„The Egyptian Pottery of the Second Intermediate Period from Northern Sinai and ist Chronological...

ORBIS BIBLICUS ET ORIENTALIS 255

All the Wisdom of the East Studies in Near Eastern Archaeology and History in Honor of Eliezer D. Oren edited by Mayer Gruber, Shmuel Aḥituv, Gunnar Lehmann and Zipora Talshir

Academic Press Fribourg Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen 2012

ORBIS BIBLICUS ET ORIENTALIS 255

כל חכמת בני קדם

מחקרים בארכיאולוגיה ובהיסטוריה של המזרח הקרוב

לכבודאורן ׳אליעזר ד

בעריכת

מאיר גרובר שמואל אחיטוב

גונר להמן צפורה טלשיר

Academic Press Fribourg Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen

2012

Cover illustration A decoration featuring the well‐known 'palm‐tree and ibex' motif on a pottery vessel from the end of the Late Bronze Age (13th century BCE) found atTel Sera' (biblical Ziklag?) during the excava‐tions conducted by Eliezer Oren.

Publication subsidized by Ben‐Gurion University of the Negev, Beer‐Sheva, Israel Internet general catalogue: Academic Press Fribourg: www.paulusedition.ch Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen: www.v‐r.de Camera‐ready text prepared by Marcia Bodenmann, University of Zurich © 2012 by Academic Press Fribourg, Fribourg Switzerland Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Giittingen ISBN: 978‐3‐7278‐1719‐9 (Academic Press Fribourg) ISBN: 978‐3‐525‐54378‐8 (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) ISSN: 1015‐1850 (Orb. biblicus orient.)

Contents

Editors’ Introduction ............................................................................... XIEliezer D. Oren: An Appreciation ........................................................... XIIIList of Eliezer D. Oren’s Scientifi c Publications .................................... XIX

ARTICLES IN ENGLISH AND GERMAN

Michal Artzy and Svetlana Zagorski Cypriot “Mycenaean” IIIB Imported to the Levant ......................... 1

David A. Aston Cypriot Pottery and its Imitations from Hebwa IV ......................... 13

Rachel Ben-Dov The Mycenaean Pottery from the Occupation Levels at Tel Dan .... 57

Daphna Ben-Tor and Othmar Keel The Beth-Shean Level IX-Group. A Local Scarab Workshop of the Late Bronze Age I. ................................................................. 87

Manfred Bietak and Karin Kopetzky The Egyptian Pottery of the Second Intermediate Period from Northern Sinai and its Chronological Signifi cance ......................... 105

Ruhama Bonfi l Did Thutmose III’s Troops Encounter Megiddo X? ........................ 129

Annie Caubet A Matter of Strategy, Taste or Choice? Glazed Clay or Siliceous Faience ............................................................................................. 157

Lilly Gershuny Zoomorphic Protomes in the Middle Bronze Age: An Innovation of the Period? ................................................................................... 167

Victor Avigdor Hurowitz The Return of the Ark (1 Samuel 6) and Impetrated Ox Omens (STT 73: 100-140) ........................................................................... 177

VIII CONTENTS

Kenneth A. Kitchen “Roy of the Rovers”: An Egyptian Warrior in 2nd-Millennium Phoenicia? ........................................................................................ 187

Maria Kostoula and Joseph Maran A Group of Animal-Headed Faience Vessels from Tiryns ............... 193

Jodi Magness Archaeologically Invisible Burials in Late Second Temple Period Judea ..................................................................................... 235

Aren M. Maeir, Itzik Shai, Joe Uziel, Yuval Gadot and Jeffrey H. Chadwick A Late Bronze Age Biconical Jug with a Depiction of a Scorpion from Tell es-Safi /Gath, Israel ........................................................... 249

Pierre de Miroschedji Egypt and Southern Canaan in the Third Millennium BCE: Uni’s Asiatic Campaigns Revisited ................................................. 265

Lorenzo Nigro The Temple of the Kothon at Motya, Sicily: Phoenician Religious Architecture from the Levant to the West ..... 293

Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni Dating by Grouping in the Idumean Ostraca – The Intersection of Dossiers: Commodities and Persons ........................................... 333 Kay Prag Footbaths: Secular, Ritual and Symbolic ......................................... 361

Anthony J. Spalinger Divisions in Monumental Texts and their Images: The Issue of Kadesh and Megiddo ....................................................................... 373

Varda Sussman Oil Lamps from the Early Roman Period Decorated with Patterns Copied from Funerary Art, Phoenician Wall Paintings, and Sculptured Sarcophagi .............................................................. 395

Herbert Verreth The Ethnic Diversity of the Northern Sinai from the 7th Century BCE until the 7th Century CE ............................................................ 405

IXCONTENTS

Samuel R. Wolff and Celia J. Bergoffen Cypriot Pottery from MB IIA Loci at Tel Megadim ........................ 419

Jak Yakar The Nature of Symbolism in the Prehistoric Art of Anatolia .......... 431

Wolfgang Zwickel Hungersnöte in der südlichen Levante vom 14. Jh. v. Chr. bis zum 1. Jh. n. Chr. ............................................................................. 453

Editors and Contributors ......................................................................... 467

