Syro-Palestine in the First Millenium BCE: Who were the ancient Israelites?

SYRO-PALESTINE IN THE FIRST MILLENIUM BCE:

WHO WERE THE ANCIENT ISRAELITES?

Riana McArthur

14447088

Module 5: Syro-Palestine – Everyday life in ancient Israel

Prof. P. Kruger

12 March 2012

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INDEX

1. Introduction 2

2. Sources: how to find information on ancient Israel 2

3. Israel's climate, topography and ecology 3

4. Historic overview: who were the ancient Israelites? 4

5. A day in the life of ancient Israel 6

5.1. The role of families, clans and villages 7

5.2. Religion: Who did the Israelites worship? 9

5.3. Housing: Where did the ancient Israelites live? 14

5.4. Food and Diet: What did the Israelites eat? 16

5.5. Health and illness in ancient Israel 18

5.6. Dress and adornment 21

5.7. Arts and creativity 24

5.8. Education, literacy and language 29

5.9. Trade and commerce: How did the Israelites survive? 32

5.10. Warfare: An ordinary aspect of ancient Israelite existence 35

6. Conclusion 41

Bibliography

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1. Introduction

The ancient Israelites have always intrigued scholars as well as any individual interested

in the history of ancient times (Herr 1997:115). Many scholars and treasure hunters,

pilgrims and archaeologists have attempted to see if what lies beneath the Holy Land

corresponds to what is written in the Hebrew Bible. Scholars aim to answer questions like

'what was life in ancient Israel like?', 'where did the Israelites live, what did they eat and

what did they wear?', 'what sociopolitical features guided their behaviour?' and 'how did

they interact with each other and with foreigners? Answers to these questions are not

always easy as Herr (1997:117) notes that when studying any culture, it is important to

bear in mind the effect of 'punctuated equilibrium'. This is seen in long periods of time

that pass with somewhat little change in the material culture whilst 'punctuated' periods of

sudden bursts in material culture occur. This all takes place while not denying that steady

change could also take place.

This study aims to find answers to the questions posed above and to understand daily life

in ancient Israel. Furthermore, this project wants to ascertain the nature of the interaction

between factors that influenced the Israelite culture as well as determining which factors

had the most impact on the same. In order to fully understand a day in the life of ancient

Israel it is necessary to first have a brief look at the sources that provide us with the

information necessary to construct this out of the ordinary history.

2. Sources: how to find information on ancient Israel

To reconstruct daily life during any historical period, one needs to identify the proper

sources (Borowski 2003:10). But where do we find information on ancient Israel that

goes back over 3,000 years? Isserlin (1998:10) and King and Stager (2001:1) note that

archaeological and epigraphic evidence together with ethnography, wall paintings and

iconography as well as inscribed reliefs and seals from foreign countries provide us with

rich information on the ancient Israelite society. Nevertheless, the Hebrew Bible is

treated as the primary source as it contains valuable information on daily life in antiquity;

however it is necessary for these sources to be approached as a whole in order to obtain

insight into the ancient Israelite society (Herr 1997:115). Reader to note that the majority

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of literature relating to the ancient Israelites developed during the time of the Monarchy

in Iron Age II and as a result will form the focus of this study (Herr 1997:117).

3. Israel's climate, topography and ecology

In order to obtain a picture of what daily life in ancient Israel was like, it is necessary to

understand the influence that the region, which was geographically, topgraphically as

well as ecologically diverse, had a substantial impact on the development of the Israelite

culture (Borowksi 2003:1,6; Herr 1997:124-125; King & Stager 2001:86-87). For

instance, the rock-strewn mountains, although inhospitable for agriculture, provided

ample grazing for goats and sheep, and valleys such as Beth-Shea and Jezreel not only

provided an ideal place for Israelites to meet it also allowed the Israelites to produce vast

surpluses of lentils, chickpeas as well as barley and wheat. Furthermore, the excellent

soil on the hillsides, when deforested and replaced with artificial terraces, allowed the

Israelites to produce orchards whilst the high plateau in Transjordan provided the

Israelites with basalt, limestone and wood which could be used in construction activities.

Perennial springs such as Gihon and fresh lakes such as Lake Huleh provided the

inhabitants with fresh water and resulted in the formation of settlements near the same.

Droughts and diseases were common and resulted in the Israelites relying heavily on the

rainy seasons for their agricultural activities.

Not only did the region support the Israelites' basic needs, it also assisted them in their

social, political and economic needs (Borowski 2003:44-46; Herr 1997:124-125). For

example, the region allowed the Israelites to build country roads which encouraged

communication between the villages. As society advanced royal and regional cities such

as Jerusalem, Samaria, Megiddo and Lachish were also positioned near these major trade

routes. It is clear that Israel provided its inhabitants with a multitude of natural resources

and opportunities which could have been used to everyone's advantage. As a result it is

fitting for the Bible to describe Canaan as "…a land of wheat and barley, of vines and fig

trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and honey, a land where you [Israelites]

may eat bread without scarcity" (King & Stager 2001:85-86; see also Deuteronomy 8:8-

9).

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4. Historic overview: who were the Israelites?

Before the various facets of ancient Israel can be unpacked, a brief overview of where the

Israelites originated is necessary. Isserlin (1998:48, 51, 111) however notes that although

the existence of the ancient Israelites is common knowledge their origin remains difficult

to understand. While scholars disagree about in which century BCE the Israelites

originated, they have concur that the ancient Israelites are the successors of Abraham

who formed a nation of people who believed in their One God.

In ca.1600 BCE a famine forced the nomadic Israelites out of Canaan into Egypt where

they remained for over 400 years (Isserlin 1998:50). Here they endured hardship and

were forced into slavery by the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II, however Moses and his

brother Aaron were chosen by God to set the Israelites free and to take them to their

Promised Land (Harper 1896:483). In return, the Israelites had to obey their god and on

Mount Sinai in ca.1200 BCE the Israelites received the Ten Commandments, a tabernacle

together with religious and public laws in order to guide their behaviour. The Israelites

however disobeyed their God's instructions by building a golden calf and as a result were

left to wander in the desert for over 40 years. Their god nevertheless forgave them and

allowed them to enter their Promised Land but upon their return they found their country

inhabited by various ethnicities which included the Amorites, Philistines, Perizittes as

well as Jebusites and Hittites (Borowski 2003:6-10).

By 1,150 BCE the Israelites were dispersed over the

countryside (Isserlin 1998:62-63). They conquered parts

of the land and continued to migrate from one region to

another whilst undersized groups were integrated into

larger groups, resulting in a culturally and ethnically

heterogenous Palestinian world (Isserlin 1998:62-63).

Fig.1. The Merneptah Stele, the earliest record of the name "Israel"

-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:Merneptah_Israel_Stele_Cairo.jpg

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The Merneptah Stele (ca.1210 BCE) is the first ancient artifact to refer to these varied

people and the country as 'Israel' or 'Isrir' and as a result most scholars accept that the

Israelites had a varied origin and developed in the hill country of Judah and Israel during

Iron Age I (Harper 1896:484). Entering their new land was not easy for the Israelites,

however due to their covenant with their One God a strong bond existed between them

which assisted them in the transition into their new lives (Goodspeed 1907:266; Harper

1896:485; Isserlin: 1998:53-54).

Goodspeed (1907:266-267) indicates that the Israelites had to get accustomed to a settled

lifestyle focused on agriculture. They had to learn new activities; they had to form new

social relations; they needed to adjust to new laws, religious ideas and methods of

worship whilst they also had to protect themselves from the assaults of foreigners.

Goodspeed however mentions that although these were difficult times for the Israelites,

the local inhabitants made the adjustment for the Israelites effortless as they not only

introduced them to a more evolved culture, industry and trade; they also exposed them to

literature and various forms of art whilst the Israelites could continue their uncomplicated

faith in their One God, their protector and their guardian of justice.

