LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE

HIGH-SCHOOL SCIESCES

FORMERLY SPECIALIST IN U. S. BURF:AU OF EDUCATION

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DEPARTMENT' OF: THE I ,TERIORBUREAU OF EDUCATION

BULLETIN, 1927, No. 22

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CONTENTS,- r PageLetter of transmittal

% vDevelopments in laboratories of high-school sciences , ., . 1Number of laboratories needed 2Waste in laboratory space 2What rocims are necessary for science classes 3Laboratory furniture

., 5Chemistry laboratory7Physics laboratory_ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -. 9Biology laboratory _ _ a J0Genferal science _ _ _ _ _ 11Lincoln SChool special furniture 4

. 14.,--tecture room _ _ ____ _ _

.-Equipment for chemistry4. 4- .. 17Physicq laboratory ,

. 22General equipment_ _ _ 23Physics lecture-room apparatus .

,24List of physics apparatus and equipmeni

_ 25Biology laboratory .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ t 27equipmentLaboratory for biology ___ _ _ .. 28Laboratory, equipmen'tfor general science A , __ 29

%Cost of apparatus equipment supplies 31.

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FIGUREtS.

Page1. Physics laboratory, Lin.coln School of Teachers College, *ColumbiaUniVersity, New York42. Chemistry laboratort. Jenkintown High School,.Pennsylvania__-_. 83. Physics laboratory, Kewatin High School, New York 104. Physics laboratory, J. Sterling Morton High School, Chicago, Ill 105, BiologyMaboratory, Fairport High School, New York, 116. General science laboratory, John Burroughs Schtol, St. Louis, Mo__ _ 137. Physics laboratory, Lincolri School of Teachers College, Columbia'iiversity, New York

158. Phy5ics laboratory, Princeton Tqwnship High School, Illinois 16I. Demonstration and' lectpre room, Cortland State Normal *School,New York1710. Lecture room, J. Sterling Morton High School, Chicago, Ill 1811. Chernistry. and plhysics laboratory, Public High School, Swedesboro,18 )22la, Biology laboratory, Cortland State Normal Scllool, New .York - 27

N. J12. Physics laboratoryyltochester High School, New York

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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

DEPARTMENT ,OF THE INTERIOR,BUREAU OF EDUCATION,

Washington, D. C., August 13, 1987.wSIR: Demand is frequently made upon this -bureau for practical

information relating to equipment and supplies for teaching sciencein smIll high schools. _ Knowing that MI% A. C. Monahan, formerlya specialist in the Bureau c;f Educatiqn, has recently given specialattention to this subject, I aslied him to prepare a manuscript con-taining facts for which the need is often expressed. He has compliedwith my requpst, and his production is submitted herewitli. Mr.Monahan sets forth the results cif recent experiende in the develop-ment of modern laboratories in apparatus, andfurniture*4equipment,supplies. The lists presented are modest and contain much less thanis vsually supplied in large city high schools, but they are sufficientlyinclusive to cover the requirements of all the States which havefixed definite standards of laboratories and equipment for accreditingscience courses.

I recommend that this manuscript be published as a bulletin ofthe Bureau pf Education.

Respectfully iubmitted.AJNo.s J. TIGERT

Commissioner.The SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

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Laboratory Layouts for-the High-School Sciences

Laboratories for science courses have been for several decadesnecessary parts of every school teaching these sciences. Devel-opments in the typs of laboratories and in their equipment havebeen constant. Subjects and courses" and methácis have varied muchin different parts of the country. Now, however, there seemp to- beapore nearly uniform idea of what, is necessary than ever before.-This bulletin is a brief survey of the necessáry equipment to teachthe high-school sciences according to generally accepted standards.

Reviewing briefly the subjects taught as high-school sciences, it isfound that in the past three decades, for instance, the list iitcluOesastronomy, physics, chemistry,'physical geography, zoology, botany,biology, geology, general scieneeL physiology, hygiene and sanitation;household econoniics, ind agriculture.n 1895, of all students enrolled'in fril hi h-school subjects, approxi-

mately 65 per cent were enrolled in ci ce subjects, not:incudinglthose in physiology, hygiene and sanit ion, household. science, andagriculture. ThiS figure must be interpreted in terms of the aggregate,enrollment. High-school students- are ordinarily enrolled in fout orfive subjects; the aggregate enrollment therefore is more than 400and less than 500 per cent of the actual number of different pupilsenrolled.

. The 'students enrolled ids science- stibjects in I922 constitutedapproximately 53, per cent of the students in all high-school subjeCts.However,the decrease has been: in the " book " subjects and not inthe "laboratory " subjects. Physical geography, astronomy, andgeology have almòst disappeared from the curriculum. Zoology andbotany are giving place to biology, and physiology to hygiene andsanitation. The sciences of agriculture and household economy havecome into the curriculum, ind general science is fast becoming thefirst-year sUbject.

. In fact, it seems safe fo 'say thai..four subjects now dominate, andthat the majority of high schools -with fotir years of scienzes. are nowgiving general science in the first year, bioloEv in the second; and

In the preparation of this bulletin nib authbr bas had the cooperation and active assistance of well-known science istructora, Dr. Nell Gordon, University of- Maryland, and editor Chemical EducationProf. !tali R. Glenn, 'head science *departm en t, Lincoln School, Teachers College. Columbia University,N. Y.; Louis T. Mattern, McKinley High School, Washington, D.C., and chairman of laboratory con]-, mittee of the American Chemical Society; Francis M. Crowley, Director Bureau of Education of theNational Catholic Welfare ConferenCe; C. G. CWmpbell, of Kewanee, Wis.; 8. L. Redmanf of Chicago1114 and others.

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2 LABORATORY. LAYOUTS FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL S6IENCESo

physics and chemistry in either order in tilt.) third and fourth.Hygiene and sanitation, agriculture and domestic science often replacethe general- sCience or biology, but perhaps more often parallel themas special subjects for those interested in them both as pure sciencesand for practical purposes.

For the purpose of this bulletin, lqboratory and equipment for thesefour universal subjects are included. The scientific laboratory *workin agriculture, domestic science, and hygiene and sanitation will in

practically all cases be carried out iii the chemistry, physics, or biol.*off laboratoiy. Practical work requires vocational rooms and equip-ment. Their equipment is not included in .thit; publication. ,

Number of Laboratories Needed

Very few high schools need more than a single laboratory for each-of the four principal high-school science subjects: Chemistry, physics,biology, and getneril. science. In all but very large schools the gen-eral science classes may well use the other laboratories, particularlythe bioloky laboratory. Smaller schools often use a single laboratory_for physics and chemistry, and another laboratory for biology and t'

general science. In the smaller%schools where there are but three or

four classes in all sciences altogether, a single laboratory for all will'suffice, provided it is evipped with special furniture for studentdesks, and *Rh sufficient cabinet and storage room, and apparatus,equipment, and supplies.

Waste in Laboratory Space

Studies made in many high schools show that few laboratories are

used to their capacity. Dr. P. C. Parker made a'recent study ineighL cosmopolitan high schookA.New York City. His results are

given in a bulletin published by Teachers College, Columbia Univer-sikv, Housing of High-School Programs. Doctor Parker found inthe eight high schools chemistry laboratories with it total capacity of

4,350 studepts, but with a total enrolimint of 1,787 students or 41

per cent of the capacity. Physics laboratories in the eight szhools hada capacity of 3,010 pupils and an enrollment of 863, or 29 per cent.The biological laboratories were dsed 56 per cent of their capacity.In other words, the chemistry laboratories were idle 59 per cent of

the time; physics laboratories. , 71 per cent; and the biological labora-tories, 44 per ant.

This waste is particu1ar13i noticeable in smaller schools. A recent .

study, made from statistics of the United States Bureau of Educationand otlifirst shows that bétiveen 80 and 85 per cent of -all public WOschools have:but one instrtictor in the sciences, or the equivalent of

...but one full-time instructor. This means that not over 'tine scien,

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LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE, HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES 3class is or need he at work at any one time and therefore that notmore than a Hingk laboratory is' or heed be in use at one time. Qpthe days when science class& are scheduled for classroom recitation'sand for lecture demonstration the laboratories-iri most cases are notin use at all. For all of these one-science-teacher schools a singlelaboratory, skcially equipped, is sufficient anti is a considerable.economy in space and in building costs.

What Ro&ns Are Necessary For Science Classes

Seiencé courses- include, of couri3e, Woth Jaboratory exercises per-by the pupils themselves, and classroom demonstrations by.

the instruector; also recitations. Provision must tie made, therefore,tor a place for recitations which may also be used for demonstrationsby the instructor.. In general science and biology the laboratoriesthemselves are usually used, pupils remaining seated at their worktables. This Is possible because Iork tables for these subjeets are

of the saine height as .0rdinary laboratory tables.In physies and chemistry laboratories, with the ordinary type of

desks used, this plan can not he followed, as Lhe tables are not suitedfor pupils to sit at in comfort. Three plans. arò followed: .(1)separate demonstration -and recitation *room is provided especialkxequipped for demonstration work, (kit) for physics and ouch for chem-istry in the very large schools, but in others a sine() lecture roaimusually placed between. the chemisiry and physics laborafories and

4madeused for both classes; (2) laboratories are largo enough so that,

space at. one end may be fitted with !t* lecture table`and students'tablet, armchairs;; (3) special furniture is used, of a newer type thanthe customary chemistry dests -and physics tables, which perniits4

work both standing and sitting and which may be used comfortablyby pupils whim watching a demonstration or engaged in a recitatiofi.

