International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. (in press)Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/oa.828

The Oldest Human Remainsfrom the Beagle ChannelRegion, Tierra del Fuego

R. MACCHIARELLI,a* L. BONDIOLI,b S. CAROPRESO,b A. MAZURIER,a

G. MERCERONa AND E. L. PIANAc

a Laboratoire de Geobiologie, Biochronologie et Paleontologie Humaine, CNRS UMR 6046,

Universite de Poitiers, Franceb Sezione di Antropologia, Museo Nazionale Preistorico Etnografico ‘‘Luigi Pigorini’’, Rome,

Italyc Centro Austral de Investigaciones Cientıficas (CADIC), Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina

ABSTRACT The biohistory of the human peopling of the Fuegian Archipelago and the processes ofbiocultural adaptation and microdifferentiation of the ethnohistorical ‘canoe’ (‘sea nomad’)and ‘foot’ natives are poorly known. Here we report the oldest human remains of a ‘sea nomad’native discovered so far in the Beagle Channel region. The specimen consists of a deciduousmolar from the site of Imiwaia I, dated to 5870� 145 years BP. The microwear patternindicates the consumption of hard food processed by long chewing cycles. The histomor-phometric analysis shows the presence of at least three episodes of stress between 8 and10.5 months after birth, and an unusually thin neonatal line, suggesting a mechanically non-stressing birth event. Copyright � 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Tierra del Fuego; Beagle Channel; earliest peopling; Imiwaia; human tooth

Introduction

The native ‘canoe Indians’—the so-called ‘seanomads’—peopling the eastern and southernregions of the Fuegian Archipelago, who calledthemselves Yamana, were first encountered byEuropeans at the beginning of the 17th century.Their land, encompassing the south and westernshores of the Tierra del Fuego Main Island andmore than 200 smaller islands down to CapeHorn, is characterised by forest-covered moun-tains and sea channels, with a profusion ofislands, fjords, bays and inlets with abundantmarine resources, sea mammals and sea birds,

and an hyperoceanic cold climate with veryfrequent rain/snow fall (Hyades & Deniker,1891; Lothrop, 1928; Gusinde, 1939).

The ‘sea nomads’ attracted the curiosity of theEuropean scholars because of their ‘primitive’culture and harsh lifestyle, and were labelled asa key example of an ‘early stage of humankind’, of‘low hierarchical placement’ and of ‘cultural fixity’(for a review, see Orquera & Piana, 1996). Untilrecently, most knowledge of these ‘canoe Indians’was restricted to ethnohistorical information.Accordingly, they were depicted as a marginal,poorly adapted group, with little antiquity in thearea (approximately 2000 years), and confined tothe most distant part of the globe by culturallymore advanced people (Orquera & Piana, 1999a).

We report the oldest human remains of a ‘seanomad’ native discovered so far in the FuegianArchipelago. The remains consist of a deciduous

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 14 November 2004Revised 1 June 2005

Accepted 15 June 2005

* Correspondence to: Laboratoire de Geobiologie, Biochronologieet Paleontologie Humaine, UMR 6046, Universite de Poitiers, 40,av. du Recteur Pineau, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France.e-mail: roberto.macchiarelli@univ-poitiers.fr

molar from the site of Imiwaia I, dated to5870� 145 years BP (Orquera & Piana, 2000a).

The archaeological evidence

Systematic archaeological research in the BeagleChannel region began only in mid-1970s. Withthe first discoveries, most historically rootedassumptions proved to be wrong. The peoplingof the region is currently seen as the result of afully successful long-term tradition, the so-calledAdaptive Tradition to the Magellan-Fuegianchannels and islands (Piana, 1984, 2002). Thistechno-cultural tradition is documented in thearchaeological record from about 6400 years BP(uncal. 14C) to the 19th century AD. The ances-tors of the ethnohistorical ‘canoe’ natives had ahunting–fishing–gathering economy mostlybased on sea-mammal fat consumption. Whilesea lions were the most important dietary source,the diet was complemented with marine birds,fish, guanaco, and daily shellfish gathering(Orquera & Piana, 1999a).