However due to vast attacks by foreigners and the need for a central authority, the United

Monarchy was established in ca.1020 when Saul bridged the eon between free tribal

organization (Isserlin 1998:8; Master 2001:201; Redford 1973:6). The final establishment

of a full kingdom occurred under King David in ca.1004-965 BCE. David made

Jerusalem the capital of the united Israelites whilst establishing Israel as a major

international power (Paton 1897:24). This endevour resulted in major social, political and

economical changes for ancient Israel which ultimately changed the overall appearance

of the Israelite culture. It was however during the reign of Solomon, David's son (ca.965-

930 BCE) that the social, political as well as economical composition of the Israelite

society reached new heights as the developments metamorphosed the society from a

transhumant existence into a commercially active and prosperous civilization.

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Unfortunately, the peace and prosperity set up by David and Solomon were abruptly

ended after Solomon's death and the United Monarchy split into two rival states, namely

Judah in the south which lasted 350 years and Israel in the north which lasted more than

200 years (Isserlin 1998:8; Master 2001:201; Redford 1973:6). Due to this fragmentation

in Israelite identity the two states were fragile and open to foreign invasion. At first Israel

was invaded by the Assyrian kings Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BCE) and later Sargon II

(ca.722-720 BCE), a period the Nimrud Prism and Great Smmary Inscription show was

characterized by various deportations, almost total eradication of the Israelites in Galilee

and overall destruction, poverty and death (Finkelstein 1999:47; Master 2001:201).

Master (2001:201) notes that this saw Israel degenerating from a prosperous nation to a

vassal state and later to an insignificant and dependent state which was enfolded by

Assyrian districts. These destructive centuries in Israel were followed by the conquest of

Judah by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BCE who most of the Israelites

to Babylonia and ultimately marked the onset of the Jewish Diaspora (King & Stager

2001:383-387). Joffe (2002:451) notes that it is during this period that the Judean people

started their transformation into Jews as they developed a spiritual as well as a survival

mindset to guide their existence outside their Promised Land whilst instilling a need

amongst everyone to protect the future of their nation.

Unfortunately, the period 536-142 BCE was characterized by further foreign invasion

with Persian as well as Hellenistic rule. As a result, the traditional three-tiered social

hierarchy, from the families to the kings and finally the deity was disrupted (King &

Stager 2001:383).

5. A day in the life of ancient Israel

It is clear that despite appalling situations, which included finding their own identity after

drifting in the desert for a lengthy period of time; adapting to new social settings as well

as foreign attacks, the Israelites had a strong bond and sense of nationalism which

endured for many centuries. But what was daily life like for ancient Israelites? How did

they live? What did they eat and what did they do for entertainment? How did they

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survive? The discussion below aims to provide answers to the questions posed above and

to provide a holistic synopsis of this captivating ancient culture.

5.1. The role of families, clans and villages

Faust (2000:17), Isserlin (1998:101) and King and Stager (2001:36-40) illustrate that

during biblical times the joint family was the centre of Israelite society around which

religious, social and economic activities took place. Parents had the primary

responsibility to maintain law and order with the father being the ultimate authority. If

matters could not be solved inside the family, the village elders took over in carrying out

justice (Borowski 2003:21-22). The elders assembled at the town gate to discuss matters

and were also involved in military responsibilities. Due to their wisdom, the elderly were

entitled to respect and their responsibility was to transmit the tradition to the community.

Long life, reaching 80 years of age, was seen as a sign of accomplishment, divine

blessing and prominence (King & Stager 2001:58). With the development of urban life,

the office of city elders was developed following the example of village elders.

King and Stager (2001:36-40) and Isserlin (1998:101) indicate that the biblical family

adhered to six social mores and values. At first endogamy, which emphasizes a

preference for marriage between close family members, was prescribed. The families

were also patrilineal, wherein inheritance was kept on the father's side of the family, as

well as patriarchal, wherein the father was the head of the household. Furthermore,

patrilocality was also adhered to as the man brought his wife into his father's family upon

which she became a part of the household. The family was also polygynous, allowing a

husband to have more than one wife. This was mainly due to woman's low life

expectancy and her risk of barrenness (Borowski 2003:81-84). This practice however

occurred more among the elite than the commoners which was evident in the variety of

kings with their harems.

The entire family, old and young, participated in the community and had a specific role to

play which was mostly related to gender. For instance, men attended to military activities

and plowing whilst women helped with childrens' education and agricultural chores

(Borowski 2003:21-25). Although many laws worked against women as they were seen

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as their husbands' possession, they enjoyed respect at home where they exercised their

authority (Isserlin 1998:102; King & Stager 2001:49-50). Women were also responsible

for providing food and clothing, education to children as well as tended to flocks and

acted as professional mourners (King & Stager 2001:50-52). Women also participated in

daily worship activities, engaged in dancing and singing and played musical instruments.

For example, an ivory pyxis from Nimrud shows female musicians playing a double

flute, hand drum and ten strings on a rectangular frame resembling a zither.

The main motivation for marriage was economic (Borowski 203:81-83; King & Stager

2001:54-56). The main goal was to raise children and to protect family inheritance and

as a result individuals married at an early age. No sexual relations existed before

marriage as the bride was not seen by her husband until their wedding night. The wife

was expected to be a virgin although the husband did not have to adhere to this

requirement. Childbearing started soon after puberty. Divorce was not a common practice

(King & Stager 2001:57). The law of Deuteronomy 24:1-4 gives the husband, and not the

wife, the power to initiate divorce proceedings. This could take place at any time and

without any reasons together with no commitment to provide for the wife. The practice of

levirate was also common (King & Stager 2001:56-57). Should a man die without

children, his brother had he responsibility to take care of the widow for several reasons:

to prevent the widow from marrying outside the family; to carry on the name of the

deceased husband; and to preserve within the family the inherited land of the deceased.

Deuteronomy 25:5-10 shows that the first son borne by the widow was to be considered

the offspring of the deceased husband and not that of his brother (King & Stager

2001:56-57).

The clan which comprised various extended families had more power and was more

important than the family in the social order whilst the individual was at the bottom of the

hierarchy (Faust 2000:17; Isserlin 1998:100-101; King & Stager 2001:36-40). At the top

of the hierarchy however was the tribe which provided overall protection as well as a

sense of identity and tribal honour to the clans and the families. Later in Iron Age II the

state constituted the largest family of all in ancient Israel: the northern Kingdom Israel

was known as the 'household of Omri' whilst the southern Kingdom of Judah was known

as the 'household of David' (King & Stager 2001:39).

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The discussion above shows that the ancient Israelite society intricately and successfully

linked individual and family needs with those of the clans and the tribes. For instance,

punishment for a variety of private crimes, such as rape and adultery, took place in the

family context whilst crimes such as homosexuality, bestiality and incest were taken care

of by the tribe or administration (King & Stager 2001:59-60). It appears that this level of

interdependence strengthened the bond between, and ultimate survival of, the Israelites.

5.2. Religion: who did the ancient Israelites worship?

Religion played a significant part in ancient Israel (Jeyaraj 2008:137-141,147-148).

During pre-monarchical times religion was simple yet formed the foundation of the

Israelite frame of mind and behaviour. Their reliance on Yahweh was so strong that

despite the presence of numerous foreign cults they believed Yahweh would guide all

their endeavours (Raskovich 1996:449). Schloen (2002:59) notes that the monotheistic

Yahwism intensified in Canaan after the Israelite settlement and that the adoration

continued to intensify with frequent sacrifices of animals and the enjoyment of sacrificial

feasts. As a result, Yahwism strengthened social relationships among the Israelites, the

tribes and provided the Israelites with an opportunity to identify themselves as 'people of

Yahweh'.

However, the Canaanites introduced the Israelites to a very different approach to

monotheism, namely Baalism (Jeyaraj 2008:137). Baalism was associated with a socially

oriented fertility cult which was grounded in agriculture. The cult participated in human

and animal sacrifices to receive rain and food as well as cult prostitution to ensure

fertility among the Canaanites. Overall, the Canaanites believed that Baal, the male god

married to the goddess Ashtoreth, were nature divinities which brought blessing to their

family and crops.

