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Westward Ho! Indo-aryans. Panjnad and Saptasindhu -- five and seven

rivers --navigation channels of 3rd millennium BCE, of Pañcanjanah

five peoples, Meluhha seafaring merchants

The context is geographic, hydrology studies of northwest Bhāratam, archaeo-metallurgical

evidence of Ancient Near East and Indus Script Corpora which validate the metalwork of

mleccha (meluhha) seafaring merchants and artisans -- a group of Indo-aryans of

Indian sprachbund called bhāratam janam, lit.'metalcaster folk'. Mleccha (meluhha), Proto-

Prākritam was parole, vernacular speech (vāk) evidenced in hieroglyphs of Indus Script Corpora

which deploy rebus-metonymy layered cipher for Meluhha speech; while chandas of Rigveda

was literary, prosodic Samskritam by philosphers of fire and of knowledge systems.

The monograph also reinforces the imperative of further PIE/IE studies based on this reality and

trade/cultural contacts of Meluhha (Indo-aryans) in Tocharian-speaker areas and Ancient Near

East: Westward Ho! of migrations of Meluhhan group of Meluhha metalcasters called bhāratam

janam into Ancient Near East as Meluhha seafaring merchants.

This monograph validates the evidence and views of Shrikant G. Talageri (2000, 2008) and

Nicholas Kazanas (2012) on the westward migration of Indoaryans and relative early chronology

of Vedic diction.

Shrikant G. Talageri, 2008, Rigveda and the Avesta: The final evidence, Delhi, Aditya Prakashan

http://ancientvoice.wikidot.com/article:rigveda-and-avesta-the-final-evidence

Shrikant G. Talageri, 2000, Rigveda: A historical Analysis, Delhi, Voice of India.

http://www.trueindianhistory.org/ppt/History%20of%20Rigveda.pdf

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Satellite image map overlayed with site indicators clearly evidences flusters of sites along the

Vedic River Sarasvati flowing from the foothills of Himalayas into Rann of Kutch sites, Bet

Dwarak and sites of Saurashtra in Gujarat. This riverine navigable channel together with the

Persian Gulf facilitated navigation by seafaring Meluhha merchants of Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu)

civilization transacting with interaction areas in Makan, Dilmun, Mesopotamia/Sumer/Elam and

beyond through Tigris-Euphrates river navigation into the Mediterrarean (Haifa, Israel).

Panjnad, Punjab

"Panjnad River (Urdu/Punjabi Shahmukhi: دنجنپ, Punjabi Gurmukhi ) (panj = five, nadi

= river) is a river at the extreme end of Bahawalpur district in Punjab, Pakistan. Panjnad River is

formed by successive confluence of the five rivers of Punjab,

namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. Jhelum and Ravi join Chenab, Beas joins Sutlej,

and then Sutlej and Chenab join to form Panjnad 10 miles north of Uch Sharif, lit. 'holy high

place' in Bahawalpur district. The combined stream runs southwest for approximately 45 miles

and joins Indus River at Mithankot. The Indus continues into the Arabian

Sea." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjnad_River A dam constructed in 1925, on the Panjnad just

after the Sutlej’s junction with the Chenāb is part of the Sutlej Valley (irrigation) Project. It

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provides irrigation channels for Punjab and Sindh provinces south of the Sutlej and east of the

Indus rivers.

Harappa is an archaeological site on the westbank of Ravi river.

The 400 archaeological sites of Cholistan of Bahawalpur province, explored by Rafique Mughal

are watered NOT by the Panjnad or Sutlej but by Hakra river, an extension of Ghaggar flowing

from Thar desert (Marusthali). This Hakra river which flowed into Arabian Sea, is now dry. The

archaeological sites of Cholistan were continuously inhabited from 4th millennium BCE, thus

constituting an Early Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu) civilization area.

Bahawalpur, Pakistan is on the present-day channel of Sutlej River before river joins Panjnad

river. Source: http://manaz.8m.net/

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Panjnad river (before it joins River Sindhu) is joined by five rivers (hence, the name panjnad lit.

'five rivers'): the five rivers are from east to west: Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum [which in

Rigveda are called: S'utudri (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Asikni (Chenab), Parus'ni (Ravi), Vitasta

(Jhelum).]

Saptasindhu

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Map of Sapta Sindhu (Nation of Seven Rivers): Theatre of Panchajanaah, Five Peoples by

Marius Fontane, 1881, Histoire Universelle, Inde Vedique (de 1800 a 800 av. J.C.), Alphonse

Lemerre, Editeur, Paris Source: http://www.newsnfo.co.uk/images/saptasindhu.jpg

The expression used in vedic texts sapta-sindhu or sapta-sindhavah lit. sapta (“seven”)

and sindhu (“streams or rivers”) gave rise to the glosses recognized historically: Indus and Hindu

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(RV 2.12; RV 4.28; RV 8.24). A cognate is Avestan hapta həndu. This expression suggests that

in Rigvedic times the Punjab (or Panjnad) as we know it today did not exist.

In RV 6.61.10, Sarasvati is called "she with seven sisters" (saptasvasā) indicating that the eighth

river may be Drishadvati.or Apaya (RV 3.23.4, Mahabharata Apaga.)

What existed was a region watered by seven rivers (sapta-sindhu) which, in addition to the five

rivers of S'utudri (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Asikni (Chenab), Parus'ni (Ravi), Vitasta

(Jhelum), included Sindhu river in the west and Sarasvati river in the east.

Rigveda refers to three rivers, naming Sindhu, Sarasvati and Sarayu, thus clearly distinguishing

Sindhu and Sarasvati apart from other five rivers: S'utudri (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Asikni

(Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vitasta (Jhelum)

Let the great streams come hither with their mighty help, Sindhu, Sarasvati, and Sarayu

with waves. Ye Goddess Floods, ye Mothers, animating all, promise us water rich in fatness and

in balm. (RV 10.64.9)

Rigveda refers to Sarasvati as Sindhumaataa, mother of rivers: आ यत य त त त | य य त य य || aa yata

saakam yazaso vaavas'aanaah sarasvatii saptathii sindhumaataa yaah sushvayanta sudhaaraa abhi

savena payasaa peepyamaanaah (RV 7.36.6) Trans. May the seventh (stream), Sarasvati, the

mother of the Sindhu and those rivers that flow copious and fertilizing, bestowing abundance of

food, and nourishing (the people) by their waters, come at once together.

This is an elucidation of Sarasvati as the best of rivers: ambitame naditame devitame sarasvati

apras’astA iva smas’I pras’astim amba nas krudhi (RV. 2.41.16) best of mothers ... best of rivers

... give us fame, recognizing that we are without fame. Ascertaining the wishes of the great sages

the best of rivers (the Saras vati) incorporated AruNA with her own body; formerly the flow (of

the AruNA) was hidden. Afterwards (the Sarasvati) inundated the divine AruNA wih its own

waters.

य त त त त य | य त तय य य य || Trans. Favour ye this my laud, O Ganga, Yamuna, O Sutudri, Parushni and

Sarasvati (RV 10.75.5)

With Asikni, Vitasta, O Marudvrdha, O Arjikiya with Susoma hear my call.(RV 10.75)

Vishnu Purana mentions Drishadwati, Vipasa, Iravati, Vitasta: Bahuda 6; the

satadru, Chandrabhaga, and great river Yamuna; the Drishadwati 7, Vipasa 8, and Vipapa, with

coarse sands; the Vetravati, the deep Krishnaveni, the Iravati 9, Vitasta 10, Payoshni 11, (VP

2.3)

The region of saptasindhu (lit. seven rivers) of Rigvedic times can be reconstructed showing the

ancient hydrological map of northwest Bharatam (India): 1. Sindhu (Indus), 2. Vitasta (Jhelum);

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3. Asikni (Chenab); 4. Parus'ni or Airavati (Ravi); 5. Vipasa (Beas); 6. S'utudri (Sutlej); 7.

