Strategic Plan for Inventories and Monitoring on National ...

StrategicPlanforInventoriesandMonitoringonNationalWildlifeRefuges:AdaptingtoEnvironmentalChange

U.S.FishandWildlifeService,NationalWildlifeRefugeSystem

September1,2010

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FOREWORD

Theinventoryandmonitoringofbiologicalresources,ecologicalprocesses,andcomponentsofthephysicalenvironmentarecriticaltomeetingtheNationalWildlifeRefugeSystem’s(NWRSorRefugeSystem)legislatedmissionandmandates.TheRefugeSystemhashadalongstandingneedforamorecoordinatedandconsistentapproachtocollecting,analyzing,synthesizingandreportingdatageneratedthroughtheseactivities.TheU.SFishandWildlifeService’s(USFWSorService)responsetoconservationinthefaceofclimatechange,asdefinedintherecentlyissued“RisingtotheChallenge:StrategicPlanforRespondingtoAcceleratingClimateChange”andadraftFiveYearActionPlantoimplementtheStrategicPlan(U.S.FishandWildlifeService,2009a,2009b),providesadditionaldirectionandimpetus.Underthisinitiative,theRefugeSystemistoplayaleadershiproleindevelopinganationally‐coordinatedprogramofinventoryandmonitoring(I&Mprogram)onServicelands.InJuly2009,twoteamsofNWRSbiologistsandmanagersrepresentingallUSFWSRegionswerecommissionedtoplantheI&Mprogram.TheinventoryandmonitoringCoreTeam(I&MCoreTeam)andExecutiveOversightCommittee(EOC)metinAugust2009todefineavisionfortheprogramandsetbroadprogrammaticgoalsandpriorities.TheStrategicPlanforInventoriesandMonitoringonNationalWildlifeRefuges(StrategicPlan),anAddendumtotheStrategicPlan(Addendum)andacompanionOperationalBlueprintweredevelopedbytheCoreTeamfromthatfoundation.TherewasstrongconsensusamongtheI&MCoreTeamandtheEOCthattheI&MprogramshouldaddresstheRefugeSystem’smission‐criticalinformationneeds,inthecontextofitslegislatedmissionandmandates.WealsorecognizedthattheI&MprogrammustsupporttheService’slandscapeconservationeffortsandresponsetoclimatechange,workingwithinthegeographicandorganizationalframeworkdefinedintheService’sclimatechangeplans.TheplanscallfororganizingconservationplanningandmodelingcapacitywithinLandscapeConservationCooperatives(LCCs)toprovidescientificleadershipandworkwithpartnerswithinlandscapeunitsorGeographicAreas.TherewasstrongagreementthattheI&MprogramshouldengageinandembracetheprinciplesofadaptivemanagementsincemostrefugesinthecontiguousU.S.aremanagedintensivelyandsupportingfishandwildlifeadaptationtoclimatechangewilllikelyrequirethedevelopmentandevaluationofnewmanagementapproachesandtoolsthroughouttheRefugeSystem.Wealsodiscussedthepotentialforspatialmodelingtobeusefulforassessinglandscape‐scalechangesinspeciesdistributionsandpredictingrefugevulnerabilitytoclimatechange,andtheimperativeofconsideringtheseissuesinthedesignphaseofbaselineinventoriesandfuturemonitoring.Therewasstrongconsensusthatsufficientresourcesmustbecommittedtoaconsistentapproachtodatamanagement,includingthedevelopmentanduseofdatastandards,acommitmenttodatasynthesis,analysisandreporting,andtheuseofsystemstoefficientlyprovidedatatoallstakeholders.Lastly,weagreedontheimportanceoflearningfromtheexperiencesofothernationalinventoryandmonitoringprogramsandcollaboratingwithpartnersonintegratedmonitoringatmultiplespatialandtemporalscales,asappropriate.TheI&MCoreTeamandtheEOCdiscussedthefollowingasRefugeSystem‐wideprioritieswithinthecontextofitsmissionandmandates,theirrelevanceinrespondingtorapidclimatechange,andtheirpotentialtosupportandcomplementtheService’slandscapeconservationefforts:

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• inventoriesofabioticresourcesandphysicalfeatures(supportedbyassessingandutilizingexistinggeospatialdataasappropriate);

• baselineinventoriesofbiota,includingvegetation(supportedbyassessingandutilizinglegacydataonspeciesoccurrenceonServicelandsasappropriate);

• statusandtrendsofpriorityfishandwildlifespecies;• assessmentofnaturaldisturbanceregimes,withinitialemphasisonfire;• reconnaissance‐levelinventoriesandassessmentsofwaterresourcesincludingwaterqualityand

quantity;• statusandtrendsofinvasivespecies;• supportofadaptivemanagementatrefugeandlandscapescales;and• assessmentofvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,withinitialemphasisonsealevelrisemodelingfor

coastalrefuges.Recognizingthecomplexityandscopeofaddressingthesepriorities,bothindividuallyandcollectively,theI&MCoreTeamdevelopedrecommendationsforinitiatingspecificI&Mprogramtasks,describedintheOperationalBlueprint,inFiscalYears2010and2011(Phase1),orassoonaspracticable.TheOperationalBlueprintrecommendsseveral“pilot”approachesthatcouldinformimportantprogrammaticdecisionsandhelpframefuturemonitoringneedsandapproaches.TheStrategicPlanprovidesadditionalbackgroundandrationalefortheI&Mprogramandinitialprioritytasks;presentsfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredasvariousaspectsoftheprogramareinitiated;identifieskeypartnershipopportunities,bothwithinandoutsideoftheService;andidentifiescomponentsthatshouldbeconsideredforimplementationinFY2012andbeyond(Phase2).Inthecourseofitswork,theCoreTeamwastaskedwithdevelopingrecommendationsforaninitialorganizationalstructurefortheI&Mprogram,andlatertodevelopoperationalguidanceor“businessguidelines.”Programorganization,administration,andstaffingarefullydescribedintheAddendum.TheCoreTeamrecommendedanorganizationthatincludedanational‐levelcoordinatingofficeinrecognitionofthefollowingneeds:1)acohesive,RefugeSystem‐wideapproachtoinventoriesandmonitoringinresponsetoclimatechangeandotherstressorssincemanyRefugeSystemresourcesandtheissuesaffectingthemtranscendboundariesofadministrativeRegions,Statesandnations;2)aconsistentandcoordinatedapproachtodatamanagement;3)national‐levelcollaborationwithotheragenciesthatconductinventoriesandmonitoringofnaturalresourcesonFederallandsandwaters,andwithotherconservationpartnersthatareconductingrelevantmonitoringatbroadgeographicscalestoexploreopportunitiesforcoordinationthatwouldenhancedevelopmentandevaluationofclimatechangeadaptationstrategies;and4)informingnationalpolicydecisionsthatdependuponconcisereportingonstatusoftheRefugeSystem’sresources.TherecommendedorganizationalmodelalsoincludedstaffingattheRegionalOfficeandwithinGeographicAreasservedbythesoon‐to‐beestablishedLCCs.TheserecommendationswerereviewedbytheNWRSLeadershipTeaminOctober2009,whichdecidedtomoveforwardwithhiringI&MprogramstaffundertheorganizationalmodeldescribedintheAddendum.ThesedecisionsweresubsequentlyapprovedbytheServiceDirector.

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................................2

CONTENTS ..............................................................................................................................................................4

EXECUTIVESUMMARY........................................................................................................................................5

I.INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................7

OVERVIEW..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................7THENATIONALWILDLIFEREFUGESYSTEM ...............................................................................................................................................................8WHAT’STHEPROBLEM? .................................................................................................................................................................................................9HOWWILLTHESERVICEANDNWRSRESPOND? .................................................................................................................................................. 16FacilitatingClimateChangeAdaptation ................................................................................................................................................... 16RoleoftheNWRSI&MProgram–AnOpportunityforLeadership.............................................................................................. 20ProgramStaffingandFunding...................................................................................................................................................................... 22

II.THENWRSINVENTORYANDMONITORINGPROGRAM................................................................... 23

VISION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23PROGRAMGOALS........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24PROGRAMFOCIATNATIONALANDREGIONALSCALES .......................................................................................................................................... 24SettingPriorities ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24AbioticResources ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 26BioticResources.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26InvasiveSpecies .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32WaterQuantityandQuality ........................................................................................................................................................................... 32FireandotherLandscapeDisturbanceProcesses ............................................................................................................................... 34Contaminants ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36Wilderness............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38

III.CROSSCUTTINGCONSIDERATIONSANDAPPROACHES ................................................................. 39

CLIMATEUNCERTAINTIES–IMPLICATIONSFORTHENWRSI&MPROGRAM.................................................................................................... 39BiologicalIntegrity,DiversityandEnvironmentalHealth................................................................................................................ 39SpeciesDistributionModels .......................................................................................................................................................................... 41SeaLevelRiseModeling .................................................................................................................................................................................. 41AdaptiveManagement ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

RELATIONSHIPTOOTHERUSFWSPROGRAMSANDPARTNERS........................................................................................................................... 44

IV.DATAANDINFORMATIONMANAGEMENT ......................................................................................... 45

OVERVIEW...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45DATAMANAGEMENTGOALS ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 46INFRASTRUCTUREANDSYSTEMDESIGN ................................................................................................................................................................... 46DATASTANDARDS...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 488

V.SUMMARY........................................................................................................................................................ 49

VI.PLANCONTRIBUTORS ............................................................................................................................... 50

VII.ADDITIONALINFORMATION ................................................................................................................. 50

VIII.GLOSSARY................................................................................................................................................... 51

IX.LITERATURECITED.................................................................................................................................... 53

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EXECUTIVESUMMARY

ThisStrategicPlansummarizesandprovidesalong‐termperspectiveforhowtheNationalWildlifeRefugeSystemwillimplementanationallycoordinatedefforttosupportinventoriesandmonitoring(I&Mprogram)attherefuge,landscape,regional,andnationalscaletoinformmanagementandevaluatetheeffectivenessofstrategiestosupportadaptationtoclimatechangeandothermajorenvironmentalstressors.Programorganization,administration,andstaffingareaddressedinaseparateAddendumtotheStrategicPlan.AcompanionOperationalBlueprintestablishestheinitialstructureoftheI&MprogramandidentifiesprioritytaskstobeimplementedinPhase1(FY2010‐2011).TheStrategicPlanfocusesmoreonFY2012andbeyond(Phase2).TheStrategicPlan,OperationalBlueprint,andAddendumtogetherprovidethefoundationforlaunchingtheI&Mprogram,includingrecommendationsfortheinitialorganizationalstructure,budgetallocations,andhiringdecisions.TheRefugeSystemisexpectedtoreceive$12millioninFY2010andanother$8millioninFY2011($20millionperyearbyFY2011)tofundthisI&Mprogram.TheI&MprogramwillbenationallycoordinatedbyNWRSWashingtonOfficestaffstationedinFortCollins,CO.TheprogramwillbefullyintegratedwiththeU.S.FishandWildlifeService’sLandscapeConservationCooperatives(LCCs)andGeographicAreasandprovidesupporttorefuges.InFY2010,58FTEswillbehired:10intheWashingtonOffice,16associatedwiththeeightnewly‐fundedLCCs,eightineachoftheUSFWSRegionalOffices,and24onfieldstations.AnotherfourFTEsmaybeaddedinFY2011,contingentuponfunding.Weenvisionafullyoperational$100millionI&Mprogram,supportingapproximately280staff(ofwhichatleast200willbeonfieldstations)(~$45million)andafullrangeofinventoryandmonitoringactivities(~$55million).ThefollowingfociarerecommendedforearlyconsiderationduringdevelopmentoftheI&Mprogram:inventoriesofabioticresources;inventoriesandmonitoringofbiota(toincludebiologicaldiversity;populationsofpriorityspecies;vegetationinventoriesandmapping;geneticdiversity;wildlifehealth;and(phenology)invasivespecies;waterqualityandquantity;fireandotherlandscapedisturbanceprocesses;contaminants;andWildernesscharacter.Werecommendconsiderationofseveralapproachesthatarecross‐cuttinginnatureandcrucialtosuccess.Theseincludecarefulconsiderationofinformationneedsinlightoftheuncertaintiesassociatedwithclimatechange,andsamplingdesignsforinventoriesandmonitoringtoaddresstheseneedstosupporttheuseofthepredictivetoolsneededtoplanandevaluatemanagementinthefaceofuncertainty.Spatialmodelingisadvocatedasausefultoolforassessinglandscape‐scalechangesinspeciesdistributions,predictingrefugevulnerabilitytoclimatechange,andstratifyingI&MeffortsonrefugeswithinGeographicAreas.Werecommendastrongcommitmenttoadaptivemanagementtoevaluateclimateadaptationstrategiesfromindividualrefugetoappropriatelandscapescales.WeemphasizetheimportanceofworkingcollaborativelywithotherServiceprograms,FederalandStateagencies,JointVentures,andotherconservationpartnersindefiningthequestionstobeansweredthroughinventoriesandmonitoring,anddevelopingandrefiningmethods.DuringPhase1,theOperationalBlueprintrecommendsinitiatingabioticresourcebaselineinventories;designinginventoriesofbiologicaldiversity;initiatingvegetationinventoriesandmapping;assessingstatusandtrendsofpriorityspecies;developingmethodologiestoinventoryandmonitorinvasivespeciesatmultiplescales;initiatingreconnaissancelevelassessmentsandinventoriesofwaterqualityandquantity;assessingimpactsofclimatechangeonfireregimes;completinginitialsealevelrisemodelingfor

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coastalrefuges;andexpandingsupportofadaptivemanagementatrefugeandlandscapescales.Someofthesecomponentsarepromotedas“pilotstudies”intheOperationalBlueprinttoavoidmissingopportunitiesandcreatingredundancyofI&Meffortsbyotheragencies,andtoprovideinformationtoguidedevelopmentandrefinementofmethodsandfutureprogrammaticdirection.PilottestingforeachofthesecomponentscouldoccurinoneorallRegionsduringPhase1,providingnecessaryinformationforthefurtherdevelopmentofmethodsandapproaches.Lastly,butofutmostimportance,theStrategicPlanrecommendsthatacomprehensiveandconsistentapproachtodatamanagementbeanunderpinningoftheI&Mprogram,andthatsufficientresourcesbededicatedtosupportit.Thisincludesthedevelopmentanduseofdatastandards,acommitmenttodatasynthesis,analysisandreporting,anduseofsystemsthatmaximizeefficiencyandavailabilityofdatatoallstakeholders.

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I . INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

ThisStrategicPlanforInventoriesandMonitoringonNationalWildlifeRefuges–AdaptingtoEnvironmentalChange(StrategicPlan)summarizesandprovidesalong‐termperspectiveforhowtheNationalWildlifeRefugeSystemwillimplementanationallycoordinatedefforttosupportinventoryandmonitoring(I&Mprogram)attherefuge,landscape,regional,andnationalscales.Thepurposeofthiseffortistocollectandsynthesizeinformationthatsupportsmanagementatmultiplegeographicscalesandinformsdecisionsatallorganizationallevels.TheI&MprogramisbeingdesignedtoaddresstheRefugeSystem’smissioncriticalinformationneeds,andtohelpplanandevaluatetheeffectivenessofconservationstrategiesimplementedbytheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceandconservationpartnersinthefaceofacceleratingclimatechangeandgrowingthreatsfromotherenvironmentalstressors.TheStrategicPlanprovidesbackgroundandrationalefortheI&Mprogramandtheseinitialprioritytasks,presentsfactorsneedingconsiderationasvariousaspectsoftheprogramareinitiated,identifieskeypartnershipopportunitiesinternalandexternaltoService,andidentifiescomponentsthatshouldbeconsideredforimplementationin2012andbeyond(Phase2).AcompanionOperationalBlueprintestablishestheinitialstructureoftheI&MprogramandidentifiesprioritytaskstobeinitiatedinPhase1(2010‐2011).Programorganization,administration,andstaffingareaddressedinaseparateAddendumtotheStrategicPlan(Addendum).TheStrategicPlan,OperationalBlueprint,andAddendumtogetherprovidethefoundationforlaunchingtheI&Mprogram,includingrecommendationsfortheinitialorganizationalstructure,budgetallocations,andhiringdecisions.TheServicerecentlyissuedRisingtotheChallenge:StrategicPlanforRespondingtoAcceleratingClimateChangeandaFiveYearActionPlantoimplementtheStrategicPlan(USFWS2009a,2009b).TheplanscallfororganizingconservationplanningandmodelingcapacitywithinLandscapeConservationCooperatives(LCCs)toprovidescientificleadershipandworkwithpartnerswithinlandscapeunitsorGeographicArea.LCCstaffwillworkwithotheragencyandconservationpartnerstoplan,design,andevaluatelandscapescaleconservationinthefaceofclimatechangeandotherstressors,usingtheprinciplesofadaptivemanagement,scientificinquiry,andaprocesstheServicecallsStrategicHabitatConservation(SHC).TheI&MprogramisbeingdesignedtointegratewithandsupporttheService’slandscapeconservationefforts.ThePhase1budgetfortheI&MProgramisexpectedtobe$12millioninFY2010and$20millioninFY2011;weexpecttheprogramtogrowasitmatures.Weenvisionafullyoperational$100millionI&Mprogram,supporting280staff(ofwhichatleast200willbeonfieldstations)(~$45million)andinventoryandmonitoringactivities(~$55million).TheI&Mprogramwillneedstaffthatcollectivelyhasdiversetechnicalaswellasadministrativeskills,includingskillsinadaptivemanagement,modeling,biometrics,structureddecisionmaking(decisionanalysis),hydrology,invasivespecies,remotesensing,andavarietyoftaxonomicandecosystemexpertise,suchaswetlandecology,ornithology,forestecology,grasslandecology,andfireecology.Similarly,datamanagersatalllevelsshouldpossessavarietyoftechnicalIT/datamanagementskillssuchasprogramming,databasedesign,GIS,modeling.WerecognizethatsomeofthisexpertisealreadyresideswithintheServiceandtheRefugeSystem.LeadershipwillconsiderhowbesttofilltheI&Mprogrampositionstofullyintegratewithandcomplementexistingcapacitiesandexpertise.

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WefullyexpectthattheI&Mprogramwillco‐evolvewithServiceeffortstobetterintegratelandscapeconservationandtorespondtoacceleratingclimatechange.ItisexactlybecausetheServiceisleadingwithseveral,newly‐fundedinitiativesandbecauserapidclimatechangeentailstheexpectationofecologicalsurprisethatwehavetriedtostrikeabalanceinthisStrategicPlanbetweenbeingcomprehensiveinscopeversusclairvoyantinpredictingfutureneeds.TheStrategicPlanandOperationalBlueprintfocusprimarilyonRefugeSystem‐wideprioritiesbroadlysharedbyallormostRegionsoftheService.WeanticipatethateachRegionand/orGeographicAreawillalsohaveinventoryandmonitoringprioritiestailoredtotheneedsoflocalmanagers.TheI&Mprogramwillevolveasstaffishired,implementationbegins,andintegrationwithmonitoringprioritiesidentifiedbyfieldstationsandtheLCCsoccurs.TheI&Mprogramisexpectedtoprovidecoordinationandtechnicalsupportforinventoriesandmonitoringonrefugesandrelevantlandscapes,andtheI&Mprogramwillworkhand‐in‐handwithexistingrefuge,LCCandregionalstaffstoaddresstheseneeds.WeanticipatethattheI&Mprogramwillprovidetechnicalanddatamanagementsupportforlong‐term(surveillance)monitoringcomponents(e.g.,waterresources)aswellastargetedmonitoringconductedunderadaptivemanagement(e.g.,invasivespeciesmanagement,fireeffects,andotherspeciesorhabitat‐specificprioritiesdefinedbyfieldstations,LCCs,ortheregionsandourpartners).ThedirectionoftheI&Mprogramevolutionwillbedeterminedbymanagementpriorities.Anationally‐coordinatedI&MprogramfortheRefugeSystemwillrequiresettingpriorities,clarifyingthequestionswewanttoanswer,thespatialandtemporalscaleofthosequestions,andtheaccuracyandprecisionoftheinformationweneed.TheStrategicPlanprovidesawealthofinformationaboutpossiblefuturedirectionsfortheI&Mprogram.TheOperationalBlueprintcallsforaneedsassessmentprocess,whichwillinvolvebroadinputfromrefuges,theLCCs,theRegions,andpartners.Aprocessforregularreviewoftheresultsofsuchaneedsassessmentandrevisitingprogramprioritiesbasedonthisinformationwillbedeveloped.RefugeSystemleadershipwillremainengagedinguidingprogramprioritiesandensuringanationallycoordinatedapproachoverthelongterm.