The Israelites noticed the prosperity Canaanites enjoyed due to their religion and over

time became at ease with the cult (Goff 1939:151-152). In due course they attempted to

keep both Yahweh and Baal in their lives, practicing the blend of various ideas and

philosophies whilst transforming the religions according to their own ideas. The Israelites

starting engaging in cult prostitution, child sacrifice and the use of incense, aspects that

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Yahweh did not approve of (Goff 1939:151-152; see also Genesis 38). This association

with the new cult inevitably negatively influenced the Israelites' conception of Yahweh.

This was followed by an attack by the Midianites and Philistines which the Israelites

perceived as God's wrath for their transgression (Jeyaraj 2008:137-141).

Fig.2. YHWH of Samaria and his Asherah inscription

http://bigbible.org/sansblogue/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Ajrud.jpg

Fig.3. Iron Age Judahite pillar-figurine of fertility deity, possibly Asherah associated with Ba'al.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Asherah.jpg/220px-Asherah.jpg

Fig.4. Offering table at Sarepta, Iron Age II - http://www.bu.edu/anep/SareptaShrine1altar.gif

Fig.5. Iron I Incense burner found at Beth Shan, Stratum V - http://www.bu.edu/anep/incense3.gif

http://bigbible.org/sansblogue/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Ajrud.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Asherah.jpg/220px-Asherah.jpg

http://www.bu.edu/anep/SareptaShrine1altar.gif

http://www.bu.edu/anep/incense3.gif

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During the Monarchy Yahweh played a significant role in Israelite culture again (Jeyaraj

2008:142,149). For instance, Yahweh playing the main role selecting the political leaders

of Israel to the extent that it was the One God, and not a priest, who had the authority to

make this decision. The Israelites also engaged in a variety of Yahwism feasts (King &

Stager 2001:253). For instance The Sabbath, a day of rest and eating, was celebrated to

remember the creation (Exodus 20:8-11) as well as the freedom from slavery in Egypt

(Deuteronomy 5:12-15). Yahwism also influenced the Israelites' belief in the concepts of

'clean' and 'unclean' as it was stipulated in the Bible that whoever was unclean could not

come into contact with the holy: "Put on your beautiful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy

city; for the uncircumsized and the unclean shall enter you no more"(King & Stager

2001:363: see also Isaiah 52:1). The Israelites believed that a person was unclean if the

person had contact with a corpse or any dead animal; if the person had a skin disease; if

the person eats prohibited food as well as when the person has involuntary genital

discharges (King & Stager 2001:362-363).

But the influences of other cults and deities remained

strong. During and after the Monarchy, there is evidence

of the worship of a multitude of deities in Israel as well as

Judah (Herr 1997:141; Joffe 2002:453-454). The temple at

Arad shows that Yahweh had a wife, namely Asherah

(Borowski 2003:24-25). Further evidence was found in

several private homes which contained altars and shrines,

figurines of nude goddesses and amulets which were all

engraved with the names of Yahweh and Asherah. Also,

during the latter part of the Monarchy, zoomorphic and

human fertility figurines frequently occurred in Israelite

cult practices (Herr 1997:161).

Fig.6. The Canaanite god Ba'al, ca.1200 BCE

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg/180px-

Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg/180px-Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg/180px-Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg

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Why did such a diversion from a grounded monotheistic Yahwism occur? One can only

postulate that due to the inaccessibility of the Solomonic Temple to the general

population, and the subsequent establishment of numerous regional 'high places'

throughout the countryside to worship Yahweh, the Israelites had the freedom to

experience with foreign cults whilst contemplating the role of Yahwism in their own

culture (Herr 1997:128). It is notable though that whichever god was worshipped,

whether it was Yahweh, Ba'al or any other deity, it played a significant role in the ancient

Israelite culture.

Over time the Israelites developed their own ideas on death and the afterlife (King &

Stager 2001:363, 375-380). They believed in a continued relationship between the living

and the deceased and a deceased's well-being in the afterlife depended upon the

descendants' preservation of the patrimonial estate. But also, the Israelites believed that

the afterlife was dismal as the deceased were not able to praise God anymore. They

accepted as true that spirits of the dead were exiled from God and gathered in Sheol, a

dark placed located beneath the ocean floor. The Israelites believed that Yahweh

disapproved of any contact with the deceased and as a result, the practice of necromancy

was condemned in Israel.

The Israelites engaged in two types of burial, namely primary or secondary burial

(Borowski 2003:83-84; King & Stager 2001:364-365). In primary burial the deceased

was placed permanently in the burial site outside city walls and not moved after

decomposition. In secondary burial the corpse was placed in a tomb only temporarily

until the flesh decomposed, after which the skeletal remains were transferred to a pit to

make place for the newly deceased. Excavations in Jerusalem have unearthed more than

100 cave tombs and chambers and show that the burials defined the perimeter of the city

during the Monarchy.

The Israelites did not engage in embalming and cremating their dead but rather buried

them dead in pits, caves, cists and bench tombs together with their ornaments and

jewellery. This took place before sundown as an unburied corpse was seen as a disgrace

and a sign of divine judgment (King & Stager 2001:363). Clay coffin burials were

common in ancient Israel, especially during the influence of the Assyrian empire whilst

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sarcophagi and ossuaries only became common during the Hellenistic and Roman periods

(King & Stager 2001:368-370).

Fig.7. Cemetery at Tell el-Farah

http://www.bu.edu/anep/IrFarahT500.gif

Fig.8. Anthropoid coffin, found at Dhiban, Iron II

http://www.bu.edu/anep/059.gif

Death was followed by weeping and a period of mourning which lasted seven days (King

& Stager 2001:372-373). The period of mourning was a sign of respect to the deceased.

During this period individuals fasted and wore sackcloth whilst they also transformed

their physical appearance by rolling in ashes, sitting on the ground and tearing their hair.

http://www.bu.edu/anep/IrFarahT500.gif


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5.3. Housing: where did the Israelites live?

What did the ancient Israelites' homes look like? Artifacts and remains show that since

Iron Age I the two-storied four-room house, averaging 30-70m2, was the standard abode

for all Israelites (Borowski 2003:16; Faust 2000:19; Herr 1997:126). This type of house

was adequate for a nuclear family consisting of a mother, father and three unmarried

children and was widespread throughout Iron Age II. It must be noted that slaves,

foreigners or Israelites who have been declared insolvent and sold as slaves, often formed

part of the household and were the master's property (Isserlin 1998_101-102). However,

slaves could own property and no evidence exists for any slave revolts in ancient Israel.

The ground floor had a central space which was used for domestic and communication

purposes while surrounding side rooms provided space to protect animals overnight

(Borowski 2003:16-21). The second floor, furnished with basic furniture such as beds,

tables, seats and lamps, contained the private rooms:

"Let us make a small second story flat and put there for him a bed, a table, a chair and a

lamp stand, so that he can stay there whenever he comes to us"

(King & Stager 2001:34; see also 2 Kings 4:10).

Fig.9. Example of a four-room house used from ca.1700-ca.587 BCE

http://www.bible-archaeology.info/4room.jpg

http://www.bible-archaeology.info/4room.jpg

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Fig.10. Excavation of a pillared house, Iron Age I-II


The four-room house had a flat roof which served two purposes. It provided sleeping

space during warm nights and allowed the people to collect rainwater during the winter

months which was then collected in cisterns. Furthermore, a hole in the ceiling provided

fresh air together with natural daylight inside the house whilst ceramic lamps were used

to provide light during the night (King & Stager 2001:30). Windows contained no glass,

were small and few in order to protect the inhabitants from the dust from the streets and

the glare of the sun (King & Stager 201:30; Neufeld 1971:46; see also Hosea 13:3). The

popularity of this type of house is ascribed to its capability to expand and elaborate,

allowing an owner who becomes wealthy to expand on his simple house by adding rooms

along the axis of the central courtyard (Beebe 1968:50-52).

