The genus Bridelia: A phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 339–349 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Ethnopharmacology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm Review The genus Bridelia: A phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review T.A. Ngueyem a,c , G. Brusotti a,c , G. Caccialanza a,c , P. Vita Finzi b,c,∗ a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy b Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy c Center for Studies and Researches in Ethnobiopharmacy, (C.I.St.R.E.), University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy article info Article history: Received 23 July 2008 Received in revised form 17 May 2009 Accepted 18 May 2009 Available online 27 May 2009 Keywords: Bridelia Drug discovery screening Indigenous medicine Pain treatment abstract Approximately 60 species of Bridelia, (Phyllanthaceae) are found throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world, mainly in Africa and Asia. Several Bridelia species are used in popular medicines as antiamebic, antianemic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antihelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antinociceptive, antiviral, hypoglycemic and for abdominal pain, cardio- vascular, gynecological and sexual diseases. The present paper reviews the traditional usage, the biological activities and the correlated chemical compounds of Bridelia species with emphasis on the validation of the ethnopharmacological uses. The findings in some Bridelia species of, for example, gallocatechin- (4 -O-7)-epigallocatechin (1), quercetin (2), myricetin glycosides (5–6), bridelone (11), bridelonine (12), isoflavone may justify the uses of these species against pains in African and Asian traditional medicines. © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 340 2. Botany ............................................................................................................................................... 340 3. Metabolites occurring in Bridelia species ........................................................................................................... 340 4. Medicinal uses ....................................................................................................................................... 342 4.1. Bridelia ferruginea Benth...................................................................................................................... 342 4.2. Bridelia atroviridis Muell. Arg................................................................................................................ 345 4.3. Bridelia balansae Tucht....................................................................................................................... 345 4.4. Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f................................................................................................................... 346 4.5. Bridelia crenulata Roxb....................................................................................................................... 346 4.6. Bridelia glauca Bl. f. balansae Tucht.......................................................................................................... 346 4.7. Bridelia grandis (Pierre ex Hutch) ............................................................................................................ 346 4.8. Bridelia micrantha (Hochst) Baill............................................................................................................. 346 4.9. Bridelia moonii Thw........................................................................................................................... 347 4.10. Bridelia monoica (L.) Merr................................................................................................................... 347 4.11. Bridelia ndellensis Beille...................................................................................................................... 347 4.12. Bridelia ovata Decne......................................................................................................................... 347 4.13. Bridelia retusa (L.) Sprengel................................................................................................................. 347 4.14. Bridelia scleroneura Mull-Arg................................................................................................................ 347 4.15. Bridelia scleroneuroides Pax.................................................................................................................. 347 4.16. Bridelia siamensis Craib...................................................................................................................... 347 4.17. Bridelia stipularis Blume..................................................................................................................... 348 4.18. Bridelia tomentosa Bl. (syn. Bridelia monoica Merr.) ........................................................................................ 348 5. Critical assessment of ethnomedicinal properties, pharmacological activities and chemical compounds found in Bridelia spp.................. 348 6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 348 References ........................................................................................................................................... 348 ∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy. Tel.: +39 0382 987322; fax: +39 0382 987323. E-mail address: vitafi[email protected] (P.V. Finzi). 0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.019
Transcript of The genus Bridelia: A phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 339–349
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
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he genus Bridelia: A phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review
.A. Ngueyema,c, G. Brusotti a,c, G. Caccialanzaa,c, P. Vita Finzib,c,∗
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, ItalyDepartment of Organic Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, ItalyCenter for Studies and Researches in Ethnobiopharmacy, (C.I.St.R.E.), University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:eceived 23 July 2008eceived in revised form 17 May 2009
a b s t r a c t
Approximately 60 species of Bridelia, (Phyllanthaceae) are found throughout tropical and subtropicalregions of the world, mainly in Africa and Asia. Several Bridelia species are used in popular medicinesas antiamebic, antianemic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antihelmintic,
ccepted 18 May 2009vailable online 27 May 2009
eywords:rideliarug discovery screening
anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antinociceptive, antiviral, hypoglycemic and for abdominal pain, cardio-vascular, gynecological and sexual diseases. The present paper reviews the traditional usage, the biologicalactivities and the correlated chemical compounds of Bridelia species with emphasis on the validationof the ethnopharmacological uses. The findings in some Bridelia species of, for example, gallocatechin-(4′-O-7)-epigallocatechin (1), quercetin (2), myricetin glycosides (5–6), bridelone (11), bridelonine (12),
ndigenous medicineain treatment
isoflavone may justify the uses of these species against pains in African and Asian traditional medicines.© 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
ontents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3402. Botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3403. Metabolites occurring in Bridelia species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3404. Medicinal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
4.1. Bridelia ferruginea Benth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3424.2. Bridelia atroviridis Muell. Arg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3454.3. Bridelia balansae Tucht. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3454.4. Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3464.5. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3464.6. Bridelia glauca Bl. f. balansae Tucht. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3464.7. Bridelia grandis (Pierre ex Hutch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3464.8. Bridelia micrantha (Hochst) Baill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3464.9. Bridelia moonii Thw.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.10. Bridelia monoica (L.) Merr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.11. Bridelia ndellensis Beille. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.12. Bridelia ovata Decne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.13. Bridelia retusa (L.) Sprengel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.14. Bridelia scleroneura Mull-Arg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.15. Bridelia scleroneuroides Pax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.16. Bridelia siamensis Craib. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3474.17. Bridelia stipularis Blume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
4.18. Bridelia tomentosa Bl. (syn. Bridelia monoica Merr.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. Critical assessment of ethnomedicinal properties, pharmacological activ6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Pavia, PaviaE-mail address: [email protected] (P.V. Finzi).
378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.019
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348ities and chemical compounds found in Bridelia spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
, Italy. Tel.: +39 0382 987322; fax: +39 0382 987323.
3 hnopharmacology 124 (2009) 339–349
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Table 1Bridelia spp. synonyms and botanical references to authorities.
Bridelia species Synonyms
Bridelia abyssinica Pax. Bridelia micrantha Hochst. Baill.Bridelia mildbraedii Gehrm.Bridelia zanzibariensis Vatke & Pax.Candelabria micrantha Hochst. Baill.
Bridelia brideliifolia Pax. Bridelia neogoetzea Gehrm.Neogoetza brideliifolia Pax.
Bridelia cathartica Berthol. f. f.fischeri (Pax.)
Bridelia niedenzui var. Pilosa Gehrm.
Bridelia scleroneura Müll. Arg.Bridelia fischeri Pax.
Bridelia cathartica Berthol. f. var.melanthesoides (Baill.)