THENATIONALWILDLIFEREFUGESYSTEM

TheRefugeSystem,administeredbytheService,istheworld'spremiersystemofpubliclandsandwaterssetasidetoconserveAmerica'sfish,wildlife,andplants.SincePresidentTheodoreRooseveltdesignatedFlorida'sPelicanIslandasthefirstwildliferefugein1903,theNWRShasgrowntomorethan550NationalWildlifeRefugesand150millionacres.TheNWRSispredominatelyamarine‐influencednetworkofprotectedareasencompassingapproximately30,000coastalmilesacross61millioncoastallandacres.Inaddition,refugeoceanholdingsincludetwo1,000‐milelongarchipelagos,andexpansiveestuarinesystemsfromabovetheArcticCircletoremotecoralreefsandtropicallagoonsbelowtheEquator.CoralreefecosystemswithintheNWRStotalalmost5millionacres.TheNWRSco‐managesthe89‐million‐acrePapahānaumokuākeaMarineNationalMonumentinHawaii;NWRSholdingswithinthePacificRemoteIslands,RoseAtoll,andMarianasTrenchMarineNationalMonumentsinclude53millionacresofsubmergedlandsinthecentralandwesternPacific.TheNWRSincludes37WetlandManagementDistrictsandmorethan30,000WaterfowlProductionAreas,encompassing677,000acresofwetlandsandgrasslandsprimarilyintheprairiepotholesoftheDakotas,Minnesota,andMontana.Congressionally‐designatedWildernessmakesup20percentofrefugelands,mostofwhichisinAlaska.

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TheNWRShelpssustainmorethan700bird,220mammal,250reptileandamphibian,andmorethan200fishspecies.Morethan200refugeswerespecificallyestablishedfortheconservationofmigratorybirds.Fifty‐ninerefugeswereestablishedfortheprimarypurposeofconservingthreatenedorendangeredspecies.Indeed,about280ofthenearly1,375Federally‐listedthreatenedorendangeredspeciesarefoundwithintheRefugeSystem.TheNWRSischaracterizedbyanunevengeographicandsizedistribution.LargerrefugeunitsaremostlyinAlaska,withthe16Alaskarefugescontributing87percentofthetotallandareaintheNWRS.Themedianandmeanrefugeis5,550acresand20,186acres,respectively.Incontrast,themedianareaofAlaskarefugesis2.7millionacres(Scottetal.,2004).Nearly20percentofrefugesarelessthan1,000acres,andeffectivelyevensmallerbecausemorethanhalfofrefugesconsistoftwoormoreparcels.Morethan40millionpeoplevisittheRefugeSystemeachyear.VisitorsenjoymanyoutdooractivitiesthatarecompatiblewiththemissionoftheNWRS,includinghunting,fishing,wildlifeobservation,photography,interpretation,andenvironmentaleducation.Visitorspendinggeneratesalmost$1.7billioninsalesforregionaleconomies,whichincludesnearly27,000peopleinprivatesectorjobsand$542.8millioninemploymentincome(CarverandCaudill2007).

WHAT’STHEPROBLEM?

AlthoughtheRefugeSystemismorethanacenturyold,theNationalWildlifeRefugeSystemAdministrationAct(16U.S.C.668dd–668ee),asamendedbythe1997NationalWildlifeRefugeSystemImprovementAct(NWRSIA)(PublicLaw105‐57),legislativelyestablisheditsmission:“toadministeranationalnetworkoflandsandwatersfortheconservation,management,andwhereappropriate,restorationofthefish,wildlife,andplantresourcesandtheirhabitatswithintheUnitedStatesforthebenefitofpresentandfuturegenerationsofAmericans.”

TheNWRSIAwastheRefugeSystem’sfirsttrueorganiclegislation;ithasbeenreferredtoasoneofthemostemphaticconservationdirectiveseverwrittenbyCongress(Meretskyetal.2006).Underit,theSecretaryoftheInteriorischargedwithspecificresponsibilities,includingthefollowingbiologicaldirectives:

• Providefortheconservationoffish,wildlife,andplantsandtheirhabitats;• Ensurethebiologicalintegrity,diversity,andenvironmentalhealthoftheSystemare

maintainedforthebenefitofpresentandfuturegenerationsofAmericans;• PlanforthecontinuedgrowthoftheSystem;• Assistinthemaintenanceofadequatewaterquantityandqualitytofulfillthemissionofthe

Systemandthepurposesofrefuges;• Acquire,understatelaw,waterrightsthatareneededforrefugepurposes;and• Monitorthestatusandtrendsoffish,wildlife,andplantsineachrefuge.

Inventoriesandmonitoringplaycriticalrolesinimplementingthesedirectives.Infact,theyarecriticaltoeffectiveplanningandmanagementofrefugesandtheRefugeSystem.However,unlikeotherFederallandmanagementagencies,suchastheNationalParkService(http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/index.cfm),andtheForestService(http://fhm.fs.fed.us/),theRefugeSystemdoesnothaveanationally‐coordinatedinventoryandmonitoringprogram.InventoriesandmonitoringcomprisealargepartoftheworkdoneonstationsoftheNWRS,buttheseeffortsarelargelyuncoordinatedamongrefugesandRegions;nosynthesis

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oftheinformationderivedfromtheseeffortsiscurrentlyavailabletoRegionalorWashingtonOfficemanagers.

TheRefugeSystemisuniqueamongFederallandsinhavinglegislativemandatestomaintainandrestorebiologicalintegrity,biologicaldiversityandenvironmentalhealth,andtomonitorthestatusandtrendsoffish,wildlife,andplantresources.Refugeshavetraditionallyfocusedonthepurposesforwhicheachwasestablished,primarilymigratorybirds,threatenedandendangeredspecies,marinemammals,andinterjurisdictionalfish.TheNWRSIArequiresamorecomprehensiveapproachtomanagingthenaturalresourcesoftheRefugeSystem,andtoconductingtheinventoriesandmonitoringneededtoinformmanagement.

Concernabouttheconservationofspeciesandecosystemsinthefaceofshrinkinganddegradedhabitatsiswidespread(Sutherlandetal.2009).Climatechangeispredictedtomagnifythethreatandgreatlyincreasespeciesextinctionratesacrosstheglobe(McLaughlinetal.2002;Massotetal.2008;Sekerciogluetal.2008).ThefollowingisasummaryoftheprimarythreatstotheintegrityofNorthAmericanecosystemsposedbyclimatechange(CCSP2009;Karletal.2009;Scottetal.2009;U.S.DOI2009b;USFWS2008).

• Changesinwaterqualityandquantitywilloccur.Adequatewaterquantityandqualityareessentialformanagingfish,wildlife,plants,andtheirhabitatsonrefuges.Climatechangehasthepotentialtodecreasesupplyandincreasedemandforwater,creatingnewwaterscarcityproblemsandexacerbatingexistingones.Watertemperatureswillincreaseandhighintensitystormswillincreaseerosionandtransportofcontaminantsintowaterbodies.Thesechangeswillcausedirectchangesinriparianhabitatsandfishandwildlifedependentonthemaswellasecosystem‐widechangesinflora.Localchangesinprecipitation,higherwatertemperatures,increasedfrequencyofhigh‐intensityprecipitationevents,andlongerperiodsoflowflowswillexacerbateexistingproblems.Notonlycanweexpectregionalshortages,butwecanalsoanticipateincreasederosionandrunoffratesduringfloodeventsthatmaycarrypollutantsinsoilsintowaterbodies.Lowflowsduringdroughtswilldegradewaterqualitybyconcentratingpollutants.Conversely,highwatereventsoncoastalandotherrefugescandamageleviesandaffectfloodcontrolandwatermanagementcapabilities.

• Largescaleshiftsinspeciesrangesandtimingoftheseasonsandanimalmigrationwilloccur.Climatechangewillcauseshiftsinspeciesranges,inmanycasesawayfromrefugesandotherDepartmentoftheInterior(DOI)lands.Phenologicalmismatchesmayoccurbetweenmigratingspeciesandtheiravailablefoodresources..Oneofthemorepronouncedeffectsofrapidclimatechangeistotal“regimeshift,”whereentireecologicalcommunitiesaretransformedfromtheir“natural”statetoconditionsthatarenotonlydegraded,butalsomaybenovelandofanthropogenicorigin.Suchshiftsoccurasaresultofchangingtemperatureregimesandrainfallpatterns,exacerbatedbyinvasivespeciesandwildfire,asisalreadybeingseenintheblackspruceforestsofsouthernAlaskaandthecoastalshrublandsofcentralandsouthernCalifornia.Inotherlocales,suchastheMidwest,wetlandssuchastheprairiepotholesmaybelost,ornewwetlandsmaybecreatedinpreviouslydryareas.Wheresuchregimeshiftsoccuronrefuges,itmaynolongerbepossibletoachieveexistingwildlifeandhabitatmanagementobjectivesand,inextremecases,theirestablishmentpurposes.

• Thenumbersofthreatenedandendangered(T&E)specieswillincreaseasaresultofclimatechange.Refugesplayauniqueroleinconservation,protectionandrecoveryofT&Especies

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throughthemaintenanceandrestorationofhabitats(includingcriticalhabitat).Morethan50percentofallFederally‐listedmammals,birds,andreptilesuserefugesforatleastpartoftheirlife‐historyneeds.Yet,climatechangeisexpectedtoplace20‐30percentofextantspeciesathighriskofextinctionby2100.Speciesinhabitingsaltmarshes,mangroves,andcoralreefsarelikelytobeparticularlyvulnerable.Thelandscapessurroundingmuchofthe59refugesestablishedforlistedspeciesarealreadyhighlydegraded,whichclimatechangeimpactswillonlyexacerbate.Refugeswillneedtoconserveandmanagehabitatsforspeciesvulnerabletoclimatechange,evenassomerefugesestablishedforthatpurposemaybeunabletoachievetheirmandatebecauseofregimeshifts.

• Fire,insectpests,diseasepathogens,andinvasiveweedspecieswillincrease.Dryconditionsandchangesinforesthealthwillchangetheduration,frequency,intensity,andextentofwildlandfires.PestspeciesarealreadythegreatestresourcemanagementchallengewithintheNWRS.Asof2008,2.43millionacreswereinfestedwithinvasiveplants;4,387pestanimalpopulationsareonrefugelands.Aslocalmicrohabitatschange,nativeplantcommunitiesalreadydegradedbyexternalstressorsmaywellbeoutcompetedbyinvasiveplants,manyofwhicharehardygeneralistsbettersuitedtoenvironmentalconditionsofawarmingworld.Astheyspread,invasiveplantswillcontinuecausinglossofexistingnativehabitatandout‐competetheestablishmentofnewnativestryingtoexpandtheirrangesorotherwiseadapttoalteredconditions.Climatechangeisalreadytriggeringforestinsectoutbreaks(e.g.,pinebarkandsprucebarkbeetles),whichareoutsidethefrequencyandmagnitudeexperiencedinrecenthistory.Warmertemperaturesandchangesinprecipitationpatternswillaffectsurvival,distribution,andontogenyofdiseasevectors,parasites,andpathogens.VectorsalreadyappeartobeoccupyingmorenortherlylatitudesandcausingoutbreakssuchasLymediseaseandbluetonguevirusinnewareas.Sincetherangesandpopulationdensitiesofnativespeciesalsowillchangeunpredictably,wecanexpectnewdiseaseagent‐hostinteractionswithunknowneffects.Riskofanimaldiseasetransmissiontohumansisalsoexpectedtoincreaseinsomelocales.TheinternationalWildlifeConservationSocietyrecentlyidentified12suchdiseaseslikelytoexpandandchangedistributions,includinghighlypathogenicavianinfluenza(HPAI)andtuberculosisinlargewildmammals.Outbreaksofmosquito‐bornediseases(e.g.,WestNilevirus,encephalitis)inhumans,domesticanimals,andwildlifewillincreaseasmosquitopopulationsproliferateinwarmer,wetterlocales.Diseaseriskonrefugesincreaseslocalpublicsentimentagainstwildlifeandpressuretocontrolanimalsorvectors.

• Desertsanddrylandswilllikelybecomehotteranddrier,feedingaself‐reinforcingcycleofinvasiveplants,fire,anderosion.Climatechangeisalreadycontributingtomorefrequentandintensefiresonandoffrefugelands.Plantsstressedfromdroughtorinsectsprovideincreasedfuelloads,ofteninhot,dryareas.Atthesametime,vegetationcommunitiesdominatedbyinvasiveplantscanalterthehistoricalfireregime.YethigherminimumtemperaturesinNorthAmericaareexpectedtolengthenthegrowingseason,resultinginincreasedprimaryproductivityandpotentiallyevengreaterfuelloads.Anexpandingurbaninterfacealongrefugeboundarieshasalreadyincreasedtheecological,economic,andsocialrisksofwildfire;theaddedpressuretocontrolwildfiresandconductmoreprescribedburnsinawarmingclimatecanonlyincreaseforrefuges.

• Coastal,nearshoreandmarineecosystemsarealreadyundermultiplestresses.Climatechangewillexacerbatethesestresses.Expectedsealevelrise,combinedwithstormsurgeeffects,willhaveaprofoundeffectoncoastalsystems,includingcoastalrefuges,withthemostdramaticeffectsbeing

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wetlandloss,lowerproductivityofestuaries,lossofbarrierislands,andincreasedcoastalerosionandflooding.Possibleincreasesincoastalstormswillincreasetheseeffects.Oceanwarmingandacidificationareimpactingcoralecosystems,andthreatenmajordisruptionsinecologicalfunctionsaffectingmarineresourcesworldwide.Sealevelsarepredictedtorise4‐8inchesby2025,and15‐38inchesby2100.Anincreaseof20inchesinsealevelcouldcauseanestimated50percentlossofNorthAmericancoastalfreshwaterwetlands.Becausenearlyone‐thirdofthenation’srefugesaresituatedincoastalareas,sea‐levelrisewillsignificantlyimpacttheNWRS.Majoreffectsofsea‐levelriseoncoastalrefugesincludebeacherosionfromhighwaveenergyevents;barrierislandmigrationandshorelinerecession;lossofsaltmarsh;saltwaterintrusionintonear‐inlandfreshwaterwetlands;movementofthesaltwater‐freshwaterbarrierupstreamincoastalstreamsandrivers;anddegradationofcoastalaquifers.

• Arcticandsubarcticecosystemsarecurrentlyexperiencingthemostrapidandprofoundeffectsofclimatechange.Seaiceecosystemsarealreadybeingadverselyaffectedbytheseriousreductionintheamountandseasonaldurationofseaiceandfurtherchangesareexpected.Warmertemperatureshavealreadyreducedtheseaiceusedbysealsandwalrusestorestbetweenforagingbouts.PolarbearsinsomeArcticregionsappeartobeexperiencingshorterfeedingperiodsanddecreasedaccessibilitytothesealstheyhuntbecauseofreducedseaice.SeaiceofftheArcticcoastofAlaskaisthawingandretreating,havingwidespreadeffectsonmarineecosystems,humansettlements,andnativesubsistenceactivities.Finally,lossofpermafrostisalreadyhavingprofoundeffectsonlocalizedecosystemsandthreateningmuchmore,puttingtheecologicalintegrityofAlaskanrefugesatrisk.

Climatechangeandotherstressorsresultinginrapidenvironmentalchangeemphasizetheneedforamorecoordinatedapproachtoconservation.TheDepartmentoftheInterior(DOI)viewsthethreatofclimatechangetoitspubliclandsandwatersasthemostseriousenvironmentalthreatsincethedustbowlofthe1930s.TheServicerecognizesthatmeetingitsconservationmissioninthefaceofclimatechangewillrequireacoordinatedeffortinvolvingallpartiesinterestedinournaturalheritageoffishandwildlife.TheService’s“RisingtotheChallenge:StrategicPlanforRespondingtoAcceleratingClimateChange”andaFive‐YearActionPlantoimplementthestrategicplan(USFWS2009a,2009b)callfororganizingconservationplanningandmodelingcapacitywithinLandscapeConservationCooperatives(LCCs)toprovidescientificleadershipandworkwithpartnerswithinlandscapeunitsorGeographicAreas

TheUSFWScreatedanationalgeographicframeworkforthepurposeofconservationplanninganddelivery.Thisframeworkconsistsof22GeographicAreas:16inthecontiguous48states,fiveinAlaskaandoneinHawaii(Fig.1).WiththeexceptionofAlaska,theframeworkintegratedBirdConservationRegions(basedonOmernikLevelIIecoregions)withFreshwaterEcoregionsoftheWorld(FEOW).BirdConservationRegionsaretheunitsdevelopedbytheNorthAmericanBirdConservationInitiativeasacommonecologicalplanningunitforbirds.FEOWisaglobalclassificationoffreshwatersystemsadoptedforuseinNationalFishHabitatActionPlans.ExistingMigratoryBirdJointVentureboundarieswereusedasatertiaryconsiderationbecausetheyrepresentlandscapepartnershipsthathavealreadydevelopedbiologicalplanningandconservationdesigncapacity.GeographicAreaswillbeservedbyLandscapeConservationCooperativesandwillbetheregionally‐scaledplanningunitsfortheNWRSI&Mprogram.However,therearesignificantNWRSholdingsinthePacificOceanthatarenotwithinestablishedGeographicAreas(Fig.2).

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Figure1.Distributionofnationalwildliferefugeswithinthe22GeographicAreasdelineatedbytheServiceforbiologicalplanninganddesign.

(Figure1).LCCstaffwillworkwithotheragencyandconservationpartnerstoplan,design,andevaluatelandscapescaleconservationinthefaceofclimatechangeandotherstressors,usingtheprinciplesofadaptivemanagement,scientificinquiry,andaprocesstheServicecallsStrategicHabitatConservation(SHC).ThegoalsoftheFWSStrategicandActionclimatechangeplanswerereinforcedunderSecretarialOrder3289,issuedonSeptember14,2009,taskingtheDOIRegionalClimateChangeResponseCenters(USGS)andtheLCCswithdevelopingadaptationstrategiestorespondtoclimatechange(USDOI2009a).

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Figure2.NationalwildliferefugesinthePacificOceanthatareoutsideGeographicAreascurrentlyestablishedbytheService.