Although Tierra del Fuego was one of the lastland masses to be populated (Borrero, 1977),human presence on the Main Island is over10000 years old (Massone, 1987) and certainlyprecedes the opening of the Magellan Strait,which occurred some 9000 years BP (Rabassaet al., 2000). Those earliest inhabitants had nospecific adaptation to the littoral environment. Infact, the oldest archaeological record from theBeagle Channel region, including the evidencefrom the almost 7000-year-old lowest layersof the Tunel I site (Orquera & Piana, 1995),testifies to a purely inland hunting–gatheringlifestyle.

The ‘Maximum Possible Antiquity’ hypoth-esis invokes the presence of extended woods inthe Fuegian islands as the essential requirementfor a fully sea littoral adaptation (Orquera &Piana, 1988). Accordingly, traces of this life-style older than 6700–6500 ca. years BP (uncal.14C) are not expected in the area because of thelate persistence of spread residual ice. Nearly athousand archaeological sites have been iden-tified in the Beagle Channel and surroundingarea, and some of them have been dated(Barcelo et al., 2002), but no evidence has

disproved the terminus ante quem predicted bythe palaeoecological model.

The first unambiguous evidence for a sea-nomadic adaptation comes from the sites ofAridos Guerrico (6495� 60 BP; Ocampo & Rivas,2000), Imiwaia I (6490� 120 BP on shells,5870� 145 BP on charcoal; Orquera & Piana,2000a), Tunel I Second Component (6400–5800BP; Orquera & Piana, 1999b), Grandi 1(6160� 100 BP, 6120� 80 BP; Legoupil, 1994,1995) and Lomada Alta Olivia (5600� 125 BP,unpublished)1 (Figure 1). The archaeologicalevidence displays a tool-kit fully developed forintensive use of the regional sea resources and theraw materials they provided.

Skeletal remains of sea-nomad ancestors fromdocumented contexts of the Beagle Channelregion and surrounding areas are very scarceand chronologically late compared with theavailable archaeological signals (Massone et al.,1985–86; Legoupil & Prieto, 1991; Perez-Perez,1996; Aspillaga et al., 1999).

The deciduous tooth from the Imiwaia I sitewas discovered in situ within a ring shell-middenadjacent to the base of a hut, dated 5870� 145years BP. So far, it represents the only humanremains from the middle Holocene sites listedabove (Macchiarelli & Piana, 2002).

Imiwaia I site

The Imiwaia I site (54�52.380S–67�17.750W), atbahıa Cambaceres Interior, is a field of intercon-nected annular and dome-like shell-middens builtup from very many short occupations. The baseof the excavated unit is 4.60m above currentsea-level, although when first settled the hut wasvery near the shore level. At that time, theenvironment was more open, with a much loweroccurrence of Nothofagus and a relative abundanceof gramineae and tubuliflora (Heusser, 1989).

Cultural items from the lower anthropogeniclayers (M and K) containing the human toothinclude cross-base toggling harpoon heads,multibarbed harpoon heads, wedges and chisels

1All uncalibrated 14C dates. Because of the so-called reservoir effect(Albero et al., 1988), dates on shells (e.g. Aridos Guerrico andImiwaia I) should be reduced by nearly 600 years.

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made from marine mammal bones, necklacebeads made with bird bones and shells, carvedbones, awls, and expeditive lithic technologyincluding side scrapers, used flakes, and stonefishing-line weights. These findings match thoseknown for the earliest phases of this adaptivetradition (Orquera & Piana, 1999b).

Faunal remains from the first excavationconsist of 2149 specimens (67% identified atgeneric level), representing pinnipeds (n¼ 633),various sea birds (n¼ 519), guanaco (n¼ 269),and other sea mammals (n¼ 17). The estimatedminimum number of individuals show seven furseals (Arctocephalus sp.), two guanacos (Lamaguanicoe), one large unidentified phocid, twocormorants (Phalacocrorax sp.), two albatross (Dio-medea sp.) and one penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus).Canine teeth suggest that all of the seals weremales, ranging from 4 to 12 years of age at death;three had probably been hunted in winter, two insummer, and one in summer–autumn (Orquera &Piana, 2000a). Most of the fish (103� 24 speci-mens per dm3) are hake and sardine, which todayenter the channels during summer, and occasion-ally strand.