Sarasvati. (Map after KS Valdiya, 1996)

Consistent with the explanation of Bharatam Janam as lit. 'metalcaster folk' who lived in the

region of seven rivers, the people are divided into 5 categories of artisans or metalworkers:

goldsmith, blacksmith, engraver, carpenter, smelter, as attested in a Tamil gloss:

pañca-kammāḷar, n. < pañcantaṭṭāṉ, kaṉṉāṉ, ciṟpaṉ, taccaṉ, kollaṉ;

, , ,

. ( . அ .)(Tamil)

In RV 6.61.9, 12, the five Vedic people (Anu, Turvasa, Druhyu, Puru and Yadu) are proclaimed

to have spread out beyond the Seven rivers:

त य त त य

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saa na vizvaa ati dvishah svasR anyaa RtaavarI atannaheva suuryah

Trans. She (Sarasvati) has spread us all beyond the other (7) sister (-rivers) as the sun spreads

out days. (RV 6.61.9,12)

Five Vedic people expanding beyond Saptasindhu (After Fig.2 Nicholas Kazanas, Rigvedic all-

comprehensiveness,"...George Dales published in 1966 his seminal article showing that there had

never been an invasion nor fighting and destruction in Saptasindhu. All expert archaeologists of

the ISC (=Indus-sarasvati civilisation) insist now on the unbroken continuity of the culture

there...As we saw earlier RV 6.1.9,12 says: The five tribes spread beyond the Seven Rivers.

Other hymns state that the sages and their ancestors had always been 'here' (Angiras family 4.1.3;

Vasishtha 7.76.4). And the vast Vedic corpus does not contain one single reference to an

immigration, not one memory of a different previous habitat unlike the Hebrews who, in their

Old Testament, record previous homelands, sojourns into other lands and other people met on the

way to their historical habitat. On the contrary, apart from Rigvedic references of Aryan sages

and laws spreading abroad, Baudhayana Srautasutra 18.14 says, there were two migrations of the

Aryans: the eastern one called Ayava moving into the Gangetic plains and further; the western

one Amavasa engendering the Gandharis, Parsus (=Persians) and Arattas (=people of Ararat, by

the Black sea, or Urartu, just south of Ararat). Note, that the Iranians record in Avesta that they

had passed from Haptahendu (=Saptasindhu) and Haraxvaiti (=Sarasvati) whereas the Indo-

Aryans do not mention any travel from Iran into Saptasindhu, nor, more important, from

northwestern regions into Iran. Back in 1997 Joahna Nichols, an accomplished linguist and by no

means a supporter of Indo-Aryan indigenism, had calculated on linguistic types of evidence

(loanwords, isoglosses etc.) that the area of dispersal was in Bactria. She probably would be very

pleased to know that Vedic and Avestan literary sources provide historical evidences as well for

her conclusions. Yes, from Saptasindhu proper the Indo-Aryans spread west and north but it was

from Bactria, the much wider Saptasindhu, that they dispersed even farther." (p.21, pp.34-

35) http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/svimarsha/v6/c2.pdf

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Indoaryan migrations, eastward and westward. After Fig. 5 Nicholas Kazanas ibid.

https://www.scribd.com/doc/264009611/Rgvedic-All-comprehensiveness-Nicholas-Kazanas-

2012

pañcan num. a. (Always pl., nom. and acc. ) Five. 1 a man, man- kind. -2 N.

of a demon who had assumed the form of a conch-shell, and was slain by Kṛiṣṇa; त त त Bhāg.3.3.2. -3 the soul. -4 the five classes of beings; i. e. gods, men,

Gandharvas, serpents and pitṛis; य आ त त Bṛi. Up.4.4.17. -

5 the four primary castes of the Hindus ( , य, य and ) with the Niṣādas or

barbarians as the fifth (pl. in these two senses); (for a full exposition see Sārirabhāṣya on Br.

Sūtras 1.4.11-13) (TS. S'Br.). (- ) an assemblage of five persons. - a. devoted to the five

races. (- ) an actor, a mimic, buffoon, one who is devoted to the pentad viz. singer, musician,

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dancer, harlot and a jester; य - त त Bhāsāvritti on

P.V.1.9. (Samskritam.Apte) 'five elements'; 'assemblage of 5 persons' (Monier-

Williams, p.576).

hinduḥ also . N. of the people of Hindusthan or Bhāratavarṣa. The name appears

to have been derived from Sindhu, the name of the celebrated river where the Vedic Āryans

recited their Vedic mantras. In the Avesta is pronounced as ; so was pronounced

by the Persians as त . The Bhaviṣya-Purāṇa speaks of त . Here are a few references

in a few Kośas and the Purāṇas :- (1) The Kālikā-Purāṇa says, " त । य त य ॥" (2) The Merutantra of the 8th century A. D.--

" त य त त । य य य यत य ॥" (3) The

Rāmakośa--" त य । त य ॥" (4)

The Hemantakavikośa-- " य त त " (5) The Adbhutarūpakośa--

" ।"

"Beyond the confluence of Indus and Panjnad rivers, the Indus river was known as Satnad (Sat =

seven) carrying the waters of seven rivers including Indus river, which is believed to be in earlier

times the Saraswati/Ghaggar/Hakra river which eventually dried and became a seasonal river due

to seismic shifts in the glacial region of Himachal Pradesh where it originated and later on Kabul

river and the five rivers of Punjab".http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjnad_River

The chronological changes in the hydrology of Northwest Bharatam related to the seven rivers

have been subjected to many geological, glaciological and archaeological studies.

The consensus which emerges is that a little earlier than ca. 5000 Before Present, a series of plate

tectonic events resulted in river migrations: First, eastward migration of Yamuna due to Yamuna

tear caused by the lateral shift in Siwalik ranges and transfer of Bata valley (Sarasvati waters

from Tamasa-Giri tributaries) waters into Yamuna; second, westward migration of Sutlej at

Ropar and gradual depletion in flowsx of glacier waters into Sarasvati River (Ghaggar-Hakra-

Nara-Wahind channels).

Until the final shift of Sutlej river migration westwards from Ropar towards Panjnad and Sindhu

occurred (i.e. ca. 5000 BP), there were navigable channels available on the Sarasvati River

system to facilitate transactions by seafaring Meluhha merchants from sites such as Harappa,

Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Banawali, Kalibangan, Bhirrana, Dholavira, Khirsara, Surkota, Kanmer,

Shikarpur, Bet Dwarka, Ganweriwala, c. 400 Cholistan sites (on the banks of Ghaggar-Hakra),

Chanhudaro, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal.

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When did Sutlej cease to be a tributary of River Sarasvati (Ghaggar-Hakra)? ca.5000 BP

says Prof. KS Valdiya

It appears that there are three dates for Sutlej ceasing to be a tributary of River Sarasvati

(Ghaggar-Hakra).

Rafique Mughal suggests 2500 BCE based on the presence of about 300 archaeological sites in

Cholistan -- NOT on the banks of present-day Sutlej or Panjnad -- but on paleochannels of Hakra

(extension of Ghaggar). These channels link up with the fork of Ghaggar at Anupgarh (shown by

LANDSAT image), with another fork flowing southwards towards Jaisalmer.

KS Valdiya suggests 5000 BCE a date which explains sites like Ropar, Banawali, Kalibangan,

Bhirrana as sites on Sutlej-Ghaggar channels, consistent with the naiwals south of Ropar and

consistent with the archaeological attestation of these sites as close to navigable waterways.

Clift et al suggest 10000 BP based on Pb-Zircon studies of present-day channels of Sutlej -- "no

later than 10 ka. Capture of the Yamuna to the east and the Sutlej to the north rerouted water

away from the area of the Harappan centers..." (Clift, P. D., A. Carter, L. Giosan, J. Durcan, A.

R. Tabrez, A. Alizai, S. VanLaningham, G. A. T. Duller, M. G. Macklin, D. Q. Fuller, and M.

Danish, U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and Capture of the

Yamuna River, Geology. v. 40, 3, p. 212-215, doi:10.1130/G32840.1/

2012_Clift_etal_Geology.pdf)

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We seem to be dealing with two plate tectonic events here: 1. eastward shift of Yamuna caused

by the Yamuna-tear by lateral shift on Siwalik ranges; 2. wesward 90-degree shift of Sutlej at

Ropar. Maybe, the two events occurred on two different dates, with the Yamuna-tear occurring

at an earlier date, maybe 10 ka. But, the date of Ropar 90-degree shift seems to be a date later

than 10 ka.