ARTICLES IN HEBREW

Eliezer D. Oren: An Appreciation ........................................................... 1*

Einat Ambar-Armon and Amos Kloner Hellenistic Oil Lamps Decorated with Figures from Maresha ........ 5* (English abstract) ........................................................................................ 27*

David Gal The Process of Urbanization in the Northern Negev During the MB III Period: Social and Economic Aspects ................................. 29* (English abstract) ........................................................................................ 45*

Itamar Singer The First Treaty Between Hatti and Egypt ...................................... 47* (English abstract) ........................................................................................ 55*

Ephraim Stern Decorated Phoenician Finds from Israel.......................................... 57* (English abstract) ........................................................................................ 71*

Oded Tammuz The “Shipyard Journal” and the “Customs Account”: An In- vestigation of the Nature of the Documents, of their Journey and its Circumstances and of the Benefi ts of Forgotten Lines of Inquiry ......................................................................................... 73* (English abstract) ........................................................................................ 85*

The Egyptian Pottery of the Second Intermediate Period from Northern Sinai

and its Chronological Signifi canceManfred Bietak and Karin Kopetzky

It was in the 1970s and early 80s that Eliezer Oren took the chance to inves-tigate the Northern Sinai with an archaeological survey, including trial exca-vations. The material he retrieved was summarily published in his important article The “Kingdom of Sharuhen” and the Hyksos Kingdom.1 This mate-rial gives an interesting view on the land route from Egypt to Palestine via the Northern Sinai and on its periods of use.

The published corpus of retrieved objects contains selected Egyptian ves-sels from the Middle and the New Kingdom.2 In his M.A. thesis, Amnon Gat, one of E. Oren’s students,3 presented more Egyptian pottery from this survey. This material and the one published by Eliezer Oren are the basis for the following comments on the Egyptian pottery found in the Northern Sinai.

The corpus originates from two major historical phases: the Middle King-dom (Fig. 1) and the New Kingdom (Fig. 7). The material from the latter can be dated mainly from the early part of the 18th Dynasty. By looking at the complete corpus found in the MB II period at the Northern Sinai route it is obvious that the Egyptian material forms only a minor part of the collected pottery.

The Middle KingdomA very small group of pottery from the Middle Kingdom corpus found in the Northern Sinai Survey was produced of Nile clay.

Cooking potsThe typical Egyptian cooking pots were made of a very sandy Nile clay (Vienna System VS: Nile E) (Figs. 2:1, 2). In the Middle Kingdom these

1 E. Oren, The “Kingdom of Sharuhen” and the Hyksos Kingdom, in: The Hyksos; New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives (ed. E. Oren; Philadelphia, 1997), 253-283.

2 Ibid., 276, Fig. 8.24.3 A. Gat, Northern Sinai during the MB2 Age, Middle Kingdom – Second Intermediate

Period (M.A. thesis, Tel Aviv University, 1997). We thank E. Oren for the use of part of this material for our article.

106 MANFRED BIETAK AND KARIN KOPETZKY

globular pots with their rounded bases and wide openings were handmade and had their rims fi nished on a turnable device, thus often creating a shal-low bend at the shoulder of the vessel where the rim was attached. Their rims were either folded to the outside (Figs. 2:2, 4) or in some cases to the inside, where the potter created by putting some pressure on the rim a sort of an outer lip (Figs. 2:1, 3). In many cases these cooking vessels were whitewashed on the outside, either completely or at the rim. In the course of time their body shape seems to develop from an ovoid body (Fig. 2:4) in the Middle King-dom towards a squat one in the New Kingdom (Fig. 9:6). Their rims change from being open and nearly as wide as their maximum diameter towards a narrower opening. These pots were also thrown on the wheel from the mid-dle of the 13th Dynasty onwards. In the Hyksos period the production on the wheel remained their main manufacturing technique. Besides Tell el-Dab‛a these cooking pots were found all over Egypt from Dahshur,4 Illahun,5 Qasr el-Sagha6 down to Abydos7 and further south to Nubia.8 Fragments are also reported from Serabit el-Khadim on the Sinai.9 The big bulk of the Egyptian material retrieved from the survey belongs to the group of Marl clays.

Marl A jarsOne of the jars picked up during the survey seems to be a jar of Upper Egyp-tian origin (Fig. 3:1).10 These wheel-thrown jars were normally produced in Marl A2 fabric.11 Their rims and ovoid to globular bodies are well bur-nished, thus imitating stone vessels made of calcite containing ointments.12 Until now the best parallels have been found outside of Egypt in Kerma in Nubia. There they appear in burials dated from the early 12th until the early 13th Dynasty.13 J. Bourriau mentions that similar vessels are known also from

4 S. J. Allen, Dahshur 1990–1995, BCE 21 (2000), Fig. 4:12.5 J. Bourriau and S. Quirke, The late Middle Kingdom ceramic repertoire in words and

objects, in: S. Quirke (ed.), Lahun Studies (Reigate 1988), 67, Fig. 5:4.6 Do. Arnold, Die Keramik, in: D. and Do. Arnold, Der Tempel von Qasr el-Sagha (AV 27),

(Mainz, 1979), 37, Abb. 22:3, 4.7 J. Wegner, The Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos (New Haven, 2007), 262,

Fig. 112:74, 75.8 S. T. Smith, Askut in Nubia (London and New York, 1995), 61, Fig. 3.7:G.9 J. Bourriau, Observations on the pottery from Serabit el-Khadim (Zone Sud): CRIPEL 18

(1996) 26.10 E. Oren, The “Kingdom of Sharuhen” and the Hyksos Kingdom, Fig. 8.24:9. Unfortu-

nately no fabric classifi cation is given.11 J. Bourriau, Egyptian Pottery Found in Kerma Ancien, Kerma Moyen and Kerma Clas-

sique Graves at Kerma, in: T. Kendall (ed.), Nubian Studies 1998. Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the International Society of Nubian Studies, August 21–26, 1998, (Boston, 2004), 6.