The shell-midden also documents a huge con-sumption of shells (108� 25 individuals perdm3). Almost 91% of the mollusks are mussels,6% are limpets, and the remaining 3% representdifferent taxa of gastropods (Orquera & Piana,2000b, c).

The human tooth (IMI 384)

The human specimen from Imiwaia I (IMI 384) isan upper left deciduous second molar (m2).The crown is complete, but partially worn(Figure 2A). The lingual and mesiobuccal roots(height¼ 0.99 and 1.01mm, respectively) areremnants of the original trunks, while thedistobuccal root has been completely resorbed.The tooth was likely lost intra vitam whenthe individual was about 10 years old (usingUbelaker, 1978).

The occlusal cusp pattern is 4- (Dahlberg,1963), with slight hypocone reduction. Themesiobuccal cusp (paracone) bears a poorlydeveloped supernumerary cusplet. A distinctCarabelli’s cusp (degree 5; Turner et al., 1991),which is seen in varying frequencies in nativeAmericans (Scott & Turner, 1997), is present onthe lingual aspect. On its mesiobuccal aspect, amedium-sized parastyle (degree 3; Turner et al.,1991) is present.

In proportion to its length (M-D, mesiodistaldiameter corrected for interproximal wear¼9.2mm), the Imiwaia tooth (IMI) shows a ratherbuccolingually expanded crown (B-L, buccolin-gual diameter¼ 10.7mm). This is apparent inFigure 3, a scatterplot showing decidious B-Land M-D tooth diameters from a variety ofarchaeological and recent samples (Black, 1978;Frayer, 1978; Margetts & Brown, 1978; Sawyer

Figure 1. The Fuegian Archipelago showing the archaeological sites documenting the earliest phases of humanadaptation to the littoral environment (sea-nomadic lifestyle according to the so-called Adaptive Tradition of theMagellan-Fuegian channels and islands). 1: Imiwaia I; 2: Tunel I; 3: Lomada Alta Olivia; 4: Aridos Guerrico; 5: Grandi I.See the text for chronology and references.

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et al., 1982; Larsen, 1983; Macchiarelli & Sperduti,1994; Sciulli, 2001), including some nativeAmerican series (Sawyer et al., 1982; Larsen,1983; Sciulli, 2001).

No dental size values have been reported so farfor the deciduous dentition of the ethnohistoricalFuegians, nor for any southern Patagonian sample(Macchiarelli et al., 1988; Macchiarelli, 1996). Incross-sectional crown area, IMI (98.4mm2) over-laps or closely approximates the values of mostOhio Valley prehistoric samples (range:90.0–99.8mm2; calculated from Sciulli, 2001),those of the archaeological Georgia Coast agri-culturalists (99.1mm2; Larsen, 1983), and ofpre-Columbian Peruvians (96.0mm2; calculatedfrom Sawyer et al., 1982).

The mesial portion of IMI’s occlusal surface(Figure 2A), where an extended semilunar-shapeddentine patch occurs (length¼ 3.6mm; max.width¼ 1.0mm), is the most worn. The majorwear component is linguobuccally oriented. Twolarge interproximal wear facets are present(mesial: width¼ 4.4mm; height¼ 2.0mm; distal:4.7 and 2.6mm, respectively). Topographicalanalysis of the occlusal surface using scanning

electron microscopy and stereomicroscopyrevealed many large pits (>15mm) on thedistobuccal slope of the protocone (grindingfacet 9; Kay & Hiiemae, 1974) and on thedistolingual slope of the paracone (shearingfacet 3). On facet 9, 34 scratches, 51 pits (anysize), and 18 large pits exist on an investigatedsurface measuring 0.09mm2. Large scratches arealso found on the distolingual slope of the pro-tocone (shearing facet 6).

In their microwear analysis of the buccalaspect of permanent molars from a number ofprehistoric and recent population samples,Lalueza et al. (1996) included a group of ethno-historical Fuegians. Adults showed a prevalenceof long vertical scratches, a typical meat-eatingindicator. When measured similarly, IMI(Figure 2B) shows a nearly equal number ofvertical and horizontal scratches (n¼ 18 vs. 19,respectively), the latter being considerablylonger on average than the scratches found onthe adult counterparts (IMI¼ 240.5 mm; adultFuegian sample: 166.1� 60.2mm).

