syria, and 50% to 200%in Turkey (Sing et al. 2009). This would require acombination of rainwater harvesting, supplemental irrigation,improved water-use efficiency, high-yielding varieties andimproved agronomic management.

For the Arab region, it is clear that there is a need toreinforce extension programs and to develop more effec-tive, participatory approaches to encourage farmers to useexisting, proven technologies.

The challenge of climate change

Climate change models predict that average rainfall in theArab region could decrease by 10% in the next 50 years(World Bank 2008). With more frequent droughts and heatwaves, rainfed yields will become less reliable, and averageyields are expected to fall by 20% for the region, and nearly40% in Algeria and Morocco (World Bank 2007). Helpingfarmers adapt to climate change requires greater investmentin research to develop drought-resistant varieties, conser-vation agriculture practices, and other technologies thatcould keep rainfed agriculture economically viable. Newtechnologies must factor in risk aversion, which couldbecome more important with increasing climate variability.

ICARDA’s approach to climate change builds ontechnologies that have proved successful in drylandenvironments. The aim is to strengthen the adaptivecapacity of communities, and the resilience of farmingsystems—in short, mitigation plus adaptation. Current andplanned research focuses on different aspects, all of whichapply to rainfed production systems:

& Climate change processes, ecological impacts, and thefactors influencing them

& Improved, adapted varieties, improved cropping sys-tems, more efficient use of natural resources

& Disease and insect pest management& Technology options for livelihood diversification and

income generation& Studying local coping strategies, and drawing lessons

for wider application& Examining trade-offs: for example, will policy reform

on water (in order to improve overall productivity)reduce water access for the poor?

Investments in the seed sector

A strong seed sector is a fundamental requirement for thedissemination of new crop varieties, and for ensuring foodsecurity and stable food production. Several studies (e.g., FAO2000; Bishaw and Kugbei 1997) have helped identify keystrengths and weaknesses of national seed sectors in Arabcountries. There is considerable variation among countries interms of policy, regulatory, institutional and technical arrange-ments; but seed systems are generally based on public sectoragencies that receive government subsidies. There is littleprivate sector investment except in a few countries (e.g.Egypt, Morocco) and a few crops (e.g. wheat, cotton).Adoption of improved varieties is usually low, except forsome cereals, notably wheat. For most cereals, legumes,vegetables and forage species, the formal seed systemaccounts for only a small fraction of seeds planted by farmers.

To enable rainfed agriculture to fulfill its considerablepotential, it is important for governments to create acompetitive seed industry. This will involve:

& Harmonizing the regulatory and policy framework onintellectual property rights, variety release, seed certifi-cation and phytosanitary measures to allow the freeflow of germplasm across countries and to create a largeregional seed market.

& Liberalization of the public seed sector and encourage-ment of private sector participation.

& Promoting alternative seed delivery systems to supple-ment the formal sector. These ‘informal’ systems wouldtarget small-scale and subsistence farmers, wouldinvolve community-based seed production and market-ing, and would be linked to the formal system.

& Strengthening capacity in technical, managerial andfinancial aspects.

Technology transfer

There is widespread agreement (see, for example, IAASTD2007) that extension systems in Arab countries have notbeen fully effective, leading to slow dissemination ofavailable technologies. This is due to many factorsincluding inadequate funding, leading to poor supportstructures and uncompetitive salaries. This issue needs tobe addressed. Simultaneously, policy makers need toconsider rural financial services (credit, insurance, etc.)that could encourage resource-poor, risk-averse farmers toadopt new technologies.

In addition, other solutions might be explored, such asopening the research and extension systems to moreproviders, and creating partnerships between universities,non-governmental organizations and private firms.

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Small ruminants

Small ruminants (sheep and goats) are a major componentof rainfed farming systems, and an important source ofincome and dietary protein for the rural poor in most Arabcountries. They require relatively small investments, andcan be reared on marginal land, converting low quality feedinto high-value milk and meat. In the West Asia and NorthAfrica (WANA) region small ruminants account for aboutone-fourth of the value of total livestock production (FAO2005) and support the livelihoods of an estimated 4–10million families, or 20–50 million people (Iñiguez 2005). In2004, there were an estimated 488 million head of smallruminants in WANA.

ICARDA studies (Aw-Hassan et al. 2010) have analyzedgrowth in the sector in the WANA region. Small ruminantnumbers increased by 49% between 1961 and 2004,although growth has slowed since 1990. This growth wasa result of multiple factors: improved animal health andnutrition, government policy support and increased demandfor meat due to population growth, urbanization andimproved income levels. This growth has generatedsubstantial benefits for producers, but has also acceleratedrangeland degradation, desertification and loss of plantbiodiversity. Animal numbers will continue to increase(although at a slower rate), because goats and sheep willprobably be more profitable than crops, under futureclimate conditions. The challenge is to manage this growthsustainably.

The key will be effective integration of crop-livestocksystems. Improving the productivity of rainfed crops—which provide a large share of animal feed resources, in theform of grain and straw—will improve feed supplies andanimal productivity and reduce production costs, impactingdirectly on farm income, nutrition and food security.