Pentameria melanthesoides (Baill.)
Bridelia cathartica Berthol. f. f.niedenzui (Gehrm)
Bridelia niedenzui Gehrm.
Bridelia duvigneaudii J. Leonard Bridelia mollis Hutch.Bridelia ferruginea Benth.Bridelia katangensis J. Leonard
Bridelia ferruginea Benth. Bridelia katangensis J. LeonardBridelia mollis Hutch.
Bridelia fischeri Pax. Bridelia cathartica Berthol.fBridelia fischeri var. lingelsheimii(Gehrm.) Hutch.Bridelia lingelsheimii Gehrm
Bridelia katangensis J. Leonard Bridelia ferruginea Benth.Bridelia melanthoides (Baill.) J.
LeonardBridelia melanthoides (Baill.) Klotzsch
Pentameria melanthoides (Baill.)Bridelia micrantha Hochst. Baill. Bridelia micrantha var ferruginea (Benth.)
Mull. Arg.Bridelia mildbraedii Gehrm. Bridelia abyssinica Pax.
Bridelia mildbraedii Gehrm.Bridelia zanzibariensis Vatke & Pax.Candelabria micrantha Hochst. Baill.
Bridelia mollis Hutch. Bridelia duvigneaudii Wilki.Bridelia scadens Wilki.Bridelia stipularis Blume.Bridelia ferruginea Benth.Bridelia katangensis J. Leonard
Bridelia neogoelzea Gehrm. Bridelia neogoetzea Gehrm.Neogoetzea brideliifolia Pax.
Bridelia niedenzui pilosa Gehrm. Bridelia fischeri Pax.Bridelia niedenzui var. pilosa Gehrm.Bridelia scleroneura Müll. Arg.
Bridelia pervilleana Baill. Bridelia berneriana Baill.Bridelia pervilleana var. humbertii Leandri
Bridelia scleroneuroides Pax. Bridelia angolensis var. nitida Beille,Bridelia paxii Gehrm., Bridelia scleroneuravar. barteri Gehrm, var. togoensis Gehrm.,Bridelia scleroneuroides var. ellipticaGehrm., var. typica Gehrm., Tzellemtinianervosa Chiov.
Bridelia zanzibariensis Vatke & Pax. Bridelia abyssinica Pax.Bridelia mildbradii Gehrm.Candelabria micrantha Hochst. Baill.
Synonyms and botanical referencesBridelia (‘Briedelia’) Willd., Sp. Pl. 4 (1806) 978; corr. Spreng., Anleit. Kenntn. Gew.ed. 2, 2 (1818) 887; Müll. Arg. in DC., Prodr. 15, 2 (1866) 492; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India5 (1887) 267; Gehrm., Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 41, Beibl. 95 (1908) 1; Jabl. in Engl., Pflanzenr.IV.147.viii (1915) 54; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 3 (1924) 183; Gage, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal.75 (1936) 484; Backer & Bakh. f., Fl. Java 1 (1964) 475; Airy Shaw, Kew Bull. 26 (1972)227; Whitmore, Tree Fl. Malaya 2 (1973) 74; Airy Shaw, Kew Bull. Add. ser. 4 (1975)63; Kew Bull. Add. ser. 8 (1980) 43; Kew Bull. 36 (1981) 272; Kew Bull. 37 (1982)10; Enum. Euphorb. Philipp. Isl. (1983) 11; G.L.Webster, Regnum Veg. 129 (1993)153; Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 81 (1994) 39; S. Dressler, Taxon 45 (1996) 337, nom.cons. prop.; Blumea 41 (1996) 273; Radcl.-Sm., Gen. Euphor. (2001) 19. — Lectotypespecies (G.L. Webster, 1993): Bridelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. [Bridelia stipularis (L.)
40 T.A. Ngueyem et al. / Journal of Et
. Introduction
During our research on medicinal plants used in African forestsy pigmies Baka, we focused our interest in the genus Bridelia. Anthnobotanical survey was conducted between February 2006 anduly 2007 in South Cameroon forest (district of Djoum) to collectnformation about the use of plants for medicinal purposes. Study-ng Bridelia grandis stem bark (Ngueyem et al., 2008), which is useds a remedy for oral cavity affection, such as dental caries (Brisson,999), we noticed that several Bridelia species are traditionally used,hroughout Africa and Asia, to reduce pain. Although these plantsave been reported in the ethnobotanical literature or have been
nvestigated phytochemically there are only a few detailed reportsn their biological activities, toxicity and phytochemical contentshich support the indigenous knowledge.
This review will cover the last 35 years literature data onhe pharmacological activities and the chemical compounds iso-ated from genus Bridelia together with an overview on traditionalnd local uses. Databases used to search for the literature were:cifinder scholar, PubMed, Tropicos (for plant taxonomy) and Aluka.ith the exception of the most studied species, Bridelia ferruginea,
ridelia species are reported in alphabetical order. Botanical data,harmacological and ethnomedicinal properties and identified sec-ndary metabolites are depicted in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Boldrabic numeral in the text refers to chemical structures reported inig. 1.
. Botany
The genus Bridelia Willd. (Tribe Bridelieae, Phyllanthaceae,rder Malpighiales) (Kathriarachchi et al., 2005) includes approx-
mately 60–70 species, from Africa to Asia. The genus is alsonown as: Candelabria Hochst, Gentilia A.Chev. & Beille, Pentamerialotzsch ex Baill, Tzellemtinia Chiov. About 50 species are dis-
ributed in Tropical Africa, Madagascar, Yemen and in Asia rangingrom India and South China throughout Indochina, Malaysia toorth Australia and the Solomons and Vanuatu Islands.
The species in Southeast Asia are usually a part of the pri-ary and secondary forest vegetation either as large trees or as
hrubs/smaller trees in the understorey. Some species are scram-ling and one is reported to be a climber. Some different specieseem to be restricted to a certain type of habitat, e.g. Bridelia cin-amomea peat swamp forests, Bridelia parvifolia sand dunes, Bridelialigantha dry savannahs. The species occur from the sea levelp to 1800 m, but in sect. Scleroneurae there are several speciesrowing only at lower altitude. Currently 119 subspecies, vari-ties, forms, and cultivars are recognised within the genus BrideliaTable 1).
. Metabolites occurring in Bridelia species
Here we review the most important metabolites found in dif-erent parts of Bridelia species (Fig. 1). Some triterpenes occurn different parts of Bridelia species: friedelin (15) and friedelan--�-ol (18) have been found in Bridelia monoica leaves and inridelia ovata branches (Hui and Fung, 1968; Boonyaratavej etl., 1992). 24-Methyl-lanosta-9(11)-25-dien-3-one (19) and 24,24-imethyllanosta-9(11)-25-dien-3-one (20) are present in Brideliaomentosa roots and in Bridelia ovata branches (Boonyaratavej,990; Boonyaratavej et al., 1992).