12 J. Bourriau, Nubian Studies, 7.13 J. Bourriau, Nubian Studies, 6, Fig. 5:2; 7, Fig. 6:3, Figs. 7:1,2; 8, Fig. 8:4; 9, Fig. 1.

107THE EGYPTIAN POTTERY OF THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

el-Kab,14 Beni Hassan, Karnak-North.15 Edfu16 and Kom el-Hisn.17 Some examples of this type though with a slightly different rim have been found at ‛Ezbet Rushdi18 in settlement layers dated approximately to the period of Amenemhet II.19 One example comes from Elephantine, where it was found below Phase (Bauschicht) 13.20 It is dated by T. Rzeuska into the late 12th and early 13th Dynasty.21 Another parallel was found by the British Museum excavations at Sidon above a warrior burial of the early MB IIA and is for the time being attributed to level 2.22

By looking for better dated parallels, besides the fi nds from the Nubian burials,23 it seems that these jars are to be found more frequently in the fi rst half than in the second half of the 12th Dynasty – a date that is also suggested for the Sinai jar, since no fragments of these vessels were found in Tell el-Dab‛a after Str. e at ‛Ezbet Rushdi.

It is Middle Kingdom Marl C vessels which form the bulk of the Egyptian pottery salvaged during the Survey.

Large ovoid jars with corrugated necksSeveral rim fragments and one complete example of large ovoid jars with corrugated necks made of Marl C fabric, were picked up during the survey (Figs. 4:2–5). In Egypt these vessels appear for the fi rst time in the fi rst half of the 12th Dynasty, where their body shape is nearly globular. One nearly complete example and several rim fragments are known from Str.e (Ph. L) in ‛Ezbet Rushdi.24 Into the above mentioned time frame fall also jars from

14 J. Bourriau, Umm el-Ga‛ab. Pottery from the Nile Valley before the Arab Conquest (Cam-bridge, 1981), 68, Fig. 124.

15 J. Bourriau mentions in Umm el-Ga‛ab, 68 that such vessels were also found in Karnak North and refers to H. Jacquet-Gordon, A deposit of Middle Kingdom pottery from Kar-nak North, BCE 4 (1979), 30, where Jacquet-Gordon writes that the pottery dates not later than the mid 12th Dynasty.

16 K. Michalowski and C. Deroches-Noblecourt, Tell el-Edfou 1939. Fouilles franco-polo-naises III, 1950, 258, Fig. 145.

17 A. Hamada and Sh. Farid, Excavations at Kôm el Hisn. Season 1945: ASAE 46 (1947), Pl. LIII:19.

18 E. Czerny, Zur Keramik von ‛Ezbet Rushdi (Stand Mai 1997): E&L 8 (1998), Fig. 18.19 M. Bietak et al, Ausgrabungen in dem Palastbezirk von Auaris. Vorbericht Tell el-

Dab‛a/‛Ezbet Helmi 1993–2000: E&L 11 (2001) 31, Fig. 2.20 C. von Pilgrim, Elephantine XVIII. Untersuchungen in der Stadt des Mittleren Reiches

und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit (AV 91) (Mainz, 1996), 361, Abb. 161:a.21 T. Rzeuska, Zur Keramik des Mittleren Reiches: MDAIK 55 (1999) 203.22 I. Forstner-Müller and K. Kopetzky, An Upper Egyptian Import at Sidon: AHL 24 (2006)

61, Fig. 1.23 One has to keep in mind that the later pieces come from Kerma Moyen VI, which covers

quite a long time span, according to J. Bourriau from the middle of the 12th until the early 13th Dynasty.

24 E. Czerny, Egyptian Pottery from Tell el-Dab‛a as a Contex for Early MB IIA Painted Ware, in: M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant. Proceedings of an


Elephantine Phases (Bauschichten) 14–15 (Fig. 4:1)25 and “below Phase (Bauschicht)” 13.26 In the second half of the 12th Dynasty the body shapes of these jars change to become more oblong and egg-shaped.27 Before the middle of the 13th Dynasty the corrugation of the neck of these jars has its fi rst groove about 1 cm below the rim, while later examples have a larger distance between the rim and the fi rst groove and a more careless way of pro-duction.28 All pieces from the Sinai survey fall into the earlier group. While the bodies of these jars are handmade their rims are attached on a turnable device. Do. Arnold suggested that the material of these jars comes from the Memphite-Fayoum region.29 These vessels appear all over Egypt, in Nubia down to Kerma,30 Central Sinai31 and as far north as Sidon on the Lebanese coast.32 Dated examples come from the princess galleries of Senwosret III in Dahshur33 and fall therefore into the period of Senwosret III and his succes-sor Amenemhet III.34 At Tell el-Dab‛a this type exists from stratum b (Phase I) at ‛Ezbet Rushdi until the middle of the 13th Dynasty (Ph. H – G:1-3) (Figs. 4:6-9).