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Inventoriesandmonitoringmustbeincorporatedintothiscoordinatedconservationapproach.TheDOITaskForceonClimateChange(USDOI2009b)hassummarizedtheroleofinventoriesandmonitoringinthefaceofclimatechangeasfollows:

“Managingforclimatechangerequiresathoroughunderstandingofwhatspeciesandhabitatsmakeuptheecologicallandscapeofapark,refuge,orothermanagementunit.Withoutaninventoryofspeciesandnaturalcommunities,wecannotbegintopredicttheecosystemresponsetoachangingclimate,ortodevelopactionstodealwiththoseresponses.Adaptivemanagementrequiresmonitoringtodeterminethesuccessofindividualmanagementactionsinordertolearnfromthemandadjustthecourseforsubsequentactions.Throughoutthisreport,theSubcommitteeemphasizestheneedtoincreaselocalandregionalecologicalinventoryandmonitoringactivitiesthroughcooperativepartnershipsinordertoimprovecosteffectivenessandoverallefficacyofmonitoringactions.“

TheServiceandRefugeSystemmustembracealargervisionofinventoriesandmonitoringbecauserapidclimatechangewillresultin20‐40percentofexistingspeciesbeingonatrajectoryforextinctionwithin50years(IPCC2007,Thomasetal.2004).Environmentalchangesassociatedwithclimatewillresultin:newspeciesassemblagesbeforewefullyunderstandorhavedocumentedthecompositionofourcurrentcommunities;manycoastalrefugesbeinginundatedbyrisingseasorsurgesfromincreasedcyclonicactivity;andmanyrefugesinlandscapesforwhichtheywerenotestablished.MuchofAlaska,thePacificNorthwest,andtheMississippiandMissouriRiversystemsareexpectedtoexperiencenovelbiomeswithinthenextcentury(Figure3),suggestingthatouralreadyincompleteknowledgeofcurrentspeciesdistributionsandassemblageswillbeincreasinglyoutdated.Rapidclimatechangedemandsthatweexpectsurprisesbeyondourcurrentexperiencewithgeneratingmanagement‐drivenobjectives(Burkeetal.2005,WilliamsandJackson2007).TheServicespecificallyaddressedinventoriesandmonitoringinitsStrategicandFive‐YearActionclimatechangeplans.Goal3callsforthedevelopmentof“monitoringandresearchpartnershipsthatmakeavailablecompleteandobjectiveinformationtoplan,deliver,evaluate,andimproveactionsthatfacilitatefishandwildlifeadaptationstoacceleratingclimatechange”.Toaccomplishthisgoal,Objective3.1callsforthedevelopmentofaNationalBiologicalInventoryandMonitoringPartnershipwiththeactiveparticipationoftheRefugeSystem:

Action3.1.2TheAssistantDirectorfortheNationalWildlifeRefugeSystemwilldevelopandimplementapilotinventoryandmonitoringprogramonNationalWildlifeRefugeSystemlands;I&Mprogramwillbemodeledonexistingprogramswithproventrackrecords(e.g.,U.S.ForestService’sForestInventoryandAnalysisProgramandtheNationalParkService’sInventoryandMonitoringProgram).

TheService’sstrategicclimatechangeplanfurtherdefinedthescopeofthiseffortonServicelands:

“Wewillincorporatenewinventoryandmonitoringapproachesasnecessaryandpractical,withtheambitiousgoalofhavingwithin10yearscompleteplantandvertebratespeciesinventories,andinventoriesofselectsubsetsofinvertebratespeciesforallServicelands.“

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Figure3.SpatialmodelsofcurrentandfuturedistributionsofNorthAmericanbiomesasaresultofclimatechange(Scottetal.2008).

HOWWILLTHESERVICEANDNWRSRESPOND?

FACILITATINGCLIMATECHANGEADAPTATION

Facilitatingtheadaptationoffish,wildlife,andplantstorapidclimatechangeisahugeundertakingandrepresentsanenormousintellectualandecologicalchallengetotheService,theRefugeSystem,andtheconservationcommunityasawhole.TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)definesadaptationas“theadjustmentinnaturalorhumansystemsinresponsetoactualorexpectedclimaticstimuliortheireffectswhichmoderatesharmorexploitsbeneficialopportunities.”A2009reviewsummarizedtheadaptationstrategiesavailableforsustainingwildlifeandbiodiversityinthefaceof

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climatechangebymajortypesofactions(Mawdsleyetal.2009;Table1).Theconservationcommunityhasexperiencewithsomeofthestrategies;otherswillrequirenewtoolsandapproaches;nonearesimple.Manyofthestrategiesdonotlendthemselvestoexperimentation.Theyinvolvelandscapescaleeffortsthataredifficulttoreplicateinacontrolledsetting.Anumberoftheadaptationoptionsinvolvereducingnon‐climatestressorsandimprovingecosystemresilience,representation,andredundancy;thisisalow‐riskapproach,oneweshouldbedoinganyway.

Table1.Climatechangeadaptationstrategiesavailabletolandmanagers(Mawdsleyetal.2009).

Type StrategyIncreaseextentofprotectedareasImproverepresentationandreplicationwithinprotected‐areanetworksImprovemanagementandrestorationofexistingprotectedareastofacilitateresilienceDesignnewnaturalareasandrestorationsitestomaximizeresilienceProtectmovementcorridors,steppingstones,andrefugiaManageandrestoreecosystemfunctionratherthanfocusingonspecificcomponents(speciesorassemblages)

Landandwaterprotection

ImprovethematrixbyincreasinglandscapepermeabilitytospeciesmovementFocusconservationresourcesonspeciesthatmightbecomeextinctTranslocatespeciesatriskofextinctionEstablishcaptivepopulationsofspeciesthatwouldotherwisegoextinct

Directspeciesmanagement

ReducepressuresonspeciesfromsourcesotherthanclimatechangeEvaluateandenhancemonitoringprogramsforwildlifeandecosystemsIncorporatepredictedclimate‐changeimpactsintospeciesandland‐managementplans,programs,andactivitiesDevelopdynamiclandscapeconservationplans

Monitoringandplanning

Ensurewildlifeandbiodiversityneedsareconsideredaspartofthebroadersocietaladaptationprocess

Lawandpolicy Reviewandmodifyexistinglaws,regulations,andpoliciesregardingwildlifeandnaturalresourcemanagement

Scottetal.(2009)identifiedthefollowingtechniquesandapproachesthatcouldbeemployedspecificallywithintheRefugeSystemtofacilitateadaptationtoclimatechange:

• Useprescribedburningtoreduceriskofcatastrophicwildfire;• Facilitategrowthofplantspeciesmoreadaptedtofutureclimateconditions;• Assistspecieswithlimiteddispersalabilities;• Provideinterimfoodpropagationformis‐timedmigrants;• Reforestriparianhabitats;• Propagateandtransplantheat‐resistantcoral;• Applythefullrangeoflanduseplanningtools(acquisition,easements,inter‐agency

partnerships,waterrightacquisition)toacquirebuffers,establishcorridors,andeliminatedispersalbarriers;

• Conserveprojectedclimatechangerefugia;• Improvecompatiblelandusesinlandssurroundingtheconservationareas;• Restoreexistingandestablishnewmarshlandvegetationassealevelsrise;

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• Establishothermarshlandvegetationwherefreshwaterlakelevelsfall;• Restorehistorichydrologicregimesandretainadequatewatertosustainaquaticspeciesand

wildlife;• Restorehistoricfireregimestosustainfire‐dependentorfire‐adaptedspeciesandecosystem

functions;• Consideruseofleveesandengineeringworkstomeetcriticalhabitatneeds;and• Reduceoreliminatenon‐climatestressorsonconservationtargets(e.g.,predatorcontrol,nest

parasitecontrol,controlofnon‐nativecompetitors).Inthepast,managementdecisionshavegenerallybeendirectedtowardmaintainingorrestoringhistoricconditions.Adaptationmaynowmeanmanagingtowardslesscertainfutureconditions,ratherthanaimingforhistoricalorcurrentconditions(Choi2007,Harrisetal.2006).ConsistentwiththeIPCC,theServicerecognizesthatadaptationstrategiescanbeanticipatoryorreactive(USFWS2009a).Anticipatoryadaptationworkswithclimatechangetrajectories;reactiveadaptationworksagainstclimatechange,towardshistoricconditions.Theformerapproachmanagesthesystemtowardsanewclimatechange‐inducedequilibrium;thelatterabatestheimpactbytryingtomaintainthecurrentconditiondespiteclimatechange(Johnsonetal.2008).Itwillbeessentialtolearnquicklywhatworks‐‐andwhatdoesn’t‐‐whenitcomestohelpingspeciesandecosystemsadapt.Managingtowardfutureconditionsinvolvesadegreeofuncertaintyandrelianceonmodelprojectionsthatmayinvolveworkoutsidethescopeanddefinitionofcurrentlegislationorpolicy.Effortstoreduceuncertaintyareimportant,butuncertaintywillalwaysremain.Thisdictatesanadaptivemanagementapproach,ortheadjustmentofmanagementactionsastheresponsetopreviousmanagementisevaluatedthroughmonitoring(Johnsonetal.2008).TheServicehascommittedtoanintensive,multi‐yearcollaborationwithFederal,State,Tribal,private,andinternationalorganizationstosupportthedevelopmentofaNationalFishandWildlifeAdaptationStrategy(USFWS2009a).TheRefugeSystemcancontributesignificantlytothiseffortbydemonstratinghowlandmanagementagenciescancoordinatetheircollectiveresponsetoclimatechangebasedonalargerlandscapecontextwhileaccountingforotherecologicalstressors.Forexample,Magness(2009)developedanational‐scale,strategicrationalefororganizingthemanagementofindividualrefugestoprovideacoordinatedresponsetoecosystemvulnerabilitywithintheRefugeSystem.Ecosystemvulnerabilitytoclimatechangedependsontherateofclimaticchangeandtheresilienceofthesurroundinglandscape,bothofwhichvaryatmultiplespatialscales.UsingGISanalyses,refugeswereplacedintoanecosystemvulnerabilityframeworkthatwasusedtodefinefourbroadmanagementcategories:facilitatedtransitions,experimentsinnaturaladaptation,ecosystemmaintenance,andrefugia(Figure4).Conceivably,thisapproachcouldberefinedandformalizedtoprovideoverallguidancetorefugesastheirComprehensiveConservationPlans(CCPs)aredevelopedorrevised.ThereisaneedtocollectthekindoffielddatathatwillmovetheRefugeSystemtowardsamorecohesiveandstrategicresponsetoarapidlychanginglandscape.WehaveproposedintheOperationalBlueprintthatoneselectioncriterionfortheplacementofI&MpilotstudieswithintheNWRSbebasedonasimilarvulnerabilityassessmentofindividualrefugeswithintheirsurroundinglandscape.TheI&Mprogramshouldevolvetocontributeinformationneededtohelpplanandevaluate,inatrulyadaptiveapproach,thisnationalclimateadaptationstrategy;helpdefinethefutureroleoftheRefugeSysteminitsimplementation;andpromotecoordinationandcollaborationwithpartnersintheconservationestate.

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Figure4.Managementoptionstofacilitateclimatechangeadaptationon550+nationalwildliferefugeswithvaryingecosystemvulnerabilities(Magness2009).Climatechangeratewasbasedonmodelsoftemperaturechange,precipitationchangeandsealevelrise.Resiliencewasbasedonrefugesize,itselevationalrange,andthesurroundingroaddensity.

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ROLEOFTHEI&MPROGRAM–ANOPPORTUNITYFORLEADERSHIP

TheI&Mprogramisdesignedtoaddressthelong‐termdataneedsoftheNWRStomeetrefugepurposesandtheRefugeSystem’slegislatedmissionandmandates,andtosupporttheService’slandscapeapproachtoconservation,takingclimatechangeimplicationsintofullaccount.

ThisprogramisamilestonefortheRefugeSystem.Forthefirsttime,inventoryandmonitoringofnaturalresourcesonrefugeswillbeconductedacrosstheentireRefugeSystem,targetingnationally‐andregionally‐scaledobjectives.Asaresult,programleadershipwillmorefullyappreciatethemissionoftheRefugeSystemandthechallengesthataccompanyacceleratingclimatechange,aswellasthelong‐standinginformationneedsofrefuges.ProgramleadershipwillrecognizetheneedforcollaborationwithothernationalI&MprogramstocoordinateinventoryandmonitoringactivitiesacrosstheFederal,Stateandprivateconservationestateandpromotedatasharingamongallstakeholders.ProgramleadershipwillrecognizethatrefugesareislandsinarapidlychanginglandscapeandworkcloselywithLCCsandpartnerstoproviderelevantlandscapecontexttoconservationdesign,biologicalplanning,outcome‐basedmonitoring,andmanagement.

TheI&MprogramwillserveakeyroleinsupportoftheLCCsbyfocusingontheevaluationoflandscapescaleconservationdelivery,providingandmanagingdataonspeciesoccurrenceonrefuges,quantifyingimpactsofnon‐climatestressors,andworkingcooperativelywithLCCstaffandtheUSGSClimateChangeResponseCentersonvulnerabilityassessmentsandmodelingofpresentandprojectedspeciesdistributions.TheI&Mprogram’sprimaryroleunderSHCwillbemonitoringtheeffectsofmanagementonpopulationsandrefugehabitatsdoingsowithconservationpartnersacrossthelandscape.TheI&Mprogramwillalsoprovideleadershipindesigningandimplementingsurveystoassessthecurrentstateofspeciespopulationsandidentifyinglimitingfactors(BiologicalPlanning).MajorcomponentsoftheI&MprogramaredirectedatassessingstatusandtrendsoflimitingfactorsalreadyidentifiedasimportantacrosstheNWRS(waterqualityandquantity,andinvasivespecies).I&MprogramstaffwillparticipateinotherelementsoftheSHCprocessandprovideleadershipformonitoringatspatialscalesbeyondrefugeboundaries.

Thislandscapecontextiscriticalforconservationdesign,biologicalplanningand,ultimately,conservationdeliverybecauserefugesconstituteonly5percentofthecontiguousU.S.;manystressorsoriginatefromoutsiderefugeboundaries.Inparticular,asweconsiderstrategicgrowthoftheRefugeSystem,speciestranslocations,habitatrestorationandcreation,andothertoolsforfacilitatingadaptationtoclimatechange,itwillbecriticalthatthisprogrambedevelopedsoitcontributestounderstandingecologicalchangewithintheRefugeSysteminregional,national,andevencontinentalcontexts.

ThisprogramwillbenationallycoordinatedbyWashingtonOfficestaff,basedinFortCollins,Colorado,toensurethatinventoryandmonitoringaddressesnationalneeds(Figure5).Thisofficewillbestaffedbyscientistsfromdisciplinesrelevanttoconductinginventoriesandmonitoringofbothbioticandabioticresourcesincludingwildlifeandfisheriesbiology,landscapeecology,marineecology,hydrology,remotesensing,biometry,andspatialmodeling.Datamanagement,dataaccess,andproductdeliverywillbesignificantcomponentsofthisoffice.Datamanagementcapacitywillconstituteapproximatelyone‐thirdoftheannualbudgetfortheoverallI&Mprogram.

NWRSI&MstaffinRegionalOffices,associatedwithLCCsandassignedtofieldstations,willworkcollectivelytomeettheinformationneedsuniquetorefugeswithinGeographicAreasandrequiredbytheLCCs(Figure5).DatawillbecollectedandsummarizedbyGeographicAreas.NWRSI&Mcoordinators

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willworkwithLCCstoensurethatinformationcollectedcontributestoconservationdesignandbiologicalplanningatlandscapescales.NWRSI&MdatamanagerswillensurethatdatastandardsanddatamanagementsystemsintegratewellwiththoseoftheLCCs,whilenestingwithintheI&Mprogram’snational‐leveldatamanagementinfrastructure.I&Mprogramstaffassignedtofieldstationswillprovideadditionalcoordinationofprograminitiatives,includingfacilitationofmonitoringtosupportregionally‐scaledadaptivemanagementprojects.

TheI&Mprogramwilladdresslong‐standinginformationneedsinsupportofplanningandmanagementofrefugesatthelocalscale.Ataminimum,theI&MprogramwillhonortherecommendationsoftheWH8.1BaselineInventoryTeam(Byrdetal.2004)thatallrefugesshouldhavebasicinformationonbioticandabioticresources.Theseincludeinventories,maps,andgeospatialdatabasesoftopography,hydrography,soils,boundaries,man‐madestructures,vegetationcommunities,vertebratefauna,andvascularflora.Withrareexceptions,refugefieldstaffwillnotbeburdenedbyadditionalfieldworkassociatedwithsubsequentmonitoring.However,refugestaffwillalwaysbeconsultedandtheiractiveparticipationwelcomedinregional‐andnational‐scalemonitoringefforts.RecognizingthatpotentialpartnershipsvaryacrosstheU.S.andatdifferentscales,weareproposinganI&Mprogramthatisnationally‐coordinatedbutallowsforregionalvariancetoaddressissuesthatmaybemoresignificantinonepartofthecountrythananother.Forexample,Scottetal.(2008)pointoutthattheabsoluteandrelativeimpactsofrapidclimatechangeonwaterfowlresourcesintheCentralFlywayvaryfromtheAlaskasubarctictothePrairiePotholeRegiontotheLowerMississippiRiver,asdoesthecontributionofnon‐climatestressors.Similarly,thelogisticalandfiscalhardshipsofconductingfieldworkinAlaskaorinmarinesystemswillrequirethatsomeGeographicAreasdesignI&Mcomponentsthatareunique.

ThisoperationalflexibilityfitswiththeoperatinghistoryandstrongregionalstructureoftheRefugeSystem,butsuccessfulimplementationoftheI&Mprogramwillrequirestrongcooperationandcommunicationamongthenational,regional,LCC,andfield

Figure5.TherolesandresponsibilitiesoftheNationalandRegionalofficesoftheNWRSI&Mprograminrelationtothoseofrefuges.

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levelI&Mstaff.ItwillrequireintegrationandleveragingofexistingbiologicalandtechnicalcapacitywithintheRefugeSystem,theService,andconservationpartners.Anationally‐coordinatedprogramwillderivefromgoodcommunication,adoptionofstandardoperatingproceduresanddatastandards,anintegrateddatamanagementstructure,andconsistentreportingrequirements.

TheI&Mprogramwillensurethatallsurveydesign,datastorageandanalysis,andreportingisconsistentwiththedraft701FW2InventoryandMonitoringPolicy(USFWS2009).ThispolicyprovidesguidancefordevelopinganInventoryandMonitoringPlanforastationoftheNWRS.However,itaccommodatesalllevelsofnaturalresourcesurveys,fromthestationlevelonuptoparticipationinnationalandinternationalsurveyprograms,bothinternalandexternaltotheUSFWS.Suchsurveysmayincludelong‐termmonitoringprograms(e.g.,sea‐levelrise,climatechange,biologicalintegrity,diversityandenvironmentalhealthofrefuges)ofregional,national,orinternationalscale,andimplementprotocolsdevelopedbyotherServiceprogramsorconservationpartners.Overall,thispolicypromotesconsistencyintheplanningandimplementationofinventoriesandmonitoringthroughouttheRefugeSystem.

PROGRAMSTAFFINGANDFUNDING

CurrentsciencecapacityoftheNWRS.AsofAugust2009,theRefugeSystemhad626refugemanagers,assistantrefugemanagers,orrefugeoperationspecialists,(GS‐0485);686professionalbiologists(GS‐0401,‐0486);and1,010biology,rangescience,orforestrytechnicians(GS‐0404,‐0455,‐0462).Conspicuouslyabsentorscarceareprofessionalpositionswithinbiometry,GeographicInformationSystems(GIS)management,datamanagement,spatialmodeling,andthephysicalsciences,includingremotesensing.Forexample,theRefugeSystemcurrentlyhasonlyoneremotesensingscientist(Region2),onebiometrician(Region7),andonewildlifeveterinarian(Region6).Althoughmanybiologistshavestrong,interdisciplinarytechnicalskillsets,theRefugeSystemdoesnothavethetechnicalspecialiststodevelopandimplementanI&Mprogramtomeetthedemandsofclimatechangeandotherlandscapestressors,engagewithandcontributetoLCCs,partnerwithothernationalI&Mprograms,andprovidesupportforadaptivemanagement.