This surmise is based on the fact that there are NO archaeological sites on the present-day

channel of Sutlej west of Ropar, but there are archaeological sites of the riverine civilization 1.

south of Ropar -- sites such as Ropar, Banawali, Kalibangan, Bhirrana, Ganweriwala; and along

Ghaggar-Hakra paleochannel in Cholistan, over 300 archaeological sites identified by Rafique

Mughal which are NOT on the banks of the present-day channels of Sutlej or Panjnad. It also

appears that the riverine/seafaring contacts with Mesopotamia across the Persian Gulf ceased

after Sutlej waters gradually shifted westwards at Ropar and finally ceased flowing into Sarasvati

River (Ghaggar-Hakra), ca. 2000 BCE

The argument and evidence

Yashpal et al studied the LANDSAT imagery of palaeochannels (Refer – “Remote sensing of the

Lost Sarasvati River (1980)” and deciphered these as under :-

[Present river system and the major palaeochannels as deciphered from LANDSAT imagery

(after YashPal et at-1980)]– pg 123 of Memoir 42 of GSI, Bangalore.

The study led to the description of present drainage system and palaeochannels of Sarasvati and

its tributaries and it supported the following conclusions :-

(i) The Sutlej once flowed into the present Ghaggar (Sarasvati) river bed and was probably

joined by the Yamuna.

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(ii) The Sutlej has a sharp westward right-angled bend near Ropar suggestive of its diversion due

to change in the river course.

(iii) There is a sudden widening of narrow Ghaggar valley at Shatrana (25 Km south of Patiala)

indicative of a major river joining Ghaggar bed here.

(iv) Another channel which corresponds to the Drishadvati (present Chautang) joins Sarasvati

(Ghaggar) near Suratgarh.

(v) That the Yamuna probably flowed into the ancient Sarasvati before joining Ganga through

Chambal.

(vi) Physiographically, there is depression westward (elevation less than 230 m msl) and a

corresponding uplift eastward (elevation more than 250 m msl) of the old Sutlej bed, which

might have forced its westward migration.

(vii) Near Anupgarh Sarasvati bifurcates and both channels come to an abrupt end at Marot and

Beriwala (in Bahawalpur Distt of Pakistan) from where Sarasvati is likely to have extended

through the Hakra/Nara bed to the present Runn of Kachchh.

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Landsat image showing the bifurcation of River Sarasvati at Anupgarh -- one channel flowing

westward into Bahawalpur province and paleochannel flowing southwards towards Jaisalmer.

4.13: Palaeo-drainage map of Thar desert region using IRS P3 WiFS satellite image

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4.16: Simplified map of Vedic Saraswati River from Manasarovar to Dwarka in northwest India

NEARCHUS reconstructed the Water Network Map of Hakra Channel (Yamuna-Sarasvati-

Sultej) in 1875 as under after conducting extensive geographical/geophysical surveys.

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[Reconstruction of water network in the region of the Hakra channel (Yamuna-Sarasvati-Sutlej)-

1874 – pg. 101 of Memoir 42 of GSI,Bangalore.

Thus, even in 1874 when drainage and palaeochannels network was reconstructed on the basis of

geological surveys, Sutlej and Drishadvati were shown as the tributaries of Sarasvati, whereas

Ghaggar and Hakra were described as its dried up palaeochannels, corroborating the satellite

imagery.

Archaeological Finds :

Archaeological excavations and research reports further corroborate the geological findings and

satellite imagery. More than 1200 ancient settlements on Sarasvati river basin have been dug out

giving clinching evidence of existence of a mighty river, which sustained maritime civilization

and metal-based economy prior to 3000 BC (S.Kalyanaraman in journal of Geological Society of

India No.42, 1`999 PP 25-33). It has been concluded that it was possible to travel on the

Sarasvati river from the gulf of Khambat to Mathura via Lothal, Dholavira, Granweriwala,

Kalibangan, Banawali, Paonta-Doon, Rakhigarhi and Indraprastha. Based on the evidence

gathered through exacavations, the Arachaeologists have concluded that between 7000 BC to

2500 BC an advanced civilization, vedic in nature, was flourishing along Sarasvati and Indus

rivers. When Sarasvati started drying up, Vedic Aryans moved towards west beyond Indus, east

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beyond Ganges & south beyond Godavari. It was the continuation of Sarasvati-Indus

Civilization, which was given the name ‘Harappan’ probably because the first town excavated

was Harappa. Archaeological Survey of India has dug out more than 2400 settlements at the

ancient Indus-Sarasvati river basins but no ancient settlements have been found along the present

day course of Sutlej (west of Ropar).

As per V.S.Wakankar, who is known as ‘Bhisham Pitamah’ of Archaeology, extensive

excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India have revealed that :

(i) Harappan and Pre-Harappan Civilizations developed along ancient Sarasvati and therefore

these may be more appropriately described as part of Sarasvati-Indus Civilizations.

(ii) Most of the Rishi Ashrams described in Ramayana and Mahabharata were lined along

Sarasvati river.

(iii) Perforated pottery jars and fire altars (µÖ–Ö•ãÓ›) are found in most of the 1200

settlements excavated along Sarasvati river indicating that civilization which flourished was

vedic.

(iv) Land was fertile and barley etc were cultivated in the Sarasvati region even 7000 years back

and same style of cultivating the fields continues till date in areas like Rajasthan & Haryana.

[Atharvaved (6:30:1)]

(v) It is unhistoric and unscientific to say that Vedic Aryans migrated from any other region to

India. They belonged to India & compiled Vedas in settlements along Sarasvati River.

The same culture and civilization continues till date, as has been convincingly described by Dr.

B.B.Lal, Director General (Retd.) of Archaeological Survey of India, in his book “The Sarasvati

Flows on – the continuity of Indian Culture”.

http://factsfootprint.blogspot.in/2012/09/mystery-of-sarsavati-river-missing-

of.html

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Sarasvati river sites in North India (Punjab and Haryana)

19

Sarasvati River sites in Bahawalpur Province (Mughal, 1984, p.515)

The Cemetery H related sites of the late Harappan period in Cholistan (circa 2000-1500 BCE)

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/04/drishadvati-ghaggar-hakra-river.html Drishadvati-

Ghaggar-Hakra River archaeological evidence points to ca. 2500 BCE as the start date for the

desiccation of Vedic River Sarasvati

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Fig. 1: Simplified map of the terranes through which the Saraswati River flows in northwestern

India. The faults shown by thicker lines have influenced the course of the Saraswati. Broken

double lines show the ancient course of the Saraswati. (From Valdiya, based on works of S.

Sinha Roy, AB Roy and SK Biswas).

21

The triangular area between Ropar (where the River Sutlej abruptly turns west) and Ferozepur

and Bathinda in the south represent an ancient fan deposit.

22

Evidence for Sutlej-Sarasvati as a Himalayan river system. Visit Ropar. A suggestion to Liviu

Giosan et al.

From tectonically to erosionally controlled development of the Himalayan orogen

Thiede et al. Geology 2005 33 (8), p. 689

Rasmus C. Thiede, J Ramon Arrowsmith, Bodo Bookhagen, Michael O McWilliams, Edward R.

Sobel and Manfred R. Strecker Geology 2005; 33; 689-692, The Geological Society of America

Abstract

Whether variations in the spatial distribution of erosion influence the location, style, and

magnitude of deformation within the Himalayan orogen is a matter of debate…The locus of

pronounced exhumation defined by the apatite fission-track (AFT) data correlates with a region

of high precipitation, discharge, and sediment flux rates during the Holocene. This correlation

suggests that although tectonic processes exerted the dominant control on the denudation pattern

before and until the middle Miocene; erosion may have been the most important factor since the

Pliocene…

Geological setting of the Northwestern Himalaya

Sustained Eurasian-Indian convergence since the continental collision ca. 50 Ma has caused

persistent lateral and vertical growth of the Himalaya, which has been accommodated by

progressive motion along a series of major crustal fault systems: the Southern Tibetan

detachment, the Main Central thrust, the Main Boundary thrust, and the Main frontal thrust.

These orogen-parallel fault systems bound the main Himalayan tectonostratigraphic domains,

which are underthurst by the Indian plate along the basal Main Himalayan thrust.

…Although the southern Himalayan front is affected by heterogeneous erosion at the million

year time scale, the topography forms a nearly perfect arc. Focused erosion is thus compensated

by self-organized thrust activation resulting in heterogeneous distribution of rock uplift and

exhumation. Rapid rock uplift in tur may keep the longitudinal river profiles steep, forcing the

rivers to further incise. For example, the removal of the 10-15-km thick High Himalayan

Crystalline nappe, which today is replaced by Lesser Himalayan Crystalline rocks forming the

Larji-Kulu-Rampur window, indicates pronounced removal of crystalline rocks along the Sutlej

River network…

The development, however, toward synchronous exhumation of both crystalline nappe systems

may suggest that when a critical mass removal threshold is exceeded, the orographic barrier may

play a fundamental role in intercepting moisture and focusing discharge, erosion, and sediment

transport along an orogenic front. To compensate the erosional loss, the orogen is forced to

23

internally reorganize, and therefore erosion may control the distribution of exhumation and rock

uplift. For the past 10 m.y., the Himalayan deformation front has migrated only 20-50 km.

southward. Therefore internal rock uplift and focused exhumation concentrated orogenic

deformation in this internal sector, rather than propagating the deformation front southward.

