Take This Job and Shove It: Examining the Influence of RoleStressors and Emotional Exhaustion on OrganizationalCommitment and Identification in Professional Truck DriversElyria Kemp1, Steven W. Kopp2, and Eramus C. Kemp, Jr.3

1University of New Orleans2University of Arkansas3Kemp Transportation Systems, Inc.

P rofessional truck drivers experience many challenges in the course of performing their jobs. Drivers must meet the needs of their company,shippers, and receivers as well as comply with safety regulations. It is well documented that truck drivers are prone to physical exhaustion;

however, they may also be subject to emotional exhaustion, which can impact their decision to remain with a company. This research examinesthe influence of job stressors, such as role conflict and role ambiguity and their relationship to emotional exhaustion in professional truck driv-ers. Furthermore, the effect that job stressors and emotional exhaustion have on the efforts of a firm to build corporate identification, collectivemind, and commitment among truck drivers is examined. Using qualitative and quantitative data from 435 professional truck drivers, a concep-tual model is developed and tested using structural equation modeling. Findings are discussed and implications for managers in improvingdriver retention rates are offered.

Keywords: role stressors; emotional exhaustion; identification; trucking

INTRODUCTION

Professional truck drivers operate the commercial vehicles thattransport nearly 70% of all freight in the United States (AmericaTrucking Association 2011). U.S. commerce relies on over13 million large trucks to transport more than $671 billion worthof goods (Randall et al. 2010; FMCSA 2011). The work of theprofessional truck driver is essential to our economy. However,the workforce of truck fleets has declined by 13.4% over the pastfour years and truck freight is rising faster than the pace of newdriver hires (Wilson 2011).

Subsequently, the American Trucking Association (2012) haspredicted a shortage of professional truck drivers by 2014. Thesestatistics have garnered considerable attention from researcherswith respect to how best to recruit truck drivers for the impend-ing shortfall (Johnson et al. 2010; Shattell et al. 2010). In addi-tion to recruitment, attention has also been given to finding waysto retain currently employed drivers. A number of researchershave identified the problem not only as a driver shortage, butalso as one of “churning” as drivers move from one company toanother within the same truckload segment of the industry (Kel-ler and Ozment 1999; Watson 2011).

Professional truck drivers experience many challenges in thecourse of performing their jobs. Truck drivers are boundary-spanners, or frontline employees, and must meet the needs ofboth employers and clients as well as comply with safety regula-tions (Bode et al. 2011). Given the demands of their job, anddespite government regulations limiting drivers’ hours of service,

drivers are prone to physical exhaustion (Crum and Morrow2002). However, in addition to physical exhaustion, professionaldrivers may also encounter psychological stress. Such stress canlead to emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion is a compo-nent of burnout that manifests as a result of job-related stressand can impact overall job performance and retention.

In the occupational literatures, there is evidence that linksboundary spanning employees (e.g., salespeople and customerservice representatives) to emotional exhaustion (Singh et al.1994). These issues have been associated with high-pressuredprofessions, including physicians (especially surgeons), air trafficcontrollers, policemen, and astronauts (Ahler 2007). In these pro-fessions, individuals may be involved in prolonged critical deci-sion making, interpersonal contact, care giving, or extendedisolation. However, limited research has empirically investigatedemotional exhaustion in professional truck drivers (Lemay et al.1993).

This research illuminates the susceptibility of truck drivers toemotional exhaustion. Specifically, it proposes that role stres-sors, such as role conflict and role ambiguity can be leadingcauses of emotional exhaustion (Cravens et al. 2004). Role con-flict may manifest when truck drivers receive divergent requestsfrom various departments within the company (e.g., safety andoperations). Similarly, role ambiguity may result when drivershave to assess and make decisions about equipment malfunc-tions, which could result in safety hazards, before making adelivery.

Such role stressors can have a deleterious impact not only onthe emotional health of truck drivers, but also on the efforts of afirm to build corporate identification, collective mind, and com-mitment among truck drivers. With the challenge of recruitingand retaining qualified truck drivers, learning the sources of thesestressors and how to address them is paramount in reducingdriver turnover.

Corresponding author:Elyria Kemp, University of New Orleans, Department of Marketing& Logistics, 2000 Lakeshore Drive, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA;E-mail: ekemp@uno.edu

Journal of Business Logistics, 2013, 34(1): 33–45© Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals

The subsequent research contributes to existing literature byexamining the role of job stressors and their relationship withemotional exhaustion in professional truck drivers. Both qualita-tive data from depth interviews conducted with truck drivers aswell as quantitative data garnered from surveying 435 driverswere used in to study these relationships. The insights offeredfrom these individuals, along with theoretical insight from thebehavioral literatures, were then integrated into a conceptualmodel. The model was tested using structural equation modeling.Findings are discussed and implications for managers in improv-ing driver retention rates are offered.

Literature Review

It is not uncommon for turnover in some segments of the truck-ing industry to average 49% (Watson 2011). In 2005, turnover inthe truckload segment reached a historic peak of 136% (AmericaTrucking Association 2011). In fact, the average tenure for truck-load drivers is 9–12 months (Williams et al. 2011). Such turn-over rates have considerable impact on a carrier’s cost of doingbusiness, especially with respect to replacing drivers (Schulz2006).

The job of the over-the-road trucker can be fraught with chal-lenges, which can create significant job stress. For example,over-the-road truckers may be required to meet tight deadlinesimposed by management and customers to deliver freight(Williams et al. 2011). Professional drivers have identified manyfactors outside of their control (Shattell et al. 2010), includingweather changes, distracted and absent-minded drivers, and traf-fic and road conditions, which can make on-time deliveries offreight extremely difficult. Nondriving aspects of the job, such asloading and unloading freight, interacting with shippers andreceivers and trying to find safe parking during off-duty hoursalso contributes to job stress for drivers (Crum and Morrow2002; Cantor et al. 2009; Johnson et al. 2010). Truck driverswork long hours, and may spend considerable time away fromhome. Other professions (e.g., construction work) may offer abetter quality of life where people can work the same number ofhours, make a comparable salary, and go home every night.