The separate demonstration arid recitation room ha;much to cft9m-mend it, and certain poifits which are not of ail educational advan-tage. When placed as stated above, with the supply minus of thetwo laboratories 'adjacent to it, one oh either gide, equTpment andapparatus are convenient to the instructor. The lectnre roam itselfmay be equipped with certain permanent apparatus, suCh as a steré-opticon lantern, shades to cover the windows and darken the roomfor expeiiments in light, etc, The seating capacity should be doubleor triple that of any laboratory at any one time, so that two or three

,laboratory*divisions may be conibined for special ,demOnstrations.Such a lecture room is convenient but is 'ail expensive room, not

'only .becaue of the space occupied .Init'becfluse used relat¡vely littleof the time. Studies show that with this ariatigememt e teal'.ieroom, M usually; .vItcant from 50 to 75 per" cent of the hours dihoolslire in session.

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4 06 LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCYS

. Classrocim space in each laboratOry is a decided educationaLadVan.:tage because of the convenience.' The instructor may stop individualwork at any time and assemble his class for instruction or demonstra-tion. He also has ; place available where the more' rapid students,when they have completed their experiments, may sit and write uptheir notes or study, out of the way of others who Are waking andstill under his. obserVation. kseprincipal disadvantage is again thewaste of space and also the acksiiy of duplicating certain% pieces ofapparatus used in both chemistpy and physics. With this arrange-ment each laboratory requires from 25 to 35 per cent tvoir floor spatethan under ihe third arrangement mentioned

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By the use of especially designed furniture for physics and chem-istry found satisfact9ry during the past half-dozen years., the students'work desks may be used for s'eated work, and the separate lecture-

r room or classroom space at the _end of die laboratory omitted. The-only additional space required over that necessary in the ordinarylaboratory is enough for 'an idstructor's demonstration table. This

..means usually a room froM 6 to 8 feet longer than ;;7oti1d be require&otherwise. Details of this plan are giyen later. TO Lincoln Schoolöf Tefichers College, Cmlumbia University, is equipped *with such fur-nituTe. One of its laboratories, which is also a demonstration mop,is illustrated in Figure 1.

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Laboratory Furniture

There are certain features of laboratory fUrniture commdn to alllaboratories. ;.

*,The t'urniture must well constructed, and its construction in,- -

velves many points not understood by anyone except those who haivemade a 'special study of the Subject.. It must be remem4red thatlaboratory furniture is subject to Inlusual haid upge.

In kactice (1) furniture is obtained from factories specializing inlaboratory furniture as i contract ieparate from iie building contract*but p-urc,itased-from the general building fund, oi .(2) it iildesigaed bythe school architect, and included in the generar contract fo be builtby tbe contractor or by suck millwork shop or cabinet shop as hemay srlect.

Thti- first method is the one to lie recommended. The "Aix .oreight laboratory furniture manufactureN spetializing in this product.are able to produce a much better-product than can be produced byothers at a like cost. Their furniture 'is made hSt experts whose ex-perience over 34ars determines what is best in design, material, andconstruction; It 'must be remembered That the furniture in theschool laboratory is _subjected to _many severe destroying agende-rapid arid extensive changes in temperature and 40'111.014, andalso.difect water damage from spilled water on tops and sides; actionof aeids, aIkaLiei, and chemical forties of all soils; rough stuOentusage from standing pupils, paliticularly severe do cupboard .doors,drawers, etc. Sinks and plumbing and drain pipes are airsubjectedto direct, action of acids and other diemical ri;agenfr dischargedthrough them... Ilaboratory experts undersfand all these pioblettisand insure aptinst them so far as posisible. Building contractors andcAbinetmakers, or furnitUre makers from whom they inight obtainthem, do not. In fact very few architects understandthem or evilrealize- that the laboratory- preseqt.s furniture problems any differentfrom the ordinary classroom.

When the architect's geneial, plans for the ipilding are completed,the furnittfre should be selected. The details for Alumbins thatthen be determined upon, and \floor lines for water, gas, electricity,

'and 'drainage, and for air pressure, hydrogen sulphide, and otheraccessories whet( desfrok may. be properly prouided for. Also, theartiftcial lighting may be placed to the greatest adVantage. All Cofthese details are best worked out by; labóratory engineers, their planabeing incorkrated by the architects in their fipal drawings. Sucheigineering -service is aVailable from the better manuficturers oflaboratory furniture usttalbr without eXpense to the sehool board or

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Genetal,.*cificaiions of Laboratort Furrure

The laboratory desks for students and instructor to be durableshould be cabinet made of hdrdwood, oak ito be preferred exce¡It.fortops. Metal 'cabinets "seem lo be subject to deterioration citechemical..fumes The wood must be selected and dried as for anyother good furnitur,i. Ply wood for panels, partitions, rears, anddrawer bottoms should 13$:1 used to lessen the dangers of splitting.The entire interiors should be varnished to.prevent the absorptionof water. The outside should be filled, stained, and varnishedinharmony with the woodwork of the laboratory. From 3 to 4 coatsof the best varnish is necessary t ) withstAnd the peculiar destructiveagencies in the laboratory.

Laboratory tops in chemistry are usually wool or soapstone.Occasionally tile, glass, slate, composition board, or eriamel ware areusid, but experienced school and college men prefec the well-madewood tops or the soapstone.. In physics, biology, and general scienceivood tops are used almost exclusively.

The wood tops which seem to be most satisfactory are made ofs3or 4 ilich str¡ps of hard birh -together with a glued tongued-and-grooved joint. Such tops are from 1M to 2 inches in thickness andare made by the be§t manufacturers in one piece up to 36 feet inlength. These are practically nonwarping and give rigidity to besecured in no other way. These tops are planed and sanded to asmooth surface, treated on the underside with a moisture .and acid-resiSting lead paint, and on the top with a standard id-resistingtreatment which leaves them with a black, velvety nish.2 By

'SOLUTION NO. 1

Black acid-proof finish

1% lbs. copper sulphate.14 lbs. chlorate potassium.2 gals. rain water, and boil until dissolved.

Always apply this solution hot.

SOLUTION NO. 2

Black acid-proof finish

3 qts. hydrochloriC acid.1 qt. aniline oil.2 gals. rain water, and mix.Add 4 pint of solution No. I to this solution to make a better black stain.

Always apply this solution cold.

, Directions for applying acid-proof solution-

Apply solution No. 1 hot, with a stove brush. Heat solution' by steam or hot water, not OM afire.

Let dry about 4 or 5 hods, then apl)ly solution No. 2 cold and let dry for about 0 hours. Then apply.solution No. 1, hot again,,and let dry 0 hours. Then apply solustios No. 2, cold again. Let this dry for10 hours. 6i1 the tops with half naphtha and haleboiled linseed oil and let dry for 3 hours. Thenscrape with a stiel scraper, taking care not to cut through to show the white wood. Then rub with steelwool. Then fond smooth with fine sandpaper. Then apply prepared paraffin with a brush, hot, andrub off with sea moss or raga.

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LABORATbRY LAYOUTS FOR THE ZlIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES

weekly washing witb soap and Water and by oiling3 two,or ,threetimes a year, these tops retain their clean, finished appeaiance foremany years.

Soapstone tope are Made of sawed and honed storm slabs 1% inchesthick and up tct 6 feet in length: Care must be taken to select stonewitiout calcide streakt, which .Would disintegrate rapidly fop acids;also y in topsom strictures which. may result cracking with any set-thn tilere may be in the building. Joints between slabs are madewater-tight with litharge and pure glycerine cenint, which Oust berenewed every few Years. Center troughs for drainage are usuallyof wood,'lead-lined, with burned joints, so that there will be nosolder for acid action. This trough, if heavy lead is used, will proveas perinanent as the building. Soapstone troughs are also used.Joints iimk3it be watched and cemerrted as soon as leakage takes plioe.

Great care must be taken in the cabinetgork. Drawers 'willstiCk unless made wiph the peculiar conditions of the laboratory inmind. Cupboard doors will soon Crack and break from hard usage bystanding students unless exceedingly well made. The space alongthe front of the desks prevents the Marking of the furniture fromboots and shoés . aiid at the same time permits the student tti standclose to the desk. r

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Sinks are chemical stoneware or soapstone. Enamel is sometimesused But is not very 'satisfactory. In the chemistry laboratory, inaddition to the sinks on the desks, one wall sink should he piovided.This, shouldthave a faucet 3 to 4 (pet above the bottom of the sinkto faCilitate washing glass tubes, burettes, etc. .

Hardware and plumbing fixtures in the laboratory require specialcare in tile, sel&tion becarse of the severe effects on them of chem-ical fumes. As little metal as possible should he used in laboratoryfixtures. Fittings should be of a high-grade red-metal, triple nickel-platO. Brass is used but does not resist the action of chemicalfumes so well as red-metal. Brass is satisfactory;however, for hingesfor doorfrand for locks. All piping for water, electricity, and air,should he heavily galvanized iron. Gas pipe should be black iron.hints must be made with particular care, using a deep 'thread andthe.best red lead or other standard joint compound, All drain pipingshould be of pure lead pipe of a heavy weight, with all joints burnedinstead of soldered.