Marl C-1 zirsThe largest group of Middle Kingdom vessels found during the survey were the so-called zirs (Figs. 5 and 6).

These large vessels made of Marl C fabric were used for all different kind of storage. In the Northern Sinai they functioned most likely as water containers to supply the caravans at their routes with water. A similar func-tion had zirs found in large quantities in the Western Desert half way along the Theban road to the Kharga oasis in Abu Ziyar,35 northwest of Abu Simbel

International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material, Vienna, 24th–26th January 2001, CChEM 3 (2002) 142, Fig. 26.

25 C. von Pilgrim, Elephantine XVIII, 359, Abb. 160:j.26 C. von Pilgrim, Elephantine XVIII, 361, Abb. 161:c.27 B. Bader, Tell el Dab‛a XIII. Typologie und Chronologie der Mergel C-Ton Keramik.

Materialien zum Binnenhandel des Mittleren Reiches und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit, [UZK 19] ( Wien 2001), Figs. 27-32.

28 Ibid., Figs. 323, 35-3829 Do. Arnold, Ägyptische Mergeltone („Wüstentone“) und die Herkunft einer Mergelton-

ware des Mittleren Reiches aus der Gegend von Memphis, in: Do. Arnold (ed.), Studien zur altägyptischen Keramik (Mainz, 1981), 169-170.

30 J. Bourriau, Nubian Studies 8, Fig. 8.31 J. Bourriau, CRIPEL 18 (1996), 22, Fig. 10; 27, Fig. 4:11, 12.32 C. Doumet-Serhal, I. Forstner- Müller and K. Kopetzky, Egyptian Pottery of the late 12th

and early 13th Dynasty from Sidon: AHL 24 (2006) 53, Fig. 3.33 J. DeMorgan, Fouilles à Dahchour 1894, 74, Fig. 164.34 D. Arnold, The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret III. at Dahshur. Architectual Studies

[MMA Egyptian Expedition Vol. XXVI] (New York, 2002), 68–74.35 J. C. Darnell, Abu Ziyar and Tundaba, http://www.yale.edu/egyptology/ae_tundaba.htm,

Fig. 4.


in Gebel el-Asr36 and at the shore of the Red Sea.37 All examples date to the Middle Kingdom.

In Egypt zirs are found from the very early 12th Dynasty way into the 18th Dynasty. At Tell el-Dab‛a the pottery material covers nearly the whole range of time and gave therefore the possibility to establish a typological series of these large storage vessels.38 Taking the fragmentary material from the Sinai into consideration, we shall concentrate on the rim typology of those vessels.39

In the early Middle Kingdom the rims were rolled to the outside, while their orientation follows that of the vessel wall drawn inwards (Fig. 5:3). Some of the rims from Sinai fall into this group (Figs. 5:1, 2). The same type with a rolled rim but nearly vertical profi le belongs to another type (Figs. 6:1-3), which was developed during the 12th Dynasty. In Egypt this type is found in the “south wall deposit 1” at Lisht,40 which is dated by Do. Arnold into the later reign of Senwosret I, in Tell el-Dab‛a from Phase L in ‛Ezbet Rushdi until Phase H (Fig. 6:4)41 and in Elephantine in Phase (Bauschicht) 13.42 The third rim type that was picked up during the survey (Figs. 6:5, 6) exists in Egypt from the middle of the 12th until the middle of the 13th Dynasty. Dated parallels were discovered in the tomb of Queen Weret, mother of Senwosret III43 and in complex 6 at Dahshur,44 in Tell el-Dab‛a (Fig. 6:7) from Phase I (stratum b in ‛Ezbet Rushdi)45 until Phase F. In Qasr es-Sagha one fragment was found in the construction debris of the temple,46 which is dated by Do. Arnold into the period between Senwosret II and the beginning of the reign of Amenemhet III. Fragments appeared in Mirgissa47 in Nubia, but also along the Levantine coast in Sidon.48 There even a complete zir of this type was

36 R. Engelbach, The Quarries of the Western Nubian Desert: ASAE 33 (1933), 67, Fig. 1. See also: Ian Shaw et al., Survey and excavation at the Gebel al-Asr gneiss and quarz quar-ries in Lower Nubia (1997-2000): Antiquity 75 (2001), Fig. 4.

37 R. Fattovich et al., Joint Archaeological Expedition at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis (Red Sea, Egypt) of the University of Naples „I’Orientale” (Naples, Italy), Instituto Italiano per l’Africa e l`Oriente (Rome, Italy) and Boston University (Boston, USA) – 2005–2006 Field Season, http://www.archaeogate.org/egittologia/article.php?id=441, Fig. 16.