In addition, new and existing regulations intended to increasetruck safety may also present challenges to drivers (ATRI 2011;Jackson and Feld 2012). Johnson et al. (2010) conducted a studythat assessed truck drivers’ quality of life and job satisfaction.The most common problem drivers identified was too much reg-ulation. In addition to federal regulations, the laws to whichtruck drivers must adhere can vary from state to state; there iswide variation in enforcement activities among these jurisdic-tions. Truck drivers indicated that complying with inconsistentregulation across states as well as federal regulation can be bur-densome and contribute to stress.

Although the potential exists for professional drivers to experi-ence a number of stressors while performing their jobs, compa-nies that are supportive of their drivers can mitigate some ofthese stressors. For example, Keller and Ozment (1999) find thatdispatchers that show greater care and responsiveness when com-municating with drivers have lower turnover rates. Furthermore,organizations that foster supportive and caring environments fortheir drivers are more likely to engender commitment as well asachieve better overall performance from their drivers (Price and

Mueller 1981; Keller and Ozment 2002; Williams et al. 2011).Ultimately, drivers that feel supported by their organizations mayeven incorporate organizational membership into their identities(Tajfel 1981; Eisenberger et al. 1990). As a result, they are morelikely to care about the organization’s welfare, to help it reachits objectives, and to remain with the organization (Allen andMeyer 1990; Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002).

Next, a conceptual model that addresses the psychologicalstressors truck drivers encounter in the course of performing theirjobs is presented. The model proposes that role conflict andambiguity, in tandem with emotional exhaustion, can negativelyimpact a driver’s commitment and identification with a firm (seeFigure 1). Anecdotal accounts were gathered from professionaltruck drivers to ascertain some of the stressors experienced whileon the job.

Conceptual Framework

To help inform the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings ofthis research, semistructured interviews were conducted with pro-fessional truck drivers throughout the United States. The purposeof this qualitative research was to provide a deeper understandingof drivers’ feelings and dispositions about their working condi-tions and their employers (McCracken 1988; Davis and Mentzer2006). A total of 10 drivers were interviewed.1 These driversrepresented different segments of the trucking industry (e.g.,truckload, refrigerated, tanker, expedited, and specialized). Alldrivers were assigned aliases to ensure anonymity and wereinformed that their responses would not be shared with manage-ment; individual information about the respondents is included inTable 1.

Open-ended and semistructured questions were asked of thedrivers (McCracken 1988). Interviews lasted approximately30 min. Upon reading of the text from the interviews, severalthemes consistently emerged. Following an iterative process,where text from the interviews was examined multiple times and

Role Conflict

Role Ambiguity

Emo onal Exhaus on

Organiza onal Iden fica on

Internal Commitment

+

-

+

-

-

-

-

-

Figure 1: Role stressors, emotional exhaustion, and internalmarketing outcomes.

1

Interviewees were given $10 gift cards that could beredeemed at the truck stops in compensation for their time.

34 E. Kemp et al.

categorized, the authors arrived at a consensus regarding theidentification of metathemes, which embodied the narratives ofthe drivers (McCracken 1988; Thompson, 1997). Next, the datagarnered from these interviews were methodically integrated itinto an emerging theoretical argument (Eisenhardt 1989; Pratt2008). Figure 2 delineates how the data from the interviews con-tributed to the development of the conceptual framework. Frominterviewee responses, role stressors were depicted as the primarydrivers of stress, which manifested as role conflict and role ambi-guity. Such psychological stressors could ultimately result inemotional exhaustion, a component of burn-out. Furthermore,attachment, or ties to the organization were assessed. Psychologi-cal stressors were found to unfavorably influence sentimenttoward the organization. These findings provided the basis forthe conceptual model, which is represented in Figure 1. A dis-

cussion of the conceptual model, beginning first with a delinea-tion of role stressors, follows next.

Role stressorsRole stress theory suggests that organizational factors generaterole expectations among role senders. These expectations are thenimposed as role pressures to the employee (Kahn et al. 1964).Individuals inherently accept roles because they provide importantpsychological benefits as well as establish order (William andAlliger 1994). However, there are potential costs associated withroles when individuals are not able to perform roles as expected(Idris 2011; Lee and Ashforth 1993). When individuals do nothave clear guidelines regarding their role’s authority and responsi-bility, they may experience stress, become dissatisfied, and per-form less effectively (Lee and Schular 1980). Role stress is thestrain experienced by individuals as a result of their job, or rolein an organization (Kahn et al. 1964; Lee and Ashforth 1993).

Job-related pressures, or “role stressors,” are common experi-ences for those in boundary spanning occupational contexts (e.g.,field salespeople, helping professionals, and customer servicerepresentatives; Brown and Peterson 1993; Singh et al. 1994).During the course of performing their jobs, many of the driversindicated that they often felt considerable stress. For example,several of the truckers shared accounts in which they wereplaced in situations where they were asked to fulfill incompatiblerequests between shippers and receivers, or were asked toaccommodate tight scheduling without the proper resources:

Brokers can be really hard to work with. Most of the time,they do not allow truck drivers enough time from Point Ato Point B. It is all about the money and we face extremetime pressure. This job can be stressful. (Junior)

Table 1: Professional truck drivers (n = 10)

Name (Alias) Age Ethnicity/race Gender Segment

Carrie 39 White/Caucasian Female ExpeditedBandit 44 White/Caucasian Male TruckloadCledus 47 White/Caucasian Male TruckloadMr. B 64 African American Male TruckloadBuford 39 White/Caucasian Male TruckloadEnos 52 White/Caucasian Male RefrigeratedBranford 61 White/Caucasian Male TankerJunior 41 Asian American Male SpecializedBJ 39 African American Male TruckloadHenry 42 African American Male TruckloadJerry 59 White/Caucasian Male LTL

Figure 2: Overview of qualitative data structure.