It is interesting to note the presence of lignans in the genusridelia: 5′-demethoxy-�-peltatin-5-O-�-d-glucopyranoside (7)nd �-peltatin-5-O-�-d-glucopyranoside (8) isolated from Brideliaerruginea roots, exhibited antitumor activity (Rhashid et al., 2000),
hile the new lignan glycoside bridelioside, the known neolignan
Blume].
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Table 2Ethnomedicinal properties and phytochemicals constituents of Bridelia species.
Species Plant part used Traditional use Chemical compounds identified/pharmacologicalactivities
References
Bridelia atroviridis Bark leaves Aphrodisiac, venereal diseases, purgative, coughs,asthma, caries
Saponins, tannins, antimicrobial activity,cardiovascular activity
Abbiw (1990), Agyare et al. (2006), Corallo et al.(1997) and Neuwinger (2000)
Bridelia balansae Leaves Bronchitis Balansenate I (9), II (10), Bridelone (11),Bridelonine (12)
Tsai et al. (2003)
Bridelia brideliifolia Twig bark, root, leaves Stimulate digestion, emetic, vaginal prolapsed,purgative, elephantiasis, oxytocic, insanity,gastointesintal problems, migraine
Neuwinger (2000)
Bridelia cathartica Roots, leaves, stem bark Anemia, asthma, constipation, anorexia, fever,cardiac pains, amoebic dysentery, hemorrhoids,female and male infertility, coughs, aphrodisiac,epigastric pain, malaria, rectal prolapsed,headache, epilepsy, kidney pain, purgative
Anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins, Anti-anemia forits high amount of Iron
Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), Hedberg et al.(1983), Chhabra et al. (1990), Ouma et al. (1997)and Neuwinger (2000)
Bridelia crenulata Bark Infertility Luteoforol (3′ ,4′ ,4,5,7-pentahydroxydroxyflavon)(13)
Ramesh et al. (2001a,b)
Bridelia ferruginea Fruit leaves stem bark roots Rheumatism pains, intestine disorders, dysentery,diabetes, thrush, epilepsy, infectious diseases,including sexually transmitted diseases, skindiseases and eruption, skin cancer, cystitis,antimicrobial activity, anthelmintic forroundworm, bladder trouble anti-inflammatoryproperties, antidote for arrow poison, skinailments, rashes, coughs, diuretic, fever, edema,anemia, dyspepsia, asthma, amebiasis, gonorrhoea,paralysis, candida mycosis, impotence, liverproblems, purgative, chickenpox, stomach pain,toothache
Tannins, gallocatechin-(4′-O-7) epigallocatechin(1), flavonoids and biflavonoids, caffeoylesters,anticomplement, antioxidant, antiviral, diabetes,anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial activity, effectson rat bladder smooth muscle, quercetin (2),quercetin-3-neohesperidoside (3), rutin (4),myricetin-3-glucoside (5), myricetin-3-rhamnoside (6), 5′-demethoxy-�-peltatin-5-O-�-d-glucopyranoside (7),�-peltatin-5-O-�-d-glucopyranoside (8)
Cimanga et al. (1999, 2001), Tona et al. (1998),Adebayo and Ishola (2009), Abubakar et al. (2007),Pieters and Vlietinck (2005), Talla et al. (2002),Ampofo (1979), Iwu (1980, 1983), Akinpelu et al.(2000), Talla et al. (2002), Olajide et al. (2003),Pedersen et al. (2009), Magassouba et al. (2007),Onoruvwe et al. (2001), Akinpelu et al. (2000),Onoruvwe et al. (2001), Olajide et al. (1999, 2003),Olajide and Makinde Modupe (2000), Rhashid et al.(2000), Neuwinger (2000) and Oliver-Bever (1986)
Bridelia glauca f. balansae Leaves Bridelionoside, bridelioside,(7R,8S)-5-methoxydihydrodehydrodiconiferylalcohol 4-O-�-glucopyranoside glochidioboside
Sueyoshi et al. (2006) and Sueyoshi et al. (2007)
Bridelia grandis Bark, leaves Oral cavity affection purify breast Antimicrobial activity against oral streptococci,antitrypanosomal and antiplasmodial activity
Ngueyem et al. (2008), Atindehou et al. (2004) andNeuwinger (2000)
Bridelia micrantha Bark, leaves, roots Gastro-intestinal ailments, painful joints, retainedplacenta, diabetes mellitus, syphilis prehepaticjaundice, tape worm abdominal pain,conjunctivitis, headache, scabies, bloody diarrhoea,dysentery, emetic, wound infection, coughs,threadworms, tonic for children, sore eyes,epigastric pain, relief of headache, purgative
Taraxerol (14), gallic and ellagic acid, friedelin (15),delphinidin (16), methyl salicylate, anti-diarrhoealactivity, antiplasmodial activity, weak cytotoxicactivity
Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), Lin et al. (2002),Steenkamp (2003), Ajaiyeoba et al. (2006), Gradéet al. (2009), Gbolade (2009), Abo et al. (2008),Ssegawa and Kasenene (2007), Clarkson et al.(2004), Hamill et al. (2003) and Neuwinger (2000)
Bridelia mollis Root Diarrhoea, worms Neuwinger (2000)Bridelia moonii Bark Glochidone (17) Carpenter et al. (1980)Bridelia monoica Leaves, stems roots Lack of appetite Stigmasterol, sitosterol, friedelan-3-�-ol (18),
Glutin-5-en-3-�-ol, Friedelin (15)Hui and Fung (1968) and Roosita et al. (2008)
Bridelia ndellensis Stem bark Fever, rheumatism, diarrhoea, diabetes, coughs Hypoglycemic effect Sokeng et al. (2005) and Neuwinger (2000)Bridelia ovata Leaves stem bark Laxative, expectorant, astringent 24-Methyl-lanosta-9(11),25-dien-3-one (19),
24,24-dimethyl-lanosta-9(11)-25-dien-3-one (20),campesterol, stigmasterol, �-sitosterol, friedelin(15), friedelan-3-�-ol (18), trans-triacontyl4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamate
Boonyaratavej et al. (1992)
Bridelia pervilleana Leaf Headache Neuwinger (2000)
342 T.A. Ngueyem et al. / Journal of EthnophTa
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armacology 124 (2009) 339–349
glycoside (7R,8S)-5-methoxydihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 4-O-�-d-glucopyranoside and glochidioboside have been isolatedfrom Bridelia glauca leaves (Sueyoshi et al., 2007).