As with crops, small ruminant production will also beimpacted by climate change, both directly (e.g. highertemperatures reduce milk productivity) and indirectly(droughts will reduce pasture availability and acceleraterangeland degradation). To minimize climate changeimpacts, there is a need to stratify the region according tolevel of vulnerability and opportunity for success. Welldefined scenarios of climate change at local levels wouldhelp develop appropriate livestock management options fordifferent production systems (Rischkowsky et al. 2008;Tibbo et al. 2008a, b). Some of the areas that ICARDA isaddressing include:

& Phenotypic and molecular genetic characterization oflocal sheep and goat breeds to identify appropriatebreeds for future climates

& Breeding programs to improve key adaptive traits suchas heat tolerance

& Protecting and promoting local breeds, through breedimprovement, product value addition, market linkages,

& Transboundary and zoonotic diseases that limit trade& Rangeland management, including technologies as well

as institutional aspects such as rangeland access& Animal nutrition: use of crop by-products, development

of new forage varieties, use of alternative feed sourcessuch as cactus and shrubs

& Water harvesting and distribution of water deliverypoints in rangelands

Improving small ruminant productivity

The Masheq/Maghreb project, coordinated by ICARDA,targeted agricultural production systems in eight Arabcountries (Haddad et al. 2007). One component wasparticipatory research with livestock owners, to improveanimal health and management. The project helped test andpromote low-cost technologies for animal feeds, using on-farm feed production and locally available feed sourcesrather than feed concentrates. These include micronutrient-enriched feed blocks made from crop by-products, thatincreased ewe fertility by 28% and lambing percentage by36% (Haddad et al. 2007). Other benefits include earlierweaning of lambs and advancing the breeding age of ewes.Other project components—based on currently availabletechnologies such as hormone treatments, estrus synchro-nization and super-ovulation—led to significant improve-ments in reproductive performance. The project alsointroduced community-based breeding programs to reverseinbreeding effects, and created greater awareness of trait-based selection and culling decisions.

Addressing production constraints

Small ruminant production and investment in Arabcountries is limited by various factors including: limitedadoption of new technologies, unavailability or high cost offeed, poor health management, low productivity of localbreeds, poor market access, inability of small-scale pro-ducers to meet market standards, as well as policy andinstitutional constraints.

In recent years, there has been some progress inaddressing these constraints. For example, varieties ofbarley (the most important feed source) have beendeveloped with better straw quality, and genomic studieshave provided new information on the inheritance ofstraw quality traits (e.g. Grando et al. 2005). Low-costtechnologies have been developed to enhance the nutritivevalue of wheat stubble (ICARDA 2001). The potentialrole of vetch (Vicia sativa) as green fodder or hay has beenwidely studied in West Asia (Abdel Moneim 1993; Larbi

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et al. 2010a, b). Spineless cactus (Opuntia) is beingincreasingly promoted as a fodder source in North Africaand the Arabian Peninsula, by government agencies aswell as other development programs (Alary et al. 2007).Two important opportunities for value addition—lambfattening (Hartwell et al. 2010) and dairy processing(Hilali et al. 2006)—have been studied, and traditionalmethods enhanced.

While pilot projects have been successful (ICARDA2002, 2003; Rihawi et al. 2007; Hilali et al. 2007; Iñiguezand Hilali 2007), adoption is still slow. ICARDA and itspartners are now linking research to externally-fundeddevelopment projects, in order to replicate or out-scale thefindings of pilot projects to larger production systems.

Conclusions

The Arab region imports more than 50% of its food, andthis figure is likely to rise. With severely limited water andarable land future growth in food production must comemainly from increases in crop and livestock productivity.Crucially, rainfed agriculture, which currently accounts for69% of the region’s cultivated area, must be made moreproductive.

A range of productivity-enhancing technologies isavailable, and new ones continue to be developed. Butsuccess in pilot projects are often not scaled outeffectively, and technology adoption remains low. Thereare substantial yield gaps—which represent a clearopportunity for producers as well as policy makers andother stakeholders.

To unlock the potential of rainfed agriculture, invest-ments in research and extension must be increased andbetter targeted; private sector participation must beencouraged (for example in seed production, mechani-zation equipment and low-cost animal feed). Simulta-neously, governments must create enabling policies toencourage technology adoption and greater marketparticipation by resource-poor smallholder farmers.These policies must also encourage sustainable use ofnatural resources and arrest water and land degradation.The most limiting constraint—water resources—mightbe addressed through a combination of technology (e.g.,supplemental irrigation, plant breeding, agronomic man-agement) and policy.

Countries in the region need to work together todevelop large regional markets for seeds and crop andlivestock products. For example, countries with acomparative advantage in producing certain crops shouldtake the lead in regional food security initiatives.Finally, researchers and development agencies mustwork together to improve the ability of smallholder

farmers and livestock producers to cope with theimpacts of climate change.