Chemistry Laboratory

One-year High- School Course

There is no special size that the chemical laboratory mtíst be, exCeptto 6e lorge enough to furnish space for students' desks so that eachstudent:411 have working spare, and for the additional aequipment,I A InIzturtof 1 part Honed oitand i part turpentinegives exoelleut results for this piupose.

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including fume 'hoods, balance tables, and cabinets for apparatus.From 25 to 40 square feet per student is recommended by variousauthorities.

The size is determined largely by the number of pupils to be accom-modated in the laboratory at one time. Common practice- deter-

lies that not over 24 pupils may work in the laboratory at the same

tiffie under the supervision of a single instructor without neglect of

the individual needs. Thirty pupils to the class is not an uncommonpractice, although it makes a larger group than is desirable. In

larger schools, where an assistant instructor is available, laboratoriesfor 40 to 60 pupils ard satisfactory.

FIGURE 2.-CHEMISTRY LABORATORY, JLNKINTOWN (PA.) HIGH SCHOOL

For a class of 24 pupils, the .room to he used as a laboratoryonly, the standard classroom 22 or 24 feet by 32 feet may be usid,although a room -38 feet in length is very desirable. This permitsthe use of three double student tables each 3 feet high, 12 feet is

length, and 4 feet wide, placed crosswise with the room.This gives the best arrangement for lighting and gives ample

room on theinner wall for cabinets, balance shelves, and runic hoods.

Of course such a laboratory may be used by two classes of 24 pupa'each day, or if extra storage space is provided t6 the drawers and

closets in the desk, a third. class may use the room. Figure 2 is

photograph of a standard 12-foot desk for accomisodating 16 students

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LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE HIGH-SCIIOOL SCIENCES 9in two sections. Each -student has a cupboard, one large and onesmall drawer. A trough runs the length of the desk to the end sink.Water, gas, and electricity are provided in open plumbing under-neath the lower seagent bottle shelf. A similar desk is often used,but with two center sinks and concealed plumbing. Many varia-tions of these two forms are found in different schools.

The number of chemical fume hoods for the high-school laboratorydepends to a large measure on the general ventilation system of thebuilding and the room itself. If the building has a good system ofsupplying fresh air, and a gravity or plenum exlaust system for theremoval of4impure air, one 6-foot hood is sufficient. If the room hispoor ventilation, additional work must be done under hoods, and two6-foot, hoods are d sirable. These hoods are connected to a. chimney,and draft is assisted by gas burnfTs in the upper part of the hoodor, better, by electric exhaust fans.

One balance shelf or table, 8 feet long and 24 inches wide, is suffi-cient fot the high-school laboratory. Cabinets must be providedfor the storage of apParatus and chemicals unless a supply room isprovided.

Physics Laoratory

Aluch of what, has been said relative to the cheinistry laboratoryapplies to the physic's laboratory. For a class of 24 there should beprovided 6 tables approximately 30 inches high and 6 by 3A feetin size, each for; four students. Some instructors prefer 12 or 18 or24 foot tables for 8, 12, or 16 students, respectively. The majorityseem to prefer the 6-foot tables, its each student has a corner to him-self and may work front the side or the èna. Figure 3 shows an ordi-nary type. The wbodwork is of oak, the top of built-up birch, with anacid-resisting fiiiish. Instead of wood uprights and crossbars, manyprefer metal uprights which screw into ¡limb plates set in the surfaceof the table and with either wood or metal crossbar. This is illus-.trated in Figure 4.

Physics tables are usually equipped with gas and electricity. Out-lets are oh the side in the end rails, so that the tops are clear.Electrical outlets should be inclosed in an iron box, as required bythe National Electric Code. No sinks are required° on the tables,but the laboratory iihmild have two wall sinks, at opposite ends ofthe room, if poissible. Tho physics laboratory must be equipptdwith cabinets for apparatus and supplies, unlAss a convenient sto.iageroom is provided.

Biology Laboratot:

For biology, tables of the ordinar3i desk height (30 inches) arerequired, as most of the work is done sitting down. 'Tables may be6,9,or 12 feet in length and arranged for student') 'on oneside or on both

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FIGURE 3.-PHYSICS LABORAT9RY. KEWATIN (N. Y.) HIGH SCHOOL

FIGURE 4.-PHYSICS LABORATORY, J. STERLING MORTON HIGH SCHOOL,.CHICAGO, ILL.

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sides. Rh. 24 students, 6 tables approximately 12 by 2 feet are irerysatisfactory, or 4 tables 18 feet long make a good arrangement. Fig-ure 5 shows a laboratory with these 18-foot tables.

The laboratory should be equipped with an aquarium havingplate-glass sides, with a museum case for the display of specimens, agerminating bed for planting specimens and watching the develop-

, ment of plant growth, a case for the storage of microscopes and acabinet for other apparatus. Chemicals should never be stored withmicroscopes or other apparatus in the same case in any laboratory.

FIGURE 5.BIOLOGY LABORATORY, FAIRPORT (N.Y.) HIGH SCHOOL

General Science

There is les's general agreement among educators relative to thegeneral-science laboratory and what equipment it should hare. Thisis because of the great variety of subject matter included in text-books and courses in general,science, and to the different viewpointsof various authorities. Thè consensus of opinion i§ well summarizedin the repnrt of the Commission on the Reorganization of SecondaryEducation. The following is quoted from the report of its subcom-mittee on science: 3

This intrOductory course in science is not a substitute for any one of thespecial sciences, -but should provide a basis for discovery of interest hi Specialsciences and of voCational opportunity, It should prove to be the be4t trainingfor any pupils who can take only one course in science in high schools.

Reory3nIzatIon of Science In Secondary Schools. Bull., 1920, No.28, e. flu. of Eden.53337-27-3

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Sdection and organization of subject matter.The stibject matter of general.science should be selected to a large extent frerm the environment. Science isuniversal and constant in the life of our citizens; mild hence to be useful to allpupils, general science must accept the science of common things as its legitimatefield. The Science of common use and that of the classroom should be the same.General science should use any phase of any special science which is pertinentIn the citizen's interpretatiOn of a worth-while problem.

The particular units of study should be those that truly interest the pupils.Interest not only secures productive attention but is an evidence of attention.To be substantial educationally, interest must rest upon a sense of value, anevident worthwhileneis in the topics considered.

No topic should be selected which is nieagre in content or lacking in significantproblems. The range of material which can be used is in reality limited onl$,by the capacity, experieilces, and needs of the pupils. The materials should beconcrete and capable of leading to many avenues of new and untried experience&

Another thought relative to general sciences should be kept inmind, as it has much influence on the course and on the laboratoryequiriment needed. Genral-scierice courses are given usually in thejunior high school or in the first year of the regular four-year highschool. This means that t6 boys and girlsin general science classesarc in their adolescent years when they turn from bookish knowredgeto practical thingsnd crave physical activities. General science is,therefore, found Ó be an excellent study -for these ages when taughtthrough the laboratory and project method. It takes its place, withmanual training and industrial arts, as an outlet for physicalactivities. it satisfies the " practical " turn of mind on tile part ofthe pupils by giving them the opportunity of making practical useof iheir arithmetic, geography, and ability to read. Educators arefast coming to the opinion that general science fulfills a long-feltneed in the curriculum when taught, not as a textbook subject noras a demonstration subject by the instructor, but as a laboraiorysubject with individual work by each student in _the school laboratoryand on the outside project.

In the four-year high schjol where the chemistry, physics, andbiology laboratories are not in full use, they may be used for general_science, the biology laboratory möstly, but the physics and chemistryas needed. Where the school uses these three laboratories full timefor the work for which, primarily intended, a separate general-sciencelaboratory;must be provided, and often twc laboratories. This isbecause the school with enough pupils t6 use its chemistry, physics,and biology laboratories full time or nearly full time, will ordinarilyhave móre pupils in general sciences than can be sared for.in onelaboratory. General science, it must be remembered, ia usually afirst-year subject in the secondary school curriculum, and the enroll-ment in this subject will be nearly twice the enrollment in a fourth-year subject, such as chemistry.

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LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES 13

The general-science laboratory should be fitted with student ctesks30 inches high, similar to those in the biology laboratory. A demon-stration table for the instructor and chairs fór pupils should be pro-vided so that the classroom recitations and demonstrations may beheld in the same room, with the pupils sitting at their worktables.Two kinds of tables give sadsfaction, the long, double table withpupils working on both sides facing each other,. or the narrow tableswith students working on one side only and all facing the same direc-tion. This latter is preferred by most instructors. With the widertables the instructor's desk must be at the end of the p4ils' tables,so that pupiLs may turn half facing the instructor when desired.

FIGURE 6.-GENERAL SCIENCE LABORATORY, JOHN BUROOUGH'S SCHOOL,ST. 'LOUIS, MO.

This arrangement should be avoided if possible. With the narrowtables the instructor's desk is in the end of the room, faced by allpupils at all times. (See fig. 6.)

For a class of 24 in one section, three 12-foot double tables orF2400t single tables are necessary. Each table should be equippedwith gas. The double tables are 36 inches wide, the single tables 24inches.

The instructor's desk should be approximately 8 feet in lengt:h and3 feet in width, with cupboard and drawers and an acid-resistingmonwarping top. It should be equipped with gas, water4 electricity,a sink approxiMately 2Q inches by 20 inches by 12 inches, with a

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14 LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES

cover fitting flush with the AO of the table. It should have flush!!plates for fitting uprights to hold a crossbar as in physics tables.