Take This Job and Shove It 35

Two of the most common role stressors are role conflict and roleambiguity (Rizzo et al. 1970; Cravens et al. 2004). Role conflictmay occur when boundary-spanners are expected to satisfy incom-patible demands from multiple role partners (Boles et al. 1997).Similarly, when boundary-spanners face tasks that require innova-tive solutions, role ambiguity may manifest (Singh et al. 1994).

Role conflictRole conflict is defined as the simultaneous occurrence of two ormore sets of pressures in the working environment, or the incom-patibility of expectations associated with a role (Rizzo et al. 1970;Singh et al. 1994). Role conflict can result when there is lack ofadequate resources, inconsistent policies, and incongruous expecta-tions. When boundary-spanners are unable to reconcile theseincompatible expectations, high levels of distress, frustration, andanxiety may develop. This can result in emotionally charged envi-ronments where high levels of effort are required to perform tasks.If such an environment persists, boundary-spanners may experienceburnout (Maslach and Jackson 1981; Leiter and Maslach 1988).

Several of the drivers interviewed provided instances wherethey were confronted with almost irreconcilable expectations.Attempting to negotiate these conflicting expectations andrequests proved to be stressful:

I’ll be out of “hours” (hours of service), but my dispatcherwill want me to deliver loads on schedule. I have a loadon right now that I need to deliver and my hours are justabout to run out. This job can certainly be stressful attimes. (BJ)

I have a mud flap missing, which is against regulationsand I am not supposed to be running. I have the mud flapto replace it, but maintenance would not allow us to workon the truck. I need to keep running to make this deliveryon time. (Mr. B)

Role ambiguityAccording to Kahn et al. (1964), for an individual to successfullyperform in a role, the individual must have some degree of clarityregarding the expectations for the role. Lack of clarity may reflectrole ambiguity. Role ambiguity is the degree to which insufficientclear information exists about the expectations associated with arole, including protocol for fulfilling role expectations, or conse-quences of role performance (Kahn et al. 1964; Singh 1993). Roleambiguity is thought to impede the opportunity to improve perfor-mance. When consistent levels of ambiguity are present about howto proceed with critical tasks, frustration, stress, and decreased jobsatisfaction can manifest (Singh 1993; Singh et al. 1994).

It may be difficult for employers to provide clear policies andguidelines for all possible situations and contingencies. However,when employees do not have sufficient resources, or are notempowered to implement satisfactory solutions, their tasks maybe ambiguous. It was not uncommon for drivers to experiencethe following when delivering freight:

Sometimes little things can become frustrating. For exam-ple, a shipper may unload half my freight and then want

me to go less than a mile down the road and unload therest at another dock owned by the company. I have to geton the phone with dispatch to get the okay just to performthis simple task. (Cledus)

Both role conflict and ambiguity are common stressors thatmay be experienced in the trucking environment. Extreme roleconflict and ambiguity can result in an erosion of job-related atti-tudes and performance. Both types of stressors play an importantrole in understanding emotional exhaustion.

Burnout and emotional exhaustion

I have been in the business for over 20 years. Today, astruckers, we make less and our costs have gone up. This isa tough business to be in now—tougher than ever before.(Mr. B)

Truck drivers often work long hours, which can cause stressand physical fatigue. However, drivers must also interface withshippers and receivers, try to accommodate tight scheduling(Johnson et al. 2010), deal with preoccupied “four-wheelers” onthe road and comply with safety regulations, all of which canexpose the professional truck driver to a number of psychologi-cal stressors. As a result, the professional trucker driver mayespecially be susceptible to burnout and emotional exhaustion.

Burnout is caused by chronic stress, often experienced by peoplein direct contact with the public-at-large (Singh et al. 1994; Lewinand Sager 2008). Job-related burnout costs businesses billions ofdollars annually (Lewin and Sager 2008). Burnout comprises threecomponents—emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and dimin-ished personal accomplishments (Maslach and Jackson 1981). Theemotional exhaustion component of burnout is an affectiveresponse to job-related stressors. It refers to feelings of being over-extended and depleted of one’s emotional resources. Depersonal-ization is a dysfunctional response to work-related stress, oftenmanifesting in the form of cynicism and negative attitudes towardclients and coworkers. Individuals may exhibit excessivelydetached responses to various aspects of the job. Finally, dimin-ished personal accomplishment refers to a decline in an employee’sconfidence in his/her ability to be successful at the job. Theemployee may have feelings of incompetence and lack of achieve-ment toward his/her work. Although the three-component model ofburnout is widely accepted, many researchers believe that emo-tional exhaustion is the most central component of the burnout pro-cess (Boles et al. 1997; Babakus et al. 1999). The emotionalexhaustion component represents the basic strain dimension ofburnout (Lee and Ashforth 1993). Gaines and Jermier (1983) arguethat emotional exhaustion is the aspect of burnout that can manifestin a number of work environments and is a unique indicator forassessing the aggregate effects of work-related stressors. Symptomsof emotional exhaustion may include dread at the prospect ofreturning to work, increased absenteeism, insomnia, and withdrawalfrom the organization (Kahill 1988; Maslach and Leiter 2008).