38 B. Bader, Tell el Dab‛a XIII, 157, Fig. 43.39 C. Doumet-Serhal, I. Forstner- Müller and K. Kopetzky: AHL 24 (2006) 55, Fig. 6.40 Do. Arnold, Pottery, in: D. Arnold, The Pyramid of Senwosret I., The South Cemeteries of

Lischt Vol. I (New York, 1988), 114, Fig. 59:3, 4.41 E. Czerny: E&L 8 (1998) 45, Fig. 19:b.42 C. von Pilgrim, Elephantine XVIII, 343, Fig. 152:g.43 S. J. Allen, Queens’ Ware: Royal Funerary Pottery in the Middle Kingdom: OLA 82

(1998), Fig. 3:9.44 Do. Arnold, Keramikbearbeitung in Dahschur 1976–1981: MDAIK 38 (1982) 32,

Abb. 8:5, 7.45 E. Czerny, personal communication.46 Do. Arnold, Der Tempel von Qasr es-Sagha, 31, Abb. 18:5.47 A. Villa, Un dépot de textes d’envoutement au Moyen Empire: Journal des Savants 153

(1963) 153, Fig. 13:14.48 C. Doumet-Serhal, I. Forstner- Müller and K. Kopetzky: AHL 24 (2006) 55, Fig. 5.


uncovered reused as a burial container.49 All the bases of these vessels (Figs. 5:4-6) retrieved during the survey, belong to these three rim types and there-fore appear in the same time span.

Looking at the Middle Kingdom material one sees clearly that it consists only of containers, which might have been used for transport or as storage facilities.

According to A. Gat most of the zir fragments have been found south of Lake Bardawil. This is about the distance a donkey could go from the edge of the Nile valley without water still carrying an average load of about 60 kg.50 It seems that the administration of the Middle Kingdom supplied these sta-tions with fresh water. With the collapse of the Middle Kingdom the trade over this land route broke down as well. It regained its function only when the New Kingdom and its renewed state-run logistics took over again. After the breakdown of the Middle Kingdom the rulers of the eastern Delta relied solely on the maritime trade with the Levant.

The capacity of the zirs changed during the course of time. While the ear-lier examples of type 1 and 2 were produced for about 60 l51, the zirs of the second half of the 12th Dynasty (type 3) were only able to take about 40 l.52 Empty these zirs weigh about 10 to 15 kg. So by reducing the size it was now possible that one man alone was able to move also a fi lled specimen of these vessels.

It seems that in the second half of the 12th Dynasty the Marl C jars with corrugated necks partly replaced the water-fi lled animal skins. They were found mainly with the zirs along the North Sinai route, while no comparable vessel type was found for the fi rst half of the Middle Kingdom.

The Egyptian type of cooking pot is highly outnumbered by the large amount of the Middle Bronze Age hand-made fl at-bottomed cooking pots found in the North Sinai survey.53 The bulk of the retrieved material has a MB cultural background. It is therefore most likely that the people who actually ran the trade between Egypt and southern Palestine in the Middle Kingdom, were most likely not Egyptians but carriers of the MB IIA-Culture

49 B. Bader, The Egyptian Jars from Sidon in their Egyptian Context: AHL 18 (2003) 34, Fig. 4. The date Bader gives needed to be corrected. Neither the Egyptian parallels (men-tioned above) nor the Levantine painted pottery found together with the zir allow such a broad time frame. This zir falls into period between Senwosret II/III and Amenemhet III.

50 Ancient Egyptian toll documents from the 2nd century CE give detailed information about the transport of goods from the Fayum oasis towards the Nile valley and the Oasis. As an average weight a donkey transported 3 artabes of weight. One artabe measures between 23 to 30l. A donkey covers an average distance of about 60 km per day. See additional data in: W. Habermann: Statistische Datenanalyse an den Zolldokumenten des Arsinoites aus römischer Zeit II: Münstersche Beiträge zur antiken Handelsgeschichte 9 (1990) 50-94.

51 B. Bader, Tell el Dab‛a XIII, 155-161, Figs. 43-44.52 An exception is a zir of this type from Sidon, which has a much larger capacity. See

B. Bader, I. Forstner-Müller, K. Kopetzky and & C. Doumet-Serhal, An Egyptian Jar from Sidon in its Egyptian Context. Some fresh Evidence: AHL 29 (2009) 79-83.

53 See: E. Oren, The “Kingdom of Sharuhen“ and the Hyksos Kingdom, Fig. 8.23:3-13.


– a picture that is also supported by the paintings found in the tombs of the Middle Kingdom54 and the archaeological evidence of Tell el-Dab‛a in the Phases H-G:1-3.

The New Kingdom

From the middle of the 13th Dynasty onwards there seems to be a gap in the trade between Egypt and the Levant via the Northern Sinai, as no Egyp-tian pottery of this period was found along the Horus Road. Only with the very end of the Hyksos period or with the beginning of the New Kingdom the overland route along, what is later called the via maris, gained back its importance.

While in the Middle Kingdom the Egyptian pottery consisted only of con-tainers the material from the New Kingdom, though still having its main focus on closed vessels, contains also some open shapes.