In addition the general-science laboratory should have an aquitiumsimilar to that of the biology laboratory and a germinating bed forwork in plant life, gelt fgr the latter purpose is a water-tight box4 inches deep, 2 feet wide, and from 4 to 8 feet in length.:: It ismounted Cin a frame with legs 2 feet high and fitted with doubleroller swivel tastors. Cabinets for specimens, and also for appara-tus, chemicars, atid other equipment are necessary unless a storageroom is provided.

Lincoln School Spec' ¡al Furniture'7

The Lincoln School of Teachers College, Columbia ITiverlity, hasbeen referred to as an example of a secondary school equipped to useall or its laboratories for both individual and demonstration -work.It is equipped with -special furniture, mentioned previously, whichmakies this possible. This was designéd by the director and theinstructor in sciences after several.years of ekperience and study,

For dual use undek. this plan, the chemistry and physics laboratoriesmust be slightly greater in length to accommodate the instruitor'sdemonstration table-6 to 8 feet additional is sufficient. This is lessthan one-half the space needed in the rather common arrangementWhere one end of the laboratory is used for classroom purpo4es, andvery much less space ,than required when a special lecture room is

provided.In the Lincoln School the laboratories for physics and chemistry

each provide space for 24 pupils. Each table is made up of T-shapedunits, each tinit for two students with one sink in common. All

students face the 'instructor's desk. The floor plans shown on page 15

and the view of the physics desk on page 4 indicate the ge.neraifeatures of the desk.- The chairs for the pupils are placed under theends of the wings of the t4ble when not in use b'y the pupils.

Apart from the shape, these tables differ from other forms prin-cipally in height. They are 33 inches high, 3 inches higher thanordinary library tables, and 3 inches lower than other chemistry

jr4bles. The height has proven satisfactory for standing pupils, and

is satisfactory for sitting pupils when a speciál chair, designed téaccompany the furniture, is used. This chair is 2 inches higher thanthe ordinary Chair and is equipped with a rail 2 inches wide i the

front legs on which the student's feet may find test and support.Many high schools throughout the country are usihg similar tables

for both chemistry ana physics. This is a simple arrarikementopiá:vided cupboard and drawer and cabinet space is arranged for the

extra apparatus. The chemistry reagents used by _the puPils are in

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bottles in a tray instead of on a shelf. Th.se tiays äre placed 14the pupils insiclq the desk when not In use, or in some schools on wallor cabinei shelves. The tables, when used for both subjects, art

. fitted with flush plates, so that uprights and crossbars may be used.The advantage* of the use' of this furniture ate summarized by

Dr. Oiis W. Caldwell, director of the Lincoln Scilool, as follows:A. The science work can be done by the student in obe room and in one place.

. B. Students face the instructor all the time.C.. The desks provide for comfortable work in a standing or sitting position

Students may write notes, make drawings, or reference reading, perform labors-tory experiments or observe demonstrations by the iustructor without movingfrom their places.

a,FIGURE 8.PHYSICS LABORAYORY, PRINCETON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL.

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instructor may giVe demonstrations, quizzes, direct reference work andhold c discussion in the same room at any timp duringthe science period,thus elimi ; ting fixed laboratory and demonstration Schedules.

E. Inst ctor can see any student in tile entire classffrom any location in the- room, whi - allows better laboratory control, at the same time. the pupils'wher.

ever seated can see demonstrations by the instructor on his desk.F. AppAratus is stosed where tised, and individual storage spaces for students

are provided.G. The instructor's labor is reduced by concebtrating all tools, rnateriáls, and

equipment in a much smaller floor space than is usual in the design requiringseparate fecture room and laboratory.

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Lechire Room

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"When necessary to provide a recitation and demonstration roomseparate from the chemistry and physics laboratory. it should be -equipped with an- 8 or 12400t instructor's table, and with studentchairs which .permit easy writing of notes. Arm-table chairs aresatisfactory.

The instructor's table should have sufficient cupboard and drawerspace for equipment and should have an acid-resisting wood top.The table should be provided with water, gas, and electricity, andshould have a large sink with a flush -cover. In the better-equippedschools, lecture tables are. supplied with hot as well as cold water,both alternating current and direct current, aild other accessories. .

Rush platis and uprights and crossbars are`also provided.

FIGURE 9.-DEMONSTRAVICkN AND LECTURE ROOM, CORTLANO- STATE NORMAL4 SCHOOL PEW YORK . I.

quiistion is often raised relative to the floor of the lecture room;. whether it should be flat or terraced as in an amphitheater.. If theroomis to be used only for climes of the ordinary size, or fôr two orthree sectimis Ctimbined, the flat floor is satisfactory, and the increased

°omit of the construction of raised platforms is avoided.The lecture and demonstration room should be provided with

shades, so that it may.be darkened, a good stereopticon lanOim anopaque, projector, and a scrébit on a roller at the front of the room.

Equipment for Chemistry

Three kinds of apparatus are required: (1) General apparatus forOA demonstration And laboratory use of pupils and instrustors; (2)BPecial demonstration' apparatus for class demonstration§ by the

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FIGIUR)E I0.-LECTURE ROOM. j:k STERLING MORTON HIGH SCHOOL CHICAGO, ILL

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instructor only; (3) individual ssturient tipparatui. *In addition,. asupply of chemicals is needed for Ftudenti and instruftor and extrareserVes of glass and, othêr destiuctible equipment kr replacements.lists .of All three are given below. Special mention, is made of slew.of the important pieces..

Balances.Ono analytical balance is sufficient for most high-schoollaboratories. In addition, one to thN accurate balances of the triple-beam type sliould he provided, depending upon the size of the school.The trip -scales the list will be used for all rough work.

Distilled water is essential in the laboratory. Satisfactory. auto-matic stills may he obtained for' from $25 up. For.the small school,9W-contained stills for use on hot plates may.be Obtained for $15.

Gas is also essential for the best work. If public gas is not avail-able, a private gaqinaking nuichine should be installed or compressedps.stored in cylindeN used. The cost is. from $200 uliward. Forschools that can riot afford this, alcohol lamps must br. sup\pie-minted by special gasoline torches. If electriciiy is available, verysatisfactory rea.ults may 'be obtained with specially arranged electricheaters, which will serve all purposes .except bending and blowingglassware, for which a grsqline torch may be used.

One gasoline bloWtorch or a blast lamp with foot bellows (or 6therseurte of ;1ir pressure) for use with city gas is desirsble.

Drying oven and water bath are yery desirable. "They.liu4 be heatedby electricity or gas. Coinplicated and' expensive types are not

aeede41 for elementary courses such as are iticluded in the high-schoolcurriculum.

A gas generator for hydrogen *sulphide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide,ad other gases should be in any well-equipped laboratory. A simpleform in glass may be obtaified for a few dollars; others in stonewareand metal cost from $20 to $100.

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT FOR FIR8T-I'EAR CIIEMIHTRYLIST DE8K APPARATUS (roa 21 STUDEN-.18)

Ilalcohol lamps, 4 or. (or Winton burners).bloorpriastiess, Inches.

72reigentt4xVies, No. 10s, for ammonlan hy**ride.

Ureagent bottles, No. 106, (or -hydrochloric acid.litesient bottles, N. 104, for nitric grid.Maim bottles, No. 111. for imam hydroxide.tireagent bottles, No. 102, fiNi sulphuric acid.Il kettle clamps.liewcibta tongs. tkp491113derik plain, 2 by 12 Incbes.

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24 deflagration spoons, iron.24 files, round, 4 inches.24 Ales, triangular, 5 inches.24 ¡maze squares, iron, iishestoet milers, 5 inches.24 mortars, with prfilies, porcelain, MI thin.

InleuWalie (rotten, galvanised imam iron.24 ring:stands, 2 ring,24 Bawl baths, shallow, 4 inches.24 test. tube racks.24 tripods:

Approilmate cost, 2140.

APPARATUS (FOR 24 STUDENTS)

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llasbastos aborts, 3 by 6 incite.. 48 bottles, wideinoutbed. 2ot.31 bakers, MO cc. 72 batiks, wideinouthed. II oz.'neaten, 260 oe.1

34 burettes, soft..Rinker., 400.m. 34 cobalt glass plates, AO nun. by a msne

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24 crucibles, porcelain, No. O.24 dishes, evaporating; porcelain, 75 mm. No. 00A24 flasks, 250 cc.24 flasks Erlenmeyer, 125 cc.24 funnels, 75 mm.24 gasometers, 50 cc.72 glass plates, 10 by 10 cm.24 graduates, cylindrical, 25 cc.24 pipestem triangles, 2 inches.24 pinchcocks, screw compressor.24 rubber stoppers, 1 hole No. 1.24 rubber stoppers, 1 hole No. 5.24 rubber stoppers, 1 hole No. 4.

LIST CAPPARATUS

24 aprons, rubber.3 balances, trip scales, agate beatings.3 sets weights, 'Iron, on bolder, 10400 g.

hand balances, improved.6 sets weights, in blocks, 1 ctg.-20 g.

I. 48 bottles, wide-mouth, glass stoppers, 4 oz.12 calcium chloride tubes, 6 inches.12 combustion tubes, 45 by 1.9 cm.

lit 12 cembustion boats, porcelain, 60 by 10 by 10 mm.12 condensers, Liebig, 15 inch.12 condenser clamps.12 condenser clamp holders.