How did the Israelites construct their basic four-room homes? The abundance of stones in

the mountains allowed the highlands Israelites to construct their homes with hewn stones

while individuals who resided in the lowlands constructed their homes with mud-bricks

(Borowski 2003:16-21; Herr 1997:126). These materials were placed on foundations

which were set in trenches. This was followed by plastering the walls, a process

frequently repeated due to corrosion brought about by frequent rainstorms. Roofs, created

by crossbeams, were then covered with branches or reeds.


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Fig.11. A reconstructed Israelite house, 10th–7th century BCE

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monar

chy_period3.jpg/220px-A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg

The four-room house changed little during the Iron Age and dwellings of the non-royal

population remained essentially indistinguishable (Beebe 1968:50-56). This was evident

in excavations at Tell Qasile, Tirzah and Megiddo. This may have indicated not only

positive economic conditions which may have encouraged home holders to employ

contractors to construct their houses, but it could have also been the result of a powerful

and centralized influence on Israel or an indication of social equality. But dwellings at

Tirzah show that high walls between homes might have indicated differentiation in

economic status whilst dwellings at Tell es-Sa'idiyeh show an increased practice of

individualism in decoration toward the end of Iron Age II(Beebe 1968:56). This was

evident in the mud-brick wall of one house decorated with small stones while there was a

lack thereof at the dwelling next door.

5.4. Food and Diet: what did the Israelites eat?

What did the ancient Israelites eat? Borowski (2003:71-74), Herr (1997:119) and King

and Stager (2001:64-68, 91, 103-106) indicate that although the Bible lacks a detailed

description of how the ancient Israelites prepared their food, it has rich information on

the type of food the Israelites consumed. Overall, the Israelites relied on their

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg/220px-A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg/220px-A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg

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environment for subsistence and had an interesting, varied and healthy diet. Milk readily

available from cows and goats as well as bread, which could be easily produced over a

straw fire, appeared to form the staple diet. Cereals such as barley and wheat; legumes for

example chickpeas, lentils and broad beans and spices for instance cumin, coriander and

dill also formed part of the diet. Israelites also ate a variety of fruit, nuts and seeds, such

as pomegranates, mulberries, dates, carobs and dates; pistachios, almonds and walnuts

together with onions, garlic, leafy plants, carrots and cucumbers. Furthermore a variety of

condiments such as saffron, cloves, cinnamon, and honey together with mint, salt and

vinegar formed part of each meal.

Meat such as veal, lamb, beef and deer also formed part of the diet (Borowski 2003:65;

King & Stager 2001:65-68). It was obtained domestically rather than hunted and was

perceived as a treat set aside for social events. Borowski (2003:68-71; also see Leviticus

1:20-23) and King and Stager (2001:101-103) note that fried or grilled grasshoppers

together with salt and freshwater fish were also consumed together with wine and beer,

however drunkenness was not tolerated and was made out to be immoral. As a summary,

the Bible provides a comprehensive overview of an Israelite meal when Abraham fed the

messengers cakes, milk and cheese together with a prepared calf, wine, water and baked

goods (Borowski 2003:65; also see Genesis 18:6-8).

The Israelites had three meals a day and the time of consumption was determined by the

nature of the daily activities (Borowski 2003:73-74). For instance, in order to prepare for

a full day working in the fields, breakfast was consumed before sunrise. Breakfast and

lunch were light meals and consisted of fruit and bread and olives. Dinner, eaten at

sunset, was the social event of the day and comprised a stew, porridge and vegetables.

Furthermore, due to the lack of storage facilities and the Mediterranean climate, the

ancient Israelites salted, smoked or dried their meat and fish to preserve their food.

18

5.5. Health and illness in ancient Israel

Literature indicates that physical cleanliness was not a top priority in ancient Israel and

that sanitation was far below contemporary standards (Borowski 2003:69-74; 78-79; Herr

1997:120; King & Stager 2001:69-71). Lack of sanitation was evident in all aspects of

ancient Israelite life. For instance, the Israelites only washed their hands and feet on a

regular basis, rather than the whole body. Also, a lack of toilets resulted in the dumping

of human excrement in nature whilst waste was dumped in the streets. Additionally, due

to the non-existence of house drains fresh water was inadequate and water that was

collected in cisterns was often polluted. Moreover, due to the nature of the woven

garments the frequent washing of clothes was reserved for the elite.

Neufeld (1971:53-54) notes that the Israelites had very primitive table manners as not

only was food eaten with the hands, the sharing of plates and bowls was the norm and

mouths were wiped on sleeves. As a result, garments became coated with food which

inevitably led to the growth of micro-organisms. Neufeld furthermore states that utensils

were cleaned with sand or plant and oil juices. Overall, these unhygienic conditions

resulted in the ancient Israelites being subjected to numerous illnesses, such as blindness,

skin diseases, tuberculosis as well as leprosy, septic infections and mental illness.

Fig.12. Stairs leading down to the water system at Gibeon, Tell es-Sa'idiyeh

(http://www.bu.edu/anep/034.gif)


19

The ancient Israelites engaged in a variety of activities to counter their lack of sanitation

and the prevalence of illnesses (Borowski 2003:74-77; King & Stager 2001:69-72;

Neufeld 1971:45, 52,59). Firstly, insecticides such as smoking frankincense were used to

get rid of a variety of seasonal pests. Secondly, people spent as much time outdoors in

order to inhale fresh air rather than inhale the infected air associated with crowds in the

cities which encouraged the development of chest infections. Subterranean drains were

built in order to keep city centres dry while a variety of water systems, such as those

excavated at Gibeon, Gezer and Beer-Sheba, were built during the United Monarchy to

provide the inhabitants with fresh water. Public baths and heating systems were also

constructed, as found at En-Gedi, however it is unsure if it was meant for hygienic or

social purposes.

On a personal level, olive oil was smeared on an individual's head to prevent the spread

of head lice while the same substance was wiped all over the body in order to prevent the

skin from cracking in the hot and dry climate. Also poor as well as elite Israelites used

strong perfume made from indigenous and imported plants such as saffron and laudanum

in order to hide strong body odour.

Fig.13. First century BCE Judean hair comb used to get rid of the eggs of head lice, found at Qumran

(Zias 1991:41)

20

The ancient Israelites firmly believed that health and illness were strongly related to their

relationship with their One God (King & Stager 2001:75-77). Yahweh was seen as the

sole healer of illnesses to the extent that the profession of physicians was frowned upon.

The Israelites dealt with illness in two ways: at first prayer was used to ask for

forgiveness and healing whilst the sick person underwent ritual purification; also the

person was placed in quarantine (Borowski 2003:74-77). For instance, Psalm 30 shows

the association of prayer with healing:

"Yahweh my God

I cried to your for help,

And you have healed me"

(King & Stager 2001:82-84)

Circumcision, performed with a flint stone when an infant was eight days old, was also

perceived as a spiritual bond between Yahweh and Israel (King & Stager 2001:42-44; see

also Gen 17:10-14 and De Circumcisione 11:210). As a result all male Israelites had to be

circumsised and only those who were exposed to this ritual were allowed to take part in

Passover (King & Stager 2001:42-44; see also Exodus 12:48-49). It must however be

noted that Philo, a Jewish writer, was the first author to link circumcision with hygiene

rather than religion (King & Stager 2001:43-44; see also De Circumcisione 11:210).

How did the ancient Israelites treat diseases? Literature shows that they made use of

various medical techniques (King & Stager 2001:79-80). One technique was trephination,

evident in the pieces of skull with rectangular holes in it which was found in a grave at

Lachish (Iron Age II). The pieces clearly show that the individual(s) endured this

procedure to either relieve cranial infection, to rid the body of evil spirits or to remove

imbedded objects. The Israelites also relied on ingredients from their environment to heal

illnesses, such as myrrh, wild gourds and frankincense.