FuturesciencecapacityoftheNWRS.TheRefugeSystemhasbeenappropriated$12millioninFY10toinitiatedevelopmentandimplementationofaclimatechange‐focusedI&Mprogram;itmayreceive$8millioninFY11forthesamepurpose.InFY10,58FTEswillbefunded:10intheFortCollinsofficeand48intheregions,withsixineachoftheeightregions.ThelatterincludesoneRegionalNWRSI&MCoordinator,twoFTEsperLCC,andthreeatfieldstations.InFY11,contingentuponfunding,45FTEsmaybeadded:fiveFTEsintheWOand40FTEsintheregions(LCCsandfieldstations).MoredetailsareprovidedintheOperationalBlueprintandAddendumtotheStrategicPlan.

Beyondtheinitial23NationalandRegionalOfficestaff,theI&MprogrammuststrategicallygrowwithinGeographicAreasandatfieldstationsinresponsetotheinformationneedsoftheRefugeSystemandtheLCCs.AfullyoperationalI&Mprogramwillrequirefundingof$100millionannually,supporting280FTEs($45million),atleast200ofwhichwillbelocatedonfieldstations.Operationalcostsofconductinginventoriesandmonitoringareestimatedtobe$55millionperyearRefugeSystem‐wide.Completingbaselineinventoriesalone(e.g.,vegetationmapping,biota,waterresources)willrequireapproximately$25millionperyearover10yearstocoveroperationalcosts.

Alaskawillrequirespecialconsideration.The16refugesinAlaskacomprise87percentofthelandbasewithintheNWRS,ranginginsizefromoneto22millionacres.Evenasclimatechangeisdramatically

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impactinghigharcticandsubarcticAlaska,thelogisticalandfiscalcostsofinventoryingandmonitoringcontinuetobesignificantlygreaterinAlaskathanelsewhereintheU.S.Indeed,nationaldirectorsofboththeUSDAFIAandEPANARSprogramshaveexpressedexplicitinterestincooperatingwiththeNWRStocompletebiologicalinventoriesinAlaska.TheNationalParkServicehasalsorecognizedtheI&MchallengethatAlaskarepresentsandprovidedspecificdetailsonhowtoaddressthoseinformationgapsintheNPSStrategicPlanforNaturalResourceInventories:FY2008–FY2012.TheNWRSwillneedtopartnerwithotheragenciesandotherI&MprogramstofullyaddresstheinformationneedsinAlaska.Marineecosystemswillrequirespecialconsideration.MarineholdingswithintheRefugeSysteminclude~30,000coastalmilesacross61millioncoastalacres,withtidally‐influencedlandstotaling7millionacres.CoralreefswithintheNWRSencompassalmost5millionacres.TheNWRSco‐managesthe89‐millionacrePapahānaumokuākeaMarineNationalMonumentinHawaii.RefugeSystemholdingswithintherecently‐designatedPacificRemoteIslands,RoseAtoll,andMarianasTrenchMarineNationalMonumentsinclude53millionacresofsubmergedlandsinthecentralandwesternPacific(Figure2).Thesetropicalmarineandoceanicecosystemsremainpoorlyunderstoodormainlyunexplored,especiallyinthevast,remotecentralPacificOcean.ThemagnitudeofthisrecentgrowthintheRefugeSystemandtheextensivescaleofmonitoringsealevelrise,polaricecapmelt,oceanacidification,andchangesinoceancurrentsdemandresourcesandexpertisebeyondtheRefugeSystem.TheNWRSwillneedtopartnerandintegratewithagenciessuchasNOAAandEPAwhichalreadyhavewell‐developedI&Mcapacityformarineresources,andwithinternationalinitiativessuchastheGlobalCoralReefMonitoringNetworkandReefBase.Otherrecommendationsincludeclosecooperationwithnon‐DOIagencies,includingNOAA,DOD,NASA,USCG,SmithsonianInstitutionandothers,toprovidesatelliteandremotesurveillancetechnologytodiscourageunauthorizedaccessandharvesting,enforceprotection,andassesstheeffectsofspecificintrusions;expansionoftheexistingfledglingcoralreefinventoryandmonitoringprogramtocoverallremoteislands,coralreefs,deepreefs,seafloor,andlocalizedoceanicandatmosphericcharacteristics;andassistneighboringnationsandterritoriesthathaveestablishedprotectedlandsandmarineareastoimprovetheoveralleffectivenessandefficiencyoftheI&Mprogramandoperationeffectivenessofallprotectedlandsandwaters.

II . THENWRSINVENTORYANDMONITORINGPROGRAM

VISION

AnationallycoordinatedprogramofinventoryandmonitoringontheNationalWildlifeRefugeSystemwillgenerateinformationcriticaltotheSystem’songoingcontributionstotheconservationofthenation’sfish,wildlifeandplantresourcesinthefaceofclimatechangeandotherenvironmentalstressors.CollaborationwithotherServiceprogramsandState,Federalandprivatepartnerswillleadtotheeffectiveintegrationofinventoryandmonitoringdataneededtoadvanceconservationatlandscapescales.

Theinventoryandmonitoringprogramwilldocumentthestatus,assessthecondition,anddetectchangesintheRefugeSystem’sdiversefish,wildlifeandplantcommunities,physicalresources‐‐includingwater,airandsoils‐‐andecologicalprocessestosupportscience‐basedconservationplanningandmanagementatmultiplespatialscales.Theinformationgeneratedwillbescientificallycredible,relevant,andvaluedby

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theService,itspartnersintheconservationcommunity,andthepublic.Theprogram’sprotocolsandstandardswillprovidethebasisforconsistentdatacollectionanddatamanagementthroughouttheRefugeSystem,ensuringthetimeliness,availability,andlong‐termintegrityoftheinformationcollected.

PROGRAMGOALS

1. MeettheRefugeSystem’slegalmandatetomonitorthestatusandtrendsoffish,wildlife,andplantpopulationsonrefuges,preservewildernesscharacter,andcollectandmanageinformationneededtomaintainbiologicalintegrity,biologicaldiversity,andenvironmentalhealthandpreservethecharacterofdesignatedwildernesswithintheSystem.

2. Advancefishandwildlifeconservationatrefugeandbroaderlandscapescalesinanadaptivemanagementcyclebyprovidingscientificinformationthatsupportsconservationplanninganddesign,guideslearningthroughevaluationofconservationdelivery,andprovidesabasisforassumption‐drivenresearch.

3. Implementmonitoringoffish,wildlifeandplants,physicalresources,andecologicalprocessestoreduceuncertaintyrelatedtoimpactsofclimatechangeandotherstressors;provideearlywarningofchangingconditions;andguidedevelopmentofmanagementactionsthatfacilitateadaptationtoclimatechange.

4. Synthesize,interpret,andreportontheconditionoffish,wildlife,plants,andhabitatsconservedbytheRefugeSysteminamannerthatdocumentsthecontributionsoftheSystemwithinthecontextofthelargerconservationestateandclearlycommunicatesitsvaluetotheAmericanpublic.

5. EnhanceeffectivenessandreducecostsbycoordinatingandintegratingmonitoringofnaturalresourcesatlandscapescalesthroughcollaborationwithotherServiceprograms,agencies,andorganizations.

PROGRAMFOCIATNATIONALANDREGIONALSCALES

SETTINGPRIORITIES

Anationally‐coordinatedI&Mprogramwillrequiresettingpriorities,notonlyforPhase1oftheprogram,butforthelong‐termaswell.Nomatterhowwell‐funded,thisI&Mprogramcannotaddressallneeds;aqualityprogramwillrequirefocus.TheprioritiesoftheNWRSI&MprogramshouldbedrivenbythemostpressinginformationneedsoftheServiceandtheRefugeSystem.InformationderivedfromthisI&Mprogramshouldinformthemostimportantdecisionsmadebymanagersatalllevelsoftheorganization.TheNationalandRegionalofficestaffsoftheI&Mprogram,oncehired,willrefineandprioritizelong‐termgoalsandobjectives.DuringPhase1oruntilsuchtimeasthefledgingprogramisbetterdeveloped,initialobjectivesare:

1. Collect,synthesize,andmanageinformationneededtoincreasetheresilienceofexistingprotectedareasbyinformingrefugeplanningandmanagementandthefuturegrowthoftheRefugeSystem.Supportandevaluateadaptationstrategiesatmultiplespatialscales.

2. Collect,synthesize,andmanageinformationneededtoassessthevulnerabilityoftheRefugeSystemasrelatedtobroad‐scaleclimateandnon‐climatestressors:watershortages,changesin

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precipitationanddisturbancepatterns,changesinfirerisk,contaminants,andlandusechanges.Supportandevaluateadaptationstrategiesatmultiplespatialscales.

3. Collect,synthesize,andmanageinformationneededtoassessthevulnerabilityoftheNWRStoincreasesinweedspeciesandchangesininsectpestsanddiseasepathogens.Supportandevaluateadaptationstrategiesatmultiplespatialscales.

4. Collect,synthesize,andmanageinformationneededtodetectshiftsinbiomesandspeciesranges,elevatedextinctionrates,andchangesinthetimingofmigrationsandotherphenologicalphenomena.Supportandevaluateadaptationstrategiesatmultiplespatialscales.

5. Collect,synthesize,andmanageinformationneededtoassessthevulnerabilityoftheRefugeSystem’scoastalandmarineresourcestosea‐levelrise,risingoceantemperatures,andoceanacidification.Supportandevaluateadaptationstrategiesatmultiplespatialscales.

6. Collect,synthesize,andmanageinformationneededtoassessthevulnerabilityoftheRefugeSystem’sArcticandotherhigh‐latituderesources,includingice‐dependentspecies.Supportandevaluateadaptationstrategiesatmultiplespatialscales.

Nonetheless,theRefugeSystemcannotassumethatitfullyrecognizesknowledgegapsormanagementneedswhenfacedwithacceleratingclimatechange.

Manybiological,hydrological,andgeologicalprocessesareinteractivelylinkedinecosystems.Theseecologicalphenomenanormallyvarywithinboundedranges,butrapid,nonlinearchangestomarkedlydifferentconditionscanbetriggeredbyevensmalldifferencesifthresholdvaluesareexceeded.Intrinsicandextrinsicecologicalthresholdscanleadtoeffectsthatcascadeamongsystems,precludingaccuratemodelingandpredictionofsystemresponsetoclimatechange.Understandingandanticipatingnonlineardynamicsareimportantaspectsofadaptationplanningsinceresponsesofbiologicalresourcestochangesinthephysicalclimatesystemarenotnecessarilyproportionalandsometimes,asinthecaseofcomplexecologicalsystems,inherentlynonlinear(Burkettetal.2005).

Therefore,evenastheRefugeSystemprioritizesandimplementsPhase1ofthisprogram,itwillneedtoensureconstantfeedbackinatrulyadaptivemanagementcontext,notonlytorefinetheprogramobjectives,butperhapsevenitsgoals.Theimperative‐‐articulatedbothhereandintheOperationalBlueprint‐‐istomoveforwardquicklybutprudently,designinginventoriesandpilotstudiestobetterframeandrefinethemonitoringobjectives,metrics,andprotocols.Justasimportantly,theRefugeSystemneedstobeawareofmonitoringfornon‐targetimpactsevenasitconsidersfacilitatedmigrationandotherformsofanticipatoryadaptationtoclimatechange.ThefollowingprogramfociarerecommendedforearlyconsiderationduringdevelopmentoftheI&Mprogram:abioticresources,biologicaldiversity,populationsofpriorityspecies,invasivespecies,vegetationmapping,phenology,geneticdiversity,wildlifehealth,waterqualityandquantity,fireandotherlandscapedisturbanceprocesses,contaminants,andWildernesscharacter.ManyoftheseprogramfocicontributetomorethanoneoftheI&Mprogram’sinitialobjectives.WehavepromotedsomeofthesecomponentsaspilotstudiesduringPhase1oftheOperationalBlueprinttoavoidmissedopportunitiesandredundancyofI&Mbyotheragencies.PilottestingforeachofthesecomponentswilloccurinoneorallRegionsduringPhase1,whilemethodsarebeingdeveloped.TheseRegionswillworkcooperativelytodesignmethodsandtoolswiththeultimategoalofexpandingtheirusenationwide.DuringPhase2,someofthesepiloteffortswillberevised,refined,andexpandedtomoreRegionsornationwide.

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ABIOTICRESOURCES

Abioticfactorssuchassoils,hydrology,andgeomorphologyprovidethefoundationforecologicalprocessesandecosystemrestoration.Biologicalresourcescannotbesuccessfullymanagedwithoutknowledgeoftheunderlyingabioticresourcesuponwhichtheyultimatelydependandinhabit.Local‐scaleknowledgeofsoils,hydrography,topography,andgeomorphologytakeonnewsignificanceastheServiceconsiderstranslocatingspeciestoplaceswheretheymaynothaveoccurredinthepast.Whilechangingclimaticconditionsmaysupportnewspeciesoffish,wildlife,andplants,localconditions(e.g.,soiltype,thepresenceofpermafrost,orwaterchemistry)mayinhibittheirviability.AbioticbaselinedataaretypicallyassembledbyrefugesduringdevelopmentoftheirComprehensiveConservationPlans(CCPs).However,somerefugesstilllackaccesstothesebaselinedata.Furthermore,thereisnocentrallocationforstoringthisinformationsothatitisavailableand/orefficientlyservedtoRegionalorNationalNWRSmanagers.TheI&MprogramwillhonortherecommendationsoftheWH8.1BaselineInventoryTeam(Byrdetal.2004)thatallrefugesshouldhavebasicinformationonabioticresources.Hydrogeomorphicanalysis(HGM)isamethodofassessingecosystemconditionandecologicalprocessesatasitetoevaluatedeparturefromhistoricconditions,identifyrestorationandmanagementoptions,andidentifyecologicalattributesneededtorestorespecifichabitats.Notethattheterm“HGM”asusedherereferstoananalysistoolinamanagementcontext,anddiffersfromtherelatedHydrogeomorphic(HGM)Approachusedtoassessandclassifywetlandfunctioninaregulatoryframework.HGMprovidesascience‐basedapproachtounderstandingthephysicalandecologicalattributesoflandscapesandspecificareaswithinthem,suchasrefuges.HGMutilizeshistoricconditionandecologicalprocesses(soilshydrology,topography,geomorphology,vegetation),identifieschangestophysicalconditionandecologicalprocess,andgeneratesrestorationandmanagementoptionsforagivenlandscape.AnHGManalysishelpsrefugestationsclarifytheirmanagementobjectivesandrespondtoclimatechangebycreatingabetterunderstandingofthepotentialforarefugetosupportwildlifeandplantcommunities.Restorationoptionswillneedtobeinformedbyclimatemodels;forexample,restorationofecosystemfunctionmaybemorefeasiblethanrestorationofspecificplantcommunities.HGManalyseshavebeencompletedforsomerefugesinRegion6.TheOperationalBlueprintrecommendsexpandingtheuseofthistoolonadditionalrefuges.Someabioticdataneededtorespondeffectivelytoclimatechangehaveyettobecollected.TheseincludesoilandwetlandtypesovermostrefugelandsinAlaska,andhigh‐resolutiondigitalelevationmodelstobetterprojecttheimpactsofsea‐levelriseoncoastalrefugesatthelocalscale.Workingwithpartners,theI&Mprogramshouldsupportacquisitionofthesedata.

BIOTICRESOURCES

BIOLOGICALDIVERSITY

TheRefugeSystemcannotbeexpectedtoadaptstrategicallytoclimatechangeimpactswithoutabettersenseofinsitubiologicaldiversity.Floralandfaunalinventoriesarecriticalforbenchmarkingextantspeciesassemblagesbeforeacceleratedclimatechangeandnon‐climatestressorscauseextinctions,speciesredistributions,andnovelassemblages.Inventoriesalsosetthestageforreasonedanddeliberatedevelopmentofmonitoringobjectivesandawell‐designedmonitoringprogram.Newdataresultingfrom

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comprehensiveinventoriesmayalsoredirectcurrentmanagementprioritiesandassistwithassessmentsofspeciesvulnerabilitytoclimatechange.However,Federalagenciesaregenerallyill‐preparedtoaddressclimatechangebecauseofinadequateknowledgeofthespeciesthatoccuronlandstheymanage.TheU.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOffice,afterstudyingtheeffectsofclimatechangeonFederalagenciesandlandsin2007,concludedthat,“resourcemanagersdonothavesufficientsite‐specificinformationtoplanforandmanagetheeffectsofclimatechangeontheFederalresourcestheyoversee.[They]generallylackdetailedinventoriesandmonitoringsystemstoprovidethemwithanadequatebaselineunderstandingoftheplantandanimalspeciesthatcurrentlyexistontheresourcestheymanage.” TheDepartmentofInterior’sClimateChangeTaskForcesimilarlyconcludedin2008that,“fewDOIlandmanagementunitshavecompletebiologicalinventoriesofspecies.Additionally,DOIhasnocohesive,systematicprogramformonitoringchangeovertimeinthedistributionofspeciesandcommunities.Inventorieswillbecriticaltoassessingclimatechangeimpactsandtodevelopingmanagementresponsestothoseimpacts.”Lastly,aspartoftheU.S.ClimateChangeProgram’sreviewofadaptationoptionsforclimate‐sensitiveecosystemsandresources,theSynthesisandAssessmentProduct4.4recommendedthattheNWRSfacilitatetheidentificationofspeciesthatoccuronrefugesanddevelopdetailedinventoriesofspecies,communities,anduniqueecologicalfeatures(Scottetal.2008).Withoutthesedata,Scottetal.(2008)emphasizedthatitwillbeimpossibletomonitorchangesandtodeterminehowtoallocateresourcestoprotectthebiotaoftheRefugeSystem.Theinherentvalueofknowingwhichspeciesoccuronarefugeispredicatedonthecertaintyofthatknowledge,therigorwithwhichdatawerecollected,andthespatialdistributionofthesamplingefforts.Theseattributesdictatethepotentialforusinginventorydataasbaselinevaluesforplot‐basedmonitoring,forinputintospatialmodelingatlocalscalesincludingthedevelopmentofvegetationandwildlifespeciesdistributionmaps,fordevelopingstatisticalmodelsofspecies‐habitatrelationships,forinputsintoremotesensing‐basedmodels,ground‐truthingremotely‐senseddata,orasvalidationdatasetsforspatially‐explicitmodels.Morespecifically,aninventorycanbeaone‐timeeventthatsimplygeneratesanaspatialspecieslistwithanunknownlevelofcertaintyaboutitscompleteness,oritcanbeT1ofatimeseriesinastatistically‐rigorous,spatially‐comprehensivemonitoringdesign.Thetrade‐offisthatevenasthecollateralbenefitsincreasewithincreasingstatisticalrigorandspatialcomprehensiveness,sodoesthefinancialcostofconductingtheinventory.TheRefugeSystemwillneedtoconsiderthemeritsofinventoryandmonitoringinawaythatdatacanbeintegratedbyothersonpublicandprivatelandsoutsidetheNWRS.Consequently,intheOperationalBlueprint,developmentandimplementationofpilotstudieshavebeenrecommendedtohelptheRefugeSystembetterunderstandthesemethodologicaltrade‐offswhileconcurrentlydevelopingprotocolsforfieldsampling,curationandvouchering,andDNAbarcoding.Inaddition,thetrade‐offsofleveragingdatabypartneringwithothernationalI&Mprograms‐‐suchasUSDA’sForestInventoryandAnalysisprogram,NRCS’sNaturalResourceInventory,orEPA’sNationalAquaticResourceSurveys‐‐couldalsobeexplored(seePartIII.CrosscuttingConsiderationsandApproaches).Thedocumentationofspeciesoccurrencesfromexistingdata‐‐i.e.,legacydata‐‐isrecommendedasafirststep.Legacydataincludeexistingdatasets,annualnarratives,reports,theses,museumvoucherspecimens,andspecieschecklists.Mostrefugebirdchecklistsarecompiledfromlegacydata.TheNationalParkServicehasdevelopedseveraldatabasesandprotocolsforinventoryinglegacydata,compilinglegacydataonspeciesoccurrencewithinNationalParksinanationaldatabase(NP_Speciesdatabase)andotherlegacydataintoanaturalresourcebibliographydatabaseforeachpark.Inaworldwithrapidclimatechange,legacydataonlyrepresenthistoric,notnecessarilycurrent,speciesoccurrence.However,theycan

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serveasabenchmarkagainstwhichfuturechangescanbecontrasted.Asacaution,thesedatasourcesoftenhaveseriouslimitations;thevalueoftheinformationmustbeweighedagainstthecostofacquisitionandcompilationbeforeproceeding.