' 3 sq ft. copper sheet, No. 30.'13 spis. copper wire, bare, No. 28, 4 oz.3 pkg. corks, asstd. 0-11 (144).3 cork borers, (6 in set).12 pkg. filter paper, 11 cm.3 pkg. filter paper, 20 cm.3 funnels, 125 mm,

AND

24 rubber sloppiest 1 hole Nb. 8.24 rubber stoppers, 2 hole No. 4.24 rubber stoppers, 2 hole No. 8.24 rulers, Eng. and met., 12 inches.24 spatulas, horn, 150 mm.24 test tubes, ignition, 6 by 3 inch.24 test tube brushes.24 test tube racks.24 thermometers, -10° to 110° C.8 thistle tubes.424 watch glasses, 3 inches.

Approximate cost, $185.

STOCK FOR GENERA', USE

12 funnels, separatory, with stopcock, 60 ce.3 lbs. glass rods, 4-5 mm., asstd.5 lbs. glass tubing, 5-7 mm. asstd.3 hydrometers, universal.3 hydffmeter Jars, 2 by 15 Inches.3 spl. iron wire, No. 28.12 vials litmus paper, blue.12 vials litmus paper, red.8 magnifiers, tripod.12 platinum loops, in glass handles.1 roll picture wire, No. 1 (25 yds.).8 retorts, glass stopper, 125 cc.80 ft. rubber tubing, iss inch.30 ft. rubber tubing, 34 inch.288 test tubes, soft, 4 by 3 inch.144 test tubes, soft, 6 by inch.8 water baths, copper, 5 inches.

Approximate cost, $225.

LIST DCHEMICALS

2 lbs. acid, acetic, glacial, C. P.12 lbs. acid, hydrochloric, C. P.14 lbs. acid, nitric, C. P.1 lb. acid, oxalic, crystals, coml.kib.,scid, phosphoric, ortho, 85 per cent C. P.18 lbs. acid, sulphuric, C. P.1 gal. alcohol, ethyl, denatured.5 lbs. alum potassic.1 lb. aluminum, metal turnings.I lb. aluminum, metal powder.4 oz. arsenic, metal. cryst.I lb. arsenic trioxide, powder.1 lb. ammonium nitrate, pure.5 lbs. ammonium sulphate, 'coml.1 lb. ammonium sulphide, light.2 lbs. ammonium carbonate, lumps, U. 8. P.2 lbs. ammonium chloride, pure, gran.12 lbs. ammonium hydroxide, ittirn'i.1 lb. antimony, metal, lump.I lb. barium chloride, C. P.I lb. barium nitrate, powd. coml.1 lb. bark.= sulphate, C. P.4 oz. bisnjuth, metal.4 oz. bismuth cbloride, C. P.1 oz. bismuth nitrate, C. P.

lbs. borax, cryst., pure.2 cans bleaching/powder (12 or.. can).

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4 oz. cadmium sulphate, C. P., cryst.2 lbs. carbon bisulphide, pure.2 lbs. calcium chloride, anhyd. lumps.2 lbs. calcium chloride, dry, granular.2 lbs. calcium fluoride (fluospar) powd5 lbs. charcoal, wood, lump.2 lbs. charcoal, animal, powd.1 lb. chloroform, U. 8. P.4 oz. chromic chloride, C. P., green cryst4 oz. cobalt chloride, C. P.1 oz. cobalt nitrate, C. P. .

1 lb. copper chloride, C. P.2 lbs. copper, metal foi1,04o. 36.2 lbs copper, metal, turnings.5 lbs. copper sulphate, cryst., coml.4 oz. copper oxide, powd. black, C.4 oz. copper oxide, wire, C. P.2 oz. eosin.1 lb. ether, U. 8.P.2 lbs. ferric chtorlde, U. S. P.

lbs. ferrous sulphate, cryst.5 lbs. ferrous sulphide, gran.1 lb. glycerine, C. P. 45 lbs. gypsum. lump.2 lbs. hydrogen peroxide, 3 per cent U. 8. P.

hydrogen sulphide (make in laboratory).2 oz. iodine, resub. cryst.

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LABORATORY LAYMITS FOR THE HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES 21.

lbs. iron filings, clean.lbs. iron powder.

2,sq. ft. kind, *zeta', sheet, ittg tnch.'21b3. lead acetate, cryst.., coml.2 lbs. lead nitrate, cryst., com'I.5 lbs. lime (quIcklime), in tin can.21b3. litharge, lead oxide, mono., yellow, pure.401. magnesium, ribbon.2 lbs. magnesium, sulphate, C. P.s lbs. manganese dioxide, gran.5 lbs. marble chips.8 oz. mercury, metal,4 or.. mercuric chloride, TJ. S. P.4 oz. mercuroui nitrate, C. P.40z. mercuric nitrate, C. P.8 oz. mercuric oxide, red, U. S. P.40z. nickel nitrate (ous), C. P.2 lbs. paraffin, medium.4 oz. phenolphthalein, U. S. P.ti oz. phosphorus, red.1 lb. phosphorus, yellow, sticks.s Hs. plaster of Paris.'lb, potassium bitartrate, U. S. P.

1 lb. potassium bromide, U. S. P.Sibs. potassium chlorate, cryst., pure.2 lbs. potassium chromate, cryst.2 lbs. potassium chloride, pure.1 lb. potassium cyanide, pure.1-1b. potassium dichromate, cryst.lb. potassium ferricyanide, cryst.

1 lb. potassium ferrocyanide, cryst.214. pataSsium hydroiide, tech., gran.

LIST

24 beakers, 100 cc.24 beakers, 250 cc.24 beakers, 400 ce.36 bottles, glass stopper, 4 oz.12 burettes, 50 cc.12 cobalt glass plates, 50 by 50 mm.24 crucibles, porcelain, No. O.3 cylinders, glass, 2 by 12 in.

. Desk apparatus for 24 studentsIndividual apparatus for 24 studentsGeneral apparatusChemicalsReserve stock_ .. ... L.,A

4 oz. potagium iodide, U. S. P.2 lbs. potassium nitrate, pure, gran.4 oz. potassium perchlgtalaperte U. 8:P.2 lbs. potassium sulphate, C: P.1 lb. rosin.1 oz. silver, foil.2 oz. silver nitrate, pure, cryst.2 lbs. soda, common baking (sodium bicarbonate).4 oz. sodium, metal.2 lbs. sodium acetate, cryst., com'I.5 lbs. sodium chloilde, fine, pure.2 lbs. sodium carbonate, cryst., coml.2lbs, sodium hydroxide, sticks, U. S. P.5 lbs. sodium nitrate, pure.1 lb. sodium peroxide, C. P.2 lbs. sodium sulphate, tryst.8 oz. stannic chloride, C. P cryst.1 lb. stannous chloride, pure.1 lb. strontium nitrate, pure.

lbs. sugar, cane (procure locally).2 lbs. sugar, glucose (dextrcoe) lump5 lbs. sulphur, roll.1 lb. tartaric acid, U. S. P., cryst.1 lb. tartar emetic, pure.1 lb. tin, metal, mossy.2 lbs. zinc, metal, mossy.2 lbs. zinc sulphate, pure, cryst.2 Its. zinc powder.2 lbs. zinc strips.

Approximate cost, $100.

Fr---RESERVE STOÇIC

24 dishes, evaporating, 75 mm.24 flasks, 250 cc.24 flasks,.Erleneeyer, 125 cc.6 funnels, 75 mm.3 graduates, cylindrical, 25 ce.6 doí. test tubes, hard, 6 by %.

'24 thistle tubesApproximate cost, $50.

SUMMARY

$140.00185.00225.00100.0050.00

Approximate total cost.Annual replacement_ -A

700.0000

ADDITIONAL DESIRABLE APPARATUS FOR LECTURE DESK AND LABORATORZ, WITHAPPROXIMATE COSTS

I Alpha Ray track apparatus, for showing path of helinta atoms1 balance, analytical, cap. 200 g., sensibility 1/10 mg., with rider beam and rider, in case1 set balance weights, 1' mg. tat) g., in block with hinged cover-barometer, mercurial .

1 bellows, foot, for blast laznp1 blast lamp, for artificial gas1 chart, atomic weight1 chart, periodic law

41 Chart, spectrum, common elements.

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LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE BIOH-SCHOOL SCIENCES

1 distilUog apparatus; for.gas.drying oven, for gas

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Physics Laboratorj,. 1

A It is generally conceded that the outline for the students' labora-tory course should contain 35 to 45 selected experiments, althotighinstructors differ as to what these 6xperiments .should be.- What- ,ever they are, how,ever, the ideal equipment _would proiride eachstudent with the necessary apparatus, time, and 'opportunity to

.

FIGURE 12.PHYSICS LABORATORY,' ROCHESTER (N. Y.) HIGH SCHOOL

investigate, and demonstrate the principle irivolved in each. For thenfost commonly accepted experiments this ideal equipment wouldconsist of one set of aPparatus and supplies for each experiment for

. each student. _Practical conditions, such as the lack of space, funds,and in some cases the nature of the experiment itself, render this-

, :impossible or inadvisable. hits therefore found necessari. tok havetvio or even. four students .worK together on a given exercise *ithapparatus provided' accordin0y. *Where partkularly costly appa-.

.. . .ratius is required and funds ,are not plentiful different groups may.work .on two. or -more different exércises at the -same time; alter-nating these experiments .among ;the groups from laboratory Oeriod..,:

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%oratory period, thus. effecting a saving in the amount of individoapparatus required.