Emotional exhaustion may arise as a result of the cumulativeimpact of multiple role stressors. Role stressors, such as roleconflict and role ambiguity can overwhelm the individual’s cop-ing resources. For example, work environments characterized byhigh levels of role conflict can be difficult and unpleasant set-

36 E. Kemp et al.

tings in which to work because much more effort is required toaccomplish job-related tasks. Such environments can contributeto emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, working situations wherean individual must perform under unremitting ambiguity requiresgreater levels of energy and resources (Maslach and Jackson1981). Such a consistent depletion of energy, combined with pro-longed states of emotional arousal can be conducive to emotionalexhaustion (Jackson et al. 1986). Several of the truckers com-mented on experiences that could be emotionally draining:

I run into conflicting situations all the time. Boy, thingslike this can really start to burn you out. The other day, Ipulled up to the unloading dock and no one was there tounload the freight. Their policy (the receiver) is that I haveto have someone unload the freight for me—even thoughmy company that I drive for allows me to unload freight, Icannot do it there. I couldnot get anyone on the phoneanywhere to get the freight unloaded! Like I said, this jobcan burn you out! (Enos)

The new (federal) regulations are making me nervous, anddispatch is stressing me out. The pressures of this job arereally starting to make it stressful. I used to like it, but Iam really not enjoying it so much. (BJ)

In summary, because truck drivers operate within boundaryspanning positions in the company, they may especially bevulnerable to role conflict and role ambiguity in the course ofperforming their jobs. These stressors can lead to emotionalexhaustion. As a result, the following is predicted (see Figure 2):

H1: There is a positive relationship between role conflictin the professional trucker driver’s working environ-ment and emotional exhaustion.

H2: There is a positive relationship between role ambigu-ity in the professional truck driver’s working environ-ment and emotional exhaustion.

Truck Drivers as an Internal Market

Some of the companies really do not care about the driver.Turn-over is high with a number of companies. Some ofthe dispatchers keep us away from home all the time. Theywould not listen to us. For all the hours we put in, we aremaking little money. (Enos)

As indicated previously, turnover in the trucking industry canbe extremely high and trucking companies are struggling to findqualified drivers (Jackson and Feld 2012). Some of this churningcan be attributed to increased driver demand. However, otherreasons cited have centered on compensation packages, unsatis-factory equipment, strained relationships with management, andinadequate driver support programs (Richard et al. 1995; Garveret al. 2008; Watson 2011). Companies have found success inretaining good employees by enlisting systematic internal market-ing processes, which provide their employees with a clear under-standing of the company’s values and vision (Ahmed and Rafiq2002). Internal marketing emphasizes “communication by deeds”

and offers employees a clear vision of what the company ispursuing (Berry and Parasuraman 1992; Berry et al. 1976).Although truck drivers, unlike traditional employees may be“physically removed” from the day-to-day operations of an orga-nization, maintaining effective communication and relations withdrivers regarding the company’s goals and values is paramount.Companies that invest resources in internal marketing programscan engender organizational commitment and organizationalidentification among employees.

Organizational commitmentOrganizational commitment refers to the relative involvement anemployee has with a company as well as the employee’s beliefand acceptance of the organization’s goals and values (Mowdayet al. 1979). Commitment encompasses internalization of a firm’svalues and has an affective component (Reichers 1985). Employ-ees that possess strong commitment to a firm are willing to exerteffort on behalf of the organization and desire to maintain mem-bership in the firm. Not only do higher levels of commitmentresult in lower turnover rates, but it is also believed to be relatedto enhanced productivity and better service delivery (Price andMueller 1981). One of the drivers commented on her dedicationto the company she worked for:

Management has an open-door policy. They are willing todiscuss any problems with me. My company also hasexcellent benefits. I think that this is a company I will wantto retire with. (Carrie)

Attaining organizational commitment from employees can con-tribute to the success of a firm. However, there are some situationswhich may preclude a firm from obtaining such commitment. Asnoted previously, role stressors, such as role conflict and roleambiguity, can engender high levels of distress, frustration, andanxiety. This can result in negative emotionally charged environ-ments, which are contrary to fostering organizational commitment,but instead may precipitate emotional exhaustion in employees. Ifemployees are feeling emotionally exhausted by their work anddeveloping depersonalized views of their colleagues, then theymay become less enthusiastic and accepting of the organization’sgoals and less dedicated to achieving them. As a result, it is pre-dicted that the experience of role stressors (role conflict and ambi-guity) will diminish employee organizational commitment andemotional exhaustion will mediate the relationship between rolestressors and commitment. Subsequently, the following is postu-lated in relation to the professional truck driver:

H3a: There is a negative relationship between role conflictin the professional trucker driver’s working environ-ment and commitment to the firm.

H3b: There is a negative relationship between the experi-ence of emotional exhaustion and the professionaltrucker driver’s commitment to the firm.

H3c: Emotional exhaustion experienced by the professionaltruck driver mediates the relationship between roleconflict and commitment to the firm.

H4a: There is a negative relationship between role ambi-guity in the professional trucker driver’s workingenvironment and commitment to the firm.

Take This Job and Shove It 37

H4b: Emotional exhaustion experienced by the by the pro-fessional truck driver mediates the relationshipbetween role ambiguity and commitment to the firm.

Organizational identification

I feel like more than a contractor—I feel like part of ateam. I love working for this company. I represent mycompany, and they represent me. (Branford)

Organizational identification is the degree to which individualsperceive themselves and the organization as sharing the same attri-butes (Wieseke et al. 2009). Organizational identification is aspecific form of social identification, which manifests as a searchfor meaning, connectedness, empowerment, and immortality in theindividual (Ashforth and Mael 1989). Tajfel (1981) defines organi-zational identification as the perception and emotional significanceof oneness with, or belongingness to the organization. Identifica-tion with the group involves both affective and evaluative elementsand organizational identification implies that organizationalmembers have linked their self-concepts with membership in theorganization. Organization identification affects employees’attitudes, motivation to support the organization, job satisfaction aswell as the overall effectiveness of the organization (Lee 1971).

Role stressors can unfavorably influence the development ofan employee’s identification with the firm and commitment tothe organization. Furthermore, the experience of emotionalexhaustion, or strain and burnout, is proposed to mediate therelationship between role stressors and organizational identifica-tion. Accordingly, the following is predicted:

H5a: There is a negative relationship between role conflictin the professional truck driver’s working environ-ment and their identification with the firm.

H5b: There is a negative relationship between emotionalexhaustion experienced by the professional truck dri-ver and identification with the firm.

H5c: Emotional exhaustion experienced by the professionaltruck driver mediates the relationship between roleconflict and identification with the firm.