21

5.6. Dress and Adornment

What did the ancient Israelites wear? Neufeld (1971:53) and Isserlin (1998:97-100) note

that clothing during ancient times in Israel was based on the traditions from the Late

Bronze Age and had a variety of purposes (King & Stager 2001:259-266; 272-273).

Garments were basic and due to the warm climate and practical nature of their work were

loose fitting. Moreover, variation in type of clothing was based on gender, level of wealth

as well as climate.

Male and female clothing was very similar (King & Stager 2001:272). Both genders wore

medium or long-sleeved fleece tunics which were worn over their shoulders and held

together with a belt. A shroud decorated with tasseled ends was then thrown over the

tunic. However, due to a ban on cross-dressing, slight differentiations between male and

female garments occurred (King & Stager 2001:272; see also Deuteronomy 22:5). For

instance, females' outfits were longer compared to those of males. Women wrapped their

heads with shawls as well as covered their faces with veils on special occasions. Men on

the other hand decorated their tunics with tassels and also wore turbans. The difference

between men and women was also evident in their hairstyles (King & Stager 2001:282-

283). Women either wore their hair parted with a short fringe or curly, whilst men wore

their hair in a coil or in locks. Men also cut their beards short and had a clean upper lip

(King & Stager 2001:259-260).

Overall, numerous textile finds such as spindle coils and other weaving objects like

shuttle cocks and needles show that simple objects were used to produce clothing (Herr

1997:119). Excavations have also shown that textiles were used for a variety of

purposes, namely for curtains, basketry, wall rugs, tents as well as sackcloth, wall

decorations and shrouds (King & Stager 2001:146). The Israelites also engaged in the

dyeing, embroidery and tanning of fabrics (King & Stager 2001:158-159). For example,

Exodus 26:1 provides a detailed description of the embroidery of the Tabernacle curtains:

"Moreover you shall make the Tabernacle with ten curtains of fine twisted linen,

and blue-purple, red-purple, and scarlet yarns;

you shall make them with cherubim skillfully worked into them"

(King & Stager 2001:159).

22

Variation in clothing was seen in the different social classes in ancient Israel (King &

Stager 2001:272). For instance, in order to

differentiate themselves from the poor,

wealthier individuals preferred to wear

expensive and imported purple-dyed textiles

which were decorated with fringes and borders.

Priests and royalty also wore sophisticated

turbans and crowns together with linen

undergarments. Additionally, the poor often

went barefoot whilst more affluent Israelites

wore sandals. Furthermore, the Black Obelisk of

Shalmeneser III emphasizes regional differences

in clothing as wealthy men from northern Israel

are depicted wearing turned-up shoes together

with nightcaps which is in contrast with the

leather sandals worn by moderate Israelites.

Fig.14. Black Obelisk of Shalmeneser III

(http://www.bible-history.com/black-obelisk/Black-

obelisk-1.jpg )

Clothing also had to adapt to the physical and social activities that individuals were

involved in, such as military and social activities (King & Stager 2001:259-266; 272-

273). Soldiers for instance were dressed in short loin cloths which were joined with a

belt. Also, the Lachish Reliefs of Sennacherib show how Judahite leaders in general wore

sleeveless garments adorned with trimmings, yet when they visited the Assyrian king

their normal clothing was replaced by decorated headscarves and short-sleeved tunics

which were tied together with a belt.

Clothing had not only symbolic meaning but also religious significance (Isserlin 1998:97-

10; King & Stager 2001:258-259). For instance, an Israelite could settle his debt by

handing over his shoes to another individual, indicating a transfer of property whilst .the

removal of shoes when entering a holy place was seen as a sign of respect. Samuel 3:31

clearly indicates the symbolic meaning when an individual removes his clothes during the

http://www.bible-history.com/black-obelisk/Black-obelisk-1.jpg

http://www.bible-history.com/black-obelisk/Black-obelisk-1.jpg

23

mourning process: "Tear your clothes, and put on sackcloth, and mourn over Abner"

(King & Stager 2001:259). It is apparent that clothing played a significant part in the

ancient Israelite culture to the extent that the textile industry was only second to the

agriculture industry in importance (King & Stager 2001:259-260).

Fig.15. Lachish reliefs

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Lachish_Relief,_British_Museum_1.jpg

Fig.16. Incised bone pendants and beads on a necklace – Iron Age II (Gibeon Tomb 3)

http://www.bu.edu/anep/GibeonT3Beads.gif

Fig.17. Jewelery from the North Cemetary Beth Shan (http://www.bu.edu/anep/087.gif)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Lachish_Relief,_British_Museum_1.jpg

http://www.bu.edu/anep/GibeonT3Beads.gif


24

The ancient Israelites went to great lengths to beautify themselves and adorn their

garments (Isserlin 1998:99-100; King & Stager 2001:267-281). For instance, jewelery

played a significant part in the Israelite culture as not only did it indicate wealth, it was

used as a currency and also served religious purposes. Jewelery was made of bronze and

silver and included anklets, nose rings, bracelets as well as necklaces and earrings.

Jewelry often also contained semi-precious stones such as steatite, carnelian and red

limestone. Women used malachite and galena mineral powders to produce eye cosmetics,

though women who wore eye paint were perceived to be of ill repute.

5.7. Arts and creativity

Joffe (2002:442-444) together with King and Stager (2001:129) note that at the beginning

of Iron Age I the Israelites showed a lack of ingenuity and originality when it came to

their material culture. This could have been result of the Second Commandment

prohibiting the Israelites from idolisation rather than art per se. This strong influence of

religion on art is seen in the most famous artistic artifact from the tenth century BCE,

namely the Taanach cult stand (Herr 1997:128). The register at the bottom shows the

fertility deity Asherah whilst the second row shows an empty space which could have

been reserved for Yahweh. The third register depicts Asherah's lions whilst the upper

register shows a solar disc which might have indicated Yahweh worship. Art for the

ancient Israelites rather had a utilitarian use which was evident in the variety of clay

objects they produced (Herr 1997:119). This included cooking pots, bread ovens, seals as

well as weights and lamps. Cooking pots for instance had flat bottoms which not only

allowed it to be placed on hot coals for a lengthy period of time it also allowed heat to be

distributed evenly.

25

Fig.18. Taanach cult stand

http://cnes.cla.umn.edu/courses/archaeology/Taanach/images/TaanachCultStand.jpg

Art in ancient Israel however undergone a metamorphosis during the ninth and eight

centuries BCE due to the economical boom, urbanisation and exposure to foreign ideas

and material culture (Joffe 2002:444; 449). Finkelstein (1999:40-41) notes the

emergence of large-scale centralized workshops during this period, together with the

standardization of ceramic form in pottery as well as the shipment of art to foreign places,

all indicative of a full-blown state government. During this period traditional traits in

pottery gave way to a new 'royal culture' which showed a strong Phoenician influence.

This was evident in potters replacing the hand burnish technique in favour of wheel

burnishing ceramics which were seen in the red burnished 'Solomonic pottery' in the

Southern Levant, the ceramic 'hippo storage jars' which were popular in the north of

Israel as well as the 'Samaria Ware'.

http://cnes.cla.umn.edu/courses/archaeology/Taanach/images/TaanachCultStand.jpg

26

Fig.19. Black-on-red Juglet (Beth Shan)

http://www.bu.edu/anep/BethShanBoRed.gif

Fig.20. Gold and Ivory fragment Inlay Floral Pattern, Lotus, Lily – 3.8x4cm, Iron Age II

http://www.antiquities.org.il/t/images/300/1227324.jpg

Fig.21. Fragment inlay decorated in relief, palm pattern, Iron II, found at Samaria


Foreign ideas, especially Assyrian, also filtered into the architecture of royal cities. For

instance the temples, public buildings and palaces at Hazor, Tell Jemmh, Yokneam and

Beth-Shean underwent major improvements in appearance and showed a large courtyard

surrounded by various rooms on all sides (King & Stager 2001:201-202, 208). In fact,

pillared buildings, with three long parallel rooms, built on a grand scale became the most

common form of public architecture during the Monarchy. But the grand scale of

architecture was especially obvious in Solomon's building activities. For instance, in his

palace complex was a Hall of Pillars, the Hall of the Throne and a house for the pharaoh's

daughter. The House of the Forest measured 25x50m and had cedar pillars resembling a

forest.

