The need for technologists and applied technology programmes: an experience from Trinidad and...

222 Int. J. Management in Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2008

Copyright © 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

The need for technologists and applied technology programmes: an experience from Trinidad and Tobago

M.K.S. Sastry* Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of the West Indies Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Clement K. Sankat St. Augustine Campus University of the West Indies Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies E-mail: [email protected]

Harris Khan and Dave Bhajan University of Trinidad and Tobago E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Graduate-level engineering and technology programmes are designed to meet the requirements of the local business, industry, utilities and the general demand. In Trinidad and Tobago, the demand for technologists is high. To meet this demand, two Engineering Technology degree programmes have been established as a joint venture between the regional University of the West Indies (UWI) and the national University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT). This paper presents the highlights of this experience, global perspectives on technologists, a comparison of technology and traditional engineering programmes, professional registration practices and the acceptance of such graduates by the industry.

Keywords: technology programmes; engineering programmes; technologists; engineers; engineering education; accreditation; joint degree programmes.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Sastry, M.K.S., Sankat, C.K., Khan, H. and Bhajan, D. (2008) ‘The need for technologists and applied technology programmes: an experience from Trinidad and Tobago’, Int. J. Management in Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp.222–233.

Biographical notes: M.K.S. Sastry received his doctoral degree in Electrical Engineering from the National Institute of Technology, India. He is currently a Lecturer at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of the West Indies (UWI) and also the Programme Coordinator of the BTech Degree Programmes jointly offered by the UWI and the University of Trinidad

The need for technologists and applied technology programmes 223

and Tobago (UTT). His research interests include engineering education, information systems, computer applications in power engineering, and asset and facility management.

Clement K. Sankat is presently a Pro Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine campus. Prior to this, he served the UWI in different capacities, including Pro Vice-Chancellor (Graduate Studies), Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Co-Chairman of the Executive Management Committee for the UWI-UTT Joint Degree Programmes. Professor Sankat’s teaching and research activities have covered extended areas of food, mechanical and agricultural engineering, design and innovation.

Harris Khan is presently with UTT as the Director for Applied Technology Programmes. As a technologist, he worked with Petrotrin, Trinidad for over 25 years before joining UTT. His areas of specialisation include engineering education, education technology and management in education.

Dave Bhajan is presently the Vice President for Capital Projects and Institutional Planning at UTT. Prior to this, he was the Director of Technology Programmes at UTT’s Pt. Lisas campus and also Executive Director of the Metal Industries Company Ltd., Trinidad. His areas of interest include engineering education, professional training, safety and quality measures, and institutional planning.

1 Introduction

The term ‘engineering technologist’ is used in a number of countries and usually describes an individual working at a level somewhere above that of an engineering technician and up to that of a university-trained engineer. Technologists connect engineers and technicians primarily in the utilities and process industries. The academic content of the qualifications of the technologists is rooted in the understanding of engineering principles and the functional application of these principles. It is based upon a core knowledge of engineering and science fundamentals as well as applied mathematics, permitting a synthesis of design and the analysis of technical problems. Technology training is reinforced by ‘hands-on’ laboratory training and real-world exposure to the utility engineering/industry environment, through internships. Technology education and training are therefore based in the real world, with its modern demands for more industry-ready graduates and the introduction and use of innovative tools, processes and technologies to be more efficient and competitive. In this paper, the terms ‘incorporated engineers’, ‘engineering technologists’ and ‘technologists’ have been used interchangeably.

Incorporated engineers are characterised by their ability to act as exponents of today’s technology through creativity and innovation (EC-UK, 2003). To this end, they maintain and manage applications of current and developing technology, and may undertake engineering design, development, manufacture, construction and operation. Incorporated engineers are variously engaged in technical and commercial management and also possess effective interpersonal skills.

224 M.K.S. Sastry, C.K. Sankat, H. Khan and D. Bhajan

On the other hand, chartered engineers are characterised by their ability to develop appropriate solutions to engineering problems, using new or existing technologies, through innovation, creativity and change (EC-UK, 2003). They might develop and apply new technologies, promote advanced designs and design methods, introduce new and more efficient production techniques, marketing and construction concepts, and pioneer new engineering services and management methods. Chartered engineers are effectively engaged in technical and commercial leadership and also possess effective interpersonal skills.