A high contribution of vegetable food inTierra del Fuego natives’ diet is unlikely because

Figure 2. IMI 384. A: Occlusal surface (scale bar is 2mm). B: Microfeatures (mostly scratches) on the buccal aspect(scale bar is 200mm).

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of environmental factors, so the microwearpattern of the Imiwaia child suggests regularmechanical action on the deciduous enamel ofhard food-related items (e.g. sand, shellfish, smallmussel-associated black pearls) and long chewingcycles, an inference quite compatible with thearchaeozoological findings from the Imiwaia Ilayers M and K.

Despite some diagenetic structural damage(mostly involving the buccal side), the histol-ogy-based analysis of the digital photomosaic ofIMI’s buccolingual crown section through para-

cone and protocone (Caropreso et al., 2000)shows a number of enamel inner meso- andmicrofeatures (Figure 4).

The circaseptan interval, the number ofcross-striations between adjacent physiologicalincremental lines, or striae of Retzius (FitzGerald& Rose, 2000), is eight. While no stress-relatedenamel hypoplastic defect is detectable on thecrown at a macroscopic level nor at lowmagnification (� 6.5 and� 10), histomorpho-metric analysis reveals at least three slightlyaccentuated, structurally abnormal post-natal

Figure 3. Scatterplot for the upper m2 mesiodistal (M-D) and buccolingual (B-L) diameters (in mm) of the Imiwaiaspecimen (IMI) and of some comparative series (mean values only). AUS: Australian aborigines (Margetts & Brown,1978); EAM: Euroamericans (Black, 1978); EMSL: European Mesolithic (12000–7000 BP; Frayer, 1978); GCA: GeorgiaCoast agriculturalists (1150–1550 AD; Larsen, 1983); GCPA: Georgia Coast pre-agriculturalists (2200 BC-1150 AD;Larsen, 1983); OEW: Ohio Valley Early Woodland (ca. 2700–1900 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OLA: Ohio Valley Late Archaic (ca.3200–2700 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OLPA: Ohio Valley Late Prehistoric Anderson (ca. 1000–350 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OLPB:Ohio Valley Late Prehistoric Buffalo (ca. 1000–350 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OLPM: Ohio Valley Late Prehistoric Monongahela(ca. 1000–350 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OLPP: Ohio Valley Late Prehistoric Pearson (ca. 1000–350 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OLPS:Ohio Valley Late Prehistoric Sun Watch (ca. 1000–350 BP; Sciulli, 2001); OMLW: Ohio Valley Middle–Late Woodland(ca. 1900–1000 BP; Sciulli, 2001); PCP: Pre-Columbian Peru (ca. 600 BC-1700 AD; Sawyer et al., 1982); SCR: ImperialRomans (1st–3rd cent. AD; Macchiarelli & Sperduti, 1994).

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striae of Retzius (Wilson & Shroff, 1970; Roseet al., 1985) (Figure 4A). The assessment of theoccurrence time of these three episodes of stress(FitzGerald et al., 1999) is about 8, 9.5 and 10.5months after birth, respectively.

The neonatal line, separating the enamelformed in intrauterine life from that formed afterbirth (Skinner & Dupras, 1993; for evidence inarchaeological population samples, see Smith &Avishai, 2005), is very thin (Figure 4B). Digitalmeasurements (n¼ 15 at� 400) taken at variousdistances from the cemento-enamel junctiongave an average thickness of 6.57mm (range:5.11–7.87mm). Comparative estimates obtainedby the same method on 124 deciduous crowns (ofall morphological classes) from 102 modernEuropean children (‘Fatina’ collection; originalunpublished values) range between 6.5 and50.9mm (mean¼ 17.31 mm, SD¼ 7.97), and asample of 109 children (aged 6 months–9 years)from the Imperial Roman cemetery of IsolaSacra (Bondioli & Macchiarelli, 1999; Rossiet al., 1999) showed a mean of 16.7mm(SD¼ 4.4, n crowns¼ 209).