H6a: There is a negative relationship between role ambi-guity in the professional truck driver’s working envi-ronment and identification with the firm.

H6b: Emotional exhaustion experienced by the professionaltruck driver mediates the relationship between roleambiguity and identification with the firm.

METHODOLOGY

Measures

The constructs represented in the model (see Figure 2) weremeasured using scales specifically adapted for this research. Allscale items appear in the Appendix. Role conflict and role ambi-guity were measured using items adapted from Rizzo et al.(1970). Role conflict was assessed using seven items (e.g., “I

receive load assignments without the resources to deliver it”) androle ambiguity was measured using five items (e.g., “I feelcertain about how much authority I have”), which were ultimatelyreverse scored. Items for emotional exhaustion were adapted fromSingh et al. (1994) and focused on company-related pressuresprofessional drivers might experience. The scale included eightitems (e.g., “Working with shippers and receivers is really a strainfor me,” and “I am emotionally drained by the stress my dis-patcher puts on me”). The internal marketing concepts, includingorganizational commitment, were measured using three itemsadapted from Allen and Meyer (1990) (e.g., “I would be happy tospend the rest of my career with this company”) and organiza-tional identification was assessed using six items adapted fromMael and Ashforth (1992) (e.g., “When I talk about the companythat I work for, I usually say ‘we’ rather than ‘they’”).

Procedure and sample

Surveys were administered to professional truck drivers at seventruck stops throughout the country. Commercial truck drivers(both company drivers as well as owner/operators) who visitedthe truck stops were approached personally and asked if theywould be willing to fill out the survey in exchange for a gift oftheir choice (work gloves or writing pens). Respondents wereinformed that the research was being conducted for academicresearch purposes and that their responses would not be sharedwith management.

A total of 435 completed surveys were obtained. Ninety-threepercent of respondents were male and 7% were female. Themean age was 46. Sixty percent of the participants were White/Caucasian, 30% were African American, 6% were Latino/Hispanic, 2% were Native American, 1% was Asian Americanand 1% listed “Other.” Respondents operated vehicles acrossvarious segments of the industry, including less-than-truckload(LTL), truckload, parcel, expedited, tank carriers, refrigeratedcarriers, and household goods.

Analysis

The data were subjected to structural equation analysis in AMOS17.0 using the maximum likelihood estimation method. As rec-ommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), a two-step proce-dure was used to first assess the model for construct anddiscriminant validity and then hypotheses were tested in thestructural model. In addition, statistical techniques, including themarker variable technique (Lindell and Whitney 2001; Malhotraet al. 2006), were applied to ensure that findings were notinflated due to common method bias.

Measurement modelStandard statistical techniques, including performing exploratoryfactor analysis and examining item-to-total correlations, wereconducted. Exploratory factor analysis confirmed that each itemloaded on the appropriate factor. The measurement model wasfurther validated for construct and discriminant validity by per-forming confirmatory factor analysis. The final measurementmodel exhibited adequate fit: v2 (900.53); p-value (.01); com-parative fit index (CFI) (.91); incremental fit index (IFI) (.91);and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (.07).

38 E. Kemp et al.

To test for convergent validity, factor loadings, along with theaverage variance extracted were calculated for each latent vari-able. Standardized factor loadings (see Table 2) exceeded the 0.6threshold as recommended by Hair et al. (2006). In addition, asseen in Table 3, the average variance extracted (ranged from .57to .68) for each construct exceeded the recommended rule ofthumb of 0.5 (Hair et al. 2006), which is an indication that thevariance captured by the construct is greater than the variancedue to measurement error.

To assess discriminant validity, the Fornell and Larcker (1981)test was performed. Discriminant validity is demonstrated whenthe average variance extracted from a construct is greater thanthe squared correlations between that construct and other con-

structs in the model. The average variance extracted betweeneach construct was greater than the squared multiple correlationsfor each construct pairing. Composite reliabilities as well asCronbach’s alphas were also assessed to ensure that each con-struct exhibited internal consistency (ranged from .89 to .92). Allmeasures exemplified acceptable reliability by exceeding the rec-ommended 0.7 threshold (Nunnally and Bernstein 1994). Theresults for the structural model follow.

Structural model resultsThe structural model and hypotheses were evaluated after attain-ing a validated measurement model. The model (see Figure 2)exhibited adequate fit: v2 (1,135.81); p-value (.01); CFI (.88); IFI(.88); and RMSEA (.09). Both direct and mediated effects werepredicted between exogenous and endogenous variables. Resultsare presented in Table 4.

H1 predicted a positive direct effect between role conflict andemotional exhaustion. H1 was confirmed. The incompatibility ofexpectations associated with a role is positively related to emo-tional exhaustion. Similarly, H2 predicted that role ambiguitywould be positively related to emotional exhaustion. Thishypothesis, however, was not validated.

Hypotheses H3a–c and H4a–b postulated that role stressors andemotional exhaustion would be related to organizational commit-ment. Specifically, H3a predicted that role conflict would be neg-atively associated with organizational commitment. Thishypothesis was supported. Furthermore, H3b proposed that emo-tional exhaustion would be negatively related to organizationalcommitment. H3b was confirmed. H3c predicted mediation. Spe-cifically, H3c suggested that emotional exhaustion would mediatethe relationship between role conflict and organizational commit-ment. In assessing mediation, if the direct effects are significant,then the indirect effect is also significant (Cohen and Cohen1983; Baron and Kenny 1986; Zhao et al. 2010). Both the directeffects between role conflict and emotional exhaustion as well asemotional exhaustion and organizational commitment are signifi-cant; thus, the indirect effect is significant. The Sobel test con-firms partial mediation, z = 3.54, p < .01.

In addition, role ambiguity was proposed to be negativelyrelated to organizational commitment in H4a. Results indicatethat this prediction manifested. H4b predicted another mediatingeffect. Emotional exhaustion was predicted to mediate the rela-tionship between role ambiguity and organizational commitment.This mediating effect was not realized, as no significant directeffect was established between role ambiguity and emotionalexhaustion in H2.