POPULATIONSOFPRIORITYSPECIESAstheI&Mprogramdevelops,theRefugeSystemwillconsiderincorporatingthemonitoringofpopulationsofpriorityspeciesthathaveasignificantpresenceonrefugesatRegionalandNationalscales.TheRefugeSystemwillneedtocoordinatewithintheServicetoensurethatrelevantmigratorybirdspecies,Federally‐listedspecies,anadromousfish,andmarinemammalsaregivendueconsideration.TheI&MProgramwillworkwithLCCs,JointVenturesandthetwoHabitatandPopulationAssessmentTeam(HAPET)officestoidentifytargetbirdspecieswithinGeographicAreasformonitoring.JointVenturesareregionally‐focused,public‐privatepartnershipsthatimplementandevaluateconservationactionsinsupportofthefourmajorNorthAmericanbirdconservationinitiatives(i.e.,waterfowl,shorebirds,waterbirds,landbirds).TheRefugeSystemisavitalpartnertotheJointVentures,representinganimportantelementineachU.S.JointVenture’simplementationinfrastructure.Assuch,theNWRShasarolebothindeliveringtargetedconservationactionsforbirdsandfosteringanimprovedunderstandingoftheeffectsofconservationactionsinachievingbirdpopulationobjectives.ImplementationofNWRSconservationactionswithinanadaptiveframeworkateithertheindividualrefugelevelorasapartofcoordinatedregionaleffortswillhelpensurethatactionsarerobusttoexistinguncertaintiesandthatmonitoringprogramsaretargetedtoreducekeyuncertaintiesovertime,includinguncertaintiesexacerbatedbyclimatechange.Refugemonitoringcanbeanimportantlinkinbroader,multi‐scalebirdmonitoringeffortsdesignedtoidentifyfactorsdrivingpopulationanddistributionalchangeandtoeffectiveallocationofbirdconservationresources.TheIntegratedWaterbirdProject(http://www.acjv.org/waterbird_project.htm),whichinvolvesRegions3,4,and5,isoneprojectthatattemptstodealwiththecomplexitiesofmigrationmonitoring.Itisanexampleofadaptivemanagementappliedatthescaleoftwoflyways(AtlanticandMississippiflyways)andseveralbirdtaxa(waterfowl,shorebirds,marshbirds),withafocusonprovidinghighqualitymigrationhabitat.Projectsinotherregionsmayhavesimilargoals.TheRefueSystemwillalsoseekcollaborationwithestablishedprograms,suchastheNorthAmericanAmphibianMonitoringProgramortheTerrestrialWetlandGlobalChangeResearchNetwork,whichbringsfocustoamphibians,ataxonomicgroupthatishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange.Infact,wearealreadydealingwithdecliningworldwidepopulations,widelycitedasaharbingerofachangingclimate.Becauseoftheirpermeableskin,biphasiclifecyclesandunshelledeggs,amphibiansareextremelysensitivetosmallchangesintemperatureandmoisture(CareyandAlexander2003).Pollinationiscrucialtothereproductionofmanyplants,thustomaintenanceoffunctioningecosystemsandbiodiversity.Manypollinatorsarealsohighlyclimate‐sensitiveanddeclinesintheirpopulationshavecascadingeffectsonentireecosystems.Theprincipalmodeofpollinationofmanyplantspeciesisbyinsects.Worldwide,anestimated400cropspeciesarepollinatedbybeesandmorethan30otheranimalgenera;possiblecroplossinsomespecieswouldbemorethan90percentintheabsenceofbees(Southwick,1992;BuchmannandNabhan,1996).TheRefugeSystemwillconsiderparticipationandcollaborationinnewI&Mprograms,suchasthebeemonitoringinitiativehostedbytheUSGSatPatuxentWildlifeResearchCenterinMaryland.

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VEGETATIONINVENTORIESANDMAPPINGDetailedandmeaningfulvegetation/habitatinventoryandmappingarefundamentalelementstoallinventoryandmonitoringprograms,buthavenotbeencompletedforthevastmajorityofnationalwildliferefuges.Indeed,theWH8.1BaselineInventoryTeam(Byrdetal.2004)specificallyrecommendedthedevelopmentofvegetationcommunitymapsforallrefuges.CommonlyfollowingtheNationalVegetationClassificationSystem,vegetationinventoriesconductedonfieldstationsaredevelopedatafloristicorfloristic/physiographicscale.Requiredsampledesignandfielddatacollectionneedtoberigorousandintensivetoensureastatisticallydefensibleandaccurateinventory,whichcanincludeinvasiveplantspecies.Theancillarydatarequiredtodevelopvegetationinventorieswillvaryfromhighresolutionmulti‐spectralairbornesensorstomid‐andcoarse‐resolutionsatellitesensorssuchasLandsatTMandMODIS,dependingontheneedsoftheproject.Region2hasdevelopedandpublishedtheNWRSpatialVegetationInventoryandMonitoringHandbook(Donnelly2006),whichdocumentstheremotesensingmethods,fieldprotocol,sampledesignandstatisticalanalysisusedintheirmappingprocedures.Inaddition,thecapacitytodetectchange(notjustastaticmap)overtimecanbeincorporatedthroughanalysesofspectral(continuous)orthematic(classified)data.Inscenarioswherearchiveddataareavailable,suchasLandsatTMorhistoricaerialphotography,changedetectioncanbeappliedtoquantifyshiftsinlandscapemetricsovertime,historictopresent.Itisalsousefulwhenquantifyingchangesresultingfromlandscapedisturbancessuchaswildlandfiresorhurricanes.Inspiteofitsacceptanceasaneffectivelandscapeinventoryandmonitoringtool,remotesensingcapacityandapplicationwithintheRefugeSystemhasbeenlimited.TherehasbeennoprogrammaticsupporttodevelopthecapacitytoinitiatearemotesensingprogramcapableofsustainingcomprehensivevegetationmappinginventoryprogramorrelatedremotesensingapplicationsatNationalorRegionallevels.BoththeNationalEcologicalAssessmentTeam(USFWS2006)andtheClimateChangeStrategicPlanningTeam(USFWS2009)haveidentifiedtheneedforincreasedcapacityandutilizationofremotesensinginsupportlandscapeconservationandmonitoring.TheOperationalBlueprintspecificallyaddedtheneedforremotesensingcapacitywithintheWashingtonOfficetoensurethatvegetationinventoriesandmappingofallrefugesbeginearlyinimplementationoftheI&Mprogram.PartnershipswithNASA,NOAA,andUSGSwillprovidetheI&Mprogramwithaccesstonewsourcesofremotely‐sensedimageryaswellassignificanttechnicalexpertisetoincorporatecutting‐edgeremotesenseddataproductsandassociatedmodels.

PHENOLOGYTheinventoryofcurrentphenologyandmonitoringtemporalchangesthatresultfromclimatechangecanserveascriticalcomponentsofan“earlywarningsystem”forthreatstobothspeciesoccurrenceandabundance(i.e.speciesvulnerability).Recentliteraturesuggeststhatspeciesthatshowrelativelygreatphenologicalchangearemoreresilientandthereforelesslikelytobelocallyextirpatedasclimatechanges.Phenologicaldataarealsocriticalforunderstandingsomeoftheunderlyingproximatemechanisms(e.g.trophicmismatch,parasite‐hostrelationships,growingseason)thatmaybedrivingspeciesredistributions,populationextirpations,andspeciesextinctionsinaworldwithrapidclimatechange.TheUSGSlaunchedtheUSANationalPhenologyNetwork(NPN)inMarch2009withthegoalofhaving100,000observationlocationsacrosstheUSmonitoredbycitizens,universities,agencies,andotherorganizations.Withthebiologicalexpertiseandtheon‐the‐groundeyesofrefugestaff,aswellas“eyesinthesky”fromremotely‐sensedimagery,theopportunityexistsnotonlytocontributetotheUSANPN,butalsotoensurethatthe

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NPNservestheRefugeSystem.BycollaboratingduringtheearlydevelopmentofNPN,theRefugeSystemcanensurethatspeciesoreventsrelevanttoitareincorporatedasmonitoringmetricsandthatdatacollectedbyNWRSstaffonrefugelandsareretrievable.

GENETICDIVERSITYIncorporationofgeneticsamplingintotheI&Mprogramcanprovidedetailedinformationongeneflow,bothinterspecific(hybridizationorintrogression)andintraspecific(throughmigrationandsuccessfulreproduction).Atabroadlevel,geneticscanbeusedtoidentifyindividualsamplestospecies.Geneticidentificationisoftenmorereliablethanmorphologicalfieldidentificationanddoesnotrequiretaxonomicexpertsinthefield.Onafinerscale,geneticanalysisisthemostrealisticwaytoidentifydivergenceorisolationamongmorphologicallysimilargroupsofindividuals;itisthemostabsoluteandreliablewaytoidentifytruepopulationsandquantifyintraspecificdiversity.Climatechangeisalteringcurrentlandscapes,whichhighlightstheneedtounderstandspeciesuseandinteractionsacrossthelandscape.Changinghabitatsresultingfromchangingtemperatureandprecipitationaltersspeciesdistributionsandmovement.Populationsmaybecomeisolatedovertimeormigrationcorridorsmaynolongerbesufficienttoconnectseasonalhabitats.Persistenceofspeciesincurrentlyoccupiedhabitatsmaybeconstrainedbythespeciesabilitytoadapttotheirchangingenvironment.Geneticassessmenttoolsallowmanagerstomonitorandunderstandwhenspeciesarenotadaptingand,perhaps,havesignificantgeneticconstraints(e.g.,inbreeding).Applicationofgenetictechniqueshelpstounderstandadaptationofspeciesorpopulations,especiallyforthosepopulationsthatexistontheedgeofthespeciesrangeoraregeographicallyisolated,andthereforearemostvulnerabletotheeffectsofclimatechange.Climatechangeisalreadyincreasingtheriskofisolationforsomepopulations.Populationsthatareisolatedandbecomesmallovertimeareexposedtoincreasedrisksofinbreedingandlossofgeneticdiversity,whichcannegativelyaffectfitnessandfurtherthreatentheirpersistenceorrecovery.Genetictechniquescanbeusedtomonitorestimatesofgeneticdiversity,allowingforassessmentofthepotentialthreatsofinbreedingandlossofdiversityresultingfromlowpopulationsizes.Forexample,genetictechniquesareoftenappliedtocaptivepropagationprogramsincludingthoseofthreatenedandendangeredspeciesinanefforttomaintaingeneticdiversity.Inaddition,monitoringandassessmentofgeneticdiversitycanalsobeusedtoprovidegenetic‐basedsurrogateestimatesfordemographicdata,suchaseffectivepopulations,orformark‐recapturestudies. Genetictoolsandtechniquescanbewidelyappliedtoinformmanagementandconservationactions.Avarietyoflaboratorytechniquesexistthatcanprovidedifferentscalesofresolutionforestimatesofgeneticdiversity.Criticaltotheapplicationandinterpretationofgeneticinformationisthemethodsinwhichgeneticsampleswerecollected.Forexample,factorssuchasthelifestagesampled,thetimeofyearsampleswerecollected(whichmaybiasthelifestage,sexratio,orpopulationoforiginsampled),numberofsamplesobtained,andthebiologicalmaterialobtainedforgeneticanalysiscanallsignificantlyinfluencetheabilitytomakeconclusionsaboutthespeciesorpopulationbeinganalyzed.Integrationofageneticcomponenttoalarge‐scaleinventoryandmonitoringprogramshouldcarefullyevaluatethespecificmanagementorconservationquestionbeingaskedofthegeneticdatatobestinformtheappropriatesamplingschemeforbiologicalmaterialsforgeneticanalysis.

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WILDLIFEHEALTH

Expansionofthehuman‐wildlifeinterfaceassociatedwithglobalhumanpopulationgrowthandfoodrequirement,developmentofrapidglobaltransportsystems,theinterdependentglobaleconomy,globalwildlifemigratorypatterns,increasedwildlifeconcentrationsaswildlandhabitatsshrink,andemergenceofhumaninfectiouszoonoticdiseases(manylinkedtowildlifereservoirs)havesparkedacknowledgementandacceptanceofthe“OneHealth”concept‐‐theinterrelatednessofhuman,wildlifeanddomesticanimalhealtharoundtheworld.Inthepasttwoyears,theWorldOrganizationforAnimalHealthandtheWorldHealthOrganizationhaverecognizedtheimportanceofwildlifediseases.Assessing(inventorying),monitoringandaddressingwildlifehealthissueshaveemergedasprioritiesforwildlife,humananddomesticanimalhealth.Inthenextcentury,manyfactorswillelevatewildlifehealthasapriorityfortheUSFWS:

• Globalclimatechangeisexpectedtoaffectthetype,prevalenceanddistributionofwildlifediseasesonRefuges.Thecomplexinteractionamonghost,agentandenvironmentwillleadtomodifiedandinmanycasesunpredictablealterationsindiseaseexpression.Increasedtemperatures,changesinprecipitationpatterns(amount,durationandseasonaldistribution),andwaterqualitywilldirectlyaffectsurvival,distributionanddevelopmentofvectororganismsandpathogens.“TheDeadlyDozen”(WildlifeConservationSociety2008)outlines12zoonoticpathogensofwildlifethatarelikelytospreadtonewregionsasaresultofchangingtemperaturesandprecipitationlevelsexpectedfromclimatechange.

• Expandedpublicuseonrefugesandotherpubliclandswillincreasediseaseagenttransmissionriskbetweenwildlifeandhumans.Humansplayaleadingroleinthedynamicsofdiseasetransmissionandspread.

• Theemergenceandpersistenceofdiseasesresistanttoarchetypicaltherapeuticsolutionswillrequireintegratedecologicalsolutions;solutionsbasedonholisticsoundmanagementofwildlifeandhabitats.

Wildlifediseaseisoftenaconsequenceoftheimplementationoflandscapemanagementdecisions.Managementdecisionsaffectingecologicalinteractions,habitatqualityandquantity,wildlifedistribution,andwildlifeabundanceallaffectdiseaseexpression.Avianbotulism,brucellosis,andtuberculosisareexamplesofdiseasesgreatlyaffectedbymanagementactions.Highlypathogenicavianinfluenzaandfoot‐and‐mouthdiseasearerepresentativeofdiseasesabsentinthewesternhemispherethatwouldhavesignificanthuman,wildlifeandeconomicimpactshouldtheybeintroduced.InventoryandmonitoringofwildliferesourcesandhabitatconditionsareanintegralpartoftheService’sresourcemanagementresponsibility.TheI&Mprogramshouldultimatelyincludeanationalemphasisonwildlifehealthsurveillance.Specificmeasuresofdiseasepresence,diversity,riskofspread,andimpacttowildlifeandhumansneedtobedeveloped.Inthenearfuture,wewillconsiderestablishingformalizedwildlifehealthmonitoringundertheI&Mprogram,includingthedevelopmentofabaselinedatabasethatcanbeusedtodetectchangesindiseaseexpressioninducedbyclimatechange;identifyinghighriskareaslikelytoexperiencesignificantimpactfromclimatechangewithlikelychangesinpathogenand/orvectorpopulations;andtrainNWRSemployeestoenhancewildlifediseaseknowledgeandsurveillance,minimizethepotentialfordiseasetransmissiontoothersites,andpreventthetransmissionofzoonoticagents.

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INVASIVESPECIES

Despitetheimportanceofmigratorybirds,amphibians,andpollinators,wehavechosentofocusoninvasivespeciesduringPhase1oftheI&Mprogram(seeOperationalBlueprint).ThisissuedemandsimmediateattentionasafesteringproblemwithintheRefugeSystemthatwillclearlybeexacerbatedbyrapidclimatechange.Accordingtorefugemanagersandtheirpartners,invasivespeciesareoneofthemostpervasivethreatstohabitatmanagementintheRefugeSystem(GAOReport,ConservationinActionSummit).InFY2008,theNWRSreportedspending$15.3milliononinvasivespeciesmanagementactivities.Rapidlychangingclimatewillonlyexacerbatetheissue.PestsanddiseasesarelikelytomoveNorth,andtemperatureandmoisturestresseswillweakennativespeciesandmakethemmoresusceptibletodiseases.WewillhavetoremoveormitigatethestressthatinvasivespeciesputonRefugeecosystemssothatourfish,wildlifeandplantswillhavethebestopportunitytoadapttorapidclimatechange.Moreover,invasivespeciesdonotrespectpropertyboundaries.Theyarealandscape‐scaleproblemandrequirelandscape‐scalesolutions.BecausetheRefugeSystemhasnothadtheresourcestostrategicallyplaninvasivespeciesmanagementactions,invasivespecieshavebecomeanoverwhelmingissueformanyindividualrefuges.Managementeffortscommonlyfocusoncontrollinglarge,wellestablishedinfestationsratherthantheearlydetectionandcompleteeradicationofsmallerincipientinfestations.ThisprocessistheoppositeofwhattheNWRSInvasiveSpeciesStrategicPlan(2003)recommends.Ifwecanpreventaspeciesfromenteringtherefugeoreliminateasmallpatchbeforeitspreads,wearesavingfuturedollarsthatwouldbespenttofightthespeciesonceitbecomesestablishedandfullyentrenched.

AstandardizedI&Mapproachiscriticaltoimprovingourunderstandingof,confronting,anddeterringtheinvasivespeciesthreat.Withoutinventorydata,wedonotknowwhattheproblemis,whereitis,andwedonotunderstandpatternsofspread.Atarefugescale,weneedtobeabletoquantifytheextentoftheproblem.Inventoryandmonitoringdataatalargerlandscapeorwatershedscalearecriticalforworkingwithpartnerstocontrolinvasivespecies,andareespeciallycrucialfortheearlydetectionofnewinvadersonNWRSlands.ItwillbenecessarytoshareI&Mprotocolsanddatabaseswithsisteragenciesandnon‐governmentalpartnersthroughLCCsorothercollaborativedatasharingplatformsorvenues.OurvisionistoaddressinvasivespeciesmanagementneedsthroughtheI&Mprogram,workingcloselywithpartners,toprovidereal‐time,science‐basedinventoryandmonitoringdataandmodelsatmultiplespatialandtemporalscalesthatimproveourunderstandingofthespreadanddistributionofinvasivespeciesandhelpguidemanagementdecisionsonrefugesandadjacentlands.ThiswillrequireanationalconversationwithstaffthroughouttheNWRSandwithpartnerstodeterminelong‐termobjectives.ShorttermstepsareoutlinedintheOperationalBlueprint.