Bark and leaves are particularly rich in phenolic compounds:gallic acid, ellagic acid, anthocyanidin and delphinidin (16) havebeen found in Bridelia micrantha bark (Pegel and Rogers, 1968),luteoforol (3′,4′,4,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) (13) has been isolatedfrom Bridelia crenulata bark (Ramesh et al., 2001a,b), gallocatechin-(4′-O-7)-epigallocatechin (1) has been found in Bridelia ferrugineabark (De Bruyne et al., 1997), while rutin (4) and quercetin(2), are present in Bridelia ferruginea leaves (Addah-Mensahand Achenbach, 1985; Addah-Mensah and Munenge, 1989) andmyricetin glycosides (5) and (6) and isoflavone in Bridelia retusaleaves (Madhavi Adhav et al., 2002). Compounds such as glochi-done (17) (Carpenter et al., 1980), balansenate I (9) and balansenateII (10) (Tsai et al., 2003) have been found in the genus Bridelia forthe first time during this research.
4. Medicinal uses
Bark, roots and leaves of at least ten Bridelia species areused in African and Asian traditional and local medicines fortreating several ailments including sexual diseases (Bridelia atro-viridis), bronchitis (Bridelia balansae), anemia (Bridelia cathartica),intestine disorders and painful joints (Bridelia michranta), den-tal caries (Bridelia grandis), fever, diabetes and diarrhoea (Brideliandellensis), rheumatism (Bridelia retusa), rheumatism, abdominalpain and arthritis (Bridelia sclereoneura), fever (Bridelia tomen-tosa). The best studied species—Bridelia ferruginea—is used forbladder troubles, diabetes, dysentery, rheumatism pain and forits antimicrobial activity. Despite the very wide range of bio-logical activities exhibited, indicating that some of these plantscan be exploited for the development of novel phytopharmaceu-ticals, literature data concerning controlled clinical studies arelimited.
4.1. Bridelia ferruginea Benth.
Bridelia ferruginea it is well known in many African countriesand appears to be the most studied species both with respect to itstraditional and local uses and for its pharmacological properties.It is a shrub commonly growing up to a height of 45 feet in theSavannah or in open spaces of coastal districts. Bark, roots, fruitsand leaves are used mainly as decoctions. They are ingredients ofthe Yoruba agbo infusion and are used in the preparation of popularmouthwashes and as a remedy for thrush in children. The rootsare used in Togo externally for the treatment of skin diseases anderuptions (Oliver-Bever, 1986).
In Nigeria Bridelia ferruginea is used against arthritis, contu-sion, distortions, bites, burns, as antidote to arrow poison andagainst diabetes. Preliminary clinical evaluation of leaf extracts ondiabetes mellitus was conducted on local albino rats. The bloodglucose level was determined by the glucose oxidase method 1 hafter injection or oral administration of the leaf extracts. Themethanol and aqueous extracts significantly lowered the fast-ing blood sugar (from 250 mg% to a normal level <120 mg%) butfailed to protect the animals against alloxan induced diabetes (Iwu,1980).
Along the west coast of Africa aqueous infusions of the leavesare used for the treatment of chronic diabetes particularly in cases
where ketosis has set in. Clinical evaluation was conducted on 12volunteers subjects pre-screened and certified as diabetic by theresident physician. They consulted herbalists when they failed toobtain satisfactory relief from allopathic medication and neededfrequent insulin injection. Each patient received an average of one
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T.A. Ngueyem et al. / Journal of Et
ine glass-full of extract (about 30 ml) daily. The treatment sched-led was maintained for at least 8 weeks and no intake of ethanol orrugs was permitted. In the same study, the glucose tolerance testas performed on rats of either sex (200–250 g) fasted overnightefore the administration of pre-treatment and treatment agents.
ethanol extract was given at a dose of 50 mg/kg as a suspen-ion with methylcellulose in saline. Alloxan was administered atdosage of 60 mg/kg. Blood glucose was analyzed by the glucose
xidase method. The results of the clinical evaluation of patients
Fig. 1. Some characteristic chemical structure of compo
armacology 124 (2009) 339–349 343
receiving treatment from a local healer showed that extracts ofBridelia ferruginea in daily doses effectively decreased hypergly-caemia of diabetes. In 8 of the 10 patients monitored the bloodsugar was lowered from average of 250–120 mg%. Patients 11 and12 were excluded because they were selected for the single-blind
cross-over studies as controls. The anti-diabetic activity of Brideliaferruginea could be attributed to a possible role in the release oractivation of endogenous insulin, since the drug is more active inrats with intact �-cells than in rats with �-cell damaged caused byunds isolated from the reported Bridelia species.
344 T.A. Ngueyem et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 339–349
(Conti
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Fig. 1.
lloxan. Tannins, flavonoids and biflavonoids based on apigenin andaempherol moieties were isolated together with their glycosidesrom the methanolic extract but it is not clear which of these com-ounds is responsible for the anti-diabetic properties of this plantIwu, 1983).
The anti-inflammatory profile of the stem bark aqueous extractas investigated in vivo and in vitro. The extract exhibited strong
opical anti-inflammatory effect shown as inhibition of croton oil-nduced ear edema in mice, and reduced hind-paw swelling androwth retardation in the adjuvant-induced arthritis model in rats,ollowing oral administration at 10, 20, 40 or 80 mg/kg. The extract
10–80 mg/kg, p.o.) caused an inhibition of increase in vascular per-eability in both cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitisnd acetic acid-induced vascular permeability in rats and mice,espectively. Bridelia ferruginea produced stabilization of erythro-ytes exposed to heat and stress-induced lysis.
nued ) .
In addition to its anti-inflammatory property, Bridelia ferrugineaexhibited some antipyretic effect, by lowering the rectal tem-peratures of mice made hyperthermic by yeast, from 37.8 ◦C to37.2 ◦C, 36.5 ◦C and 36.4 ◦C (after 60, 90 and 120 min, respectively)at 40 mg/kg, and from 38 ◦C to 36.7 ◦C, 36.4 ◦C, and 36.1 ◦C (after60, 90 and 120 min, respectively) at 80 mg/kg. The extract is shownto produce remarkable activity in the acetic acid-induced writhingin mice, which indicates analgesic activity (Olajide and MakindeModupe, 2000).
The anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous extract of Brideliaferruginea stem bark was further evaluated in models which are
mediated by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF�). The effect of theextract (10–80 mg/kg) was evaluated in both lipopolysaccharide(LPS-induced septic shock and LPS-induced microvascular per-meability) after subcutaneous injection of LPS (1 �g/kg). Resultsshowed in this study provided an evidence for a possible role for
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T.A. Ngueyem et al. / Journal of Et
NF� in the anti-inflammatory effects of the stem bark extract ofridelia ferruginea (Olajide et al., 2003). The obtained results mayupport the uses of this plant in the Nigerian traditional medicine.
In Congo Kinshasa, the decoction of Bridelia ferruginea stemark is used in the traditional and local medicine for diarrhoea,ysentery, intestinal disorders, female sterility, rheumatic pains,s anthelmintic for roundworm and in the treatment of cystitisOliver-Bever, 1986).
It has been studied in vitro for the inhibition of the complementystem which is well known to play an important role in the hostefence system, inflammation and allergic reactions. The inhibitionf the xanthine oxidase activity was evaluated by measuring theV absorbance at 290 nm while the superoxide anion scavengingctivity was detected spectrophotometrically by the nitrile method.he crude extract exhibited a dose-dependent inhibitory effect onhe classical pathway of the complement system. These findingsrovide some evidence for the traditional use of Bridelia ferrugineaor the rheumatic pain treatment in Congo Kinshasa (Cimanga etl., 1999, 2001).
Moreover, the phytochemical investigation of Bridelia ferrugineatem bark led to the discovery of a biflavonoid: gallocatechin-4′-O-7)-epigallocatechin (1). The structure was elucidated usingwo-dimensional NMR techniques (COSY, HMQ, HMBC); this prod-ct seems to be responsible for the stem bark anti-inflammatoryctivity (De Bruyne et al., 1997).
In Nigeria and Ivory Coast the decoction of Bridelia ferrugineatem bark is used as a mouthwash for Candida oral thrush; in Ivoryoast only, the roots decoction is used for the treatment of gon-rrhoea (Ozerov et al., 1994). The water and ethanolic stem barkxtracts showed in vitro antimicrobial activities (Irobi et al., 1994)n assays against hospital strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Candidalbicans, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Streptococcusactis, Proteus vulgaris, Proteus mirabilis, Streptococcus pyogenes andlebsiella sp. The zones of inhibition produced by the extracts ingar diffusion assays against the test microorganisms ranged fromto 20 mm, while the chloramphenicol antibiotic control produced
ones that measured 15–36 mm.Activity showed against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albi-
ans may justify the use of the bark as mouthwash in Nigerian andvorian traditional medicine.
In Cameroon, Bridelia ferruginea leaves are used for treat-ng dysentery (Talla et al., 2002), while fruits are employedor mycotic stomatitis (Ampofo, 1979). Methanolic, ethyl acetatend hexane leaves extracts exhibited significant activity againstseudomonas frutescens, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphy-ococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis. The activity was measuredy the agar disc diffusion method and determination of mini-um inhibitory concentrations (MIC), using streptomycin (10 �g),
rythromycin (5 �g), tetracycline (10 �g), penicillin (1i.u.), chlo-amphenicol (10 �g) as references antibiotics. On the basis ofhe determined MICs, the effect of ethyl acetate extract againsttreptococcus faecalis (5 ± 0.9 mg/ml) and Staphylococcus aureus8 ± 1.2 mg/ml), of methanol extract against Streptococcus faecalis9 ± 0.7 mg/ml), and of hexane extract against Bacillus subtilis andtreptococcus faecalis (8 ± 0.5 mg/ml, 4 ± 1 mg/ml), were the mostnteresting.
The methanolic fruit extract exhibited antimicrobial activitygainst both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: Bacil-us subtilis, Corynebacterium pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiellaneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigellaysenteriae, Staphylococcus aureus (Akinpelu et al., 2000).
The effects of ethanol extracts of Bridelia ferruginea leaves andtem bark on purinergic neurotransmission in the rat bladder werenvestigated. Effects were evaluated on electrical stimulation usingarallel platinum wire electrodes, concentrations of plant extractsanging between 3 × 10−5 and 3 × 10−3 g/ml and atropine, propra-
armacology 124 (2009) 339–349 345
nolol and prazosin (1 × 10−6 each) as antagonist cocktail. Sameconcentrations of plant extracts were evaluated against chemi-cal stimulation induced by adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) from1 × 10−8 and 3 × 10−4 g/ml and potassium chloride (10−3 to 10−1
M). The stem bark extract potentiated the contraction of the bladderevoked by exogenous ATP but depressed KCl-induced contractionsin a dose-related pattern. The leaf extract depressed purinergicnerve-mediated contraction of the rat bladder in a dose-relatedfashion. This action could be attributed to blockade of purinergicneurotransmission since the leaf extract did not affect KCl-inducedcontractions (Onoruvwe et al., 2001).
The flavonoids quercetin (2), quercetin-3-neohesperidoside(3), rutin (4), myricetin-3-glucoside (5), myricetin-3-rhamnoside(6), (Addah-Mensah and Achenbach, 1985; Addah-Mensah andMunenge, 1989) were found in the leaves extracts but there areno data on the biological activities of the isolated compounds.
Methanolic leaves extracts significantly increased the uterineepithelial height by 28.08% compared with uteri of ovari-ectomizedcontrols after 7 days of treatment but the extract was not furtherevaluated because of its toxicity on Ishikawa cells (Njamen et al.,2008).
A bioassay-guided fractionation of a Bridelia ferruginea rootsextract provided four cytotoxic lignans structurally related topodophyllotoxin; two of these, 5′-demethoxy-�-peltatin-5-O-�-d-glucopyranoside (7) and �-peltatin-5-O-�-d-glucopyranoside (8)exhibited antitumor activity (Rhashid et al., 2000).
4.2. Bridelia atroviridis Muell. Arg.
Bridelia atroviridis is a small straggly tree growing in Ghanaup to 20 feet or more; the local ‘Twi’ name is ‘Opamkotorodu’.The stem is flexuous; prickly, its leaves are 6 by 2 inches, oblong-elliptic, acuminate, becoming glabrous on both surfaces; the midribis prominent on lower surface, its lateral nerves are 16–20 pairs;flowers are small, yellowish, male and female separate; auxiliary;fruits are about one-third long, black, oblong, episodic and oneseeded (Irvine, 1961). The wood is dark brown, very hard anddurable and it is used for building traditional houses and for fuel.Bark decoction is used as purgative, diuretic and aphrodisiac rem-edy and also to manage gonorrhoea and other venereal diseases.Leaves infusion is used as purgative (Abbiw, 1990). Saponins andtannins were the phytochemical constituents found in petroleumether and methanolic leaves and stem bark extracts which showedalso antifungal (Candida albicans) and antimicrobic (Escherichia coli,Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus) activities determined bythe agar diffusion method. Using a sterile cork borer number 6, fourcups were bored in the set agar and cups were labeled appropri-ately. Each cup was filled with 10 mg/ml of the plant extracts and1.0 mg/ml chloramphenicol used as reference drug for the bacteriaThe methanolic leaves extract only showed activity against Pseu-domonas aeruginosa. These results may support the traditional usesof Bridelia atroviridis in Ghana.