Read the full text pdf document

here:https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4BAzCi4O_l4bXFJREpFSjR6VU0/edit?usp=sharing

Sutlej Valley from Rampur c. 1857

In the early 18th century, it was used to transport devdar woods for Bilaspur district, Hamirpur

district, and other places along the Sutlej's banks.

The Sutlej, along with all of the Punjab rivers, is thought to have drained east into

the Ganges prior to 5 mya. There is substantial geologic evidence to indicate that prior to 1700

BC, and perhaps much earlier, the Sutlej was an important tributary of the Ghaggar-Hakra

River (thought to be the legendary Sarasvati River) rather than the Indus, with various authors

putting the redirection from 2500-2000 BC,( Mughal, M. R. Ancient Cholistan. Archaeology and

Architecture. Rawalpindi-Lahore-Karachi: Ferozsons 1997, 2004) from 5000-3000

BC,( Valdiya, K. S., in Dynamic Geology, Educational monographs published by J. N. Centre

for Advanced Studies, Bangalore, University Press (Hyderabad), 1998.) or before 8000

BC.( Clift et al. 2012. "U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture

of the Yamuna River." Geology, v. 40. [2]) Geologists believe that tectonic activity created

elevation changes which redirected the flow of Sutlej from the southeast to the southwest.( K.S.

Valdiya. 2013. "The River Saraswati was a Himalayan-born river". Current Science 104 (01). ) If

the diversion of the river occurred recently (about 4000 years ago), it may have been responsible

for the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) drying up, causing desertification of Cholistan and the eastern

part of the modern state of Sindh, and the abandonment of Harappan settlements along the

Ghaggar. However, the Sutlej may have already been captured by the Indus thousands of years

earlier.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej

24

Today’s Sutlej is a tributary to the Indus.

It was in ancient times, thanks to the orogeny (growth of the Himalayas due to plate-tectonics) a

tributary of the River Sarasvati.

Thiede et al’s article (2005) embedded above points to the high rate of erosion caused by the

modern Sutlej river which has influenced the local faulting and rapidly exhumed rocks above

Rampur.

Cattle grazing on the banks of the river inRupnagar, Punjab, India

25

Crossing the Sutlej near Simla upon inflated animal skins

Sutlej river is 1,450 km. long, raising in the Manasarovar Kailas range, SW Tibet region. In the

Punjab it receives the Beas river and forms part of the Indo-Pakistan border and continues into

Pakistan.

Bhakra dam (229 m) impounds part of the water of Sutlej. The mean flow rate at Rupar is

approximately 500 cu m per sec, and the maximum is about 20,000 cu m per sec.

“Major irrigation canals from the Sutlej include the Dipalpur, Pakpattan, Panjnad, Sirhind, and

Bikaner canals. During floods, the canals carry 100 to 300 cu m of water per sec. During high

water, the Sutlej is navigable in some parts. The large Bhakra-Nangal hydraulic engineering

complex has been built in India at the point where the river emerges from the mountains. The

major cities on the Sutlej are Nangal and Phillaur in India and Bahawalpur in Pakistan.” (AP

Muranov). http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Sutlej+valley

Any study related to the history of evolution and secular desiccation of the River Sarasvati has to

take into account the migration of River Sutlej recorded at Ropar (Rupanagar).

Ropar is a very important archaeological site of Indus-Sarasvati civilization. A site museum is

also organized at this place and shoule be visited by any explorer or researcher evaluating the

causes for the ‘drying up’ of River Sarasvati .

26

This is the abrupt shift of Sutlej river westwards near Ropar, cutting off waters to River

Sarasvati. (http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm)This virtual 180 degree turn has

to be explained by the incision caused by the Himalayan river (Sutlej) near Ropar which gives

the appearance of a Grand Canyon today. This may answer the concern of some researchers to

look for incisions along the paths of tributaries, to define Sarasvati as a Himalayan-sourced river.

Sutlej river. Ropar.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/01/incisions-of-sutlej-and-90-degree-turn.html

27

JAN

16

Incisions of Sutlej and 90 degree turn at Ropar. Giosan et al should visit the Ropar

Archaeological museum

See the blogpost: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/01/sarasvati-was-himalayan-river-

ks.html Sarasvati was a Himalayan River -- KS Valdiya (2013) rejects Giosan et al arguments.

I hope Giosan et al would carefully evaluate evidence and arguments provided by Prof. Valdiya

and revise their findings about Sarasvati river system..

On one issue, some evidence exists even today. The issue concerns upstream of the alluvial

plains and alleged "lack of large-scale incisions' in the Ghagghar-Hakra"..

Ghagghar-Hakra stream is not far from Ropar where River Sutlej takes a 90 degree turn, a tell-

tale indication of tectonics resulting in river migration, Sutlej migrating westwards to join the

Sindhu (Indus).

28

Figure 10 (loc.cit. Valdiya). Block diagram by Sinha et al.42 shows the palaeochannels of the

Saraswati – including the one abandoned by the Satluj – and the extent of fluvial sediments

filling their channels.

Explaining the palaeo-channels of Sutlej into

Sarasvati River system.

One key issue not adequately evaluated by Giosan et al relates to the migration of River Sutlej

which is a Himalayan river. This river was feeding into the Sarasvati River system. Giosan et al,

looking into incisions? Here are some present-day images.

Hill erosion near river Sutlej, Ropar. Ropar is the location

where River Sutlej takes a 90 degree turn weswards to join the River Sindhu (Indus).

29

Hill view near River Sutlej.

http://travelingluck.com/Asia/India/Punjab/_1258042_Ropar+Headworks.html

A canal carrying industrial

effluents merges with the river Sutlej near Ropar international wetland

http://lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=7&sectid=edid=&edlabel

=TOIPU&mydateHid=24-08-2009&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar00700&publabel=TOI

Rampur Bhushair Sutlej gorge.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/63783963@N00/17386820 (Source: http://flickrhivemind.net/flick

r_hvmnd.cgi?method=GET&page=1&photo_number=50&tag_mode=all&search_type=Tags&or

iginput=river,satluj&sorting=Interestingness&photo_type=250&noform=t&search_domain=Tag

s&sort=Interestingness&textinput=river,satluj)

30

Sutlej en route to

Powari. http://farm9.static.flickr.com/8002/7203725524_8c034b82a7_m.jpg

Giosan et al should visit the Ropar (Rupnagar) Archaeological Museum which celebrates Ropar

as a 'Harappan' site. Why did the river Sutlej take 90 degree turn here? Where was it flowing,

southwards before this 90 degree turn?

This museum at Ropar is a cute, beautiful museum. I would strongly urge all researchers of

Sarasvati River basin and study of Hindu civilization history should visit this Museum and see

the Indus script seals excavated from the site and kept there. The excavations were carried out

by Dr. Y.D. Sharma of the Archaeological Survey of India."At Ropar excavations at the lowest

levels yielded Harappan traits belonging to Period 1. Findings include a steatite seal with Indus

scriptprobably used for trading goods, impressions of seals on a terracotta lump of

burnt clay, chert blades, copper implements, terracotta beads and bangles and typical

standardised pottery of the Indus Valley civilization. The earliest houses at Ropar were built with

river pebbles available in abundance but soon they made use of cut slabs of lime with the same

ratio of 4:2:1. Sun baked bricks were sometimes used in the

foundations." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupnagar

Ropar 1,Text 9021(One side of the tablet has two incised circles;

the other side has three glyphs of Indus script).

The occurrence of this archaeological site at Ropar and its identification as an early Indus site

(Period 1) has to be evaluated in the context of geo-hydraulics of the times. Is it not notable that

there are no major site locations identified on the present-day banks of River Sutlej as it moves

westward to join River Beas? Maybe, during the 'mature' phases of the civilization, the path of

the river was NOT westward? It may be helpful if a comprehensive provenance study is carried

out on this stretch of River Sutlej, of the type of study done on Luni river system by Bajpai et al

(as mentioned by Prof. Valdiya).