If this plan.? followed, .care should be taken that the alternate¡Ixereiles be sequential and of the same general subject .matter, so asto -violate as little as possible the general tenets 01 pedagogy andnot to add too greatly to the difficulties of the instructor.

Below is given a suggestive list of students' apparatus, whichNhould be modified to suit -local condition* in accOrdance with the

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foregoing statements:General Equipment

A manual training. bench or its equivalent, fitted with. a Smallivachiniat's vise, preferably of the swivelojaw type, and a sniall assort-ment of metal and woodworking tools, is .a necessity in the largerhigh scháols ankwill be found conyenient and economical seven intie smaller ones.

Sources of electrical current.--1Direct current of 0-8 volts commer74-

-..tint necessity. Its .source may be dry cfS111 and Daniel cells; orttorugo batteries or motor-generator outfit, where 110-volt A. C, isavailable.. Dry cell; are useful in most -experiments butt do not fur-dish a constant current and .are expensive where heavy -curient isrequired. Storage batteriei) for thé smaller high schools, with a me-Wier for recharging from 110-volt A. C. lighting line will be. foundvery satisfactory. The,Edison type -of storage battery is to be pre-(erred, as it can not be overcharged and is not damaged by short-circuiting or undercharging. It may be allowed to. sit We during

If

the summer vacation and .recharged for successful- use in the. fall.kad-plate storage batteries are easily injured by -short-circeiti4They nmst be kept -constantly charged and are easily damaged bymigu3e. Motor-generator sets are now available. with A. C. motorsand D. C. generators, having double coinmutatcira which furnish .48.watts of direct currant,at 6 to 8 volts and 200 watts at 110 volts simule -tanrously. The costs of motOr-generator sets withöut switchboards .

vary froni $75 to $140, the larger sets with switchboard. in proportion. .*silitchboard with the necessary fuses,. switches, resistances, meters,,current leads to laboratory desks is also useful and a necessity ;in the larger schools. Switchboards cost from $60 up to $700 or.1800, depending upon sPecifications.

A laboratory clock with seConds pendulum and inotoùrial-in its; equivalent, should be provided if possible.A mercurial barometer of fitirly reliable accuracy for general use in. .

laboratory and leceure room should be corisideied a neceisity. Some.of the above items are included ii the lists giveii below.6 ,1 .;;..

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Physics Lecture-Room Appatatus..

1. -

The equipment for the lecture room should be built around four il

. driven type with variable speed and %revolution counter is much to 1

or five main pieces, which are suggested as follows:s Rotator.This piece may be hand operated, although a inotor-

be preferred. If the revolution counter is of the type which may be. , thrown in. and out of gear with the rotator by means of that .

quantitative experiments may be done by orie person. Ir of theother type tiro are required% one to check the, time and the other tocheck the.number of revolutions. Such accessories as the centrifu -gal hóop, centrifugal force apparatus, acoustic and color disks, manu-metric flame apparatus, 'etc.; material for useful demonstration.

.* by the instructor. A good rotator is sometimes required for someexperiments in the student;' laboratory.

Air pump.For a physics class the air pump should be of the; best Possible type to be afforded; the rotary cam type giving best.

results. It may be hand operated or motor driven. The twiyadvantages Of this type are, first, they have a high degree orvacuum,and-second, they do ¡lot need adjustments or repairs ovér a number-.

.. of years. The ordinary hand pump aim' pump.

plate of the automo-bile type and the platform type with hand lever and pump plate,A.may-be used, although they need constant care and repair, and arefrequently fcund inoperative when inost needed. The Gerykumpt with pump plate, has been very poptilar aTid found fairlyefficient, but strongly subjegt -to the .,handiCap last 'limed above

. Accessories suggested are small and large bell jars, hand and bled-.der glass, baroscope, weight of air apparatus, vactum wax for sealing.

:tn. 7' joints, etc. If a vapum of the order of 0.01 nun. or better is avail-able from the pump in use, a"gocid vacuum tube for demonstratingelectrical discharge in rarified gases vAll be found worth while. .

Static machine.----This may be large or small, and of the TóeplerHoltz o Wimshurst type. The latter is more reliable in operatio

4

and the principle of the former more easily explained 9to stucienitq

With proper accessories, the static machine is useful in the stiídy oele9trostatics and always stimulates the interest of students. -

4 Optical disk.This piece is, from thif standpoint of the in:structor, practically the whole thing in the demonstration of reflection, ram?.

'lion, and diffraCtion in light. While this piece may be used withdiked sunlight, it will be found much more efficient, m.9re easily manip-

t171''

ulited, and more satisfactory if provided with a thoroughly efficienI Those on the market are so constructed, that they plu

in on any 110-volt lighting circuit. The accessories most cominonlrequired are.usually provided with the outfit. Additional patita fospecial demonstrations are listed' by the aPparatus houses ant

3be found useful irisome situations.

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Alternating-current apparatui.--Somi sort of apparatus fa-AteAtrating a few of the laws of alternating currents bu not halm ascommon, a piece of appiratus in the high-school laboratory as tiesubject warrants. In_ every higb-school physics course an attemptshould be made to give the student some conception of the differencebetween the lavis governing alternating currefits.and direct cumits.Apparatus-of various types are on the market, and the acquisition orOist: of them should-be seriously considered.

Other pieces are suggdsted in the list below.

PHYSIOirAPPARATUS ANC EQUIPMENT

LIST A-APPiRATUS AVM STITDSMTS' Exrai1112/0111

7t toe sticks, English and metric..:t niter*, maple, English and metric, $ 0 em.

'vernier calipers.I micrometer rapers.t: trip geilm, with agate bowl

ets erelbts, Iron, slotted, wi hoWer, 10420 g.I st.t specific gravity metal eyll3 woollen cilkiders. waterproofed.1 wooI Mack% rectangular, waterproofed.

wospien blocks, rectangular, loaded.rt %dike% about 171t g.

1 fi:unsh4 pf.rture gips.

rts!be JbtftLiDeh.12 twertleer cum1:citrti !maims.

.4 hw appauis, .1 tube. .

0 prt.:us. hartheoIdAtt fulcrum.twiremeiers, for light lititilds.

I hydrometers. for heavy liquids.Trialt balances, 2.000 if. 414 02-

44 eimitaftii ion of Fume boards.!: mini" s. iiigite. bakelite.12 ;milky*. thiuble, bakelite.

triple, baking*. .

3 craw 'lawny blocks.sineine4 lanes, with graduated arc.*11311's cart fort Wind plan&3 wheel soul ado. aluminum.12 monism* tubes, glass 4 by 43 cm.23 thrm4tuotorkl to lift C.1Z sit tnnmemeter bullied° nun.3 Sines. grooved, with steel OW *ad Powder.12 maim gentraars.11 04itiricattets, nickeled twos, TS bY l aminutile forks, C, jac

forks, Ca 23..: witless:4gs (latitgating oppirstusl.Mufti forks,Çøt above.:t eu.ndrs, aiu 4 by 13 em.ti tvtr:wt plates, glais, 7 by 7 gm. by 11 am.la rds plates. tilangutire TS atm. Ism bY',sift' blurb.,

I: leisM eftweg 16 ens. focus.13 looses mire% caVoeus.

Iwttlis cqlsilsteralet73 issan. lath U sow Wish

3 lodestones.6 rods, set steel for wornetisIng In forties add,

a uses. by 10 ern.14 bat Inatratits, I by 1 by 11 on.

mago14 Vdmilm34 =gag compasste,,lamm.)4 dry12 voltaic cell% students' do* Said..3 dip needles.

galvanompee.6 bet. Iron filings (4 es) In ihakeis.12 elottpmagnetik4 telegraph modem 4 ohm.4 telegraph keys.

teletr*Pb res"12 electric bells, 24412. Mi.electrolysis apparatus, bitterries typo.

2 state&4 resislanci kirk sts olsrd, 0.1411 dun:

Wm/moral galvanometer, jewried Wets.4 ammeters, DC, double ranges 04 and 11410 amps*4 voltmeters, DC, O-110 w. In libv. Mildew and ii

V. In 0.111-volt divisions.4 whestitane

I 1 commutators, slag* ters.St eons wire, DCC,* tom 24.. St.Il spool Isseticistors.-$ slsettescopes.

Leyden ism plot.11 friction reds, Intimate, Sao.$ Medea reds, glars,is pith bon&

cs$ mast km.3 ash liam testa

telephone Inagnittire.4 telephoto melts's.12 riesslaads. sieloii 6

12 teet.talie &sapsPi doubt* corona" took31 just battery, SU by 211) rism34 marbles, glow, Ws*It Wide halm. 21/ OIL Me.U Wooster tabors, OM walls cos.3 toll asd dog.3 Moser asponsios appestat, bver tip*.It eisatilsk pinata, lts.

Apposition's rate $1,111

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LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR THE 1:110/1-SCHOOL SCIENCES

Liar 11--TOOLIS, STOCK, AND SUPPLIESknife switches, single tbmw sigh pole.

41 knife switches, double throw, double pole.24 ubestos ?quarts, e id.2 sets cork borers, 1-3.24 wire guns squares. 5 Inch.