Lyophilized decoction of the leaves was studied in the rat car-diovascular system. In vivo, the extract (15 and 30 mg/kg) caused adecrease of arterial pressure and a decrease of heart rate in anes-thetized rat (ethylcarbamate 1.2 g/kg). In vitro, the extract induceddose-dependent negative inotropic and chronotropic effects in iso-lated rat heart. Bridelia atroviridis seemed to have a direct effect onrat heart and the extract might act through potential dependentcalcium channels (Corallo et al., 1997).
4.3. Bridelia balansae Tucht.
Bridelia balansae is a small tree distributed in Indo-China,South of China, Ryukyus and Taiwan. Leaves are used as anti-
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46 T.A. Ngueyem et al. / Journal of Et
ussive for treating bronchitis. Two long-chain esters balansenate(6,8,11-trimethyldodecanoic acid (2E)-3-methylhexadec-2-enyl
ster) (9) and balansenate II (10,12,15-trimethylhexadedecanoiccid (2E)-3-methylhexadec-2-enyl ester) (10) were found in theeaves extract (Tsai et al., 2003); the structures were identi-ed by means of EI-MS and HR-EI-MS spectroscopy, respectively.urthermore, bridelone (11) and bridelonine (12) were identi-ed by MS, IR and 1H and 13C NMR (DEPT, COSY, HETCOR, HBC and NOESY) techniques. The same extract afforded also
nown adenine derivatives: 9-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)adenine, 1-3-methylbut-2-enyl)adenine, N6-(3-methylbut-2-enyl) adenine,-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)adenine and adenine. As a part of thesetudies these known compounds were isolated for the first timerom a plant.
.4. Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f.
In Northern Rhodesia Bridelia cathartica is used medicinally as aurgative (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Leaves, stem bark andoots are used traditionally to treat anemia in children and pregnantomen in Eastern Africa. The iron content in the different plantarts was determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Therominent iron content was found in the root bark (Ouma et al.,997). These findings support the use of this plant for traditionalnemia treatments.
.5. Bridelia crenulata Roxb.
Bridelia crenulata stem bark is used in India as antifertilitygent and for stopping menorrhagia. The aqueous bark extractxhibited antibacterial activity against Aeromonas hydrophila, Chro-obacterium violaceum, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
almonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemoliticus, Bacillusubtilis, Staphylococcus aureus. The agar well-diffusion methodf Perez et al. (1990) was followed. About 0.3 ml each of 100%nd 50% aqueous extracts and different concentrations of sol-ent extracts were added into the wells using sterilized droppingipettes and allowed for diffusion at room temperature for 2 h. Cef-riaxone (30 �g/disc), chloramphenicol (30 �g/disc), erythromycin15 �g/disc), novobiocin (30 �g/disc), trimethoprim (5 �g/disc)ere used as standard. The aqueous extract expressed more activ-
ty to Aeromonas hydrophila (37 mm diameter of zone of inhibition),scherichia coli (32 mm) and Staphylococcus aureus (32 mm) andoderate activity to Bacillus subtilis (21 mm). Activity against Vib-
io cholerae (22 mm) was found in the methanol extract only whilequeous extract did not show any activity. The phytochemical studyn methanol extract reported the presence of luteoforol (3′,4′,4,5,7-entahydroxyflavone) (13) which exhibited the same antibacterialctivity as the crude alcoholic extract against the tested bacteriaRamesh et al., 2001a,b).
.6. Bridelia glauca Bl. f. balansae Tucht.
Bridelia glauca Bl. f. balansae (Tucht.) (Phyllanthaceae), is an ever-reen tree which grows up to a height of about 10 m, and it isistributed in Okinawa, Japan, Taiwan, Southern China, Indochinand the Philippines.
There are no reports of the use of this species in traditionaledicine, but chemical investigation performed on leaves by
ueyoshi et al. (2006) led to the isolation of six new megastig-ane glucosides to which bridelionosides A–F were assigned as
rivial names, respectively, along with seven known megastigmanelucosides. Their structures were determined by a combina-ion of spectroscopic analyses and application of the modified
osher’s method (Sueyoshi et al., 2006). Moreover, a new lig-an glycoside named bridelioside and the known neolignan
armacology 124 (2009) 339–349
glycoside (7R,8S)-5-methoxydihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 4-O-�-glucopyranoside and glochidioboside were isolated also fromthe leaves; the structures were determined by NMR and HR-FAB-MSspectra (Sueyoshi et al., 2007).
4.7. Bridelia grandis (Pierre ex Hutch)
Bridelia grandis (Pierre ex Hutch) (Phyllanthaceae), is used inCameroon by pygmies Baka, an indigenous group well known fortheir widespread use of traditional medicine. The bark decoctionis used for oral cavity affection. Stem bark water, methanol andmixtures methanol–water extracts were investigated for their invitro antimicrobial properties as well as for their phytochemicalconstituents. The antimicrobial activity of the extracts against oralstreptococci was evaluated on the basis of the minimum inhibitoryconcentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentra-tion (MBC) by the macrodilution method; the bacterial surfacehydrophobicity was also evaluated. Water, methanol and mixturesmethanol–water extracts, exhibited antibacterial activity with MICbetween 0.5 and 2 mg/ml justifying the traditional use of Brideliagrandis stem bark for oral cavity affection. Preliminary phyto-chemical analyses were performed on the most active extract(methanolic) using appropriate tests and well established analyticalscreening methods, such as TLC and RP-HPLC/DAD. Data obtainedindicate that tannins are the chemical family responsible for thebiological activity (Ngueyem et al., 2008).
Atindehou et al. (2004) investigated the antitrypanosomal andantiplasmodial activity of several plants from Côte d’Ivoire. Brideliagrandis stem bark and root showed a weak activity (IC50 20 �g/mlfor stem bark extract and 8.2 �g/ml for root extract) against Try-panosoma brucei rhodesiense and IC50 >5 �g/ml for both extractsagainst Plasmodium falciparum.
4.8. Bridelia micrantha (Hochst) Baill.
The use of medicinal plants for curing AIDS-related conditionsis common in Africa. Nine medicinal plants have been screened, inorder to assess possible antiviral effects. Crude methanol extracts ofBridelia michranta were fractionated and the fractions were testedat a concentration of 1, 10 and 100 �g/ml on reverse transcriptase(RT) function. The n-butanol fraction was the most active with anIC50 of 7.3 �g/ml against the RNA-dependent DNA polymerization(RDDP) function of HIV-1 RT (Bessong et al., 2006).