Following Eli et al. (1989), normal deliveriesresult in smaller neonatal line thickness(10–17mm, n¼ 147 modern children), whileoperative or stressful deliveries are associated

with wider neonatal lines (13–24mm). Althoughthe ethnohistorical record should not be adopteduncritically as a model for the past, it should benoted that according to 18th–19th centurychronicles (review in Orquera & Piana, 1999a),Yamana women gave birth on average to 4–6babies (some women produced up to 14 babies,most of whom died prematurely). The practice ofimmersing newborns in the cold seawater of theBeagle Channel just after the delivery, and even acouple of times per day regularly for a period of atleast one month, was supposed to be a cause ofinfant mortality, but was also said to invigoratenewborns and to make them healthier.

When a strict relationship between neonatalline thickness and delivery dynamics is assumed(Eli et al., 1989), the IMI tooth shows an unusuallythin neonatal line, suggesting an extremely gentleshift to and fast recovery from intra- to extra-uterine life through a mechanically non-stressingbirth event, actually compatible with the resultsreported following caesarean sections.

Discussion and concluding remarks

The human biohistory of the Fuegian Archipe-lago and the processes of adaptation and

Figure 4. IMI 384. A: Histology-based digital photomosaic of the buccolingual crown section through paracone (pa)and protocone (pr) (scale bar is 1mm), showing the three accentuated striae of Retzius (ASR) detected on the post-natal enamel. B: Detail of the neonatal line (scale bar is 400 mm).

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microdifferentiation between the ‘canoe’ Indiansdepending on marine resources and the inland‘foot’ Indians exploiting guanaco have beenconsidered from many perspectives, includingmorphology (Rothhammer & Silva, 1990; Lahr,1995; Hernandez et al., 1997; Gonzalez-Jose et al.,2001), population genetics (Moraga et al., 2000;Goicoechea et al., 2001) and aDNA (Lalueza,1996; Lalueza et al., 1997; Garcıa-Bour et al.,2004). However, despite the growing quantityand quality of the anthropological record, it isnot yet possible to answer convincingly thequestion of where the close ancestors of theImiwaia child did originate.

Rooted in the ‘Maximum Possible Antiquity’hypothesis (Orquera & Piana, 1988), the archae-ological perspective strongly suggests that theinfant that lost the IMI 384 tooth crown was partof a stock of ‘sea nomad’ pioneers who, some6700–6500 years BP, entered the area alreadyculturally and technologically equipped andpre-adapted to a littoral environment, followingthe post-Pleistocene climatic changes thatallowed the expansion of woods as raw materialindispensable to sustain a sea-dependent life-style, and probably coming from the southPacific islands of present-day Chile (Orquera &Piana, 1988, 1999b; Legoupil, 1995; Ocampoet al., 1999; for alternative scenarios, see Lanata,2002).

The deciduous tooth from Imiwaia I is theoldest human specimen discovered so far in theBeagle Channel region. Because of its unequi-vocal archaeological context, the tooth clearlybelonged to a ‘sea nomad’ native. It currentlyconstitutes a single, isolated find whose mor-phological, dimensional and (micro)structuralfeatures cannot be directly compared with anyother coeval nor penecontemporary Fuegianspecimen. Although the nature of the morpho-logical and dimensional differences affecting thepermanent dentition of the ethnohistorical Fue-gians is still unknown (Macchiarelli, 1996), wepredict that the discovery of additional dentalmaterial from early and middle Holocene sites inTierra del Fuego will introduce new key ele-ments to the discussion of the biocultural adap-tation (including social behaviour) and thedynamics of peopling of this remote part ofthe world.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by CONICET(Argentina), the Italian Ministry for ForeignAffairs, the Fondazione C.M. Lerici-Politecnicodi Milano, the Italian National Research Council(‘Cultural Heritage’ Project). Special thanks areowed to O. Zanola, Director of the Museo del Findel Mundo of Ushuaia, Argentina, where the castof IMI 384 is stored. C.M. FitzGerald (London),D.W. Frayer (Lawrence), A. Nava (Rome),F. Ramirez-Rozzi (Paris), and D.S. Weaver(Sandia Park), and two anonymous reviewerskindly provided useful critical comments to theearly draft.

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