Although cups with fl at bases made of Nile B-2 fabric are characteristic for the late Hyksos period, they continued to be produced in the Eastern Nile Delta into the time of Tuthmosis III. While the Hyksos examples have fre-quently a red washed rim, the New Kingdom cups are often red washed all over. What is typical for the New Kingdom cups is that their bases were cut from the rotating wheel with a string, thus leaving concentric circles at the bottom and a slightly concave base (Figs. 8:4, 5).55 Furthermore their lower body was scraped on the turning wheel leaving horizontal marks (Fig. 8:3), while the Hyksos examples were trimmed with a tool after being cut from the standing wheel. In the early New Kingdom the fabric changed towards a version of the Nile B clay with more sand, lots of dung inclusions and some-times even ashes. The Sinai examples (Figs. 8:1–3) may have New Kingdom features, but without autopsy of the fabric it is diffi cult to rule out a date of the late Hyksos Period. Most of the material was collected in the region north-east of modern Qantara near the area of Tell Hebwa (Fig. 7), with high probability of being the remains of the ancient Egyptian frontier fortress of Zaru.56 This site shows an occupation from the late Middle Kingdom until the 18th and 19th Dynasty and even in the Late Period. It is an area where during the early New Kingdom most likely several activities took place. One was the founding of Zaru, the frontier fortifi cation. It seems as if Egypt was again responsible for the security of the ši-Ḥr, the ancient highway to the

54 See the famous tomb of Chnumhotep II in Beni Hassan.55 We would like to thank our colleagues B. Bader, D. A. Aston and P. Fuscaldo for allowing

us to us their unpublished material.56 M. Abd El-Maksoud, Tell Heboua (1981–1991), Enquête archéologique sur la Deuxième

Période Intermédiaire et le Nouvel Empire à l’extrémité orientale du Delta (Paris, 1998), 168, Fig. 1:Ia,1; Id,9.


north. Besides Tell el-Dab‛a, Tell el-Maskhuta,57 Tell el-Yahudiyeh58 and Tell Hebwa, these cups have also been found at Tell el-‛Ajjul.59 They belong to a hybrid group of pottery combining Near Eastern and Egyptian features which were developed in the eastern Delta during the Hyksos Period and continued there till the early Thutmosid Period in an unbroken tradition.60 This makes the dating of these wares without fabric examination diffi cult.

A vessel type which existed already during the Hyksos period is a large carinated dish with a modelled rim and a fl at or a ring base. While the earlier types show a low carination, the examples of the very end of that period are equipped with a high carination that lasts into the New Kingdom (Fig. 8:6) and became even more accentuated during this time (Fig. 8:7). Typical is a red wash inside or all over the body (Fig. 8:8, 9).

It is well known that during the late 18th and in the 19th and 20th Dynas-ties the Way of Horus was one of the main routes for the Egyptian army and merchants to travel north. From these periods come two bowls that were found during the survey and depicted in E. Oren’s article. One is an open red washed platter, probably made of Nile C fabric with an external ledge (Fig. 9:1). These bowls are known from Malqata (Fig. 9:2)61 and were in use until the Ramesside period.62 Into this last period falls most likely a rim frag-ment retrieved during the survey (Fig. 9:3) which belongs to a large bowl with a carination and a round base (Fig. 9:4).63

In Egypt cooking pots with external folded rims existed as early as the fi rst half of the 12th Dynasty (see above). Back then they were produced of Nile E fabric and white washed outside. In this early period their barrel-shaped bodies were handmade with the rims attached on a turnable device. During the span of time they change to a globular and even squeezed globular shape in the later Hyksos Period and the early New Kingdom (Fig. 9:6). Then they are produced either in Nile E or even more common in Nile B fabric and are often thrown on the wheel. The piece from the Sinai survey (Fig. 9:5) fi ts

57 C. A. Redmount, On an Egyptian/Asiatic Frontier: An Archaeological History of the Wadi Tumilat, vols. I-I (unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Chicago, 1989), 816-820.

58 W. M. F. Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite cities (London, 1906), Pl. XIID:24, fi rst row, 3rd ves-sel from left.

59 W. M. F. Petrie, Ancient Gaza IV (London, 1934), Pl. XLVIII:24Z5.60 M. Bietak, “From where came the Hyksos come from and where did they go,” in: The

Second Intermediate Period (13th-17th Dynasties): Current Research, Future Prospects (Proceedings of a Conference in the British Museum 2004), OLA, (Leuven, 2010).

61 C. Hope, Pottery from the New Kingdom: Three Studies. The XVIIIth Dynasty pottery from Malkatta (Victoria, 1989), Fig. 1:n.

62 D. A. Aston, Die Keramik des Grabungsplatzes Q I. Corpus of Fabrics, Wares and Shapes, Teil 1, FoRa 1 (Mainz, 1998), 165.

63 C. Hope, Pottery from the New Kingdom: Three Studies. Pottery of the Ramesside Period, Fig. 2:n.


into the later group of cooking pots with its globular body. Local imitations of these cooking pots where excavated at Ashkelon, Phase 10.64

A signifi cant chronological development of these pots shows another piece (Fig. 9:7), where the rim is folded towards the outside and stands slightly upright. In Egypt these rims were never found before the beginning of the 18th Dynasty and are typical for the cooking pots of the early New Kingdom (Fig. 9:8). Again, they are made of Nile B or E fabrics and often washed outside either with white or red colour.