Table 2: Factor loadings for latent variables

Factor loadings

Role conflict Organizationalcommitment

RC1 0.68* OC1 0.90RC2 0.72 OC2 0.72RC3 0.74 OC3 0.71RC4 0.82 Organizational

identificationRC5 0.79 OI1 0.73RC6 0.76 OI2 0.74RC7 0.76 OI3 0.80

Role ambiguity OI4 0.77RA1 0.63* OI5 0.87RA2 0.70RA3 0.92RA4 0.88RA5 0.83

Emotional exhaustionEE1 0.70EE2 0.65*EE3 0.71EE4 0.80EE5 0.88EE6 0.87EE7 0.75EE8 0.75

*Removed to improve fit.

Table 3: Means, standard deviation, reliability, average variance extracted, and Pearson correlations

Means SD Composite reliability Cronbach’s alpha AVE RC RA EE OC OI

Role conflict 3.23 1.63 .90 .91 .57 1.00Role ambiguity 5.27 1.45 .92 .90 .66 0.15 1.00Emotional exhaustion 2.74 1.45 .92 .92 .62 0.78* 0.19 1.00Organizational commitment 4.73 1.65 .90 .89 .68 �0.42* 0.46* �0.45* 1.00Organizational identification 4.51 1.8 .89 .89 .59 �0.33† 0.33† �0.36† 0.73* 1.00

Notes:*Significant at .01 level.†Significant at .05 level.

Take This Job and Shove It 39

H5a-c and H6a-b proposed that roles stressors and emotionalexhaustion would also be associated with organizational identifica-tion. H5a predicted that role conflict would be negatively related toorganizational identification. In the structural model, this relationshipproved to be insignificant; however, H5b predicted that emotionalexhaustion would be negatively related to organizational identifica-tion, which was supported. Furthermore, H5c proposed that emotionalexhaustion would mediate the relationship between role conflict andorganizational identity. This hypothesis was supported with full medi-ation (Cohen and Cohen 1983; Baron and Kenny 1986; Zhao et al.2010). Both the direct effects of role conflict and emotional exhaus-tion as well as emotional exhaustion and organizational identity weresignificant, corroborating a significant indirect effect. Furthermore,the insignificant relationship between role conflict and organizationalidentification in H5a is due to a full mediating effect. The Sobel testconfirms this full mediation, z = 2.61, p < .05.

Next, H6a predicted that role ambiguity would be negativelyassociated with organizational identification. This hypothesis wassupported, as ambiguous work-related tasks may make it difficultfor an employee to develop a strong relationship and sense ofbelongingness to an organization. H6b, which hypothesized thatemotional exhaustion would mediate the relationship betweenrole ambiguity and organizational identification, was not sup-ported, as no significant relationship was established betweenrole ambiguity and emotional exhaustion as aforementioned.

DISCUSSION

Findings and theoretical implications

Professional truck drivers may be subjected to role stressors,which can impact their overall experience with a firm. Findingsfrom this research indicate that role conflict in the professionaltrucking environment is positively related to emotional exhaus-tion. Incompatible expectations that result from role conflict cancreate high levels of distress and anxiety, which can lead to emo-tional exhaustion. In addition, role conflict was found to be nega-tively related to the drivers’ commitment and identification withthe organization. Individuals who are forced to perform in nega-tively charged emotional environments may be less dedicated

and feel less connected to the firm. Furthermore, emotionalexhaustion experienced by truck drivers, mediated the relation-ship between role conflict and organizational commitment as wellas organizational identification.

Results did not support a significant relationship between roleambiguity and emotional exhaustion; however, role ambiguitywas negatively and significantly related to organizational commit-ment and identification. Although previous research has foundthat role ambiguity is associated with emotional exhaustion,results have not been as consistent as those for role conflict andits association with emotional exhaustion. Some researchers havesuggested that moderate levels of role ambiguity may in fact helpindividuals to creatively manage role demands, providing somefreedom to employees to pursue their values (Seyle 1976; Singh1993). Further, role ambiguity was assessed as a global construct.Some researchers (King and King 1990; Singh 1991) have pro-posed that role ambiguity is multifaceted in nature. Singh andRhoads (1991) suggested that there are a number of uncertaintiesin the work environment (related to company, ethics, co workers,managers, and family) that individuals might encounter that caninfluence organizational determinants and job outcomes. Assum-ing a more multidimensional conceptualization of role ambiguitymay have resulted in alternative findings.

In summary, this research underscores how role stressors, suchas role conflict can act as the source of frustration and strain fromwhich a debilitating state like emotional exhaustion develops.Accordingly, role conflict can lead to negative emotional healthexperiences that adversely impact efforts to promote commitmentand collective mind within the organization. Examining role stressand emotional exhaustion in boundary spanning employees is espe-cially warranted, given the high-pressure nature of these positions.

Managerial implications

As noted in this research, professional truck drivers experiencemany challenges during the course of performing their jobswhich can affect their emotional well-being. This suggests thatfirms should consider the psychological well-being of truck driv-ers and implement programs that foster healthy and positiveworking environments. In addition, firms can implement internalmarketing programs to improve driver retention rates.