2 Overview of engineering programmes and technology programmes

The distinction between engineering and engineering technology graduates of universities emanates primarily from differences in the objectives of their educational programmes. Engineering programmes are geared towards the development of critical and creative conceptual skills, and consist of a sequence of engineering fundamentals and design courses, built on a foundation of complex engineering mathematics and science courses. On the other hand, applied technology programmes are oriented towards applications. A few authors have previously reported on the need for a new breed of technologists to manage the various processes in utilities and industry and also for the development of technology programmes which are different from traditional engineering programmes. Campbell (1998) reported on the introduction of Bachelor of Technology degrees in Technikon, Cape Town, South Africa and the reactions from academia and industry. Though globally the content of technology programmes varies, the core objectives behind the production of the technologists are more or less the same. The professional registration practices for such technologists (de Koker, 1998) also vary from country to country. The Engineering Professor’s Council of the UK termed engineering technologists ‘incorporated engineers’. The council clearly defined the roles and responsibilities of the technologists (EPC, 2002a) and also recommended appropriate output standards and benchmarks (EPC, 2002b). Later, the Engineering Council, UK specified the standards for professional competence for chartered engineers and incorporated engineers (EC-UK, 2003). These standards and benchmarks naturally resulted in the restructuring of educational systems in most countries (Mokhtar et al., 2002). Jorgen (2002) presented employability aspects of technologists and their contributions in industries. The advent of the engineering technologist brought the need for the creation of quality measures and accreditation processes (Hawley, 2003; Haug, 2003) in technology programmes. A few other accrediting agencies have also specified the criteria (ABET, 2006) for technology programmes within their purview. Levy (2000) reported standards and quality assurance measures in the UK. His contribution illustrated the pathways for both engineers and technologists and the application of a matching section of education and training to transform a technologist into a professional engineer. Many universities globally have commenced technology programmes of education, but few case studies are available (Sastry et al., 2007) in the literature.


3 Global perspective

The standards and expectations of engineering technologists vary from country to country. In the USA, engineering technologists are expected to have the knowledge and the ability to apply mathematical, physical and engineering principles to technological problem solving. In the UK, engineering technologists are expected to exercise independent technical judgement at an appropriate level and be ready to assume responsibilities as individuals or work in a team for managing the resources and technical processes within a utility environment. In South Africa, the important expectation of engineering technologists is the ability to conceive and optimise solutions in any engineering task that requires mature judgement as well as the ability to accept full professional responsibility and accountability (HSRC, 2004). In Canada, technologists are known as ‘applied science technologist’ or ‘certified engineering technologist’. They are also expected to assume responsibility and exercise independent judgement (CCTT, 2008). The Canadian Ministry of Immigration and Citizenship (CMIC, 2008) has provided guidance on the professional registration, general career routes and international equivalency of such graduates. In Australia, technologists are expected to be able to collaborate or assist in a number of engineering functions (Webster, 2000).

In the USA, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET, 2006) evaluates engineering and engineering technology programmes through two separate accreditation commissions using two separate sets of accreditation criteria. The Technology Accreditation Commission (TAC) of ABET is responsible for the evaluation of technology programmes. Some US State Boards of professional engineering licensure will allow only graduates of engineering programmes, not engineering technology programmes, to become licensed engineers. A review of ABET-accredited programmes indicates that it is an exception rather than the rule that both programmes are offered in the same engineering college. Most technology programmes are offered in community colleges, nonresearch universities, satellite campuses of large state universities or a college of professional studies. There is a similar development in Canada. Many professional associations across the USA recognise technologists as on a par with engineers and it has also been reported that the career opportunities for technologists are going to be greater in the future (SCCC, 2008).

Professional registration usually means the statutory or legal listing of a group of people judged by their peers to have achieved certain competencies enabling them to practise a specific profession. Registration therefore provides statutory recognition of competency as well as status with employers, society and other engineering practitioners. Also, professional registration provides proof that the members are governed by a professional code of conduct. Globally, engineering technologists are not yet completely recognised in all sectors. Some companies and utilities give them scant attention and recognition and the public service infrastructure does not support them (Campbell, 1998; Jorgen, 2002; Hawley, 2003). In some instances they still have to face patronising attitudes. The registration of technologists has therefore always been a contentious subject.

In view of these problems, the professional engineering organisations of Canada, Hong Kong, Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa have formally started working together under the leadership of the EC, UK and have formed the ‘Engineering Technologist Mobility Forum’ (IET Forums, 2008). A new title, ‘International


Engineering Technologist (IntET)’, has been created to attempt to resolve the problems of recognition and registration and to promote the international mobility of the technologists.