Amongst the jar fragments that were picked up are rims (Figs. 10:1,3,5,7) that appear for the fi rst time during the later Hyksos phases at Tell el-Dab‛a. Again they were produced at the site also during the early New Kingdom (Figs. 10:2,4,6,8). While everted rims with a slight kettle mouth (Fig. 10:9) do not appear before the early 18th Dynasty (Fig. 10:10). The same is true for elongated folded and everted rims that were horizontally trimmed (Fig. 10:11). This kind of technical detail is typical for the early 18th Dynasty (Fig. 10:12). Although jars with stepped rims appear already during the Hyksos Period,65 examples with a groove running along the trimmed part of the rim (Fig. 11:1), however, do not exist before the early New Kingdom (Figs. 11:2,3). While during the late Second Intermediate Period the bodies of the jars were more or less bag-shaped, they change at the beginning of the New Kingdom towards a more ovoid and later an even biconical elongated shape. A larger rim fragment (Fig. 11:4) from the Sinai survey with its rim folded inwards indicates this ovoid body shape, which is also visible on a piece from Tell el-Dab‛a found in an early New Kingdom offering pit (Fig. 11:5).66 Nearly all jars of the early 18th Dynasty in the north of Egypt were covered with a thin red wash complemented with a darker red in their rim and neck area.

Ovoid white washed jars with elongated folded rims and nipple bases appear frequently at the very end of the Hyksos Period (Phase D:2), but are much more common during the early 18th Dynasty (Figs. 11:6,7). They were made of a sandy, over-fi red Nile B clay and have therefore a quite dense and metallic appearance. Their elongated and folded rims vary from a shorter and thicker version towards a fi ner and more delicate one with an internal grooving. Both examples appear side by side with their trimmed rims drawn slightly inwards.

Storage jars with conical necks have their fi rst appearance during the Hyksos period and last into the 18th Dynasty (Fig. 12:5). They are a typical example for settlement pottery and appear in various sizes. Here again an elongation of the body is visible during the span of time. Unfortunately the fragments from the Sinai survey (Figs. 12:3,4) are too small to allow a more

64 M. Bietak et al., Synchronisation of Stratigraphies: Ashkelon and Tell el-Dab‛a: E&L 18 (2008) 58, Fig. 8:14,15.

65 M. Bietak, Tell el-Dab‛a V (Vienna, 1991), 265, Abb. 235:8.66 We thank V. Müller, who is studying this pit, for her permission to publish this piece.


precise dating. All of the Tell el-Dab‛a examples are made of Nile B and have the upper part of the vessel covered with a red wash. Recently one large example was uncovered in Sidon, reused as a container for a child burial and dating into the late MB II period.67

In one case a small squat pot with an everted and horizontally trimmed rim was picked up (Fig. 12:1). Parallels for this type exist only in the New Kingdom levels of Tell el-Dab‛a and were usually made of Marl F (Fig. 12:2). They show no signs of additional surface treatments.

Especially dealing with Egyptian material that was found between Egypt and Palestine during the New Kingdom, one has to keep in mind that the local production of Egyptian shapes in Palestine during that period was quite common. At Tell el-‛Ajjul only a small number of the retrieved Egyptian shapes were really imported to the site. Most of them were probably locally produced imitating Egyptian fabrics. Therefore one might expect, especially in the New Kingdom material, a certain amount of Egyptianising material amongst the Sinai Survey pottery.

Finally it is evident that the Egyptian material from the Sinai survey, which has been published by E. Oren and A. Gat for the period of the Middle Bronze Age, covers the period from the fi rst half of the 12th Dynasty until the early or middle 13th Dynasty and leaves afterwards a gap of occupation until the very end of the Hyksos Period or even more likely the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. Therefore it appears that the land route over the Sinai was only used and possibly safe as long as Egypt guarded and provided it. Obviously it needed an administration backing logistics to run this trade, a tool that vanished with the collapse of the Middle Kingdom in the middle of the 13th Dynasty. Afterwards the settlers of Tell el-Dab‛a seemed to have shifted the main focus of their trade towards the sea, due to the possibility of importing much larger amounts of goods. Furthermore the political relation-ship between the kingdom of the 15th Dynasty and the southern Palestinian city states is more than uncertain. Evidence for direct contact, most likely via the sea, between the Hyksos territories and southern Palestine is only available at Ashkelon.68 The MB IIC city of Tell el-‛Ajjul (especially Pal-ace I), which is so often claimed as being Sharuhen,69 the famous besieged city of King Ahmose and the last retreat of the Hyksos, dates already into the 18th Dynasty, according to Egyptian pottery70 and White Slip I Ware

67 C. Doumet-Serhal: AHL 17 (2003) 13, Fig. 12.68 See for this: M. Bietak et al.: E&L 18 (2008) 49–60.69 See the more recent discussion with literature on the localisation of Sharuhen in

J. K. Hoffmeier, James Weinstein’s ‘Egypt and the Middle Bronze IIC/Late Bronze IA Transition’: A Rejoinder: Levant 23 (1991) 117-24. The discussion on the location of Sharuhen seems far from being settled.