Table 4: Test of hypotheses

Hypotheses Standardized coefficient Standard error Critical ratio p-value

H1: Role conflict ? Emotional exhaustion .81 .06 12.43 p < .01H2: Role ambiguity ? Emotional exhaustion .05 .03 1.49 p > .05H3a: Role conflict ? Org. commitment �.18 .10 �2.11 p < .05H3b: Emotional exhaustion ? Org. commitment �.31 .11 �2.78 p < .01H3c: Role conflict ? Emotional exhaustion ? Org. commitment SupportedH4a: Role ambiguity ? Org. commitment �.42 .05 �7.79 p < .01H4b: Role ambiguity ? Emotional exhaustion ? Org. commitment Not supportedH5a: Role conflict ? Org. identification �.13 .09 �1.40 p > .05H5b: Emotional exhaustion ? Org. identification �.27 .11 �2.78 p < .01H5c: Role conflict ? Emotional exhaustion ? Org. identification SupportedH6a: Role ambiguity ? Org. identification �.29 .05 �5.71 p < .01H6b: Role ambiguity ? Emotional exhaustion ? Org. identification Not supported

40 E. Kemp et al.

Mitigating emotional exhaustionPhysical fatigue is often cited as a major challenge experienced byprofessional truck drivers; however, this research identifies the vul-nerability of truck drivers to emotional exhaustion. As described inthis research, emotional exhaustion can be a frequent outcome ofrole stressors and can mediate an individual’s commitment andidentification with the firm. Many of the drivers interviewed forthis research provided accounts of major stressors experienced onthe job that could possibly lead to emotional exhaustion. As aresult, in addition to making efforts to reduce role conflict or exces-sive role ambiguity, firms might also help drivers combat emo-tional exhaustion. This might be achieved by providing moredriver home time, facilitating relationships with co workers, con-sulting drivers on delivery and pick-up schedules, providing park-ing, and implementing stress management programs.

Home time: Several of the professional truck drivers inter-viewed indicated that it is not unusual for them to spend fewerthan 5 days at home in a given month. Excessive time on theroad and in the truck can contribute to stress and burnout.Allowing drivers to be home more frequently is important tosubjective well-being. Home time enables drivers to spend moretime with loved ones and to be available for special events, suchas graduations, weddings, and family gatherings. It also givesthem the opportunity to address health issues; given their hecticschedules, it is often difficult for drivers to make appointmentsto receive medical care. More home time also allows drivers“down time,” providing adequate rest before restarting.

Relationships with co workers: Humans are social animals.However, over-the-road truckers often find themselves in isolationwhile performing their jobs. Extensive isolation and lonelinesscan adversely impact stress levels, immunity, and cardiovascularfunctioning. In addition, lonely adults have been found to con-sume more alcohol, get less exercise and sleep, and eat dietshigher in fat (Cacioppo and Patrick 2008).

Establishing relationships with co workers may help driversthwart frequent isolation and loneliness as well as cope with thechallenges of being on the road. Employers can promote activitiesand programs (e.g., picnics or barbecues) that facilitate the devel-opment of collegial relationships among drivers (Williams et al.2011). Once acquaintances are formed, drivers can be encouragedto maintain contact with co workers. If personal contact is notalways feasible, companies can facilitate contact through socialmedia forums (e.g., chat rooms, social communities).

Delivery/pick-ups: Scheduling pressures are commonplace inthe trucking business and have increased considerably due tojust-in-time product processes and the competitive landscape.Many of the drivers interviewed shared how they were oftenrequired to meet demanding scheduling with respect to freightdeliveries and pick-ups. This can create significant stress for thedriver, which may cause him/her to drive when tired and possi-bly violate safety regulations, or experience unnecessary anxi-eties due to occurrences beyond his/her control (e.g., excessivetraffic, inclement weather). Dispatchers often have input withshippers and receivers on when freight is picked up anddelivered. Consulting drivers on reasonable delivery and pick-uptimes could help to reduce a great deal of the stress and fatigueoften experienced by drivers (Adams-Guppy and Guppy 2003).

Parking: Inadequate parking was a problem shared by everydriver interviewed for this research. Finding legal and safe places

to park can be very difficult for the driver and a source of stress.This issue has fostered the creation of “Jason’s Law” (H.R.1803), a provision that would provide federal funding for truckparking facilities. Because parking at truck stops is limited, it iscommon for drivers to continue driving when tired. Nationalcompanies might consider providing more parking for their driv-ers at terminals. This could reduce emotional anxieties and aswell as help combat physical fatigue.

Stress management programs: Companies might also helptruck drivers combat emotional exhaustion by providing preven-tive stress management programs. This might promote cognitiverestructuring, problem-focused coping, relaxation, and exercise toreduce stress (Sime et al. 2007). Companies could provide suchprograms at terminals and possibly give drivers access to mentalhealth professionals while on the road (i.e., via phone or hot-lines). In addition, truck stops might get involved by makingweb-based health-related seminars available to truck drivers forviewing and participation during stops and rest periods. Theseweb-based seminars could focus on managing workflow and cop-ing with life on the road.

Reducing turnoverBecause turnover has been consistently high in the truckingindustry in recent years, firms within the industry might benefitfrom incorporating internal marketing efforts into their strategicoutlooks. Proponents of internal marketing suggest that it shouldbe an ongoing and systematic process that is initiated by seniormanagement (Berry et al. 1976). The drivers interviewed for thisresearch either discussed issues that were major problems at theirfirm that would affect their likelihood to remain with the firm, orthey shared positive initiatives their firm had undertaken, whichcontributed to their overall satisfaction.

Senior management can begin the process of employing inter-nal marketing initiatives to increase driver satisfaction. This mayinclude making efforts to be more attentive and responsive to theneeds of drivers, seeking input from drivers when appropriate onissues that involve them, providing dispatchers with training inhuman relations, implementing reward and recognition programsfor drivers, providing comfortable and safe equipment, and pro-moting a culture of safety.

Senior management: Many of the factors that contribute to dri-ver turnover are directly controllable by management. Top man-agement’s willingness to show support to drivers is a primaryinfluence in turnover and retention decisions (Williams et al.2011). Subsequently, it is important for company leaders to com-municate with drivers and involve them in decision making. Thiscan start with management providing drivers with a clear under-standing of the company’s values and vision. As managementcommunicates openly with drivers, they can solicit feedback fromdrivers when appropriate before implementing policies and proce-dures that will affect them. Such inclusion in organizational deci-sion making has been found to be associated with higher levels ofefficacy and lower levels of exhaustion (Leiter 1991; Lee andAshforth 1993).