An extensive study conducted by the US Department of Education and the National Science Foundation indicates that the academic qualifications of an incorporated engineer are equivalent to those of a US professional engineer (Wikipedia, 2008). In South Africa, presently there is an acute shortage of technologists due to improper higher education policies over a long time. The Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa recommends changes to the existing higher engineering education system to produce more technologists, citing the shortage of skills-based engineers (HRSC, 2004). And the council further states that:

“This continued shift towards employing fewer, higher skilled workers, is an element of a broader South African labour market distortion which is perhaps a more pressing skills problem than the commonly talked about high-skills shortage.”

By and large, industries in the past have tended to manage their processes to meet their specific targets as opposed to bringing massive changes in their systems. Problems accompanying major changes, like adapting to new technologies and employee resistance, have supplemented this approach. Typical industry thinking had restricted innovation in Australia to technological inventions, due to lack of awareness on new innovative technologies and possible bottom line results (Zhao, 2006). Even in countries such as Singapore, where the industry culture is driven by innovative technologies, maintaining the existing technologies (Goh, 2006) continues to be a challenge. Therefore, technologists have an important role in forging efficiency and productivity in industry.

4 Comparison of engineering and technology programmes

The general practices in the design of technology programmes, the utilisation of technologists and their professional recognition vary over the world. The broad differences and similarities between engineering and technology programmes are illustrated in Table 1. Based on these, the following observations can be made:

• The middle-level workforce in any process industry is largely constituted by technologists and a very few engineers.

• Technologists generally start their career ladder as technicians and gain work experience and also educational qualifications. This helps them in understanding the plant or the process which they work with better than their engineering counterparts, who come with principally theoretical knowledge. Hence, technologists are able to respond faster and more effectively to the problems in the plant environment and to shape workable solutions.

• Engineers are able to model and analyse all the processes in an existing system and suggest new systems with better designs using state-of-the-art technologies. This results in the improvement of systems in terms of efficiency and economics of operation. Through their education, engineers are trained to analyse and design complex systems, unlike their technology counterparts.


• Generally most industries and process utilities manage their workforce with a typical ‘Engineering Team’ as shown in Figure 1. It can be seen that a team of technicians (diploma holders or experienced craftsmen) are managed by supervisors, who are further headed by departmental heads, operations managers and then by administrative/executive managers. Whether engineers or technologists, training that emphasises teamwork is therefore very important.

• Usually, both technologists and engineers with experience and a proven track record are promoted to middle-management positions. The majority of the middle-level positions, however, are held by technologists and few by engineers. Promotions to the top administrative and executive cadre of the industries and the utilities generally depend on individual achievements, contributions, strengths, performance, etc. In Trinidad and Tobago, many engineers are today leading their enterprises.

• Process industries and utilities do need both engineers and technologists. However, the requirement for more technologists than engineers is due to the fact that many day-to-day tasks such as process management, troubleshooting and plant maintenance are essentially carried out by technologists. Tasks such as the design of new processes or the introduction of a new plant or replacing the assembly line with a new range of technologies are handled by a few engineers. Industries often outsource such design or innovative activities to external consulting teams and expect their engineers to work them.

• It is essential to offer both conventional engineering and industry-oriented technology programmes to meet the requirements of the job markets. This trend will continue in the future, as both engineers and technologists have earned equal professional recognition and respect (IET Forums, 2008) in their activities.

Table 1 Comparison of engineering and technology programmes

Technology programmes Engineering programmes

These are more focused on laboratory training, hands-on experience and application of science to develop problem-solving skills.

These are more focused on theory and science with analytical approach to develop conceptual skills.

These involve reasoning and logic with less emphasis on mathematics.

These involve extensive research with strong mathematics foundations.

The underlying mathematics for technology programmes is algebra and fundamental calculus.

The underlying mathematics for engineering programmes is algebra, advanced mathematics and calculus.

Technologists are expected to be managers and be part of the middle-tier workforce in utilities.

Engineers are expected to be creative and innovative and be part of the middle- and top-tier workforce in utilities.

At the workplace, technologists are expected to manage the operations and implement the existing plans.

At the workplace, engineers are expected to design the processes and plan the systems.

Technologists are expected to find the solutions for day-to-day problems and manage the processes.