Decoration of buildings was also affected by foreign influence. This was seen in the

Samaria ivories in which the depiction of natural scenes, women as well as the Egyptian

goddesses Nephthys and Isis were common (Herr 1997:141). Also, the palmette, the

scarab beetle and the rosette were common decorative elements and are presumed to have

been symbols of the United Monarchy (Herr 1997:161).

http://www.bu.edu/anep/BethShanBoRed.gif



27

In contrast to art during the pre-monarchical period music, vocal as well as instrumental,

formed a core part of every day existence for ancient Israelites (King & Stager

2001:285). Not only did music form part of family and domestic life it was also included

in social and court life, at festivals and was used to celebrate war victories.

Fig.22. Layout of the Samaria royal complex during time of the Monarchy

http://www.bu.edu/anep/Samaria.gif

The importance of music however increased during the United Monarchy, as seen in the

presence of music in the coronation of the king, and it was during this era and especially

the Persian Period that the occupation of musicians emerged and became sought after

professions (Borowski 2003:87-91; King & Stager 2001:285-289):

http://www.bu.edu/anep/Samaria.gif

28

"Your solemn processions are seen, O God,

the processions of my God, my King, into the sanctuary – the singers in front, the

musicians last, between them the girls playing the tambourines"

(King & Stager 2001:285-289; see also Psalm 68:25-26)

The Israelites enjoyed playing a variety of musical instruments which were made of

elements readily available, such as silver, gold, bronze and often also clay (King &

Stager 2001:291-292, 294-298). Instruments included wind, string and also percussion

instruments such as the tambourine and the lyre (Borowski 2003:93-98): "Jubal was the

ancestor of all those who play the lyre and pipe" (King & Stager 2001:285; see also

Genesis 4:21). Furthermore, dance often accompanied musical performance, but unlike

their Egyptian neighbours, the Israelites did not engage in any dancing when burials and

mourning took place (King & Stager 2001:298-299).

Fig.23. Engraved flute, Iron II, 1.7x10cm. Found at 'En Gedi – Goren, Tell


Fig.24. Ivory zoomorphic stopper in the shape of a male ibex, Iron Age II, 6.9x3.7cm.


Fig.25. Three Astarte figurines from Judah:

http://www.lessing-photo.com/p2/080502/08050251.jpg

Fig.26. Glass head bead worn as a pendant – 5th-6th century BCE.

http://www.hebrewhistory.org/images/factpaper/13-IIc.gif



http://www.lessing-photo.com/p2/080502/08050251.jpg

http://www.hebrewhistory.org/images/factpaper/13-IIc.gif

29

The emergence of creativity during the United Monarchy provided a vast array of visual

arts which included paintings, glass and metal works together with clay figurines,

drawings and wood and stone arts (Borowski 2003:93-98). For instance, Meyers

(1991:17) indicates that small female terracotta figurines, probably used for religious

puroses, have been discovered at almost every site in Iron Age settlements. Although the

figures varied in shape and size, the most ordinary was the Astarte figurine with arms

folded over the breasts.

5.8. Education, literacy and language

There is not much evidence of education among the average Israelites before the eighth

century as it was primarily reserved for the elite (King & Stager 2001:45-46, 310-315).

Rather, the focus was basic subsistence as parents passed down social, religious and

military tradition to their children through poetry, songs, proverbs and stories. For

instance, mothers taught their daughters domestic errands while fathers got their sons

involved in herding. The 10th century Gezer Agricultural Calendar highlights a variety of

agricultural activities over a period of 12 months which is further subdivided according to

seasonal farming activities. Herr (1997:127) however cautions to assume that it indicates

rural literacy.

2 months of ingathering (olives) / two months

of sowing (cereals) / 2 months of late sowing (legumes and vegetables)

a month of hoeing weeds (for hay)

a month of harvesting barley

a month of harvesting (wheat) and measuring (grain)

2 months of grape harvesting

a month of ingathering summer fruit

(Borowski 2003:27-28)

The Samaria Ostraca, the Arad as well as the Lachish Ostraca together with engraved

weights and vases, personal seals and seal impressions indicate that during the eighth

century literacy increased and became widespread (Joffe 2002:449). Writing, whether

30

private or official, was used by the elite as well as any modest individual who was

involved in the economy (Borowski 2003:99; Joffe 2002:449). This not only indicated

literacy among the privileged but also a multifaceted bureaucracy, the incorporation of

religion into worldviews and the involvement of the king in military and economic

matters.

Fig.27. Samaria Ostraca

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Ostraca_House_samaria.jpg

As more Israelites became literate together with an increased need for economic activity

and diversity, a cursive script started replacing the formal script which not only allowed

for quicker writing it was also available for anyone (Herr 1997:140, 159). This was used

for instance for writing receipts and list of names and objects in inventories. Its usage

became so widespread that it symbolized the democratization of writing which was

evident in the Hebrew Bible, the most important source of literacy information during the

monarchical period. There was also evidence of schools during this period:

"Draw near to me

You who are uneducated

And lodge in the house of instruction"

(King & Stager 2001:315-317; see also Ecclesiastes 51:23).

Herr (1997:159-160) shows that toward the sixth century BCE the Paleo-Hebrew script

derived from Phoenician prototypes was replaced by Aramaic. Today's Hebrew script is

a derivative of Aramaic writing as practiced by Jews during the Hellenistic and Roman

periods.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Ostraca_House_samaria.jpg

31

Scribal activity also increased during the Monarchy to the extent that scribes eventually

became appointed professions within the bureaucracy (Borowski 2003:99, 104-105).

Scribes were employed to correspond on bullae, to keep records of important events as

well as to do monumental inscriptions. This was evident in The Annals of the Kings of

Judah, the Lachish Letters, the 'lmlk' stamped jar handles of King Hezekiah's 701 BCE

revolt as well as the Samaria Ostraca,

Fig.28. Bullae inscribed in Hebrew, Iron II, 13x17mm – City of David


Common writing tools included for instance chisel for stone surfaces and a stylus to write

on metal (King & Stager 2001:304-307). Writing surfaces were mostly perishables and

included potsherds, wood, papyrus as well as leather, stone and metal, however clay was

the most common writing surface (Borowski 2003:99; King & Stager 2001:304-307).

For example, two silver plaques (ca.650 BCE) engraved with the name 'Yahweh' were

discovered in the Ketef Hinnom cemetery in Jerusalem, the first incident of 'Yahweh' on

an object excavated in Jerusalem. The famous Dead Sea Scrolls on the other hand were

written on tanned leather (King & Stager 2001:309-310). Papyrus is not mentioned in the

Bible yet came into usage in the seventh century BCE. Israelites used reeds fashioned as

brushes and dipped into red ink, derived from iron oxide and gum, as well as black ink,

charcoal mixed with gum or oil, to write on papyrus and leather.


32

Until the end of the seventh century Hebrew was the most common language spoken by a

variety of nomadic tribes (Schwartz 1995:11-12). However during the monarchical time

language use in Israel varied (Borowski 2003:6-10). Isaiah 36:11 and 2 Kings 18:26

demonstrate that northern and southern Israelites spoke with different dialects, elites in

Jerusalem spoke Aramaic whilst individuals from other areas spoke a language similar to

Canaanite, Moabite and Ammonite. In ca.300 – ca.70 BCE Hebrew was no longer spoken

as was wholly replaced by Aramaic (Schwartz 1995:12-12). It was only after ca.70 BCE

that Hebrew revived again.