Onchcocks; screw compression.6 spls. *toper wire, Drr, Nei 21 (4 oz. spls.).

spls. copper wire, DCC, No. 2 (4 oz, spb.).lbs. copper annunciator wire, No.18.,

3-spb. German silver wire, bare, No. 28 (4 os. spl3 spb. iron wire, bare, Nb. al (4 os.3 spb. piano wire, No. 2.3 rolls p:ano wire, No. 9 (4 os. roll).

spb. piano wire, No. 7.3 spb. piano wire, No. 3.1 spl. fuse wire, n ampere.1 sp!. fuse wire, 1 ampere.1 spl. fuse wire. 2 ampere.

spi. fuse wiry, 5 ampere.6 Mel, round, 6 inch.6 ties, triangular, 6 inch.2 wrenches, monkey, 8 lath3 pliers, side cutting, S inch.3 pliers, round nose, a inch.*screw drivers, small, 4 inch.3 screw drivers, large, It inch.3 hammers, claw, 74 oz.3 snips, metal, 24 inch cut.3 pkgs. corks, asst. 0-11 (144).12 graduates, cylindrical, 100 cs..

It18T ..C..--CkASSROOPAI

2 cohesion Odes, glass.1 capillary tube, set of 7, mounted.1 oamameter.

-1 membrane.1 table rotator (sie tnowr-rotator, laiste. centrifugal Ifoop:1 acoustic and color disk.1 second law of motion apparatus.1 Hit pump, glass model.1 force pump, glass Model.1 Pascal's vase, with metallic diaphragm.

air pump and plate on one base.I bell Jar. 2 gallon..1 mar vacum wax. .

. 1 seven-in-one apparatus (spimmeter).1 barometektube with mercu7 well.1 barometer, aneroid.

graduates, cylindrical, 250 et%3 lbs, rubber stoppers, 2 hole, 0-.0 asstd.36ft. rubber tubing, A. inch.36 ft. rubber tubing, 5¡ inch.9 lbs. glass tithing, A mm.6 spls. spring brass wire, No.6 spls. spring brass wire, No. a3 soldering sets.24 bottles, glass stopper, for raAgents, 4 os.12 lamp chimneys, students'.1; hydrometer Jars, 1312 inches.9 flasks, 250 ec., Pyres.12 funnels, 90 mm.3 lbs. thermometer tubing.3 sq. ft, copper sheets, No. 20.3 sq. ft. lead sheet, ira. thick.3 sq. ft. zinc sheet, Ar In. thick.27 lbs. acid, sulphuric, coml.IS lbs. copper sulphate, cryst., tech.6 lbs. ether, sulphuric, U.S.P.9 lbs. mercury.6 lbs. nickel tunmonium sulphate, coml.6 lb& pareffin,finrd.15 lbs. potassium biehromatai.6 lbs.. sulphur, roll.3 !he. vaseline (petrolatum). yellow.6 lbs zinc sulphate.12 Bunsen burners.

Approximate cost, $180.

DEMONSTRATION APZARATUS

(Suggested minimum IWO

LIST 13ADDITIONAL LIST DiP

1 barometer, mecurial, Fortin principlio1 compound Intr.1 steam engine model.1 electrophorus.l'electromagnet, lifting.1 induction coil, demonstration, MM.1 wire spiral, showing wave motion.

organ pipe with movabfe piston.1 optical disk.1 disk Illuminator.1 hydraulic press, glass model.1 seconds pendulum, with traircursr edited-1 sonometer.1 motor, shunt wound, 110 v. D. C4 )4 h. ixLmotor brake and mounting.

Artproximáte cost, $260. 4

.4

11.

1

DMIONSTRATION APPARATUS

(Selections should be made from this list oneeds

I elasticity of flexure apparatus, contact1 torsion apparatus.

motor-ratator, 110.y. di. C. motor.1 centrifugal globe.1 Arago's magnetic rotation1 gyroscope (medium size).1 sand pendulum.

t).

methbd. 4014 I Boyleln",pliialu.s.I rotary hlop.er,elertricellOm. A. C.1 rotary vacuum pump.1 vacuum tube. ;

1 bell in vacua.1 Ones and Willer tube.

.

. 5

manometisr for air pump. .

Magdeburg beadspittiv. SI mazimum density of water apparatus.Water motor, desno6strat* 1 !radiometer.,

esere

* Ar,

: Ai w:

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. .7;4

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1

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4 *..LABORATORY LAY017T4 ,POR11111 RIOS6BOXIGOL BOX ING'S . -.-...,-,a ..4

. .. , , Ir'. ,.. i qr.. af,

4,

eebankni equivalent of beat tubs.ps mine, model,

'1 Sauk maim.LOOM /are disssotible.

I AlbehatilTI let Geissler-tubes csj is em. kagi contacting loth. .

esrtb induction1 induction coil, I in. spark.

ARP..

I alternating eurrent apparatus.I galvanometer, lecture table.

í.

. ''* .;

.*

, -1, ;I plvanoorolvammeter (sIrle-mn., 9'.41;' 711.44 14 ..,,4P

1 heap board resistance, I lamp. eo .1" t #- e

° 16electrolysis apparatus, improved, Iteltuan. -1. 4..t.!; . 14?,'' "1

bar.1 pr .-sloth* Subset Knipp's small Ira.

40.- IA**

.."-:4-I refraction tank for use witb optima disk. -

.r.

'It

Approximate oast, $ew-

SUMMARY

List AIndividual apparatus for 24 students, $1.130.Us' BTools, stoeitynd supplies, $1110,

ijst eCiesscodm demonstration apparatus, S1330.

DAdditkmal list ot demonstration apparatus,Total, $1,590 io UAW. .

Annual replacements, too $0 peo.

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FIGURE 13.--BIOLOGY LAW/RAI/0NY, CORTI-4SW) STATE .NaRMAL, SCHOOLNEW YORK

N. .04 61;"'

. .

. Biology' Laboratory

; "Ne4 fr,

.4s'i. f. ,

In. the biology laboratory equipment, ,t leaát two* coinpoutMicroscopes should 'be included 'for a class 24, and, if funds'

. available, one forievery 4 or 5 students.The ability to manipUlate a compound microscope properly and

-

skillfully and to interpret cprrectly . the results obtained very help-tut `to the stuctent1/4who puroAies bit!science 'education beYond the highdihe9i. Accrediting' institutions recognize this fact and usually ask

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28 LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR Tit% 111.GINICROOL MINORS'.

that one compound microscope for every 4 or 5 students be' a partpf the equipment for the biological sciences,in the 'accredited school.A student's type, costing from $60 to $75, is satisfactory.- A' demon.stration eyepiece is highly desirable. ) This is attached to the comepound microscope in place of the .rectilar 'eyepieces and enables twopersons to view the same objeCt at the .saine time.' One eyepiececontains a needle poinar with which the instructor may point outto the pupil observer any detail in the specimen under observitiiin.Models and charts are imiortant in the biological course. Carefullyselected And complele sets, of each should be purchased. .

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT FOR BIOtOGY

INDIVIDUAL APPARATUS

12 battery jars, dear white glass, 3 by 7 inches.48 bitths. wide mouth, 3 oz.94 bottles cyanide.4$ beakers, 2$0 cc.24 dishes, crystallising, 100Si dishes, evaporating, go main No. 2.91 dissecting sets, 6 pieces In case.94 dissecting pans, was bottom.94 pkg. Alter paper, 13 cm. -_

94 flasks, 250 cc.24 Elam plates, 4 by 4.

microscopes, dissecting.

2 aquariums, frame, 3 01.2 bell jars, open top, 1 gal.3 bell jars, gaL2 bladders, forosmosis. it4 bottles, wide mouth, 18 oz.1 pr. bone forceps,* 190 mm. lont.2 trip stales, agate bearings.3 Iron weights, 10 g. to NO g.

corks, said. 041 (144).2 cork borers, set of 6.

corrosive sublimate tablets.desks. 300 ca.

100 flower pots. parallined paper,4 tunnels, 75 WM.2 funnels, 8 inchis.3 lbs. dam tubing, 5-7 nun. asstd.

lbs. glass tubing, 8 to. 13 nins.autd.graduates, cyI1add.I, 230 oe.insect nets, collapsible.

300 insect pins, No. 0, per C.

ADDITIONAL GENERAL APPARATUS

Cilelectkons should bq. made from these lists according to requimments and tomb)

24 vincbeeoks, strew ODUIPM114.°n94 pneumatic troughs.24 ring standf, 3 ring.24 rubber stoppers, 2 hole, No. I.24 rubber stoppers, 2 hots, No.8.2i. test tubes, bard, 614E thistle tubes.96 watch glasses, 3 hobos.24 wire gause squares, i inches.12 Bunsen burners.38 ft. rubber tubing, loch.

Amen/le/taw egg, WO.

4

-GENERAL- APPARATUS .

inches per '1

a

.40

RA insect pins. No. 3. Per C.2 insect sp4a1ing beards, 12 by 4% Iiehss8 litmus paper, blue.8 litmus paper, red.24 medicine droppers. S.,40 petri dishes: 50 mni.% rubber stoppers, I hole, No. 2._24 rubberatoppen, t kola, No. 9.36 ft. rubber tubing, h bubo.38 ft. rubber tubing. X3 sq. ft.'rubber dam.144 test tubes, 4-by-Kb per 12.144tistbbeS,Sby3.24 test tube brushes.12 test tabs racks.6 thermometers, 110° C, and 20 F.&tripods, f inches.- .2 vasculum, colloctiog case.1 water bath, Nippur, oonstanfwatatlevel

Approximate oil, $110:

.

1 air tester, for COs,g microscope., impound, 2 oculars, i obloetives,

&obis, nose piece, in case.-2 jr. miertuoope slides, blanks, 3 by 1 inch.42 gr. microscope Cover ewes, round, No.2, VI mal.1 Montano hand.