The leaf sap of Bridelia micrantha is used by the Haya as an appli-cation to sore eyes; the Shambala use the roots as a remedy forsevere epigastric pain while the Zigula rub a preparation of the pow-dered root, made with oil or butter, into the scalp for the relief ofheadache. In both East and West Africa the root is used as purgative(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
In South Africa, Bridelia micrantha stem bark is used in traditionalmedicine for gastrointestinal ailments, paralysis and painful jointsalso (Lin et al., 2002). Steenkamp (2003) reported the use of thebark as abortifacient with a potentially toxic effect probably due tothe presence of delphinidin and methyl salicylate.
In five districts of Lagos state of Nigeria Bridelia micrantha stembark is used in traditional medicine for treating diabetes (Gbolade,2009); in South Western Nigeria a leaf decoction is used tradi-tionally as part of recipe for the management of diabetes mellitus(Abo et al., 2008). In the Sango bay ecosystem in Rakai district,central Uganda, a decoction of bark and leaves is indicated for treat-
ing syphilis and the bark for pre-hepatic jaundice also (Ssegawaand Kasenene, 2007). Clarkson et al. (2004) reports on the in vitroantiplasmodial activity of 134 plant taxa native to or naturalised inSouth Africa. Bridelia micrantha twigs showed an IC50 of 59.3 �g/mlagainst Plasmodium falciparum D10.
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Ajaiyeoba et al. (2006) reported the cytotoxicity effects of 20lants used in Nigerian as antimalarials. The 50% lethal concentra-ion (LC50 value) at 95% confidence interval was calculated with therine shrimp lethality assay for each plant methanol extract, usingnon-linear regression curve, using the Graph pad prism statistical
oftware. Bridelia micrantha resulted the least toxic plant extractith LC50 value >9.0 × 106 �g/ml).
Taraxerol (14) and friedelin (15) were identified as the majoronstituents of Bridelia micrantha stem bark hexane extract whileallic and ellagic acid were found as the major components of ethernd acetone extracts, respectively. The anthocyanidin delphinidin16) was identified in the fresh leaves hot acid extract and the pres-nce of caffeic acid was also reported (Pegel and Rogers, 1968). Theccurrence of these polyphenolic compounds in Bridelia micranthaay support its ethnomedical use for pain treatment.
.9. Bridelia moonii Thw.
There is no report of the use of Bridelia moonii in traditionaledicine, but this plant is interesting for the presence of glochidone
17) a compound found in the Bridelia mooni bark benzene extractnd for the first time outside the Glochidion genus. The structureas determined by 1H NMR (Carpenter et al., 1980).
.10. Bridelia monoica (L.) Merr.
The only report concerning the use of Bridelia monoica in tradi-ional medicine is in a rural Sundanese community, Sukajadi village,here roots are used for the lack of ‘appetite’ (Roosita et al., 2008).
The occurrence of triterpenoids and steroids was observed inifferent parts of Bridelia monoica but so far no traditional use haseen described. Friedelin (15), friedelan-3-�-ol (18), glutin-5-en--�-ol and a mixture of stigmasterol and sitosterol were found inhe leaves. Fridelan-3-�-ol (18) and stimagsterol are present also inhe stems (Hui and Fung, 1968).
.11. Bridelia ndellensis Beille.
Bridelia ndellensis is commonly used in Cameroon against fever,heumatism, diarrhoea and diabetes. Stem bark ethanol extract didot show hypoglycemic effect in type 1 diabetic rats, while ethylcetate/dichloromethane fractions lowered the glucose levels inype 2 diabetic rats significantly (Sokeng et al., 2005). These findings
ay support the use of Bridelia ndellensis in traditional medicine.
.12. Bridelia ovata Decne.
Bridelia ovata is a small tree called “Ma-ga” in the Thai tra-itional medicine, the decoction of dried leaves is utilized asxpectorant and laxative, while the stem bark decoction for itsstringent properties (Boonyaratavej et al., 1992). There is noeport of a chemical investigation about Bridelia ovata leaves.he following compounds were isolated from the dried branches’hloroform extract: 24-methyllanosta-9(11)-25-dien-3-one (19),4,24-dimethyIlanosta-9(11),25-dien-3-one (20), friedelin (15),riedelan-3-�-ol (18), �-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol andrans-triacontyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamate.
.13. Bridelia retusa (L.) Sprengel.
Bridelia retusa is a moderate size tree growing in Sri Lanka. Stem
ark and roots are used by natives to treat rheumatism and asstringent agents (Jayasinghe et al., 2003). The Kani of the Koutha-ai region in Southern India use a paste prepared from leaveslong with the leaves of Curculigo orchioides and the oils of castor,oconut and gingelly applied externally to cure wounds (Ayyanararmacology 124 (2009) 339–349 347
and Ignacimuthu, 2005). In Karnataka state, districts of Mysore andCoorg, a bark infusion is used for treating dysentery (Kshirsagar andSingh, 2001).
Many active products were isolated from the stem bark: newbisabolane sesquiterpenes, 4-[(E)-6-methyl-4-oxohept-2-en-2-yl)]benzoic acid (21), 4-([R)-6-methyl-4-oxohept-5-en-2-yl)] benzoicacid (22), 4-[(R)-6-methyl-4-oxoheptan-2-yl)] benzoic acid (23)and (−)-isochaminic acid (24), together with the known 4-[(R)-6-methyl-4-oxoheptan-2-yl)] benzoic acid (ar-todomatuic acid),5-allyl-1,2,3-trimethoxy-benzene (elemicin) (25), (+)-sesamin (26),and 4-isopropylbenzoic acid (cumic acid). All the above men-tioned compounds showed interesting fungicidal activity againstCladosporium cladiosporensis (a plant-pathogenic fungus), exceptfor elemicin (Jayasinghe et al., 2003). Bridelia retusa was screenedfor the presence of phenolics, condensed tannins, gallotannins,ellagitannins, fiber, alkaloids, saponins and cyanogenic glycosides.Saponins are present in all plant parts (Mali and Borges, 2003),cyanogenic glycosides could be found in young leaves only while allthe other compounds were not found. Leaves are used in AyurvedicMedicine for the treatment of urinary tract infections while barkis given orally to women to develop sterility and as contraceptive(Jain et al., 2004). Simple isoflavone was isolated from leaves and itsstructure elucidated by IR and NMR spectroscopy. Isoflavone showsstrong antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Madhavi Adhav et al., 2002) and these resultsmay explain and support the use of Bridelia retusa leaves in tradi-tional medicine as antibacterial.