5.9. Trade and Commerce: how did the ancient Israelites survive?

The economy in ancient Israel at the beginning of the first millennium BCE was very

basic (King & Stager 2001:189-192). The Israelites were agro-pastoralists with the

majority of any economic activity occurring within the house. Some bartering occurred

within villages and due competition between power families some degree of

specialization occurred, such as the production of wine. The village economy was based

on seasonal work centering on tilling the land and herding. (Borowski 2003:25-30).

Workers aimed to maximize the hours of daylight with production starting at sunrise until

sunset. The need to exploit daylight as much as possible consequently determined the

distance of the fields from the homes. If these were too far away, workers stayed in the

field overnight rather than traveling the long distances. Herding of goats, donkeys,

camels as well as mules and bulls had three benefits, namely providing meat and milk to

the Israelites, supplying wool and skin for garments, as well as dung to enrich the soil.

During seasons, when individuals were not involved in herding and agriculture, a variety

of occupations existed, such as metallurgists, potters, leather workers together with

glassmakers (Borowski 2003:30-31). Over time however the means of farming

production improved and a surplus of agricultural produce and by-products was created.

This enabled the development of the monarchical system, which relied heavily on taxes

that were paid from the surplus (Borowski 2003:26-27)

33

The fundamentals of the Israelite economy changed during the Monarchy. Long distance

trade as well as maritime trade boomed (Borowski 2003:56-57; Herr 1997:127; King &

Stager 2001:179-185). Overland trade moved commodities, such as fruit, vegetables and

livestock, wine and cheese as well as horses, chariots, grain and building supplies from

one village to another. All this was under royal control and resulted in the government

demanding taxes, fees and special permits to engage in trading with Israel. Not only did

families now have to focus on survival, they also had to provide their services and

products to the army, the elite, the priesthood and the king.

This royal initiative only sustained commercial infrastructure, it also supported the

monetary needs of the elite. The king added taxes to imported goods, such as copper,

horses, aromatics, linen and purple-dyed woven garments, which instantaneously turned

these goods into sought after luxury items (King & Stager 2001:194). Maritime trade also

boomed during Solomon's reign as he traded traded with Acco, Dor, Ashkelon, Jaffa and

Gaza (King & Stager 2001:179-185). Solomon was particularly known for his

commercial fleet, named the 'Ships of Tarshish', which formed the foundation for his

seagoing traders.

The bureaucracy continued to exert their control through conquering of neighbouring

territories, royal grants related to the newly taken land as well as tribute tolls and taxes.

Boer (2007:36-37) indicates that these conditions and the differentiation of wealth and

power in the hands of certain individuals resulted in the emergence of social class. The

bureaucracy was disconnected from the production of essential items for survival such as

food and clothing and relied on the poor to produce these essentials which they removed

from them. This could have taken place by persuasion, coercion or by exploitation with

the wealth and power concentrated in the hands of the king. For instance, food was now

not only used for consumption but also for negotiations and to pay taxes.

It was clear that the elites did not support the local communities, as indicated by the lack

of storage facilities in the urban centres (Joffe 2002:442). Rather, Solomon had 'storage

cities' where royal warehouses were located, ultimately highlighting the king's power and

wealth as he controlled international commerce on a large scale (King & Stager 2003:56-

57; see also 1 Kings 9:19). Overall, this shows that during the Monarchy the bureaucracy

34

was rather interested in creating a local presence in order to conduct their political affairs

(Joffe 2002:442).

Ancient Palestine's location made it both strategic and vulnerable as a player in

international trade and commerce (King & Stager 2001:176). For instance, major trade

routes contributed to Israel's economic success. This included the King's Highway, Via

Maris as well as The Way of the Sea, all connecting Israel with foreign regions.

Furthermore, the cities of Gezer, Hazor and Megiddo controlled various routes running to

Egypt (Herr 1997:127). Small paths also ensured that villages remained connected and

fortunately, due to increased monarchical involvement, roads were improved and

maintained (King & Stager 2001:189-192). To further support commerce, open markets

and enclosed stores together with overnight accommodations were readily available to all

merchants. But King and Stager (2001:189-192) note that the Israelites had a patronizing

attitude towards foreign traders, all part of the propaganda they used to strengthen their

commercial position.

During the economic boom in Iron Age II a shift occurred in the occupational setup of the

Israelite society. Occupations became professions as exposure to foreign ideas and

technology resulted in individuals improving their skills. For instance, Borowski

(2003:34-35) points out that 2 Kings 24:14 illustrates that in monarchical times metal

smiths were present during the exile to Babylon. As a result, rather than importing skills

such as carpenters and stone masons, the bureaucrats relied on local experts who

eventually started belonging to associations whilst upholding their knowledge within the

clubs and their families. Lastly, the traditional tasks related to survival were not replaced

by positions connected with the bureaucracy, such as weaving, masonry and pottery

(Borowski 2003:55-59).

During the Monarchy constant interaction took place between cities and villages. City

folk used middlemen to purchase commodities produced by rural people (King & Stager

2001:189-192). This exchange was done through bartering, haggling or the trade of

precious metals whilst the unit of exchange was determined by weight. The marketplace,

which contained shops such as butcheries and wine shops, was situated at the city gate

with a large piazza where merchants could trade their products.

35

Another consequence of the economic explosion, and possibly the largest, was increased

urbanization (Borowski 2003:42-44). The biggest factor that accompanied this

occurrence was the collection of all agricultural surpluses as taxes and resulted in the

modification of the outer appearance of ancient Israel (Borowski 2003:52-54). On the

whole, foreign merchants and ambassadors were imported which resulted in increased

prosperity for the few elites and the resulting need for sophisticated items. This resulted

in the emergence of cosmopolitan cities with ethnicities representing the Amorites,

Hittites, Phoenicians in addition to Egyptians, Transjordanians and Arameans.

Urbanisation also had negative consequences. For instance, cities became so densely

populated and so costly to live in, that the majority of Israelites were forced to move back

to the countryside (Borowski 2003:52-54). But the land belonged to the bureaucracy and

the Israelites had no more control over their land and resulted in the replacement of

agricultural occupations with positions in manufacturing, banking and commerce.

Additionally, the economy was also very unstable and due to the world of bad

investments, foreclosures, interest and mortgages the rich could become poor and the

poor could become rich overnight. This resulted in an overall insecure and restless

mindset among the majority of the population. King and Stager (2001:199) however

mention that although interest was widely practiced, it was only applicable to foreigners.

Boer (2007:36) and Borowski (2003:43-44) note that during these bureaucratic times the

temple-city became the core of Israelite society, functioning very similar to a modern

contemporary society. Boer uses the analogy of the temple-city as the axle and the village

communities as the various points at the end of the spokes to demonstrate the relationship

between the two entities. Although each facet of this economic hub exists on its own, the

village could not exist without the temple and the palace. Also, cities had different

functions and constantly changed due to economic and political pressures whilst their size

and plan maintained their position in the administrative hierarchy.

5.10. Warfare: an ordinary aspect of ancient Israelite existence

Prior to the Monarchy combat formed part of every day existence in ancient Israel

(Borowski 2003:59-61; King & Stager 2001:223). Warfare was so common that not only

36

were periods of peace seen as out of the ordinary, Israelites often thought that their

homeland had a wartime curse on it:

"You build a house,

but you will not live in it.

You will plant a vineyard,

but you will not harvest its fruits"

(Smoak 2008:19; see also Deuteronomy 28:30)

In pre-monarchical times the clan had the core military function whilst towns furnished

soldiers in times of need (Master 2001:124). However during the Monarchy the focus

shifted from clans wanting to ensure survival of the settlement to the king, the head of the

army, who gained importance whilst working towards keeping and strengthening his

bureaucratic power (Borowski 2003:59-61; King & Stager 2001:223-231; Paton 1897:30-

31; see also Amos 5:3). It was of crucial importance for the kings to maintain Israel's

critical position on the international trade routes as well as manage the constant friction

experienced by other imperial powers (Borowski 2003:59-61; King & Stager 2001:223-

231). As a result, alliances and treaties were the order of the day (Paton 1897:30-31).