WATERQUANTITYANDQUALITY

Thelong‐termgoalofacoordinatedapproachtowaterresourcesinventoriesandmonitoringthroughtheI&Mprogramwillbetoprovideup‐to‐date,accuratedataonRefugeSystemwaterquantityandqualityinordertoacquire,manage,andprotectadequatesuppliesofcleanwater.TheRefugeSystemhasalegislativemandate,undertheNWRSAA,asamendedin1997bytheNWRSIA,to“assistinthemaintenanceofadequatewaterquantityandwaterqualitytofulfillthemissionoftheSystemandthepurposesofeachrefuge”,andto“acquire,underStatelaw,waterrightsthatareneededforrefugepurposes”.ThechallengefortheServiceinlightofclimatechangeandgrowingcompetitionforwateristoensurethatsufficientquantitiesofgoodqualitywaterareavailableforfish,wildlifeandplants.

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WecurrentlylackSystem‐wide,baselineinformationonRefugewaterbodies,groundwatersupplies,infrastructure,waterrights,waterqualityimpairments,threatstowatersupplies,andneeds.LackofthesedatamakesitdifficulttomanageRefugeSystemwatersupplies,prioritizefieldstudiesandwaterrightsacquisitions,anddevelopefficient,informativewatermonitoringstrategies.Also,thereiscurrentlyaninconsistenteffortinmonitoringwaterresourcesacrosstheNWRS.WaterquantitymonitoringiscurrentlyundertakenatsomeRefuges,particularlyinStateswithprior‐appropriationwaterlaws,torecordflowandwateruse.However,waterquantitymonitoringisrareatmostRefugesintheeasternU.S.,butneededtoestablishbaselinedataofastation’swateruseandneeds.WaterqualitymonitoringisinadequateSystem‐wide,butneededinordertoensuremaintenanceofenvironmentalhealth.Inaddition,monitoringisneededtodetectclimate‐inducedchangestoNWRSsurfaceandgroundwatersupplies.

Theinitialfocusofwaterinventoryandmonitoringwillbetocompleteabaseline,reconnaissance‐levelinventoryandassessmentofwaterresourcesquantityandqualityatallrefuges.Thiswilltakeapproximately5yearstocomplete.Wewillcollectstandardizedinformationonrefugewaterquantityandquality,includingphysicaldescriptionsofsurfacewaterandgroundwaterfeatures,waterrights,infrastructure,andwaterqualityissues.Whenthisfact‐basedinventoryiscompleted,ahydrologistandwaterqualityspecialistwillreviewandprovideaprofessionalassessmentofthestation’swaterresourceissues,currentandfuturethreatsandneeds,andmakerecommendationsformanagementactions,includingrecommendationsformoredetailedassessmentswhereappropriate.DatacollectedwithinthisinventoryandassessmentprocesswillhelpusmeetthewaterresourcemandatesdescribedintheNWRSIA.

Thewaterresourcesinventoriesandassessmentswillprimarilycollectexistingdatafrommultiplesourcesintoarelationalandstandarddatabasestructure.Thewaterquantitycomponentofthisinventorywillincludedescriptionofphysicalcharacteristicsofastation’swaterbodies,hydrography,andwater‐relatedinfrastructure,asattributesrelatabletoGISlayers,andincludebothsurfaceandgroundwaterresources.Theinventorywillalsodescribeeachstation’swaterrights,waterresourceneeds,andthreats.Waterresourcestaffwillworkwithindividualrefugestopopulatethedatabase.Fieldstationstaffwillfillintheinformationtheyhaveavailable,andwaterresourcestaffcheckthisdataforaccuracyandcompletethedatabasefields.

Thewaterqualityassessmentcomponentwilllookatmultiplesourcesforexistingwaterqualitydata,beginningwithEPA’s303(d)‐listedimpairedwatersdatabase.TheService,incollaborationwiththeEPAandUSGS,hasdevelopedanImpairedWatersProjectforRefugesandHatcheries.Thisprojectcombines2002EPA303(d)‐listedimpairedwaterdatabaseinformationwithNWRboundariesandFishHatcherylocationsanddelineatesimpairedwatersinornearRefugeandHatcheryboundaries.Thelocation,extent,andtypeofimpairmentareidentified.Despitesomelimitations,theimpairedwatersdatabaseisavaluabletoolandisausefulfirststepinassessingwaterqualityissuesintheRefugeSystem.Wewillalsoneedtoexamineadditionalsourcesofinformationonwaterquality,includingtheUSFWSContaminantsAssessmentProgram(CAP)database,EPAandStateimpairedwatersdatabasesfrom2004andlater,Statebio‐assessmentdata,EPASTORETdatabase(includesdatafrommanydifferentgovernmentalandnon‐governmentalsources),USGSNationalWaterQualityAssessment(NAWQA)programreports,andanystation‐specific“legacy”data.

WhiletheRefugeSystemcurrentlyengagesinmonitoringsomewaterresources,particularlyinthewesternregions,developmentofamonitoringprogramwillbeprimarilyanoutgrowthoftheinventoryandassessmentphase.WaterresourceinventoriesandassessmentswillallowtheRefugeSystemtoprioritizeitsmonitoringefforts,inbothwaterquantityandquality.However,theRefugeSystemmaybe

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abletoidentifysomekeymonitoringneedsintheinitialstagesoftheinventoryandassessmentphase,suchasinitiatinglong‐termmonitoringofwatertemperatureatkeylocationswithintheRefugeSystem,ormonitoringwaterqualitybasedonaspecificthreat.

Anationalwaterqualitymonitoringprogramforrefugesshouldbedesignedtoaccommodatenational‐levelassessments(statusandtrendsforsomeconstituents)forlargescale(global)stressorssuchasclimatechangeandatmosphericmercurydeposition,aswellasprovidemeaningfulinformationtoaddresssite‐specificwaterqualityissues.FlexibilityattheI&Madministrativeunitlevelinprioritizingwaterqualitymonitoringeffortsanddeterminingwhattomonitorwillbeimportant.TheRefugeSystemwillneedtoidentifyanetworkofnationalwildliferefugesformonitoring,usingprotocolsdevelopedbyEPANationalAquaticResourcesSurvey(NARS).ThiswillallowtheRefugeSystemtocontributetothelandscape‐levelassessmentsbeingconductedbytheNARSprogram,andalsoallowustomakesomecomparisons/contrastsofwaterqualitybetweentheNWRSandnational‐leveldata(i.e.,howdotrendsinwaterqualityforNWRSwetlandscomparetotrendsinwaterqualityforwetlandsatthenationallevel?).

Bothwaterquantityandqualitycanalsobemeasuredasresponsestoachangingclimate.Inordertoadequatelyevaluateclimate‐inducedimpactstoNWRSwaterresources,waterquantityandqualityshouldideallybeassessedandmonitoredatbothrefugelevelandlandscape/watershedlevelscales.SuchlargerscalesignalswillbeinvaluableindetectingpotentialimpactstoRefugeresourcesandidentifyingremediationopportunities.Again,identifyingpartners,particularlyatthelocalwatershedlevelinconjunctionwiththeNationalFishHabitatActionPlan,willbeimportantinthisregard.Somepossibleattributes/parameterstoconsiderformonitoringrefugewaterresourcestodetectclimate‐inducedchanges(atkeylocationswithintheRefugeSystem,asselectedbywaterresourceprograms)includewatertemperature,streamdischargeandvelocity,flowregimes,watertabledepth,waterchemistry,andotherconstituentsasdeterminedbywaterqualityspecialists.

FIREANDOTHERLANDSCAPEDISTURBANCEPROCESSES

Landscaperesponsestorapidclimatechangewillbedrivenby“natural”disturbanceprocessesincludingchangesinthehydrologicregime(discussedabove)andevapotranspiration,forestpestoutbreaks(e.g.,sprucebarkbeetle,gypsymoth),stormmagnitudeandfrequency,andfireregime.Becausefire(wildorprescribed)isoneofthemoresignificanthabitatmanagementtoolsinuseacrosstheRefugeSystem,wehavepromotedthischangeagentasoneoftheearlyfociduringtheearlydevelopmentoftheI&Mprogram.AlthoughtheNWRSIAmakesnospecificreferencetofire,itisundeniablethatfireisessentialecologicalprocessandtoolformanagingthemajorityofthelandsunderNWRSstewardship.Fireatthewrongtimeandplacealsohasadestructivesidethatplaysoutannuallyinlocalandnationalmediacoverage.TheRefugeSystemnowprotectsmorethan75millionburnableacres(onmoreindividuallandmanagementunitsthananyotherFederalagency)alongwiththeassociatedNWRSfacilities,surroundingcommunitiesandnaturalresourcevalues.ManyoftheseburnableacresareinsmallcoastalandurbantractsalongtheEast,West,andGulfCoastsandintheMidwest,withextensivewildland‐urbaninterfaceareas.Othersareextensive,remoteanddifficulttoaccessnaturallandscapeswherefewpeoplelive.Thepropensityforspreadingfirestoignoreownershipandjurisdictionalboundariesdespiteactivesuppressioneffortsandtothereforeconductitsecologicalworkonlandscapeandlargerscalesrequiresthatrefugefiremanagementbeundertakeninacollaborative,inter‐agencymanner.

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Thislong‐standinginteragencyapproachtowildlandfiremanagementwasformalizedin1995(andreaffirmedin2001and2008)intheinter‐agencyFederalWildlandFirePolicy.DepartmentoftheInterior(620DM1)andFishandWildlifeServicePolicy(621FW1)furtherdirectfulluseofwildlandfireasanaturalprocessandasatoolwithintheRefugeSystem.TheWildlandFireLeadershipCouncil(WFLC)monitoringframeworkforNationalFirePlan(NFP)implementationstrategy(Module2.1)identifiedtheneedtoassesstheenvironmentalimpactsoflargewildlandfiresandidentifytrendsinburnseverityonalllandsacrosstheUnitedStates.In2004,theGAOrecommendedthattheFederalfireagenciescollaboratetodevelopandimplementcomprehensiveassessmentsofburnseverity,toprovideconsistentsummaryinformationcharacterizingtheenvironmentaleffectsofwildlandfiresandmeettherequirementsofWFLC.AccordingtotheQuadrennial[National]FireReview(2009),theeffectsofclimatechangewillcontinuetoresultingreaterprobabilityoflongerandbiggerfireseasons,inmoreregionsinthenation.Alreadywehaverealizedwithinthepastfiveyears:Shorter,wetterwinters;warmerdriersummers;andmoreextensivefiresonthelandscape.

“Thefuture,undercontinuedoracceleratingclimatechange,holdsmorelargewildfirespersistingandpossiblyescalatinginanirregularpatterntermed“asymmetricfire”.Thereisanexpectationofpotentiallyburning1012millionwildfireacresannually,nationwideoverthenextfiveyears.Cumulativedroughteffectswillfurthermoisturestressaccumulatingfuels,withthecurrentdroughtcycleexpectedtolastforanothertwentyyears.Competitionforwaterinecosystems,continuedproblemswithexoticinvasiveandinsectkill,andfasterdryingofvegetationwillmakefuelsmoreflammableanddrivefirebehavior.”

TheRefugeSystemfaceschallengingdecisionsasclimatechanges,sealevelrisesandhumandevelopmentexpands.Decisionsabouthowtomanageunplannedignitions,andwhichvegetationtreatmentstoapplywhereandwhentobestachievehabitatobjectives,ecosystemhealthandservices,andreducehazardousfuelsarecostlyandamongthemostmission‐criticaldecisionsrefugemanagersmake.Atsomepoint,everyrefugemanagerwithburnablevegetation,confrontedwithwarmertemperatures,lowerfuelmoistures,longerandmoreseverefireseasonswillfacedifficultfireandfuelsmanagementdecisions.Managersmustconsidermanyfactorsindecidinghowtomanagevegetativefuelsandfireevents.Monitoringtoevaluatewhetherornotmanagementdecisionshadtheexpectedresultsisimperative.Inventoryandmonitoringonrefugesandtheirsurroundinglandscapessubjecttoperiodicfireevents,regardlessofwhethernaturaloranthropogenicinorigin,requiressamplingmanyattributesofbothbiotic(floraandfauna)andabiotic(soil,water,andair)environmentsacrosstimeandspace,aswellasobservationsaboutthefire(disturbance)eventsthemselves.Therefore,theI&Mprogramwillneedtoincludemeansforassessingbiomass(fuel)quantityanddistributiononrefugelandsandthelargerlandscapestheyarepartof.Fortunately,severaltoolsfordescribingorclassifyingfuels,andrapidlyestimatingfuelquantities(loading)informsusefulforpredictivefirebehaviorandemissionsmodelsarealreadyavailableandinusewithintheinteragencywildlandfirecommunity.TheI&Mprogramwillneedtoprovideaccuraterecurringmonitoringofcurrentandhistoricfireregimeattributes,fuelloading,structureandmoisture,weatherandclimate,fireoccurrenceandcharacteristics,refugefacilitiesandsurroundingcommunitiesandinfrastructure,andtobioticandabioticvaluesatriskisessentialtoprioritizeissuesandtasks,andtotakeprescriptiveactions.

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Targetedmonitoringofthefireenvironment(fuels,weatherandtopography)responsibleforfirebehaviorisintegraltoallfiresuppression(appropriatemanagementresponse),andprescribedfireactivities.Inaddition,throughcooperationamongServiceprogramsandwiththehelpofothernaturalresourcemanagers,NWRSfiremanagersrelyonfire‐effectsmonitoringandresearchtohelpconducton‐goingassessmentandimprovementoffirefightingandfuelstreatmenteffectiveness.Monitoringplantgrowthbeforeandafterfireoccurrenceormechanical/chemicalfuelstreatmentisnecessarytoassesstheresponseofspecificinvasivespecies,aswellasthreatenedandendangeredplants,andadjustfiremanagementactivitiestomeetdesiredlandmanagementobjectives.Withthehelpofitspartners,theServiceisexpandingthepracticeofmonitoringandresearchwithinitsfiremanagementprogram.JustastheNWRShasdevelopedandintegratedafireprogramcomponent,sotomustfireandfuelsinventoryandmonitoringgoals,objectives,skillsandcapacitybeintegratedintothebroaderI&Mprogram.Thesamespiritofinter‐agencycollaborationthatwasthehallmarkofthewildlandfirecommunityprovidesamodelforcollaboratingwithpartnersforinventoriesandmonitoringbeyondtheNWRSboundaries.Integratingfireecologyandmanagementskillsandelementsintotheprogramwillprovidevaluable,sometimeslife‐savinginformationforavarietyofaudiences,fromthefieldstationleveltotheDepartment,andtopartnersinlandscapeconservation.Fireregime,fuels,andfireeffectsinventories,monitoringandassessmentswillbeusefulinallregionstoidentifythreatsandneeds,prioritizework,andplanforfutureimpactstoRefugeSystemresources.

CONTAMINANTS

ContaminantAssessmentProcess.TheContaminantsAssessmentProcess(CAP)isanationalprogramthatprovidesastandardizedapproachfortheServicetoassesspotentialthreatsposedbyenvironmentalcontaminantswithoutandwithintheNWRS.CAPenablestheServicetoinventorypointandnon‐pointcontaminantsources,identifyareasofconcern,anddescribepathwaysofcontaminantmovementthatmightaffectarefuge’snaturalresources.TheCAPinformationcancontributetotherefugeplanningprocess,includingComprehensiveConservationPlandevelopment.CAPfindingscanprovidethebasisformanagementactions(suchasmoredetailedinvestigations,cleanupactionsorpublicoutreach,includingfishconsumptionadvisories)thatrefugemanagerscantaketoreducecontaminantimpactsonthespeciesandlandsundertheirstewardship.Theseactionscanalsoenhancehealthandsafetyforemployeesandvisitors.

TheCAPidentifiespotentialpollutionsourcesinthewatershedsandairshedsoftheRefugeSystem.Thesesourcesincludetransportationcorridorssuchashighways,railways,ornavigationchannelsthatmaybevulnerabletooilspillsorreleasesofhazardoussubstances.Thissite‐specificCAPinformationcansupportspillresponseplanning,cleanupactions,andnaturalresourcedamageassessment,andrestorationactivities.

Othercontaminantsourcesknowntoimpactrefugesincludeurbanandsuburbandevelopment,landfills,formermilitarysites,miningsites,oilandgasoperations,industrialdischarges,shootingranges,andconfinedanimalfeedingoperations.Knowingthepotentialpollutionsources,andtypesofcontaminantsassociatedwiththesesources,canprovideasoundfoundationfornewServicemonitoringefforts.Inparticular,thisinformationshouldhelpshapeI&Mprogramdecisionsregardingsamplingforcontaminantsandwaterqualityparameterstoensurethattheapproachisgermanetorefugeswithspecific,knowncontaminantissues.

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In1996,theService’sDivisionofEnvironmentalQualityandtheUSGSBiomonitoringofEnvironmentalStatusandTrends(BEST)ProgramdevelopedadatamanagementsystemtohouseCAPinformation,usingreadilyavailable(butnowdated)informationtechnology.Region3recentlyconductedaretrospectiveevaluationofCAPsforitsrefuges.Theoverallconclusionwasthat,whileCAPprovidesrefugemanagerswithvaluableinformation,therearesomesignificantlimitationsduetotheoutdateddatamanagementsystem.Inaddition,Region3foundthatduetoastaticbudgetforRefugeContaminantactivities,therewaslittlefundingavailabletodofollow‐upstudiesandmonitoring.Also,thedatagenerallyarenarrativeratherthanquantitative,andthedatabaseisnotdesignedtoallowRegionalorNationalsearches.AninformalsurveyoftheotherServiceRegionsyieldedsimilarconclusions.

In2010,theCAPdatabaseisscheduledforsignificantupdateandrevision,includingdevelopinggeospatialandsearchcapability.Thisupdateiscritical,aschangesareneededtoimprovethedatabase’sfunctionandutilityforsystemusers,includingrefugemanagersandstaff.Duringthisprocess,theRefugeSystemshouldconsiderhowCAPcanintegratewithotherdatabasesbeingdevelopedfortheI&Mprograminorderfordatatobeusefulforidentifyingrefugecontaminantmonitoringneedsattherefuge,Regional,andNationallevels.TheRefugeSystemmightalsoconsiderinvestingsomefundingtoenhancethecapabilitiesofCAP.OncethesuiteofI&Mdatabasesarecreated,furtherCAPdatabasedevelopmentmaybenecessarytoensureproperintegrationamongthesesystems.