4.14. Bridelia scleroneura Mull-Arg.
Bridelia scleroneura bark is used in the traditional medicinein Cameroon to relieve abdominal pains, contusions, arthrosisand inflammations. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatoryeffects of ethyl acetate stem bark extract were tested. The putativeanalgesic effect of the plant extract was examined in abdominalconstriction, hot plate, formalin and on pain using tail immersionmouse models and in carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats.The extract (150–600 mg/kg) exhibited a dose-dependent analgesiceffect (46.27–78.97%) in acetic acid-induced abdominal constric-tion in mice; increased the pain latency of nociceptive response tothermal stimuli at the higher dose of 600 mg/kg; induced significantdose-dependent reduction of the nociception in both early and latephases of the formalin test. The extract at the dose of 300 mg/kg,increased significantly, by 63.70% and 52.01% the tail-immersionlatency time, 1 and 2 h post-dosing. In the carrageenan test, Brideliascleroneura (150–600 mg/kg, p.o.) had dose-dependent and signifi-cant effects at different time intervals. Indometacin (10 mg/kg) wasused as a standard drug.
These results showed that Bridelia scleroneura ethyl acetateextract possesses peripheral and central analgesic properties aswell as anti-inflammatory activity on acute inflammatory processeswhich are profitable, since most inflammatory conditions are usu-ally associated with pains of varying intensity (Dimo et al., 2006).However until now no chemical investigation has been reported.
In Bulamogi county in Uganda a tea made with Bridelia scle-roneura bark is used for treating hernia (Tabuti et al., 2003).
4.15. Bridelia scleroneuroides Pax.
This species is taken by the Ha and Bondei for the relief of abdom-inal pains and indigestion (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
4.16. Bridelia siamensis Craib.
Bridelia siamensis is a Thai medicinal plant used as laxative,febrifuge and astringent. Phytochemical studies led to the isolation
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f a tetracyclic indole derivative (−)-ovatolide (27). The struc-ure is unusual and Delgado achieved its total synthesis in ordero obtain significant material for biological studies (Delgado andlardy, 1993).
.17. Bridelia stipularis Blume.
Bridelia stipularis is distributed in the warm regions of India. Barkecoction is used in the traditional medicine for the treatment ofsthma, intestinal worms and cough, while leaves are used againstolics. Tannins were isolated from the bark and they may be thective compounds or contribute to the activity. Moreover, investi-ations on the leaves led to isolate a fatty alcohol, C22H46O, namedridelyl alcohol besides fatty acids and a phlobatannin (Senguptand Ghosh, 1963). Furthermore, taraxenone was isolated from rootsexane extract (Desai et al., 1976).
.18. Bridelia tomentosa Bl. (syn. Bridelia monoica Merr.)
Bridelia tomentosa is very similar to Bridelia ovata but it is calledKhon non” in Thai traditional medicine. Leaves and stem barkecoction are used against colitis. Roots appear to be a rich sourcef terpenoids. The triterpenoids 24-methyl-lanosta-9(11), 25-dien--one (19) and 24,24-dimethyl-lanosta-9(11)-25-dien-3-one (20)ere isolated and their structures determined by IR and 1H NMR
pectroscopy (Boonyaratavej, 1990). It is interesting to note thathis species, reported as synonymous of Bridelia monoica, shows aifferent metabolites composition.
. Critical assessment of ethnomedicinal properties,harmacological activities and chemical compounds found
n Bridelia spp.
Of the approximately 60–70 species of Bridelia only a few speciesave been studied so far under different aspects. The ethnomedicalses of only 13 species have been reported and the pharmaco-
ogical activities of only 10 species have been studied so far. Thehytochemical studies led to the identification of a large number ofolyphenols, triterpenes, glycosides and lignans.
Table 2 reports ethnomedicinal properties, phytochemical con-tituents and pharmacological activities of all the Bridelia speciesonsidered in this review, correlated with the part of the plantnder study.
Almost all the Bridelia spp. are used traditionally for their anti-nflammatory and antimicrobial properties (e.g. Bridelia ferruginea,ridelia grandis, Bridelia ndellensis, Bridelia retusa), some of themor intestinal disorders (e.g. Bridelia ferruginea, Bridelia michranta,ridelia scleuroneura, Bridelia tomentosa) and few of them for differ-nt ailments (e.g. Bridelia balansae for bronchitis, Bridelia crenulataor infertility). Often these results give a validation of the usesnown in popular medicine as reported for each species.
For Bridelia cathartica, Bridelia grandis and Bridelia michrantahe traditional uses are confirmed by pharmacological tests. Its interesting to note that polyphenols, some of the chemicalomponents identified in Bridelia michranta, are considered rele-ant to the main biological activity. Since these compounds wellnown for example for their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory andntioxidativeproperties, were found almost in all the Bridelia barks,hey can be considered the active metabolites responsible for thectivities reported in the traditional use (e.g. Bridelia atroviridis,ridelia ferruginea, Bridelia retusa, Bridelia stipularis). On the other
and, in the literature there are many reports about isolated com-ounds (e.g. Bridelia balansae, Bridelia crenulata, Bridelia glauca f.alansae, Bridelia moonii, Bridelia monoica, Bridelia ovata, Brideliaiamensis, Bridelia tomentosa) whose potential pharmacologicalctivities are still scientifically unexplored, thus no correlation canarmacology 124 (2009) 339–349
be hypothesized with their traditional uses. Concerning toxicolog-ical information, no significant data are reported. A weak cytotoxicactivity is described only for Bridelia micrantha.
A critical assessment of the results presented in this review mayprovide useful clues to promote further investigations for the devel-opment of new phytopharmaceuticals from the genus Bridelia.
6. Conclusion
Literature actually reports chemical investigations and phar-macological activities of 16 species of Bridelia only, out of the 60known. It is important to remember that so far, there are no pub-lished data concerning either the toxicity of the whole remedies andthe isolated compounds from Bridelia plants. Traditional medicinepractice must be validated not only by tests in vitro and in vivo, asreported, but also by clinical trials; moreover, stability and toxicityof isolated chemical compounds and traditional remedies shouldbe determined.
Data collected in this review illustrate that despite the diversityof the genus and the numerous phytochemical metabolites found,Bridelia species have not been fully explored concerning eithersafety and toxicity aspects. Possible applications in clinical researchare here described but further investigations on phytochemicaldiscovery and subsequent screening are needed for opening newopportunities to develop pharmaceuticals based on Bridelia con-stituents.
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