Museum - Ropar

31

Archaeological Museum, Ropar (Punjab)

The Archaeological Museum is situated about 40 kms north east of Chandigarh on the

Rupnagar – Chandigarh highway on the bank of sutlej river. It was opened to public in the

year 1998.

Opened to public in the year 1998, the museum houses the archaeological remains of

excavated site near Ropar, the first Harappan site excavated in Independent India. The

excavation revealed a cultural sequence from Harappan to medieval times. Important

exhibits include antiquities of Harappan times, Painted Grey ware culture, Saka, Kushana,

Gupta times such as Vina Vadini (lady playing on vina), steatite seal, copper and bronze

implements, ring stone, yakshi image, gold coins of Chandragupta. Besides, the visitors

can have a glimpse of important protected monuments of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal

Pradesh and World Heritage monuments.

Timings of visit: 10.00 am to 5.00 pm.

Closed on - Friday

Entrance Fee: Rs. 2.00

(Children up to 15 years free) http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_ropar.asp

Discussion

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/05/24/1112743109

I think Dr. Giosan et al have, in particular, to explain the date when Sarasvati ceased to be

a himalayan-fed river. The archaeological evidence is emphatic that west of Ropar

(Rupanagar) where River Sutlej took a 90-degree turn to abandon feeding into Sarasvati-

Ghaggar-Hakra system, there are NO archaeological sites. There is evidence for sites such

as Kunal, Banawali, Kalibangan on the palaeo-channels of Sutlej linking Ropar with

Ghaggar.

See image: http://tinyurl.com/burrxq2 (Posted also on the blogpost of Jan. 2013)

This indicates that Sutlej as a himalayan-fed tributary of Sarasvati system did contribute to

the sustenance of the sites at Kunal, Banawali, Kalibangan.

I am sure that the deliberation on scientific issues will help identify and explain the

navigability of the channels on Sarasvati river system which facilitated trade links with

Mesopotamia, navigating across the river channels, and the Persian Gulf. Navigability may

explain the find of a cylinder seal at Kalibangan with glyphs comparable to those found in

the sites of Tigris-Euphrates river basin, perhaps created by sea-faring merchants from

Meluhha.

Sarasvati was a Himalayan River -- KS Valdiya (2013) rejects Giosan et al

arguments

32

Saraswati was a Himalayan River (Valdiya, KS, Current Science, Vol. 104, No. 1, January

2013)

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 104, NO. 1, 10 JANUARY 2013, Pages 42 to 54.

http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/104/01/0042.pdf

Abstract

Giosan and co-workers contend that the ‘mythical’ Saraswati River was not a glacier-fed

Himalayan river. Questioning the findings of Indian archaeologists and geologists, they

postulate that the Saraswati was a monsoonal river originating in the foothills of the

Siwalik Hills and did not water the heartland of the Harappan Civilization. Reduction in its

discharges due to weakening of the monsoon rains resulted in its drying up, leading to the

demise of the Harappa Civilization. I have put forth a number of evidences gathered in the

last 10–15 years to show that their arguments are not acceptable and by giving eloquent

examples have asserted that the climate is not the only cause of all changes occurring on

the surface of the Earth, and that there are other factors, some more powerful, which bring

about changes.

Read on...

http://www.scribd.com/doc/120120964/Saraswati-as-Himalayan-River-Valdiya-2013

Saraswati as Himalayan River Valdiya 2013 by kalyan974696

Mirror:

http://www.docstoc.com/docs/141465952/SaraswatiasHimalayanRiverValdiya2013

SaraswatiasHimalayanRiverValdiya2013

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/01/sarasvati-was-himalayan-river-ks.html

Sutlej The Sutlej originates from the Rakas Lake, which is connected to the Manasarovar lake by a

stream, in Tibet. Its flows in a north-westerly direction and enters Himachal Pradesh at the

Shipki Pass, where it is joined by the Spiti river. It cuts deep gorges in the ranges of the

Himalayas, and finally enters the Punjab plain after cutting a gorge in a hill range, the Naina

Devi Dhar, where the Bhakra Dam having a large reservoir of water, called the Gobind Sagar,

has been constructed. It turns west below Rupar and is later joined by the Beas. It enters Pakistan

near Sulemanki, and is later joined by the Chenab. It has a total length of almost 1500 km.

http://www.nih.ernet.in/rbis/india_information/rivers.htm

Clift, P.D. and Blusztajn, J., Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after five

million years ago. Nature, 438, 1001–1003, doi:10.1038/nature04379. Click here to listen to the

33

relatedpodcast.

http://www.geol.lsu.edu/pclift/pclift/Publications_files/2012_Clift_etal_Geology.pdf

Indus River

Published: February 24, 2012, 12:00 am

Updated: April 22, 2012, 10:20 am

Author: C Michael Hogan

Indus River at flood stage near Sukkur from satellite. Source: NASA

The Indus River is one of the major rivers of the world that drains one of Asia's chief catchment

basins, and is the locus of some of the earliest known human civilizations.

Source: World Wildlife Fund

34

The Satluj River, the eastern most tributary of the Indus

River, as it passess through the state ofHimachal Pradesh in

India shortly after it crosses the border from China. Source:

Sanyam Bahga

The Indus Basin measures 399.000 square kilometers, ranked as the twelfth largest river basin

on Earth.

Headwaters of the river can be traced to the Tibetan Plateau, thereafter flowing

through Indiaand Pakistan to discharge to the Arabian Sea.

Flow of the perennial Indus is dominated by: (a) meltwaters from the Tibetan ice field, the third

largest ice sheet formation in the world; (b) snowfall and snowmelt from higher elevation of the

watershed; and (c) episodic monsoonal rains that lead to periodic flooding in the basin.

35

The Indus River supplies essential ingredients for human life for many urban areas including the

Pakistani cities of Islamabad, Lahore, Peshawar and Karachi. This freshwater supply has been in

long term decline for decades due to the human population explosion of this region and upriver

withdrawals in both Pakistan and India.

In the Indus River there are a number of aquaticorganisms, notably the endangered species Indus

River dolphin. There are also numerous demersal fish species present in the Indus mainstem and

its tributaries.

Geological history

Evidence of prehistorical flows of the Indus River is exhibited by sediment deposition in the

Arabian Sea, and also to an earlier delta created by eastward flow to merge with the Ganges

River at a point in time older than five million years ago. At an even earlier date of around 50 to

45 million years before present, there is evidence of a proto Indus River delta emerging into the

Arabian Sea. Thus this great river has had a major change of course and direction at least twice

in the most recent fifty million years.

Hydrology

Major tributaries of the Indus rise in the Himalayan Mountains and the Hindu Kush; these

influent rivers include the Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej.

The Indus mainstem rises on the Tibetan Plateau and flows generally westward; interestingly,

Asia's largest river, the Yangtze River also rises on the east side of the Tibetan Plateau and flows

eastward through China.

One major tributary of the Indus rises in Afghanistan: the Kabul River.

Generally the Indus sustains slower velocities with a wider channel as the river approaches its

delta on the Arabian Sea. The Indus transports massive amounts of silt generated by human

disturbances in its watershed as well as the torrential monsoonal rain events.

Principal flow is carried by the western tributaries: chiefly the Chenab, Jhelum and mainstem

Indus, which combine to contribute about 179 billion cubic meters of flow per annum; however,

approximately 120 to 130 billion cubic meters of this flow are diverted form agricultural uses in

the basin. Another roughly ten billion cubic meters are lost to evapotranspiration and floodwater

loss from the channel, before the Indus waters reach the delta.

Since ancient times local peoples have established temporary dams and diversions for the

purpose of agriculture and human domestic use. These holding structures, termed barrages, are

sufficiently large that they are readily seen from space platforms (NASA. 2009)

Water quality

Water quality issues in the Indus Basin have historically been dominated by sediment loading in

a watershed which is subject to high natural erosivity, and early disturbance by

sedentary agriculture on the floodplains and valleys. Beginning in the twentieth century, water

pollution has been aggravated by massive water withdrawals for agriculture that have then

concentrated pollutants. The Green Revolution has exacerbated water pollution by considerable

36

additions of nitrate to promote crop growth. Other aggravating factors have included increasing

amounts of herbicides and pesticides, as pressures to increase crop production expand. Salinity

levels in downriver areas is also a concern, as agricultural return waters and concentration of

salts from water withdrawals places pressure on salinity.