AirQualityBiomonitoring.Atmosphericheavymetalsareofincreasingconcernbecausetheyarewidelydispersed,easilytransported,andmightcausechronicdamageorstresstosensitivehabitatsorecosystems.Itisimportanttomonitorandpredictthechangeofatmosphericheavymetalsbywayofsomehandyandpracticaltechniques.Oneofthemostcommonmethodstomonitoratmosphericpollutantsofheavymetalsisviabiomonitoring,especiallyusingmossesandlichensasbio‐indicatorssincetheyabsorbpollutantsthroughfreeionexchange.Biomonitoringmethodscanbedividedintotwogroups:activeandpassive.Activemonitoringincludestheexposureofwell‐definedspeciesundercontrolledconditions;passivemonitoringreferstotheobservationorchemicalanalysisofindigenousplants.The‘‘mossbag’’techniqueisoneoftheactivebio‐monitoringmethods.Theabsenceofwell‐suitedmossandlichenspecieslivinginaridorurban‐influencedenvironmentsandthedifficultyofchoosingidealsamplingconditionsforconvenientareadistributionencouragetheuseofmoss‐bagtechniquestomonitortracemetaldepositionoverlargeareas.Althoughthe“moss‐bag”methodisnotdefinitivelystandardizedasregardstheamountofplantmaterial,exposuretime,correlationtoairbornedepositionsandformofuptake,ithastheadvantageofcollectinginformationintegratedoverthewholeexposuretime,withoutbeinginfluencedbymomentarychangesinpollutantsandisrelativelyinexpensive.Themoss‐bagmethodisbasedontwoprinciples:(1)deaddriedmossthalluspreservesthecapacityofabsorbingmetalsand(2)concentrationsofheavymetalsinthemossbagscorrelatewellwiththeiratmosphericlevels.ExamplesofrecentinvestigationswithmossbagsareastudyinNaples,Italy,(Giorgdanoetal.2005)andShanghai,China,(Caoetal.2009)whereevaluationsofspatialdistributionofheavymetalswereperformed.

Implementationofacoordinatedactive‐basedairqualitybiomonitoring(AQB)effortonrefugelandscouldprovideassistanceinprioritizingmanagementoflimitedServiceresourcesandenhancelegalandpolicy‐makingdecisionsinlightofclimatechangeissues.AQBeffortscouldalsocomplementexistingmonitoringeffortsunderwayonDOIlandsbytheService’sBureauofAirQualityandbecoordinatedwithitspartners.ProposedAQBeffortsonrefugelandscouldusethemoss‐bagtechniquesexposedatspecificlocationsdesignatedashighpriority(i.e.,LandscapeConservationCooperativesorclimatechangevulnerable).Datacollectedfrommossbagsplacedonrefugelandswouldneedtobeplacedinabiologicalcontexttoevaluate

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theirsignificance.Ultimately,itisthemagnitudeoftheimpact,whetherreductioninnestsuccess,developmentoffishconsumptionadvisories,ordamagetoanecosystem,thatdetermineswhetheragivenpollutionlevelissignificant.Monitoringoftoxicairpollutantsisneededtounderstandtheirspatialandtemporaldistributionandultimatelytominimizetheirharmfuleffectstorefugelands,particularlyinlightofexacerbationsresultingfromclimatechange.Thetaskofmonitoringairbornetraceelementpollutionoverlargeareasissomewhatarduous,sincetheconcentrationsofpollutantsarevariableinspaceandtime.Inaddition,datafromautomaticdevicesarepunctualandlimitedinnumbertodescribespatio‐temporaltrendsofpollutants.Furthermore,automaticdevicesgenerallyonlydetectalimitednumberofpollutants(mainlyCO,SOx,NxOy,PAHanddust).InadditiontodirectphysicalandchemicalmethodsofairpollutionmonitoringcurrentlybeingconductedbytheService’sBureauofAirQualityanditspartners,implementationofAQBcanbeusedtoevaluateandcomplementairpollutionrisksonServicelands,butonalargerscaletoaddressmorerefugelands.

WILDERNESS

TheWildernessActof1964establishedtheNationalWildernessPreservationSystemandaprocessforFederallandagenciestorecommendwildernessareastoCongress.Wilderness,asdefinedbytheWildernessAct,isrelativelyuntrammeled(freefromman'scontrol),undeveloped,natural,andoffersoutstandingopportunitiesforsolitudeorprimitiverecreation.TheRefugeSystemmanagesmorethan21millionacresofWilderness;about22percentoftheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem(NPWS)(106millionacres).Congressionally‐designatedWildernessmakesup20percentofrefugelands,including75areason63unitsoftheNWRSin26states.About90percentofWildernesswithintheNWRSisinAlaska.TheRefugeSystemadministerstheNWPStosecureanenduringresourceofwildernessincoordinationwiththeBureauofLandManagement,theNationalParkService,andtheForestService.TheWildernessActdirectstheServicetopreservewildernesscharacter.Wildernesscharacterencompassesbiophysical,experiential,andsymboliccomponents.TheRefugeSystempreserveswildernesscharacternotonlybymaintainingand,whereappropriate,restoring,biologicalintegrity,diversity,andenvironmentalhealth,butalsobymaintainingnaturalsoundscapes.Furthermore,theRefugeSystemprovidesopportunitiesforrisk,adventure,andasenseofconnectiontonaturewhilealsoexhibitingappropriatemanagementrestraint.Inthenearfuture,theRefugeSystemwilldeterminehowtoincorporatethemonitoringofWildernesscharacterintotheI&Mprogram,usingLandresetal.(2005)asaguide.Wewillconsiderhowtoassesstheprovisionofecosystemservices,ecologicalintegrity,andtheecologicalroleofWildernessinsustainingecologicalsysteminthesurroundinglandscape.Additionally,theRefugeSystemwillconsiderusingdesignatedWildernessareastotrackenvironmentalchangesthatresultfromclimatechange(Scottetal.2008).Selectedwildernessareasshouldbeconsideredasprioritylocationstoinstitutebaselineinventoryworkandlong‐termmonitoring.Thelarger,moreintactwildernesstractswouldbekeyelementsintheabilitytotrackenvironmentalchangesduetoclimatechange.Thelargerwildernesstractsarepredominantlyfreeofthe“environmentalnoise”ofmoredevelopedareas;therefore,observedchangesinecosystemswithinwildernessareascouldmoreeasilyandreliablybeattributedtoclimatechangeratherthansomeotherfactor.

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ResearchNaturalAreas.WildernessdesignationcanalsobeaconstraintonmanytypesofmonitoringbecauseoftheMinimumRequirementsAnalysis(e.g.,helicopteraccess).Themoreintrusivetypesofmonitoring(andresearch),particularlyofdisturbanceprocessessuchafire,maybestbemeasuredatResearchNaturalAreas(RNAs).RNAsarepartofanationalnetworkofreservedareas(butnotdesignatedWilderness)undervariousFederalownershipswhere"naturalprocessesareallowedtodominateandmanagementisdesignedtopreserveagivenecosystemorfeature."TheyarecatalogedbytheFederalCommitteeonEcologicalReserves.RNAsreceivenospeciallegislativeprotectionotherthanthatwhichtheagencyprovides.NWRSpolicy(8RM10.1)statesthat,“RNAsmustbereasonablyprotectedfromanyinfluencethatcouldalterordisruptthecharacteristicphenomenaforwhichtheareawasestablished.”ActivitiesonRNAsarelimitedtoresearchstudyobservations,monitoring,andeducationalactivitiesthatarenon‐destructive,non‐manipulative,andmaintainunmodifiedconditions.Thereare207RNAson97nationalwildliferefugesin43states,totaling800,000hectares.ResearchNaturalAreas(RNAs)maybeausefulmechanismforestablishinglivingvouchers.TheWH8.1BaselineInventoryTeamspecificallyrecommendedtheestablishmentoflivingvouchers:

Oneachrefuge,permanentrepresentative(i.e.,“livingvoucher”)plotsneedtobeestablishedandmaintainedwithineachAlliance.AnationalbotanicalteamrepresentingeachRegionshoulddevelopastandardprotocolforidentifying,mapping,andmaintainingthe“voucherplots”anddeterminingthenumberappropriateforeachAlliance.Identificationoftheseplotswouldbedoneconcurrentlywiththevegetativemapping.

Therecognitionofrapidclimatechangemakesthisrecommendationevenmoresalient.However,giventheexpectationsofspeciesredistributionsinresponsetorapidclimatechange,itmaynotbenecessaryorevenpossibleforeveryrefugetomaintainalivingvoucher.Rather,representativeplotsofeachAlliancethatoccurswithintheRefugeSystemshouldbeidentifiedwithinpredictedclimaterefugiaonrefuges.Furthermore,RNAscouldbe"re‐created"toserveassitestomeasureandmonitordisturbanceregimes,establishbaselineconditionsforarchetypalplotsrepresentativeofhabitswithinecoregions,toconductcomplete(exhaustive)speciesinventories,andconductintegratedresearch.Inarapidlychangingclimate,RNAscouldbedistributedamongrefugeunitsovertwostrata:areasthatarepredictedtoremainthesame(i.e.,refugia)andthosethatarepredictedtohaveextremelydynamicclimaticnicheswithuncertainoutcomes.

III. CROSSCUTTINGCONSIDERATIONSANDAPPROACHES

CLIMATEUNCERTAINTIES–IMPLICATIONSFORTHENWRSI&MPROGRAM

BIOLOGICALINTEGRITY,DIVERSITYANDENVIRONMENTALHEALTH

TheI&Mprogramshouldbetrulynationalinscope,ofthehighestscientificcaliber,andhelptheServiceleadindevelopingapproachestoinventoryandmonitoringbiologicalintegrity,biologicaldiversity,andenvironmentalhealth.ThereisastrongpotentialtodevelopapartneredprogramthatleveragesthesamplingeffortsofthreeexistingFederalmonitoringprogramsthathavenationalsampleframes.TheUSDAForestInventory&AnalysisProgram(FIA),EPANationalAquaticResourceSurveys(NARS),andtheNRCSNaturalResourceInventory(NRI)employnationalsamplingframesthatarenestedwithinour

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GeographicAreasandcouldbeextendedtoembracetheRefugeSystem.WerecommendthatI&Mprogramstaffconsidersuchaframework,andsalientattributesoftheexistingFederalI&Mprogramsaresummarizedbelow.

TheNRCSNRI,EPANARS,andUSDAFIAallemployhierarchalgrid‐baseddesignsthataretrulynationalinscope(Magnessetal.2010),butarerestrictedtotheresourcestheyaremandatedtomonitor.TheFIAsamplesonlyforested(albeitsomerangelands)P2andP3plots;theNARSsamples1,000plotseachinwetlands,coastal,lakes,andstream/rivers;andtheNRIsamplesnon‐Federallandsthataremostlyagricultural.However,thethreeprogramscumulativelyinvest~$100millionannuallytomonitormultiplemetricsofmultipleresourcesnationwide.Acreative,well‐designedI&MprogramfortheRefugeSystemcouldleveragethedataalreadybeingacquiredbyoneoralloftheseprograms.Indeed,theBureauofLandManagementhaspartneredwiththeNRIandFIAintheirAssessment,Inventory,&Monitoring(AIM)projecttomonitorterrestrialindicators,andtheKenaiNationalWildlifeRefugehaspartneredwiththeFIAtocompleteperhapsthemostcomprehensiveandrigorousinventoryofspeciesoccurrenceintheRefugeSystem(Mortonetal.2009,Bowseretal.2009).Wewouldrestrictmoreintensivesamplingofgroundplotstowithinrefugeboundaries.However,byensuringthatoursamplingdesigncanbenestedwithin,andfieldprotocolsareconsistentwith,othernationalprograms,theRefugeSystemcoulddemonstratehowotherconservationagenciescouldsimilarlypartner,leadingthewaytoassessingchangeinspeciesdistributionsandrichnessatthecontinentalscale.

Theprimaryfield‐basedmonitoringmetricswouldbethe(1)distributionandcompositionofselectedassemblagesofvertebrate,vascularplant,andinvertebratespecies(includinginvasivespecies)interrestrialandfreshwatersystems;and(2)waterqualityandquantity.Themonitoringobjectives(andsubsequentsamplingdesign)wouldbescaledtodetectchangesintheNWRSatSystem‐wideandGeographicAreascales,whileensuringthatweaccountforthecontributionoftheRefugeSystemtothe

Figure6.ConceptualizationoftherelationshipsamongI&McomponentsatdifferentspatialscalesusingAlaskaasanexample:(1)atthemostextensivespatiallevel,remotesensingistheprimaryI&Mtool;(2)aspatially‐basednationalsampleframeprovidesestimatesofoccupancyforselectedassemblagesofvertebrate,vascularplant,andinvertebratespecies;and(3)atthelocalscale,telemetryandaerialsurveysareusedtoestimatecaribouabundanceanddemographicparameters,aswellaskeyenvironmentalfactors.

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conditionofresourcesatatrulynationalscale(asmeasuredbyNARS,FIAorNRIandthroughtheapplicationofNASA,NOAAandUSGSremote‐sensedimagery).

Conversely,individualrefugescouldchoosetoscaledownI&Mtothelocallevel,eitherbyincreasingsampleplotdensityorbyemployingsimilarfieldprotocolswhensurveyingoffthenationalsamplingframe.Speciesassemblagesandothermetricswouldbeselectedbasedoncriteriaasindicatorsofbiologicalintegrity,diversity,andenvironmentalhealth.Wewouldconsidertheuseofecologicalindicatorstojustifymanagementactionsandtomeasureandcommunicateprogress;andtheuseofcompositeormulti‐metricindexesandothermethodstoassessecosystemcondition(Meretskyetal.2006).ThisdesignoptionwouldensurethattheI&Mprogramhasthepotentialtocollectrelevantandcomparabledataatrefuge,GeographicArea,andRefugeSystemscales.

SPECIESDISTRIBUTIONMODELS

Speciesdistributionmodelsdescribearelationshipbetweenspeciesoccurrenceandenvironmentallayersinordertoextrapolateacrossunsampledportionsofthelandscape.Thesemodelsprovidethelandscapecontextforadaptationplanning.Withinthepastdecade,thenumberoftoolsavailabletodevelopspeciesdistributionmodelshasrapidlygrown.Traditionalstatisticalapproachesareusefultotestconceptualmodelsofthefactorsthatinfluencespeciesdistributions.Newalgorithmicapproachesadoptedfromdata‐miningandmachinelearningapplicationsinotherdisciplinesproducemodelswithoutstandingpredictivecapability.Inthecontextofclimatechange,speciesdistributionmodels,whetherproducedfromdatamodeloralgorithmicapproaches,cangreatlyinformbothplanningandecologicalmonitoringbyproviding:

• accuratepredictionsofcurrentsingle‐andmulti‐speciesdistributionswithaccuracyassessments,whicharenecessarytounderstandlandscapecontextforadaptationplanning;

• exploratoryanalysisoflandscapedriversasafirststeptoformulatingwell‐designedstudiesofmechanismsneededtodevelopeffectiveadaptationplans;

• confirmatoryanalysisoflandscapedriversthatcanreduceuncertaintyinproposedadaptationplans;

• futureprojectionsofmulti‐speciesdistributionsunderclimatechangescenarios,whichareusefulfordevelopinghypothesesaboutfutureconditionsanddesignadaptationstrategies;

• vulnerabilityassessmentsbasedoncurrentdistributionsandpotentialdistributionalchange,whichcanhelpprioritizeareasandspeciestotargetforfacilitatedadaptation,ortoguidestrategicgrowthoftheRefugeSystem;

• identification(evenmonitoring)ofrangeexpansionsorcontractionsformultiplespeciesusingspeciesoccurrencedatacollectedatfuturetimesteps;and

• informationfordevelopingfuturemonitoringpriorities(where,when,andhowtosurvey).However,makingon‐the‐groundmanagementorevenplanningdecisionsbasedonspeciesdistributionmodelsrequiresahighdegreeofconfidenceinthosemodeloutputs.Goodspatialmodelscanonlybebuiltwithrelevantempiricaldatathatarecollectedrigorouslyatappropriatespatialscales.

SEA‐LEVELRISEMODELING

Sea‐levelriseisoneofthemostpressingclimatechangeissuesfacingcoastalandsomeinsularnationalwildliferefuges.Sealevelsinthenext100yearswilllikelyrise0.18‐0.59metersabovecurrentlevels(IPCC2007).TheRefugeSystemincludestwo1,000‐milelongarchipelagos,expansiveestuarinesystemsfromabovetheArcticCircletoremote,coralreefsandtropicallagoonsbelowtheEquator.Coastalandmarine

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holdingswithintheRefugeSysteminclude~30,000coastalmilesacross61millioncoastalacres,withtidally‐influencedlandstotaling7millionacres.CoralreefswithintheRefugesystemencompassalmost5millionacres.TheRefugeSystemco‐managesthe89‐million‐acrePapahānaumokuākeaMarineNationalMonumentinHawaii;RefugeSystemholdingswithintherecently‐designatedPacificRemoteIslands,RoseAtoll,andMarianasTrenchMarineNationalMonumentsinclude53millionacresofsubmergedlandsinthecentralandwesternPacific.

Understandingthepotentialimpactsofsea‐levelrisetocoastal,estuarine,andinsularhabitatsisessentialtomanagementandlong‐termplanningfortheaffectedrefugesandfortheRefugeSystemasawhole.TheSeaLevelsAffectingMarshesModel(SLAMM)wasdevelopedtohelppredictthepossibleeffectsofvariouslevelsofseariseoncoastalmarshesandadjacentlowlandareas.ThismodelusesNationalWetlandInventory(NWI)dataplusinformationonlocaltopography,accretionanderosionrates,dikes,anddevelopmentinmakingthesepredictions.SLAMMhasbeenrunforafewlargeestuaries,includingPugetSound,ChesapeakeBay,andDelawareBay,andfornumerousnationalwildliferefugesalongtheAtlantic,Gulf,andPacificCoasts.

Severalreasonablesea‐levelrisemodelshavebeendeveloped;SLAMMhasbeencompletedforapproximately80coastalrefugestodate.Consequently,weadvocatecompletionofSLAMMfortheremaining60orsorefugesforcomparativepurposes;theOperationalBlueprintincludesrecommendationsforcompletingthistaskasaninitialpriority.ThismayrequireupdatingtheNWIandobtaininghigh‐resolutiondigitalelevationdataforsomerefuges.TheI&MprogramshouldcoordinatewiththeotherServiceprogramsandpartnerstoaddresstheseneeds.Lastly,refinementofsea‐levelrisemodels,includingSLAMM,isneededandongoingworktodososhouldbesupported.

ADAPTIVEMANAGEMENT

Adaptivemanagement(AM),inwhichsystemsarecloselymonitoredandmanagementstrategiesalteredtoaddressexpectedandongoingchanges,isoneofthemostimportanttoolsformanagingecologicalsystemsinthefaceofclimatechangeandotherstressors.TheI&MprogramwillneedtoembraceAMandprovidethesupportandtrainingneededatthefield,geographicarea,Regional,andNationallevelstoemployit.TheI&MprogrammustberelevanttothemanagementneedsoftheRefugeSystem.AMisanessentialtoolformanagers;thusitisthelinkbetweenmonitoringandmanagementthattheI&Mprogramwillneedtobesuccessful.

RecentscientificandagencywhitepapersthatevaluatetheriskstospeciesandecosystemsfromclimatechangeallcallforAMasaprimarytoolforevaluatingclimatechangeadaptationefforts(Mawdsleyetal.2009;Scottetal.2009;U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior2009b).StrategicHabitatConservation(SHC),whichwillbeimplementedbytheLCCs,islandscapescaleAM,withafocusonconservationdesign.Therefore,thebasicstepsofAMhavealreadybeenembracedbytheServiceleadershipandAMwillbeacentraltoolfortheLCCsinimplementingSHC.