Israel became a strong international military power and the country experienced peace for

a period of 40 years. During Saul's reign various strategic changes took place in the army

as well as in the type of weaponry used, yet a defensive position was maintained. It was

however during David's rule that the stance changed to offensive as David wanted to

maintain his territory. The success of David's army relied on three factors: first, he used

foreign mercenaries in his special forces which he combined with his foot soldiers;

second, David made use of a census to determine the composition of his armed forces, a

strategy normally used for military recruitment, slavery and levying taxes; third, he

ensured that military training formed part of every adult male's daily activities (Borowski

2003:35-41; King & Stager 2001:239-244). At this stage the soldiers were better armed

and drilled and proved to be much stronger than the tribal militia and over time replaced

it entirely. Overall, the rules of the new kingdom, robbed of the traditional kinship ties,

enforced its new authority structure on the former elites of the tribes and on the general

public (Master 2001:126).

37

However, following the demise of the United Monarchy and the loss of Israel's position

as an international power, war became paramount again when the country split into Judah

and Israel (Borowski 2003:59-61). Not only did the Israelites engage in fighting with

foreign enemies, Judah also recurrently engaged in war with Israel. The reason for

Israel's almost constant warfare at this stage was fuelled by various factors, namely her

economic conditions as well as her strategic placement on the Middle East's trade routes;

the environment and climate as well as, and most importantly, religion (Borowski

2003:59-61; Good 1985:386; King & Stager 2001: 223-231; 239-242). The Lachish

ostraca contain spectacular descriptions of the frenzied last-minute activities of Judeans

during the Babylonian invasion which ultimately saw the destruction of Jerusalem (Herr

1997:159).

What did the Israelites do to protect themselves? At first the Israelites built fortifications

around their cities whilst the villages kept the boundary walls (King & Stager 2001:231-

233). Although fortifications were not prominent in Iron Age I, it became a common

feature of Israelite cities, trade routes and along the Israelite borders in Iron Age II.

Casemate walls appeared in ca. 950 BCE and lasted until the eight century BCE, however

following the Assyrian attacks casemate walls were replaced by more solid walls, as seen

at Dan, Gezer and Hazor. In addition, the walls were strengthened with inner as well as

outer gates of wood and plated metal whilst tunnels inside the walls provided escape if a

city was sieged (Borowski 2003:46-49; King & Stager 2001:231-233). Gates on the other

hand served a trifold purpose: it contained watchtowers but also provided a public

assembly place as well as an area for individuals to conduct official and commercial

transactions:

"Hate evil and love good

And establish justice at the gate"

(King & Stager 2001:234-236; see also Amos 5:15)

38

Fig.29. Map of Tell en-Nasbeh clearly showing the outside walls (http://www.bu.edu/anep/Nasbeh.gif )

Fig.30. Casemate wall – Iron Age II (http://www.bu.edu/anep/025.gif)

http://www.bu.edu/anep/Nasbeh.gif


39

Furthermore, many cities had an acropolis where the king's palace was located and

provided the last resort for hiding in case the city walls were mounted. Also, the water

systems did not only provide the inhabitants of the city with water, it also acted as a

defense system (Borowski 2003:49). Overall it appears that most of the strategies that the

Israelites implemented served more than one function.

What did the Israelites use to engage in war? The Bible, as indicated in 2 Chronicles

26:14, indicates that soldiers wore protected clothing such as coats, tunics, leggings, and

boots as well as helmets and shields (King & Stager 2001:223-231). Swords, worn in a

sheath, were also common together with axes, spears, javelins, bows and arrows together

with iron or bronze blades.

Fig.31. Solomonic city gate at Hazor city

http://www.biblelandpictures.com/gallery/gallery%2FPLACES%2F3048-5-Hazor,-City-Gate.jpg Fig.32. Solomonic city gate at Gezer

http://bleon1.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/gezer_dsc01403.jpg

Due to the frequency and intensity of military activity it had a significant influence on the

Israelite society. As a result and due to the high risk of death during warfare, laws were

formulated to exclude individuals from participation (Borowski 2003:35-41). For

instance, Deuteronomy 20:8 describes how someone who has build a house without

bestowing it on someone else had to return from war before the house would be dedicated

to someone else. This act was seen when Gideon returned before his battle with the

Midianites (Judges 7:3).

http://www.biblelandpictures.com/gallery/gallery%2FPLACES%2F3048-5-Hazor,-City-Gate.jpg

http://bleon1.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/gezer_dsc01403.jpg

40

Borowski (2003:35-41, 59-61) indicates that the military also engaged in a variety of

tactics to ensure victory. Treaties, such as the pax Solomonica, and alliances through

inter-marriages were foremost part of the Israelite line of attack. Spies were also used

together with augury, the interpretation of the flight of birds, and extispicy, the analysis

of animal organs, to predict future outcomes of combat. Furthermore, in order to swiftly

assemble forces, the army sent out messages in the form of human or animal body parts.

Lastly and most importantly, religion played a significant role in determining Israel's

ideology on warfare (Good 1985:388). Yahweh was consulted in the decision to go to

war as well as regarding the outcome of a confrontational engagement. Borowski

(2003:35-41) notes that the Israelites referred to their wars as Yahweh's wars and anyone

who was their enemy was also Yahweh's enemy. Harper (1896:485) fittingly summarises

that "…the living God was Israel's God and Israel's helper". Good (1985:398) also

clearly indicates how these events are captured in the Bible:

"[Yahweh] cast Pharoah's charioty and host into the sea,

His finest troops were sunk into the Reed Sea.

The deep covered them,

They went down in the depths like a stone"

(Exodus 15:4-5)

"You [Yahweh] blew with your wind,

The Sea covered them.

They sank like lead

In abundant waters"

(Exodus 15:10)

The environment also played a significant role in the Israelite strategy. For instance, the

Israelites knew that they had to fight during spring in order to engage in combat in a dry

terrain whilst relying on their knowledge of heavy rain in order to trick their opponents

(King & Stager 2001:239-242).

Exodus 14:20-21 shows that the victorious outcome of war was celebrated by all in dance

and song (Borowski 2003:35-41). Celebration was further shown in the counting of the

bodies of the dead enemies; the collection of booty; burning of the enemy's city and

41

ultimately punishing the foreign leaders severely. The role of religion in warfare is

further evident in the belief among ancient Israelites that defeat was seen as legal

punishment from YHWH and that it was the direct result of judgment from God (Good

1985:390).

6. Conclusion

The former discussion shows how various factors contributed to the development of the

ancient Israelite culture. A few factors had a strong presence at first; other factors only

emerged over time while some remained constant throughout ancient Israel's history. At

first, the environment was the most important aspect to influence what life would be like

for the ancient Israelites: it determined what the Israelites would eat, where they would

live and how they would protect themselves. However, when God revealed himself to

Moses in ca.1250 BCE prior to the Exodus from Egypt religion infiltrated the Israelites'

outlook on life (Harper 1896:483). The Israelites realised that this One God could take

care of them and shifted their dependence on the environment for survival to their new

god. However, due to increased urbanization associated with international trade and

commerce and the exposure to foreign ideas during the rise of the United Monarchy other

factors came to the fore that also influenced the nature of the ancient Israelite society. For

instance, the people were exposed to doctrines and products unknown to them. This

resulted not only in an increased need among the Israelites to educate themselves but also

increased innovation and a need for more material wealth. This all happened against the

backdrop of the elite exploiting the poor.

Overall, these changes in sociopolitical factors resulted in Israel evolving from a simple

traditional culture of monotheistic agro-pastoralists, arranged around families and clans,

into a polytheistic society which focused on individual needs rather than those of the

family (Isserlin 198:287). But amongst all these societal changes the Israelites believed

in their One God, and despite periods where they experienced with other cults, their

religion remained constant in determining their outlook on life and was the one factor that

remained present in their culture until the Roman Period (Boer 2007:44).

42

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