Aquatic biota

Gi

ant devil catfish can attain a length of over 2.4 meters. @ Thomas Henry SullivanThe largest

aquatic faunal species is theendangered marine mammal Indus River dolphin. There are a

number of native high trophic leveldemersal (fish living on or near the bottom) fish

species present in the Indus, including the mottled loach (Acanthocobitis botia), the 244

centimeter (cm) giant devil catfish (Bagarius yarrelli), silond catfish (Silonia silondia), the 180

cm Long-whiskered catfish (Sperata aor), the 150 cm giant river-catfish (Sperata seenghala) and

the 150 cm near threatened clown knifefish (Chitala chitala), the last three of these species being

very large fish, that often mature at over one meter in length; the measurements given are the

species typical maximum length by each taxon in the Indus River.

Benthopelagic fish inhabit the water column niche immediately above the bottom, feeding

on benthos and zooplankton. There are a number of moderate sized native benthopelagic fish

taxa that are found in the Indus River system including: the 70 cm scaly osman (Diptychus

maculatus), the 30 cm reba (Bangana ariza), the 30 cm Indus snowtrout (Ptychobarbus

conirostris), the 30 cm Kunar snowtrout (Schizothorax labiatus), the 35 cm false osman

(Schizopygopsis stoliczkai), the 47 cm Chirruh snowtrout (Schizothorax esocinus), and the 40

cm Sattar snowtrout (Schizopyge curvifrons).

37

Braided channels of

the Indus River delta, fringing on the Arabian Sea. @ NASA

Delta

The delta of the Indus River consists of an area of approximately 41,400 square kilometers,

about one seventh of which is active as a sediment deposition zone. The climate of this area is

quite arid, with typical annual precipitation averaging 250 to 500millimeters. Correspondingly,

this is one of the most arid mangrove ecosystems on Earth. The earliest recorded history of the

Indus delta derives from Alexander the Great mooring the Macedonian fleet here circa 325 BC.,

with attendant tsunami damage to his fleet.

Since approximately 1970 the flow rate to the delta has diminished sharply, due to upriver

diversions and dramatic population growth in the basin. As of 1994 the delta freshwater inflow

was estimated at approximately 43,000,000,000 cubic meters, containing about 100,000,000

metric tons of silt.

Terrestrial ecosystems

38

The Idus basin includes a wide

range of ecosystems between its

headwaters in the Tibetan Plateau

Himalayan Mountains and its

delta on the Arabian Sea.

1.Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea

mangroves

2. Northwestern thorn scrub

forests

3. Baluchistan xeric woodlands

4. Indus Valley desert

5. Sulaiman Range alpine

meadows

6. East Afghan montane conifer

forests

7. Central Afghan Mountains

xeric woodlands

8. Thar Desert

9. Western Himalayan subalpine

conifer forests

10. Himalayan subtropical pine

forests

11. Western Himalayan broadleaf

forests

12. Northwestern Himalayan

alpine shrub and meadows

13. Karakoram-West Tibetan

Plateau alpine steppe

14. Central Tibetan Plateau

alpine steppe

Ecoregions of the Indus Watershed. Source: World Wildlife

Fund

Several of the ecoregions in the Indus watershed have their salient characteristics summarized in

the following:

Central Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe

The Central Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe is the ecoregion near the headwaters of the Indus

River. The Tibetan Plateau, treeless except in the southeastern river valleys, supports a gamut of

alpine vegetation types that includes meadow, steppe, cold desert and sub-nival

cushion plant communities at elevations ranging from 3500 to nearly 6000 meters. Dry, cold, and

expansive, the Tibetan Plateau possesses an alpine landscape of complex zonation with a general

trend from moist alpine scrub to steppe vegetation gradating to high, cold desert along a transect

from southeast to northwest.

Dominant vegetation is a sparse steppe of purple feathergrass (Stipa purpurea), a hardy species

for which this ecoregion is the center of distribution. Total plant cover seldom exceeds 20

39

percent. Some cushion plants and woolly alpine forbs like Leontopodium, Saussurea, Arenaria

bryophylla, and Thylacospermum caespitosum also grow here and owe their distinctive

morphology to the rigors of the alpine environment, including a short growing season, persistent

winds, high potential evapotranspiration, and intense solar radiation. As the climate across the

Changtang becomes colder and drier on a transect from southeast to northwest, dominant plant

species change along a sequence of Kobresia pygmaea (a turf-forming sedge),Stipa

purpurea, Carex moorcroftii (a sedge), and cushion forbs such as Ceratoides compacta.

Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves

Avicennia marina, prevalent mangrove species of the Indus delta.This mangrove ecoregion

occupies most of the delta of the Indus River at the discharge region to the Arabian Sea. High

salinity levels are prevalent in the sloughs of the Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea

mangroves because of the highevaporation rates and the salts that are washed down by the river,

which flows through a highly saline area. Climatic conditions are extreme.

Ambient temperatures range from near-freezing temperatures in the winter to higher than 50

degrees Celsius during the summer. All rainfall is associated with the July to September

southwest monsoon, which brings a mere 100 to 500 millimeters (mm) of precipitation.

Mangroves in general are not diverse compared with most other terrestrial ecosystems, and

undisturbedmangrove forests have a dense canopy with little stratification and an undergrowth

made up of seedlings and saplings from the canopy trees. The Indus River mangroves are even

40

less diverse, being comprised of nearly monospecific stands of Avicennia marina, a species that

is highly resistant to high salinity levels and capable of surviving the region's extreme conditions.

Other species that are sometimes associated with theAvicennia include Rhizophora

apiculata and Acanthus ilicifolius, with occasional smaller patches ofRhizophora

mucronata and Ceriops tagal scattered throughout. The former usually are found closer to

braided creeks within the delta.

Thar Desert

Thar

Desert viewed from space. Source: NASAThe Thar Desert, which lies along much of the

southeastern boundary of the Indus River, displays habitatinfluenced by the extreme climate. The

sparse plantlifeconsists of xerophilious grasslands of Eragrostis spp.Aristida adscensionis,

Cenchrus biflorus, Cympogon spp.,Cyperus spp., Eleusine spp., Panicum spp., Lasiurus

scindicus, Aeluropus lagopoides, and Sporobolus spp. Scrub vegetation consists of low trees

such as Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora, Tamrix aphylla, Zizyphus mauritiana,

Capparis decidua, and shrubs such as Calligonum polygonoides,

41

Calotropis spp., Aerva spp.,Crotalaria spp., and Haloxylon salicornicum. Haloxylon

recurvum are also present.

In spite of the extremely hot climate, several species haveevolved to survive the conditions of the

Thar Desert. Among the mammalian fauna, the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara

(Gazella bennettii), caracal (Felis caracal), and desert fox (Vulpes bengalensis) inhabit the open

plains, grasslands, and saline depressions known as chappar or rann in the core area of the

desert. The entire mammalian fauna consists of forty-one species, none of which areendemic to

the ecoregion; however, the blackbuck is a threatened species whose populations take refuge in

this harsh environment.

Among the 141 birds known in this ecoregion, the great Indian bustard (Chirotis nigricaps) is a

globally threatened species whose populations in this ecoregion have rebounded in recent years.

A migration flyway used by cranes (Grus grus, Anthropoides virgo) and flamingos

(Phoenicopterus spp.) cross the Thar on their way to the Rann of Kutch further to the south.

Ancient history

Ruins

of the Bronze Age city Moheno-daro.The Indus River Valley boasts one of the earliest locales

transitioning to sedentary agriculture, with evidence in the early Holocene of wheat, barley and

sheep farming as early as 11,000 years ago. At Mohenjo-daro in the Indus basin circa 4600 years

before present, a population of around 40,000 was present, whose works include the building of a

platform under its citadel requiring an estimated 300 to 400 thousand man days of labor. These

data imply vast discretionary time for humans generated by sedentary agriculture.

(McIntosh.2008) Mohenjo-daro was thought to be the largest city in south Asia of its era. Total

land area at Mohenjo-daro (including agricultural use) was approximately 150,000 acres, and the

human population was about 40,000. Farther upriver at Harappa, another early Bronze Age

culture emerged slightly later, evincing additional evidence that the Indus basin was one of the

earliest world regions to establish advanced agriculture as well as urbanization.