70 K. Kopetzky, Chapter 18: Tell el-‛Ajjul, in: M. A. S. Martin (ed.), Egyptian-Type Pottery in the Late Bronze Age Southern Levant, Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean, Vienna, in press.


found in palace I.71 In a foundation ditch of palace I a Base Ring I sherd was found.72 Eliezer Oren in a famous article showed, that Base Ring Ware her-alds the Tuthmosid Period in the Levant.73 This can be well endorsed by the excavations at Tell el-Dab‛a, where neither White Slip I Ware nor Base Ring I Ware appears before the 18th Dynasty after the conquest of Avaris.74 Both wares thus far were not found before the Tuthmosid Period. One may con-clude therefore that the construction of Palace I (which is generally equated with the construction of City III) falls into the early 18th Dynasty. This may have stimulated the renewal of the land route over the Sinai. The question is why the young 18th Dynasty relied on the major land route again, after the Hyksos who resided in a harbour town preferred sea transport. Is it possible that the young 18th Dynasty originating from Upper Egypt was principally a land power and suffered from a shortage of ships? Activities promoting a build-up of a seagoing navy are known only from the time of Tuthmosis III onwards with the dockyards at Peru-nefer75 identifi ed recently with Tell el-Dab‛a/‛Ezbet Helmy.76 Another explanation is that security demands the possession of the Horus Road with its water stations in order to ward off a potential attack from the East. This would explain the activity on the Horus Road in the Middle Kingdom, and it would also explain Egyptian activity

71 C. J. Bergoffen, The Proto White Slip and White Slip I Pottery from Tell el-Ajjul, in: V. Karageorghis (ed.), The White Slip Ware of Late Bronze Age Cyprus, Proceedings of an International Conference organized by the A. L. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia, in Honour of Malcolm Wiener, Nicosia 29th-30th October 1998, Contribution to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean vol. II, Vienna 2001, 153-155.

72 R. S. Merrillees, Tell el-‛Ajjul, Fine and imported Wares, in: J. R. Steward (ed.), Tell el-‛Ajjul, The Middle Bronze Age Remains, SIMA 38 (Göteborg, 1974), 95−97.

73 E. D. Oren,, Cypriot Imports in the Palestinian Late Bronze I Context, Opuscula Atheni-ensia 9 (1989), 143-145; see also idem, The Diffusion of Base–ring Pottery in the East Mediterranean – Contextual and Chronological Aspects, in: H. Åström, The Chronology of Base-ring Ware and Bichrome Wheel-made Ware (Konferenser 54), Stockholm 2001, 27ff.

74 M. Bietak and I. Hein, The Context of White Slip Wares in the Stratigraphy of Tell el-Dab‛a and some Conclusions on Aegean Chronology, in: The White Slip Ware of Late Bronze Age Cyprus, Proceedings of an International Conference organized by the A. L. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia, in Honour of Malcolm Wiener, Nicosia 29th-30th October 1998, ed. by V. Karageorghis = Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediter-ranean, ed. by Manfred Bietak and Hermann Hunger, vol. II (Vienna, 2001), 171-194.

75 W. Spiegelberg, La ville de Prw-nfr dans le Delta: Revue de l’Egypte ancienne 1 (1927) 215-217; G. Daressy, Les branches du Nil dans la XVIIIe dynastie: BSGÉ 16 (1928-29) 225, 322-6; S. R. K. Glanville, Records of a Royal Dockyard of the Time of Tuthmosis III: Papyrus British Museum 10056L., ZÄS 66 (1931), 105-121, Pl. 1-8; ZÄS 68 (1932) 7-41; L. Habachi, Tell el-Dab‛a I: Tell el-Dab‛a and Qantir: The Site and its Connection with Avaris and Piramesse, UZK 2, Vienna 2001, 9, 106–7; M. Kamish, Problems of Toponymy with Special Reference to Memphis and Prw-nfr: Wepwawet 2 (1986), 32-36.

76 M. Bietak, The Tuthmoside Stronghold Peru-nefer: Egyptian Archaeology 26 (Spring 2005) 13-17; idem, Peru-nefer; The Principal New Kingdom Naval Base: Egyptian Archaeology 34 (2009) 15-17.


along the via maris during the reign of Tuthmosis III and afterwards, when Egypt was certainly in the possession of a seagoing navy, which met the demands for transport of troops and supplies.

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Fig. 1: Distribution map of the Middle Kingdom pottery.


Fig. 2: Cooking pots of the 12th and early 13th Dynasty.

Fig. 3: Upper Egyptian Marl A jars of the Middle Kingdom.


Fig. 4: Marl C jars with corrugated necks of the 12th and early 13th Dynasty.

Fig. 5: Marl C zirs of the 12th Dynasty.


Fig. 6: Marl C zirs of the 12th and early 13th Dynasty.


Fig. 7: Distribution map of the latest 15th or early 18th Dynasty pottery.


Fig. 8: Nile B pottery of the latest 15th or early 18th Dynasty.

Fig. 9: Nile clay pottery of the New Kingdom.


Fig. 10: Nile B jars of the latest 15th Dynasty or/and 18th Dynasty.


Fig. 11: Nile B jars of the 18th Dynasty.


Fig. 12: Nile B pots of the latest 15th or early 18th Dynasty and Marl F pot of the 18th Dynasty.

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