Paitsauttiag audit.

a

I set prepared slidge,last prepared :Okla%

staining Jars.I section razor.1 sterilises:

y (254o'bos).(23 la box)

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BEST Cb9V AUOASLO4

I:411MIATORY LkY01;113 FOrt THE HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES

MODELS AND CHARTS

a.141.)q moisnt.tsi, human *lwn and brain..6onsital; human ear.

imiaan torso.tan phsiology, maw* nnd hygiene charts.fat bothny charts; beiginnini.

2 9

1 set natural history and mineralogy chub.I set life histories of 'meets, squash bug, cotton

boll weevil, apple borer, cucumber codling moth,peach borer, lady bug, honey bee, silk worm, etc.

Approximate cost, MO.

CHEMICALS AND STAINS

'kW acid acetic, ¡glacial, C. P.lbs. dill hydrochloric. coml.

Ms *4, nitric coml.ammonium hydresido, coml., 26*.

$ ogs. Bene.hat a solution, qualitative.I as. Canada brIsam for mounting slide-S.

calcium phosphate (bi-monobasic) C. P.21bs. calcium phosaato (mono) eom'I.Sibs cold* sulphate, plaster Parisloss. carbolic. acid ( looseI lbs. charwlal.( lump!), wood.ki gnu. eosin, yellowish (water aoltb)e).I lbs. ether,lbs. ferric chloride, U. 8. P.

lobs. formalin.oes' iodine selution In potassium iodide.

2 lbs. lime water.2 au. :ysol.

2 Rm. niagnesiuni sulphate, U. S. P.lbs. manganese() dióxide.

20 gms. malachite green.2 lbs. paraffin, med. -

8 oss. potassium blehroinste, C. P2 lbs. potassium ehlorate, cyrst ,

2 lbs. potassium nitrate, pure.2 oss. pepsin, powd.2 ou. panereatin.2 tbs. sodium carbonate, coml.2 lbs. Ono, niovy.2 lbs. zinc chloride, pure, gran.

APproximate cost, $60.

SUMMARY OF ADPROXIMATE Co8T8

Si lets individual apparatus, $300.4. general apparatus,

additionil general apparatus, MO.Ilot models and charts, MO.!lot chemicals and stains, $eo.

Total .Cost, .$700 to f200.Annual replacement, supplies, and new apparatus, $50 to $200.

Laboratory Equi-pment for General Science

c

Thi following list of general science apparatus and ioplies wasprepared by a sptcial class at the University or Wis-consin in the

it tumor of 1925.-7 The list was read to and approved by the general science sectiond of the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers

tt thèir meeting at the University of Chicago in November, 1925.These lists may be regarded as a good minimum.

STUDENT APPARATUS (CLAM OF 24)

tebt tubes, bled. Pyres, 16 am.'83 test tubes, ?oft, 6 by 5/8 inch.

test-tube brushes.lbs. glass tubing, omm.

it ft. rubber tubing, 3,16-ineh.3 ft. rubber tubing, heavy wait, 114-Inch.

felangular, 5 highes.i3 bottles, wide month, 4 or..15 bottles, wide mouth, 8 ot,30 beakers, 100 cc.

b ekers. 250 cc.24 rubber stoppent., go. I, one-hoIe.24 rubber Moppers, ø. two-hole.34 nil:Rai ?Omit* No. a, Oroollole.

24 rubber stoppen, No. 7, two-hole.12 rubber stoppers, two-hole, snorted, No.8-13.15 ring stands, 5 by 8 base.15 ringonend rings, 34nch.15 rinkstiind clamps, right angl6.24 flasks, Erlenemeyer, 125 cc.15 dry cells.I.: thermometers, double scale, 11(1° C. and 220° F.15 funnels, glass,.40 mm.15 thistle tubes.7 bar magnets. 1 by 1 by 15 cm.8 horseshoe magnets, 4-incb.1 spl. copper wire, DCC, No. 22 (1 lb ).-1 spl. copper wire, DCC, No. 30 (1 lb.).

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:LABORATORY LAYOUTS FOR

ill motet and yard sticks.12 push buttons.12 magnifying glasses.1 trip wale.6 sets weights, brats in block, 1-500 g.15 evaPorating dishes, porcelain, 3-ineh, No. 00A.12 electric bells, 2)fr1nch gong.IS single pulleys, bakelite.10 double pulleys, bakelite.12 lenses, 20 cm. focus.4 prisms, 75 mm. long.

.TUk UMW-SCHOOL SCIENCES

15 magnetic compasses, 10 mm.15 forceps, laboratory, 5-inch:15 test-tube holders (wire-clamp).12 petri dishes, 75 mm.12 mirrors, plane, 10 by 10 cm.5 mirrors, convex 4 cm.12wire gauge, (54nch squares).1 pkg. corks, assorted, 0-11 (144). '1 pkg. corks, assorted, 12-26 (144).

Total, $185.

4.

DEMONSTRATION APPARATUS

I air pump, good grade, vacuum and pressure corn-bitted.

1 air-pump plate, with stopcock.1 bell jar, fitted for stopcock.1 stopcock for bell jar. .

1 barcímeter tube, cm. long.1 bironitter aneroid.

tuning fork, Cf, 256 vps.. 1 tuning fork, 17°,333 vps.

1 tuning fork, 0', 384 vps.1 ttining fork, C"; 512 vps.

microscope, divisible objective.1 force pump, glass model.

a

1 lilt pump, glass model.6 u-tubes, for distilling, s inches.1 set cork borers (6 in set).1 electrolysis apparatus, Kittery jar type.1 I. Louts motor.i field for St. Louis motor.I graduate, cylindrical, 250 cr.'31

graduates, cylindrical, 50 cc.model of steam engine.

1 dry-bulb thermometer.1 wet-bulb thermometer.

Total, $115

SUGGESTED BLT NOT ESSENTIAL

1 ammeter, battery jar tyPe, 0-33 amps.1 voltmeter, battery jar type, 0110 volts.1 aspirator, filter -pump, for K-1nch. I. P. (Coup-

ling to be ordered according to conditions.)1 aquarium, glass jar; round, 7 by 7 inches.

CHEMICALS

24 candles, paraffin, 121.3 sq. ft. rubber dam.4 ctn. iron filings (each 4 in. with sitter tops).1 vial litmus paper, blue.1 vial litmus paper, red:I pkg. filter paper, 9 cm:

sq. ft. aluminum sheet, No. 20.I sq. ft. lead sheet, inch.

. 1 gal. aloohol, denatured.1 qt. alcohol, wood, 95 per cent.9 lbs. acid, sulphuric.6 lbs. acid, hydrochloric.7 lbs. acid, nitric.

lbs. mercury.1 lb. potassium chloride.1 lb. sloe, mossy.1 lb. minganese dioxide.2 lbs. starch, corn.1 lb. starch, wheat.I lb. starch, potato.

Student apjuritus, class of 24, $1115.Demonstration apparat4, $115.Demonstration apparatus (suggested), $13.Chemicals and eupplies, $35.

Approximate total cost, 1350 to $500.Annual replacement, $50 to $104.

4.

1 telegraph key.1 telegraph sounder.1 pony relay, 20-ohm.

Total, $15.

AND Supptaga

1 ot. iodine, resubl., U. S. P.1 lb. ammonium hydrate.1 lb. ether, sulphuric.1 lb. sodium bicarbonate (baking soda).

. 5 lbs. sulphur, flowers.1 lb. paraffin, med.4 os..phosphorus, yellow (can be shipped by frt

only).1 lb. carbon tetzracloride, pure.1 lb. copper, metal filings.1 lb. t1n1 gran.

oz. silvár nitrate.1 pt. turpentine, spirits.1 lb. ammonium nitrate, pure.1 lb. cream of tartar, U. S. P.5 lbs. oopper sulphate.

lb. sodium hydroxide, sticks.1 lb. Rochelle salt.

boru.Total, $35.

.1

-- SUMMARY

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LIMO.RATORY LAYOUTS FOR' THE'

HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCES

Cost of Apparatqs Equipment SupPies

At the end of each list is given a summary of approximate costs forapparatus, equipment, and supplies given in the hats. They are basedon the needs of a class of 24 pupils in each subject. The range in

--the totals are due to omitting and including the additional demon-stration apparatus with which every school ought to be equippedbut witliout which stliall schools short of funds can get along andstill give a worth-while course.

These figures are summarized below.

pproximate cost of apparatus, equipment,..ond supplies for high-school loboratortes

Chemistry I Physics

$1, Iso !280 ,830,180

,

Indivi(1ual studentDemonstrationDemonstration (additional)Chemicals, supplies ,

- Tools, stock suppliesModels and charts

TotalAnnual replacement . .

,1

$32522530010030

..

$700 to$1. 000$24O tu

$1 590 to 240$200 to ,

Biology Deneralscience

ea...41

$ax, $185 4130 115300 15en as

,

2o3

MOO to $910 POO to $330$30 to $200 $50 to $100

Small schools will have classes much smaller than 24. An ski-mate may be made of the cost of appaiatus, supplies, and equipmentfor them fnmi this summary. The cost for classes of eight, for i.nstancti,in each subject would be approximately

Chen.iistryPhytiicsBiologyGenera.. science

41,

.

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$450 tso $800700 to ,1,400350 to 700190 to 250

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