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Nasri Haddad is with the Inter-national Center for AgriculturalResearch in the Dry Areas(ICARDA), based in Amman,Jordan, as Coordinator of ICAR-DA’s West Asia Regional Pro-gram. He earlier led ICARDA’sNile Valley and Red Sea Re-gional Program based in Cairo.Dr Haddad is also a Professor ofplant breeding and plant geneticresources at the University ofJordan, where he has supervised30 Masters and PhD students.He has edited two books, auth-

ored or co-authored 90 scientific publications, and helped produce arange of extension material for farmers and field staff, including 10extension bulletins and 15 video films. A plant breeder by training, hehas developed three lentil and three chickpea varieties that have beenreleased in Jordan by the Ministry of Agriculture.

Pro f e s s o r Dr MahmudDuwayri formerly Jordan’s Min-ister for Agriculture, is Professorof Agriculture at the University ofJordan. Dr Duwayri has a PhD inplant breeding and genetics fromthe University of Wisconsin,Madison, and a Masters degreefrom the American University ofBeirut. Over the course of a 40-year career, he has served asDirector of FAO’s Plant Produc-tion and Protection Division; Di-rector General of the NationalCenter for Agricultural Research

and Extension; President of Ajloun University; Vice President of theJordan University for Science and Technology (all in Jordan); and Deanof Agricultural Sciences at the United Arab Emirates University. He haswon numerous international awards, including the Order du MeriteAgricole (de Commandeur) from the Government of France and the KingHussein Fund for Development Award.

Theib Yousef Oweis is Directorof the Integrated Water And LandManagement Program at the Inter-national Center for AgriculturalResearch in the Dry Areas(ICARDA). He leads projects be-ing implemented in more than 20developing countries, aiming toincrease water productivity andcombat soil degradation in dryareas. Dr Oweis has a PhD inagricultural and irrigation engi-neering from Utah State Universi-ty, and more than 160 scientificpublications. In addition to re-

search and academics (formerly Assistant Professor at the University ofJordan), he has extensive private sector experience, implementing turnkey

irrigation projects, conducting feasibility studies, and testing for soil andsoil-water quality. He is co-chair of the advisory panel of ScienceDev.Net,editor of several professional journals, and member of the steeringcommittee for an international Masters program with the United NationsUniversity, Tottori University and other partners.

Zewdie Bishaw a seed technol-ogist with 30 years of experi-ence, is Head of Seed Section atthe International Center for Ag-ricultural Research in the DryAreas. His work includes re-search, training, and interactionswith a range of stakeholdergroups from farmer cooperativesto national and regional policybodies. In addition to the tech-nical aspects of seed production,his interests include regulatoryand policy issues relating toseeds; community-based seed

enterprises; and seed industry development. Dr Bishaw has an MScin seed technology from the University of Edinburgh and a PhD inagricultural sciences from Wageningen Agricultural University. Inaddition to 20-plus years at international centers, he has lectured atAddis Ababa University in Ethiopia, and headed the seed processingand quality control teams at the Ethiopian Seed Corporation.

Barbara Ann Rischkowsky isSenior Livestock Scientist at theInternational Center for Agricul-tural Research in the Dry Areas.She was previously with theFood and Agriculture Organiza-tion of the United Nations,where she coordinated the prep-aration of a major referencepublication, State of the World’sAnimal Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture. Earliershe was Assistant Professor atthe Georg August University inGoettingen, Germany. Dr Risch-

kowsky has a PhD on dairy goat production from the Justus LiebigUniversity in Giessen, Germany. Her research interests includelivestock production systems in developing countries and sustainableutilization of animal genetic resources. At ICARDA, she and her teamare developing management strategies for small ruminant productionsystems with a special focus on adaptation to climatic variability andmarket opportunities.

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Dr Aden Aw-Hassan is Directorof the Socioeconomic and PolicyResearch Program at the Interna-tional Center for Agricultural Re-search in the Dry Areas(ICARDA). He has a PhD inAgricultural Economics fromOklahoma State University; aMasters from Utah State Universi-ty, and more than 100 scientificpublications on agricultural eco-nomics, technology dissemination,and participatory researchapproaches. His research interestsinclude technology evaluation, ag-

ricultural research impact assessment, rural livelihood analysis, povertyassessment, micro finance, and improving market access for smallholderfarmers. He has wide experience in both research and development, as anacademic, project leader, and head of a large national extension program.He has more than 15 years of international research experience, helping todesign, plan and lead multi-country, multi-partner projects.

Stefania Grando has been abarley breeder at the Internation-al Center for Agricultural Re-search in the Dry Areas(ICARDA) for more than20 years. Dr Grando has a PhDin plant breeding from the Uni-versity of Perugia, Italy, and hasauthored or co-authored morethan 100 scientific publications.She leads the barley improve-ment team at ICARDA, focus-ing mainly on smallholderfarmers and stress environments.Her research interests include

farmer-participatory methods, barley genetic diversity, and mecha-nisms of drought tolerance. Earlier in her career, she has also lecturedon genetics, plant breeding and plant genetic resources at theUniversity of Perugia, and worked with the variety trial network ofthe Italian Ministry of Agriculture. She speaks fluent Italian andEnglish, fair Spanish and some Arabic.

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