42

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http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/173762/

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Maximum. Basin Research, 26, 183–202. 2014_Clift_etal_Basin Res.pdf

Wu, F. Y., W. Q. Ji, J. G. Wang, C. Z. Liu, S. L. Chung, and P. D. Clift, 2014, Zircon U-Pb and

Hf isotopic constraints on the onset time of India-Asia collision, American Journal of Science,

314, 548 –579, doi10.2475/02.2014.04. 2014-Wu-etal.pdf

2013

Clift, P.D. and Sun, Z., 2013. Introduction to special collection on geology, tectonics and

hydrocarbon systems of SE Asia. Marine Geophysical Research, 34: 153–158.

doi:10.1007/s11001-013-9206-4.

Draut, A.E. and Clift, P.D., 2013. Differential preservation in the geologic record of intraoceanic

arc sedimentary and tectonic processes. Earth Science Reviews 116, 57–84,

DOI:10.1016/j.earscirev. 2012.11.003. 2013_Draut_Clift_ESR.pdf

2012

Wan, S., Clift, P.D., Li, A., Yu, Z., Li, T. and Hu, D., 2012. Tectonic and climatic controls on

long-term silicate weathering in Asia since 5 Ma. Geophysical Research Letters 39(L15611),

doi:10.1029/2012GL052377. 2012_Wan_etal_2012.pdf

Alizai, A., Hillier, S., Clift, P.D. and Giosan, L., 2012. Clay mineral variations in Holocene

terrestrial sediments from the Indus Basin; a response to SW Asian Monsoon variability.

Quaternary Research 77(3), 368–381,

doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2012.01.008. 2012_Alizai_etal_QuatRes.pdf

Giosan, L., Clift, P. D., Macklin, M. G., Fuller, D. Q., Constantinescu, S., Durcan, J. A., Stevens,

T., Duller, G. A. T., Tabrez, A., Adhikari, R., Gangal, K., Alizai, A., Filip, F., VanLaningham,

S., and Syvitski, J. P. M., 2012, Fluvial Landscapes of the Harappan Civilization: Proceedings of

the National Academy of Sciences, 87(52), OS14A-04. 2012_Giosan_etal_PNAS.pdf

Limmer, D. R., P. Boening, L. Giosan, C. Ponton, C. M. Köhler, M. J. Cooper, A. R. Tabrez, and

P. D. Clift. 2012. Geochemical Record of Holocene to Recent Sedimentation on the Western

Indus continental shelf, Arabian Sea, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13,

doi:10.1029/2011GC003845.2012_Limmer_etal_G-Cubed.pdf

Clift, P. D., A. Carter, L. Giosan, J. Durcan, A. R. Tabrez, A. Alizai, S. VanLaningham, G. A. T.

Duller, M. G. Macklin, D. Q. Fuller, and M. Danish, U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a

Pleistocene Sarasvati River and Capture of the Yamuna River, Geology. v. 40, 3, p. 212-215,

doi:10.1130/G32840.1/ 2012_Clift_etal_Geology.pdf

Giosan, L., Clift, P. D., Macklin, M. G., Fuller, D. Q., Constantinescu, S., Durcan, J. A., Stevens,

T., Duller, G. A. T., Tabrez, A., Adhikari, R., Gangal, K., Alizai, A., Filip, F., VanLaningham,

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S., and Syvitski, J. P. M., 2012, Fluvial Landscapes of the Harappan Civilization: Proceedings of

the National Academy of Sciences, doi/10.1073/pnas.1112743109/ 2012_Giosan_etal_PNAS.pdf

Alizai, A., Hillier, S., Clift, P. D., and Giosan, L., 2012, Clay mineral variations in Holocene

terrestrial sediments from the Indus Basin; a response to SW Asian Monsoon

variability: Quaternary Research, v. 77, 3, p. 368–381,

doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2012.01.008/ 2012_Alizai_etal_QuatRes.pdf

2011

Alizai, A, Clift, P.D., Giosan, L., VanLaningham, S., Hinton, R., Tabrez, A.R., Danish, M., 2011.

Pb Isotopic Variability in the Modern-Pleistocene Indus River System measured by Ion

Microprobe in detrital K-feldspar grains. Geochimca et Cosmochimica Acta, 75, 4771-4795,

doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.05.039. 2011_Alizai_etal_GCA.pdf

2010

Calves, G., A. M. Schwab, M. Huuse, P. D. Clift, and A. Inam (2010), Thermal regime of the

northwest Indian rifted margin - Comparison with predictions, Marine and Petroleum

Geology 27, 1133-1147, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2010.02.010.

2009

Clift, P.D., Schouten, H., and Vannucchi, P., 2009. Arc-continent collisions, subduction mass

recycling and the maintenance of the continental crust, in Cawood, P. and Kroener, A.,

eds., Earth Accretionary Systems in Space and Time, Geological Society of London, special

publication, 318, 75–103.

2008

Calves, G., Huuse, M., Schwab, A. and Clift, P.D., 2008. 3D seismic analysis of high-amplitude

anomalies in the shallow subsurface of the Northern Indus Fan: sedimentary and/or fluid

origin.Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, B11103, doi:10.1029/2008JB005666.

2007

Wu, F.Y., Clift, P.D., and Yang, J.H., 2007. Zircon Hf isotopic constraints on the sources of the

Indus Molasse, Ladakh Himalaya, India. Tectonics, 26, TC2014, doi:10.1029/2006TC002051.

2005

Clift, P.D. and Blusztajn, J., Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after five

million years ago. Nature, 438, 1001–1003, doi:10.1038/nature04379. Click here to listen to the

relatedpodcast.

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Garzanti, E., Vezzoli, G., Andò, S., Paparella, P., and Clift, P.D., 2005. Petrology and mineralogy

of Indus River sands : a key to interpret erosion history of the Western Himalayan

Syntaxis, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 229, 287–302.

2003

Clift, P.D. and Molnar, P., 2003. Drilling of submarine fans in the Indian Ocean. EOS, 84 (42),

442–443.

2002

Clift, P.D., Gaedicke, C., Edwards, R., Lee, J.I., Hildebrand, P., Amjad, S., White, R.S., and

Schülter, H.U., 2002. The stratigraphic evolution of the Indus Fan and the history of

sedimentation in the Arabian Sea. Marine Geophysical Researches, 23 (3), 223–245.

Clift, P. D., Carter, A. Krol, M. and Kirby, E., 2002. Constraints on India-Eurasia Collision in the

Arabian Sea Region taken from the Indus Group, Ladakh Himalaya, India. In, Clift, P.D., Kroon,

D., Craig, J., and Gaedicke, C. (Editors), The Tectonic and Climatic Evolution of the Arabian

Sea Region, Geological Society of London special publication, 195, 97-116.

Clift, P. D., 2002. A brief history of the Indus River. In, Clift, P.D., Kroon, D., Craig, J., and

Gaedicke, C. (Editors), The Tectonic and Climatic Evolution of the Arabian Sea Region,

Geological Society of London special publication, 195, 237-258.

2001

Clift, P.D., 2001. The Indus Fan: Climate tectonic interactions in the western

Himalaya. Geoscientist , 11 (12), 4-9.

Clift, P.D., Shimizu, N., Layne, G., Gaedicke, C., Schlüter, H.U., Clark, M. and Amjad, S., 2001.

Development of the Indus Fan and its significance for the erosional history of the western

Himalaya and Karakoram. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 113, 1039-1051.

1993

Najman, Y.M.R., Clift, P.D., Johnson, M.R., and Robertson, A.H.F., 1993. Early Tertiary foreland

basin evolution in the Lesser Himalaya. In Searle, M.P., and Treloar, P. (Eds.), Himalayan

Tectonics. Geological Society Special Publication, 74, 541-558.

ASI Museum - Rupnagar

The Archaeological Museum is situated about 40 kms north east of Chandigarh in Rupnagar

town situated on the bank of sutlej river. It was opened to public in the year 1998.

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Opened to public in the year 1998, the museum houses the archaeological remains of excavated

site near Ropar, the first Harappan site excavated in Independent India. The excavation revealed

a cultural sequence from Harappan to medieval times. Important exhibits include antiquities of

Harappan times, Painted Grey ware culture, Saka, Kushana, Gupta times such as Vina Vadini

(lady playing on vina), steatite seal, copper and bronze implements, ring stone, yakshi image,

gold coins of Chandragupta. Besides, the visitors can have a glimpse of important protected

monuments of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and World Heritage monuments

Rupar, Ropar (300 58; 76O 32'), Dt Rupnagar, Punjab

Lying on the left bank of the Sutlej. The excavations yielded a sequence of six Periods: I

(Harappa, c. 2100 to 14OOB.C,); II (PGW, c. 1000 to 600 B.C.); III (NBPW or early historical,

c. 600 to 200B.C.); IV (middle to late historical, c. 200 B.C. to A.D. 700); V (late historical, c.