Engineers are expected to analyse the root causes for the problems and to develop fail-proof systems with innovation.


Table 1 Comparison of engineering and technology programmes (continued)

Technology programmes Engineering programmes

Technology programmes will focus more on process operation and management in order to train the students in real-world conditions to produce industry-ready technologists.

Engineering programmes will focus more on core engineering with intensive mathematical and analytical treatment to impart skills of innovative thinking. These engineers need appropriate training in industry before they can design new systems.

In the UK, technologists are professionally recognised as incorporated technologists.

In the UK, engineers are licensed as chartered engineers.

Technologists tend to practice in their specialised branch of engineering.

Engineers are qualified to work over a wider spectrum of their engineering discipline.

Faculty teaching technology programmes generally have a Master’s degree and have substantial experience in the practice of engineering technology.

Faculty teaching engineering programmes generally have a doctorate and are engaged in research and teaching.

Sources: EC-UK (2003); EPC (2002a); EPC (2002b)

Figure 1 General structure of an ‘engineering team’ in a typical process industry

Operators/Technicians/Craftsmen

(Diploma Holders and others)

Maintenance/OperationsManagers

(Technologists and Engineerswith experience/proven track

record)

Administrative/Executive Managers

Supervisors(Technologists and Engineers)

Departmental Heads/Superintendents

(Technologists and Engineers withexperience)


5 Evolution of technology programmes in Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago has become the industrial hub in the Caribbean region, with increased investment in the energy (oil, gas, petrochemicals, metals, etc.) and manufacturing sectors and increasing demand for a highly skilled technical workforce. This emerging demand in the late 1990s served as a catalyst for the National Energy Skills Center’s creation of the Trinidad and Tobago Institute of Technology (TTIT) to meet the technological manpower needs of the local industry through tertiary-level training, particularly for the energy sector. TTIT was aggressively funded by both government and industry majors to train technicians and technologists and to meet the needs of the local utilities. Graduates of TTIT relate to all of the industrial engineering disciplines, including the fields of Applied Petroleum Engineering Technology, Chemical Engineering Technology, Process Operations, Mechanical Engineering Technology, and Electrical and Computer Engineering Technology. Keeping in view global perspectives and local requirements and relevance, TTIT signed a memorandum of understanding with the regional university, the UWI to design, develop and execute an Engineering Technology degree programme (Sastry et al., 2007) in two disciplines, electrical and mechanical engineering.

Figure 2 Overall structure of UWI-UTT engineering technology programmes (see online version for colours)

Bridgingcourses

Two-year diploma or any equivalent Associate degree in Engineering

Professional employment/promotion for higher positionor

Higher studies– Mechanical Engineering in Management/Technology

Matriculation

Articulation andfurther learning

Graduation

Eligibility/Entry criteria

andreal life

experience

Three to four years of work/industry experience

2% 9%10%

12%

6%15%

46%

LanguagesHumanitiesBasic SciencesMathematicsInter-Disciplinary TechnologiesTechnology ManagementEngineering

Two-year joint degree programme in Engineering Technology

Final twoyears of

jointdegree

programmein

EngineeringTechnology


These programmes are delivered by TTIT and certified by the UWI. In 2004, the TTIT became the base from which the UTT was launched and TTIT is now a part of the UTT. The composition of the traditional three-year Mechanical and Electrical Engineering BSc degree programmes offered at UWI is shown in Figure 3. These programmes of study are all accredited by the licensed UK professional bodies under the umbrella of the Engineering Council of the UK and can take the graduates of such programmes to Chartered Professional Engineer (CEng) status. A detailed comparison of conventional engineering and technology programmes that are currently offered in Trinidad and Tobago is presented in Table 2.

Figure 3 Composition of the traditional BSc (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering) degree programmes offered at the UWI (see online version for colours)

Table 2 Comparison of programmes currently offered in Trinidad and Tobago

Conventional BSc programmes offered by the UWI

BTech programmes jointly offered by the UWI and the UTT

The objective of this programme is to produce an engineer, who requires further professional training or experience before being absorbed into industry.

The objective of this programme is to produce an ‘industry-ready’ technologist, who does not require any further professional training.

Students are expected to have a strong background in mathematics and the sciences to enrol in this programme. This is usually after a seven-year high school education. This helps them in understanding core engineering courses involving design, rigorous analysis and project presentations.

Students are expected to have a two-year National Technician Diploma after five years of high school education to enrol in this programme and hence their background in mathematics and sciences is not as strong as their counterparts in conventional programmes.