Dispatchers: Driver attitudes toward dispatchers have beenshown to influence driver satisfaction and retention (Keller andOzment 1999). Drivers are dependent on the supervisor for thetype of shipment or load they receive. Increasing dispatcher com-petencies, which may include providing dispatchers with supervi-

Take This Job and Shove It 41

sory and human relations training, could increase driver retentionrates. Because dispatchers interact most frequently with drivers,they should endeavor to learn about the drivers—becomingaware of some of their frustrations, preferred freight lanes, howthey like to be contacted (by phone or electronically) as well aswho may need home time. Becoming aware of individual charac-teristics and preferences of drivers can help to foster greatercommitment and identification with the organization.

Reward and recognition programs: Specific internal marketinginitiatives by management might include the implementation ofreward and recognition programs. For example, drivers might beinvited to special events (e.g., breakfasts, dinners) held in theirhonor for exemplary work performance. They might receive recog-nition for safe driving, years of service, overall work performance,and fuel bonuses. Companies might also offer merit-based collegescholarships for the children of drivers. This would communicateto the drivers that the company is caring and family-centric.

Equipment: Comfortable, up-to-date, and reliable equipmentare important components of a driver’s job experience and caninfluence intentions to stay with a firm. Equipment not onlymay include the tractor and trailer, but also electronic on-boardrecorders (EOBRs), computers, and loading and trackingdevices. Providing equipment that operates properly, complieswith safety regulations, and improves the driving experience isparamount.

Safety culture: An organization can set the tone for the impor-tance of safety. A climate that promotes safety communicates tothe driver that the organization cares about the workforce. Orga-nizations should make concerted efforts to keep drivers informedabout new regulation regarding safety and help them prepare forroadside and weigh station inspections. Furthermore, companiesmight provide drivers with tools, such as EOBRs to make themmore compliant or issue weekly messages and tips about safety.A culture of safety is further promulgated by recognizingemployees for safe driving behavior via award banquets andbonuses.

Limitations and future research

Although this research makes important contributions in thestudy of role stressors and emotional exhaustion experienced bytruck drivers, future studies might further assess the role of burn-out in the professional truck driver. In the present research, onlyemotional exhaustion—albeit the most central component ofburnout—was investigated. Future studies might ascertain therelationship between role stressors and the two other componentsof burnout—depersonalization and diminished personal accom-plishments. In embarking on this endeavor, a more multidimen-sional approach to role ambiguity might also be pursued.

Further, additional studies might examine the effectiveness ofmanagement and dispatchers in discerning and identifying emo-tional exhaustion and burnout in employees. For example,assessing the emotional intelligence of dispatchers might be use-ful in learning whether they might be adroit in detecting theburnout syndrome in drivers. Companies might provide trainingfor the individuals within the company who interface directlywith drivers. Such training might include ways in which tocoach and develop effective problem-focused coping skills indrivers.

The work of the professional truck driver is integral to theflow of commerce. Having emotionally healthy and committeddrivers is not only important to the firms that rely on them tomove freight, but also to the public-at-large who depend on themto help make possible the time and place utilities that supplychain and logistics systems provide.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support for this researchfrom the Mark and Dayna Sutton Faculty Support Fund providedby the Sam M. Walton College of Business. Also, special thanksto Travel Centers of America, Big Easy Travel Plaza, MardiGras Truck Stop, and Palace Truck Stop for allowing the authorsto collect data at their facilities.

APPENDIXMEASURES

Role Conflict—Adapted from Rizzo et al. (1970)(7-point Likert)I receive load assignments without the resources to deliver it.*I have to buck a rule or policy in order to deliver a load.I work with two or more departments (e.g., safety and

operations) that operate quite differently.I receive incompatible requests from two or more people within

various departments.I do things that are apt to be acceptable to one person, but not

to another.I receive dispatches without adequate support from the

company.I have to do things the company wants that could be performed

better my way.I spend too much time on unnecessary things.

Role Ambiguity—Rizzo et al. (1970)(7-point Likert and reverse scored)I feel certain about how much authority I have.*Clear, planned goals and objectives exist for my job.I know exactly what my responsibilities are.I know exactly what is expected of me.Explanation is clear of what has to be performed.

Emotional Exhaustion—Adapted from Singh et al. (1994)(7-point Likert)Working with shippers and receivers is really a strain for me.I feel that I am working too hard for shippers and receivers

because they are really demanding.*Working with my dispatcher directly puts heavy-duty stress on me.I feel emotionally drained by the stress my dispatcher puts on me.I feel I work too hard trying to satisfy management in the

company.I feel burned out from trying to meet top management’s

expectations.I feel frustrated because I cannot communicate directly with

upper management about my concerns.The actions of top management upset me.

Continued.

42 E. Kemp et al.

Organizational Commitment—Adapted from Allen andMeyer (1990)(7-point Likert)I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this

company.I feel a strong sense of belonging to this company.I am very committed to the company I work for.

Organizational Identification—Mael and Ashforth (1992)(7-point Likert)When someone criticizes the company I work for, it feels like a

personal insult.I am very interested in what others think about the company I

work for.When I talk about the company that I work for, I usually say

“we” rather than “they.”My company’s successes are my successes.When someone praises my company, it feels like a personal

compliment.If a story in the media criticized my company, I would feel

embarrassment.

* Items removed to improve fit.

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SHORT BIOGRAPHIES

Elyria Kemp (PhD University of Arkansas) is an AssistantProfessor in the Department of Marketing & Logistics in theCollege of Business Administration at the University of NewOrleans.

Steven W. Kopp (PhD Michigan State University) is anAssociate Professor in the Department of Marketing of the SamM. Walton College of Business, University of Arkansas.

Eramus C. Kemp, Jr. is President of Kemp TransportationSystems, Inc., which provides customized local, regional, andlong distance truckload and LTL transportation services.

Take This Job and Shove It 45

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