700-1200); and VI (medieval, c.l200-1700). Some of these Periods are divided into-Sub Periods.

There are three mounds at Ropar, n., S., and w. The s mound is occupied by the present-day

town. Excavations were confined to the n. and w. mounds, the latter concealing a Harappa

cemetery. Ropar has the distinction of being the site where the remains of the Harappa

civilization were excavated for the first time in post-partition India.

Apart from mature Harappa objects named above, mention may also be made of beads and

bangles of faience triangular terracotta cakes and chert weights. Compared with the mature

Harappa as asemblage at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, it is the absence of the goblet with pointed

base and terracotta figurines including the mother goddess which strikes one most. In I A levels

only one mud-brick wall of three

courses has been encountered. The bricks are irregular in size but have a uniform thickness of 10

cm. The only wall noticed in I B at RPR-2 is built of river pebbles. Phase I C is however rich in

housing remains with seven structures assignable to five phases. The building material consists

of kankar stone, mud brick and kiln-burnt brick. One of the well-built houses has foundations of

kankar stone and superstructure of mud brick. The kiln burnt bricks measure 20x 10x40 cm.

A single Harappa seal found in RPR-1 in I C levels is made of steatite and bears three familiar

symbols on the obverse and two concentric circles on the reverse. It is thin and small without any

holding device. Another burnt clay lump with a hole to pass a string through bears impressions

of three typical seals with bull motif and legend in the familiar script. Graffiti on pottery include

the Indus script.

A cemetery of the Harappa, recalling Cemetery R-37 of Harappa, lies to the w. of the n. mound.

It has been considerably disturbed by later occupants, mainly by the users of the row, but some

of the burials are sufficiently intact to give an adequate idea of the method of burial. The body is

laid in a grave pit, measuring 2.45 x .91 m and 60 cm in depth. The head is placed usually on the

n.-w. Most of the burials contain an assemblage of typical pots, and some of them also reveal

personal ornaments, such as bangles of faience or shell, beads of faience and semiprecious stones

and ring of copper. A faience bangle was intact on the left wrist of the wearer and a copper ring

on the middle finger of the right hand. A single grave pit contained the skeleton of a dog at the

bottom and that of a human being, presumably its master, above it. There is very little Bara

47

pottery in the the graves and it is not known if the cemetery was common for both the Harappa

and the Bara folks.

Among the animal bones of Period I are Chitra indica Gray, Gallus sp., Canis familiaris Linn.

(the Domestic Dog), Rattus rattus Linn. (the common Indian Rat), Elephas maximus Linn. (the

Indian Elephant), Bos indicus Linn. (the Zebu or Domesticated Humped Cattle of India),

Bubalus bubalis Linn. (the Indian Domesticated Buffalo), Capra hircus aegagrus Em. (the

Domestic Goat), Ovis aries dolichura Duerst (the Domestic Sheep) and Sus scrofa cristatus

Wagner (the Domestic Pig).

Information on town layout and house-plans is lacking at Ropar, since the concerned levels were

reached overan extremely limited area. The s. mound with its present habitation could not be

probed, and one does not know if Ropar too did have twin settlements in the Harappa days as at

Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi and Banavali. The excavators of Kalibangan date Kalibangan I to c.

2400-2250 B.C. on uncorrected 14C basis. With Kalibangan I pottery lying overlapped with the

Harappa at the bottom layers of Ropar, c. 2100 B.C. could be thought of as the safest date for the

beginning of Period I with an average thickness of over 2 m a span of 700 years, ending at c.

1400 B.C. appears reasonable. The evidence of Bhagawanpura where Bara and PGW cultures are

found interlocked would also lend an indirect support to this date, for the Bara complex at

Bhagawanpura appears to be only a devolution of the Sutlej complex.

48

Period II. After a long break the site was occupied by the users of the row, identified with the

early Aryans by some and with the contemporaries of the later Vedic texts by others. Wheel-

turned from well-levigated fine- grained clay, the PGW is sometimes self-slipped orcovered with

grey wash, but often it seems to have no surface treatment. After it is painted with designs in

black it is subjected to even and gradually reduced tem- perature. The sagger-based dish with

incurved side and deep bowl with straight side are the most common shapes in the PGW. The

painted designs comprise bands, grouped verticals, oblique and criss-cross lines, Z sigmas,

svastikas, apirals, chains, rows of dots and dashes and concentric circles or semicircles.

Apparently; the PGW was mainly used for purposes of dining. The discovery of a PGW water-

pot (lotii) at Ropar completes ,the normal set of dining utensils, consisting of a plate or dish

(thali) bowl (katori) and a water-pot (loti). The design is sometimes whitish-grey, which is

obtained by blocking the design from the application of the slip. Other associated wares in these

levels are plain grey ware, Black-slipped Ware and dusty-red ware. The former two cover the

same shapes as the PGW, but the vessels of the dusty-red ware are largely used for cooking and

storage, such as the frying pan, cooking pot (handi), large bowl basin, water pitchers and storage

jar.

Period. III The introduction and disappearance of the NBPW define the span of Period III. Ropar

was sufficiently removed from the Ganga plains of e. U.P. and Bihar, where the NBPW had its

beginnings, yet over 450 sherds recovered from the limited excavated depths here proclaim its

great popularity. It must have reached here obviously through pilgrinls and traders. That it was

not locally manufactured and was a treasured piece of pottery is clear from the fact that broken

NBPW vessels are often found joined with copper wire.Period III may be divided into Sub-

Periods, m A and m B. In trench RPR-2, out of nearly 300 NBPW sherds 85% occur in III A and

only 15% in m B, which, however, is richer in structural remains.

49

Period IV. The beginnings of Period IV are identified more easily by the terracotta art forms than

by new fabrics and types in pottery, although these do exist. The long span of Period IV, from c.

200 B.C. to A.D. 700, is divided into four Sub-Periods corresponding roughly to the rule of the

Sungas (IV A), Saka-Kushans (IV B), Guptas (IV C) and the post-Guptas (IV D). Nude yaksha

figures with wearing rich ornaments and beautifully modelled figures of yakhas standing under

trees are among the terracotta cult images of the the Sunga period. Plain red ware and some grey

ware are typical of Period IV A. The pear-shaped vase with rim section approximating to a

vertical lozenge and pitcher with fluted neck and out-rurned rim are among the popular ceramic

types. Potter stamped with motifs like svastika, nandi-pada, tri-ratna, human figure, fish, conch,

etc., appears but becomes more prolific in the succeeding Sub-Period. Coinage now comes fully

onto its own. A coin of the Indo-Bactrian Antialcidas, another of the nameless, possibly Indo-

Parthian,ruler with the title of Soter Megas and a clay mould made from a coin of Apollodotus II

bespeak at least contact with the dominions of the Indo-Bactrians and Indo-Parthians.

Contemporary tribal coinage is represented by the coins of the Kudindas and Audumbaras, the

latter in a fair frequency, suggesting that Ropar may have been a centre of the Audumbara

authority.

50

The Ropar seal is a Meluhha metalwork catalogue.

Rebus reading of Ropar seal:

aḍar ‘harrow’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal, unsmelted’; aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva

aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Kannada)

51

The word for a 'set of four' is: gaṇḍa (Santali); bar gaṇḍa poesa = two annas; pon gaṇḍa aphor

menaka, there are 16 bunches of rice seedlings; gaṇḍa guṇḍa to be broken into pieces or

fragments; fragments; gaṇḍa guṭi to dive, to make up an account; the system of 'gaṇḍa guṭi' is to

put down a pebble, or any other small object, as the name of each person entitled to share is

mentioned. Then a share is placed alongside of each pebble, or whatever else laid down. (Santali)

Thus, the complex glyph is read: aduru ayo kaṇḍ 'native metal furnace'.

ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal

(Rigveda) PLUS gaṇḍa ‘four' Rebus: kaṇḍ = altar, furnace (Santali) Rebus: ayaskāṇḍa 'metal

furnace'; “a quantity of iron, excellent iron” (Pāṇ gaṇ)

kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa 'bronze' (Telugu)

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

May 4, 2015

Rgvedic All comprehensiveness (Nicholas Kazanas, 2012)