There are no special requirements of work experience for enrolling in these programmes.

At least 3–4 years of work experience is required to enrol into these programmes.

The emphasis on core engineering knowledge including engineering design is high (72%).

The core engineering component is weighted only at 46%.

The emphasis on engineering management is less (weighting 4%).

The emphasis on technology management is high (15%).

A doctoral degree is essential for the teachers in this programme.

A Master’s degree is sufficient for the teachers in this programme.

Industry experience is not essential for teachers in this programme.

Teachers of this programme must have industry experience.


The structure of these applied degree programmes is shown in Figure 2. From Figures 2 and 3 and from Table 2, it can be observed that the technology programmes are designed differently from the regular engineering undergraduate programmes. Also, it is recognised that engineering programmes and technology programmes have different inputs, outputs, learning objectives and training components. According to the memorandum of understanding between the UWI and the UTT signed in 2002, the UTT delivers the programme and the UWI oversees the quality aspects and provides the certification. The UWI led the drive for accreditation of these programmes by the IET of the UK – a collaborative team effort in itself.

6 Utility perspective and feedback

The energy industry in Trinidad is supported by several multinational energy majors, who have set up their systems and facilities with different technological processes and human resource needs. Most utilities in Trinidad and Tobago are of the view that the need for a trained, skilled, middle-level technology management workforce is steadily increasing. The professional designations in various local utilities include design/engineering technologist, instrumentation technician, drilling specialist, reservoir/production manager, process control technician, process operator, field operator, industrial electrician, plant operator, information technology managers, environmental inspector, quality/safety inspector, computer operator, etc. Some companies have both inland and offshore facilities and the employees are expected to function in different technological and work environments. The engineering technologists are largely responsible for managing the technicians and craftsmen who constitute the major workforce. To date, a total of 250 students have been admitted into these programmes. Table 3 shows the distribution of the employment areas of these students in different industries in Trinidad and Tobago. Based on the employment distribution, it can be seen that most of the students (83%) are working in the energy sector, process and utilities and service industries. This environment therefore requires a well-trained workforce to manage and operate the plants, processes and systems. In addition, these industries provide a fertile ground for knowledge, awareness and understanding for both engineering and technology training and education. Hence, students in the BTech programmes get the best of both worlds.

Table 3 Employment distribution of students in local utilities and industries in Trinidad and Tobago

Energy sector

Process and utilities

Service industry Others Total

Number of students employed/(percentage)

86 (34%) 53 (21%) 69 (28%) 42 (17%) 250 (100%)

Feedback from local industries on the graduate technologists from the UWI/UTT programmes is encouraging. Industry involvement in the design of the technology programmes has helped to garner support. Students of these programmes are being encouraged to pursue their projects in industry and particularly at their places of employment. This helps the employers to recognise their professional skills and potential.


There is a gradual, positive change in the willingness of the local employers to promote these students, especially due to the standards maintained by both universities. Most of the graduates from these programmes have already been promoted. A series of appraisal meetings were held with human resource personnel of local industries to explain the technology programmes and to promote technologists. Accreditation was being sought for these joint programmes from the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), UK. A three-member IET accreditation panel of the UK visited both universities in early May 2007 to assess these programmes and commended the joint efforts of the universities. The IET, UK announced the formal accreditation of the programmes in August 2007. This development can help with the recognition of graduates of these programmes and their promotion in their places of employment.

7 Articulation, professional development and registration

As mentioned above, the students of these applied programmes are employed on a full-time basis in local industries. Master’s programmes in engineering at both universities are offered on a part-time basis, and have been designed on the basis of an input from conventional engineering professional programmes. Engineering technologists will therefore be required to do a matching section, which consists of core engineering courses, as a prerequisite for enrolling in the present Master’s programmes in engineering. Presently, a good number of these technologists are enrolled in different graduate programmes of the UWI. Employers encourage their employees to participate in short-term training programmes to ensure their continuous professional development. Many students of technology programmes have also expressed the desire to continue their education in technology areas. Hence, there is a need to develop new Master’s-level technology programmes to facilitate proper articulation with Bachelor’s-level technology programmes. The UWI and the UTT will continue to collaborate and complement each other in meeting the needs for tertiary education in Trinidad and Tobago. The Association of Professional Engineers of Trinidad and Tobago (APETT) and the Board of Engineering of Trinidad & Tobago (BOETT) need to create a policy framework and mechanisms for the professional registration of technologists.

8 Conclusion

The similarities and differences between the engineering and technology programmes were drawn and the needs and requirements to produce technologists were emphasised. Both global and Trinidad and Tobago’s perspectives and experiences on technology programmes were outlined. Most countries have recognised the need for technologists and there are now efforts to promote their international recognition and mobility. It can be concluded that well-trained technologists are required for the success of industry and the utilities and, hence, the technology programmes assume greater importance in today’s technological era. They also provide an opportunity for technicians to upgrade their knowledge and skills and to improve continuously as individuals. The demand for both technologists and engineers will be continuous and hence universities should continue to produce both classes of workforce.


References

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) (2006) Criteria for Accrediting Engineering Technology Programs, USA, October.

Campbell, A.J. (1998) ‘B.Tech degrees: synergies & spin-offs’, 4th International Symposium on Technology Education & Training, Cape Town, South Africa, 27 June–1 July, pp.201–203.

Canadian Council of Technicians and Technologists (CCTT) (2008) ‘Canadian Council of Technicians and Technologists’, http://www.cctt.ca (accessed January 2008).

Canadian Ministry of Immigration and Citizenship (CMIC) (2008) ‘Access to engineering or applied science technology professions in Ontario’, http://www.citizenship.gov.on.ca/ english/working/career/professions/engtechs.shtml (accessed January 2008).

De Koker, J.J. (1998) ‘Registration of engineering technologists’, 4th International Symposium on Technology Education & Training, Cape Town, South Africa, 27 June–1 July, pp.205–209.

EC-UK (2003) Chartered Engineer and Incorporated Engineer Standard, UK Standard for Professional Engineering Competence, Engineering Council, UK.

Goh, A.L.S. (2006) ‘Evolution of industrial policy-making in support of innovation: the case of Singapore’, Journal of Innovation and Learning, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp.110–125.

Haug, G. (2003) ‘Quality assurance/accreditation in the emerging European higher education area: a possible scenario for the future’, European Journal of Education, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp.229–241.

Hawley, R. (2003) ‘The rebirth of UK engineering: the Hawley review and the creation of the engineering & technology board’, IEE Review, November, Vol. 49, No. 11, pp.56–62.

Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (2004) ‘Is there any shortage for engineers in South Africa?’, South Africa, http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Factsheet-10.phtml (accessed January 2008).

IET Forums (2008) ‘International award awaits incorporated engineers’, http://www.theiet.org/ forums/forum/messageview.cfm?catid=272&threadid=21813 (accessed January 2008).

Jorgen, G.R. (2002) ‘Management between the shop floor and the corporate level’, European Journal of Education Research, Development and Policy, March, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp.43–55.

Levy, J. (2000) ‘Engineering education in the United Kingdom: standards, quality assurance and accreditation’, Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.136–145.

Mokhtar, G.A., Zaky, A.A. and El-Faham, M.M. (2002) ‘The need for restructuring the education systems for technicians and technologists in developing countries’, Engg Sc. and Education Journal, August, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp.153–159.

Sastry, M.K.S., Sankat, C.K., Exall, D., Srivastava, K.D., Khan, H., Copeland, B., Lewis, W. and Bhajan, D. (2007) ‘An appraisal of tertiary level institutional collaboration and joint degree programs in Trinidad and Tobago’, Latin American and Caribbean Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.27–34.

Sloan Career Capstone Center (SCCC) (2008) ‘Engineering technology overview’, www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/engtech/engtech.pdf (accessed January 2008).

The Engineering Professors Council (EPC) (2002a) ‘Roles and responsibilities of incorporated engineers’, SARTOR Ed 3, Part 2, UK, July.

The Engineering Professors Council (EPC) (2002b) ‘The EPC engineering graduate output standard: exemplar benchmarks for Ieng’, A Report of the IEng Workgroup, UK, July.

Webster, J. (2000) ‘Engineering education in Australia’, Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.146–153.

Wikipedia (2008) ‘Incorporated engineer’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporated_Engineer (accessed January 2008).

Zhao, F. (2006) ‘Technological and organizational innovations: case study of Siemens (Australia)’, Journal of Innovation and Learning, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp.95–109.

The need for technologists and applied technology programmes: an experience from Trinidad and...

Documents

Transcript of The need for technologists and applied technology programmes: an experience from Trinidad and...