Conservationdesignisonlyonetypeofmanagementissue;therearemanyotherissuesthatalandmanagementagencyliketheRefugeSystemneedstoaddresstohelpitadapttoclimatechange,includingevaluatingtheefficacyofalternativemanagementstrategies.Nearlyallformsofadaptationtoclimatechangeinvolvesettingmanagementobjectives,deliveringmanagementontheground,andevaluatingprogresstowardsmeetingthoseobjectives,e.g.AM.ThemonitoringcomponentofAM,usuallyreferredtoastargetedmonitoring,isperhapsthemostfrequenttypeofmonitoringconductedbyNWRSfieldstations

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andisthemostresource‐intensivecomponentoftheAMprocess(Holthausenetal.2005;NicholsandWilliams2006;SauerandKnutson2008).Allbutthesimplestformsofmonitoringrequireprotocols,samplingdesigns,documentation,datamanagement,andreporting(Laskowskietal.2008).IfwidelyemployedacrosstheRefugeSystem,targetedmonitoringunderAMhasthepotentialtoimprovethequality,efficiency,andtransparencyofmanagementdecisions.

AMwillbeanessentialtoolinaddressinganyissuesarisingfromotherI&MProgramcomponents(waterresourcesproblems,declinesinplantandanimalpopulations,invasivespeciesproblems).AMwillhelptheRefugeSystemconservespeciesandecosystemsacrossthenation,minimizespeciesextinctions,andhelptheSystemanditspartnerslearnasrapidlyaspossiblewhichadaptationstrategiesaremosteffectiveandefficient.Throughtargetedmonitoringofspeciesandecosystems,theRefugeSystemcancontributetovulnerabilityassessmentsandprovideanearlywarningofimpendingecosystemchangesandeffectsonhighpriorityresources(Lawleretal.2009).

AworkforcemustbedevelopedwiththetechnicalskillstoimplementAMalongwiththeassociatedmonitoring.Suchstaffshouldbestationedinproximitytothefieldstationstheywillsupport.TheI&Mprogramcanplayanimportantroleinmakingthishappen.Currently,theRefugeSystemhaslittleinfrastructureforsupportingstationsengagedintargetedmonitoringandAM,otherthantrainingthroughtheNationalConservationTrainingCenter(NCTC)andasmallpiloteffortinR3andR5(BiologicalMonitoringTeam).WorkbytheRegionalrefugebiologists,stafffromthevariousJointVentures,Nationalairandwaterqualityspecialists,andRegionalfireecologiststohelpstationsidentifypriorityCCPandHMPobjectiveshaslaidthefoundationforAMacrosstheRefugeSystem.Partnerandinteragencyprograms(e.g.interagencyfirecommunity,NPSVitalSignsNetwork,NRCSCP33program,etc.)haveAMtoolsandresourcestoshare,buttheseareunderutilizedbymostfieldstations.TheI&MprogramwillsupportthemonitoringcomponentofAMonRefugeSystemunitsaswellassummarizeandreporthowtheRefugeSystemandpartnersareusingAMtohelpspeciesandecosystemsadapttothethreatofclimatechangeandotherstressors.

TargetedmonitoringunderAMisflexibleintermsoftheresourcesandexpertiseneededtoimplementit.ThreetiersofAMthatcoverthefullspectrumfromsimpletocomplex,whicharecurrentlyemployedwithintheRefugeSystem,aredefinedas:

• Tier1(PassiveAM–lowintensitymonitoring).ThisisthesimplestformofAMandisdesignedtodetermineifindividualrefugesareachievingtheirspecificwildlife,habitat,andecosystemobjectivesdevelopedthroughCCPsorHMPs.Monitoringtomeettheseobjectivesdocumentshoweachrefugeismeetingitspurposes,maintainingbiologicalintegrity,diversity,andenvironmentalhealth,andcontributingtotheRefugeSystemmission.AllstationsshouldbemonitoringachievementoftheirCCP/HMPobjectivesatthisbasiclevel.

• Tier2(PassiveAM–intensivemonitoringwithimplicationsatthelandscapescale).ThehighestpriorityCCP/HMPobjectivesrequiremoreintensivemonitoringtoprovidedefinitivedocumentationofmanagementoutcomes.Highpriorityobjectivestendtoaddressprimaryrefugepurposes,managementofhighpriorityspecies,orthemaintenance/restorationofBIDEHonFederal,State,andprivatelands.Monitoringatthislevelishighlyquantitative,employsstandardizedprotocolsanddatabases,andinvolvesasinglerefugeoragroupofrefugesandpartnersunitedbytheirneedtomanagesimilarhabitatsorpriorityspecies.Withthislevelofmonitoring,itispossibletoevaluateeffectsofclimatechange(vulnerability)ononeormorerefugesandthesurroundinglandscapeandalsodeterminehowtoadapttotheseeffects.

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• Tier3(ActiveAM–intensivemonitoring).Whenthereishighuncertaintyabouttheoutcomesofmanagementactions,highriskstoconservationtargets,highcostsofmanagement,orpubliccontroversyregardingmanagementactions,amorerigorousapplicationofAMisneededtospeedlearning.Atthislevel,AMinvolvesoneormorerefugesandotherconservationpartnerswithsimilarconservationissuesthatcollectivelycontributetothemanagementofhighpriorityresources.HallmarksofactiveAMincludeconsiderationofmultiplemodelsthatrepresentdifferenttypesofmanagementuncertaintyandmultiplemanagementoptions(Lyonsetal.2008).Tier3AMisbeingtestedinanumberofprojectsconductedincooperationwithUSGSinRegions3,4,5,and6.

AllformsofAMdifferfromsimpletrialanderrorinthateachstepintheAMprocess,includingthemonitoring,isclearlydefined,consistentlyimplemented,documented,andlinkedtothemanagementobjectives(Williamsetal.2007).Theessentialstepinallthreetiersistousethemonitoringinformationtolearnandtoadjustfuturemanagementbaseduponthislearning(WaltersandHolling1990).InTiers1and2,thefocusisonmanagementratherthanonlearning;inTier3,thereisastrongerfocusonlearning(reducinguncertainty)whilemanagementstillremainstheprimaryfocus.Incontrast,researchisfocusedprimarilyonlearning,notonmanagement.

Dependinguponthelevelofuncertaintyassociatedwithmanagementoutcomes,monitoringunderAMcanrangefromsimpleocularestimatesandfieldtourevaluations(Tier1)tointensivemonitoring(Tiers2&3).Ataminimum,allstationsshouldbeabletoaccomplishpassiveAM(Tiers1&2),givenadequatestaffing.Optimally,afullcadreofstaffwitharangeoftechnicalskillsshouldbeavailableineachLCCandresourcesprovidedtothefieldtoplan,manage,collect,archive,andreportthemonitoringinformationassociatedwithAM.StationswillneedsignificanttechnicalassistancewithTier3AM.Field‐basedI&Mstaffwithskillsinstructureddecision‐makingandadaptivemanagementcanhelpstationsclarifymanagementissuesanddeveloptheframeworkfortargetedmonitoringtoreducemanagementuncertainty.

DocumentationisanessentialcomponentofAMneededtosupportprojectsovertimeandhelpcommunicatethepurposesandoutcomesofvariousprojects.Whereappropriateandavailable,standardprotocolsandproceduresfordocumentingprojectinformationandmonitoringdata,alongwithQA/QCprocedureswillbedeveloped.Someofthesetoolsarealreadyavailablefromvarioussources(internalandexternaltotheRefugeSystem).

AMisafoundationaltoolneededforresourcemanagementtoday.TheneedforAMwillonlygrowasclimatechangeaddsmoreuncertaintytomanagementdecisions.Monitoring,andtheassociatedprotocols,samplingdesigns,documentation,datamanagement,andreportingareessentialcomponentsofAM.TheI&MprogramhasamajorroletoplayinsupportingtargetedmonitoringunderAM.TheOperationalBlueprintcallsforadditionalstaffingwithintheI&MprogramatRegionalandfieldlevelstosupportAM,anddevelopmentoftrainingclassesatNCTC.

RELATIONSHIPTOOTHERUSFWSPROGRAMSANDPARTNERS

Inaworldinwhichrefugesareincreasinglyimpactedbyeventsandprocessesoutsidetheirboundaries,thereisaneedtocoordinateandpartnerwithotheragenciesandmonitoringprogramstoaddressresourceissuesthattranscendGeographicAreas,evenatcontinentalscales.

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Atthenationallevel,theI&MprogramwillworktoleveragetheinventoryingandmonitoringconductedbyotherDOIagencies(NationalParkService,USGeologicalSurvey,BureauofLandManagement,andBureauofIndianAffairs),USDAagencies(ForestServiceandNaturalResourceConservationService),EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,andtheNationalScienceFoundation.Fromtheonset,wewillseekformalcollaborationwiththeNPSInventoryandMonitoringProgramonobjectivesandinformationneeds,andtolearnandbenefitfromthisProgram’smanysuccessfulinitiatives.

WewillsupportotherexistingServiceprogramsthatcollectdatawhichcontributetotheinformationneedsoftheNWRSsuchastheNationalWetlandsInventoryandMid‐WinterWaterfowlSurvey.Wewillevaluate,andwhereappropriate,expandsupportofexistingmonitoringprogramsthathaveprovidedlong‐termdatawithprovenmanagementvaluesuchastheNorthAmericanBreedingBirdSurvey,NorthAmericanAmphibianMonitoringProgram,andGlobalCoralReefMonitoringNetwork.NewnationalandinternationalmonitoringprogramsthatarebeingdevelopedtospecificallyaddressclimatechangewillalsobeconsideredincludingtheUSANationalPhenologyNetwork,CircumpolarBiodiversityMonitoringNetwork,ReefBase,andtheNationalEcologicalObservatoryNetwork.NewpartnershipswithNASA,NOAA,andUSGSwillbringcurrentandpastimageryanddataproductsfromtheNation’scivilsatelliteremotesensingprogramstobearonthechallengeofmonitoringatcontinentaltolandscapescales.Lastly,atregionalandfieldlevels,wewillworkcloselywiththeLCCs,theJointVentures,thetwoHAPEToffices,regionalpartnerswithintheNationalFishHabitatActionPlan,PartnersforFishandWildlife,CoastalPrograms,andStateNaturalHeritageprograms.Collectively,thesenewpartnershipswillbenefitrefugesbyprovidingbettercoordinationofconservationplanningandmonitoring,andensurethatdatacollectedbytheI&Mprogramhaverelevanceatlargerspatialscalesthanwehavetraditionallyconsidered.

IV.DATAANDINFORMATIONMANAGEMENT

OVERVIEW

TheNWRSwillensurethelongtermintegrityofinventoryandmonitoringdataandprovideeasytousesystemsforentering,retrieving,analyzingandreportingthedata.ArobustdatamanagementsystemisparticularlyimportantforthesuccessofanationallycoordinatedI&Mprogramwherethelifespanofadatasetmayextendacrossthecareersofmanyscientists.Oursuccessinthefaceofclimatechangeandotherstressors,willberealizedwhenwecanprovidetimely,reliabledatathatmeetsourneedsandcanbeunderstood,interpretedandhelpfultoourpartners.

TheI&Mprogramwillmakeastrongcommitmenttodatamanagementandprovidethenecessaryresourcestoensureourdataassetsaresynthesizedandturnedintousefulinformationforresourcemanagersandpartners.Datamanagementiseveryone’sresponsibilityandnotjustthejobforthetechnicalstaffthatdesignandmaintaindatabaseapplications.TheRefugeSystemmustnotallowvaluablelegacydatatositisolatedinfilecabinetsorstandalonedatabasesystemswhilelandscapeconservationcooperatives(LCCs)areassemblingdatasetstobeusedforbiologicalplanningandconservationdesign.Wecannotaffordtodeliveraninfiniteamountofinformation;datamustberelevantandinformsthatareusefultoscientistsandresourcemanagers.RefugeSysteminformationwillbesharedandleveragedinasmanywaysaspossibleinordertomaximizeitsvaluewhilediminishingitsoverallcost.

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ThenationalI&Mofficewillstoreandmakeavailablealldatareceivedinamannerwhichstrivestomeetclientneeds.Acommontaskindata‐analysisis“reshapingdata”‐‐gettingthedatainaformatnecessaryforanalysisorsummary.Oftendataisstoredinadatabasethatisoptimizedfordatacollection(notanalysis),andusuallyresemblesthefielddatacollectionform.Theseproject(template)databasesareanimportantpartofthedatacollection,buttheydonotconstitutedatamanagement.Thedatamustbe“melted”togethertoallowscientistsandmanagerstheabilitytoreshapeitinaformtheycanuse.Atthenationallevel,themainfocuswillbeondevelopingondemanddataservicesthatcandynamicallyassemblevariousdatacomponentsintousableformatsforscientistsandresourcemanagers.Atgeographicareas,datamanagementtaskswillfocusondatacollection,qualitycontrol,andaggregationofdata.

Efficientcommunication,documentmanagementandtechnicalsupportstrategieswillbevitalforsuccess.Thenationalofficestaffwilldesignandmaintainwebpageswithaconsistentlookandfeelandprovidetemplatesforgeographicareastomaintaintheirindividualpages.TheinternetwillbeoneoftheprimarycommunicationtoolsfortheI&Mprogram.ThenationalofficewillimmediatelyestablishandmaintainaneasilyaccessiblecentralrepositoryforI&Mdocuments.ItwillbecrucialforI&Mfieldstafftohavea“onestopshop”foraccessingthemostcurrentversionofuserguides,I&Mguidance,datastandards,andfieldprotocols.AtechnicalsupporthelpdeskwillbeestablishedtoprovideassistancetoI&Mfieldstaffandthosewho“consume”theinformationwegenerate.

DATAMANAGEMENTGOALS

1. DatabaseproductsandassociatedapplicationssponsoredbytheI&MprogramarethoughtfullydesignedandmeetthebusinessneedsoftheRefugeSystem.

2. DatamanagementsystemssponsoredbytheI&Mprogramaresecure,transparent,anddesignedforinteroperabilitytopromotedatasharingwithothers.

3. Datastandardsandprotocolsaredeveloped,used,andsharedbytheI&Mprogram.4. Documentation(metadata)iscreatedandmaintainedforalldatabaseproducts,models,andtools

developedbytheI&Mprogram.5. TheI&Mprogramcollaborateswithothersinthedevelopmentofdatastandardsandefficient

processesfordatastorage,exchange,anddissemination.6. Dataquality,ownershipandaccountability(governance)fordataassetsgeneratedbytheI&M

programareestablishedandclearlydefined.

INFRASTRUCTUREANDSYSTEMDESIGN

Rapidlychangingtechnology,bandwidthlimitations,legacysystems,andthenatureofourdecentralizedorganizationwillpresentchallengesinmanagingtheinformationgeneratedbytheI&Mprogram.ScalabilityandflexibilityinsystemdesignwillbeimportantrequirementsastheI&Mprogramwillcertainlyevolve.AServiceOrientedArchitecture(SOA)willbetheprinciplesystemdesignphilosophy.SOAisrecommendedbyDOIasa“bestpractice”andisbeingemployedbytheNPSInventoryandMonitoringProgram.SOAissimplyacollectionofservicesthatcancommunicatewitheachotherusingstandardindustryprotocols.Aservicehasawelldefinedfunctionandisreusable,sharable,andindependentinregardstothecontextandstateofotherservices.Theseservicesbecomedynamicdatabuildingblocksthatcanbesharedandassembledinmanyways,eveniftheirsystemsaresubstantiallydifferent.SomeexampleservicescouldincludeCorporateMasterTable,Taxonomy,EndangeredSpecies,Reference/Metadata,Vouchercollections,UserIdentity/Security,andBiologicalObservations.SOA

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maximizesinformationsysteminvestmentsandwillpromotethesharingofsystemsandinformationacrossagenciesandorganizations.SOAprovidessetofprinciplesorgoverningconceptsusedduringphasesofintegrationandsystemsdevelopment.TheI&MprogramwillembraceSOAandworkwiththeNPSandotherstoidentifyopportunitiesfordataexchange.Overallmanagementoftheinfrastructure(hardware/software)forthenationalofficeandLCCswillbecentralized.Acentralizedapproachwillbemoreefficient,secureandsaveresources.NWRSI&Mdatamanagementpersonnelatboththenationalandgeographicareaoffices(LCCs)canspendlesstimemaintaininghardwareandmoretimedevotedtodatabasedesign,documentationandthedevelopmentofdatastandards.Remoteaccesscapabilitieswillbeestablishedandavailableforgeographicareastousefordatabaseadministrationtasksandqueries.Additionalinfrastructurecapacitymayeventuallybenecessaryatgeographicareaswithdemonstratedneeds.ThelocationofourinfrastructurewillbeattheDenverFederalCenter.TheDenverFederalCenterdatacenterisoneofonlytwoplacesinDOIthatoffersadirectconnectiontoallotherDOIbureaus.Thissiteisattheedgeofthenetworkwhichenableshigh‐speedaccesstootheragencyserverslikeNOAA,USDA,andEPA.Becauseit’salsoaremoteaccesshubforDOI,it’swhereinternetserviceprovider(ISP)connectedServicefieldofficesandremoteaccessusers“land”andaccessournetwork.SystemsinthisdatacenterenjoythebenefitsofcommonphysicalandsystemsecuritycontrolsresultinginlesspaperworkandeasierSecurityCertificationandAccreditation(C&A).SupportagreementswillbeestablishedwiththeDivisionofInformationResources&TechnologyManagement(IRTM)tomaintainourinformationtechnology(IT)investments.ThenationalI&Mofficedatamanagementstaffwithassistancefromthegeographicareadatamanagerswillassessexistingnational,regionalandLCCinfrastructureandITcapacityandleverageresourceswhereappropriate.LookingoutsidetheServiceisalsocritical.TheNPShasdevotedsignificantresourcestothedevelopmentofanintegrateddatamanagementsystemusingSOA.TheNPSIntegrationofResourceManagementApplications(IRMA)projectprovidesanexampleofasimilardatamanagementeffort.WemaygreatlybenefitfromproductsdevelopedbyIRMAaswellaslessonslearnedfromsystemdesigners.ItwillbeimportantfortheI&Mprogramtoestablishfunctionalapplicationdevelopmentteamswhichwillincludedatamanagers,businessorfunctionalanalysts,applicationdevelopers,programmersanduseracceptanceteamstofullyaccountforuserneeds.ThedatamanagerswillassessthescopeofeachI&Mprojectanddetermineexactlywhatdatawillbeproducedandhowitwillbeincorporatedintothevariousservices.Thebusinessorfunctionalanalystsidentifyuserneedsandtranslatetheseintosystemrequirements.Thedevelopersandprogrammersthenfocusonbuildingapplicationsandinterfacesthatmeettheuserrequirements.Useracceptanceteamswillindependentlyandobjectivelytestapplications,reportbugsandidentifyproblemsthatneedattention.TheDOIhasestablishedsoftwarestandardsandenterpriselicensingagreementsinplaceforMicrosoftandEnvironmentalSystemsResearchInstitute(ESRI)softwareproducts.Therefore,theinitialrecommendeddatabasemanagementsystem(DBMS)isMicrosoftSQLServer2008.Forapplicationdevelopmenttheuseof.NETVisualStudioenvironmentusingC#astheprogramminglanguageisrecommended(usedbytheNPSIRMAprojectforapplicationdevelopment).ESRIsoftwareproductsarecompatiblewiththisrobustDBMSandwillprovidetherequiredgeospatialrequirementsdemandedbyI&Mtasks.

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DATASTANDARDS

Datastandardsareformalagreementsontherepresentation,format,anddefinitionofdata.Theyarefundamentaltotheseamlessexchangeofdata.Standardsenableustoshareinformationwithourpartnersandallowthemtounderstand,interpretandusethesedataappropriately.Itisimperativethatstandardized,peer‐reviewed,approvedfieldcollectionprotocolsanddatastandardsaredeterminedbeforeanymajorI&Mdatacollectioneffortsbegin.Havingstandardizeddatasetsmakesitmucheasiertogeneratemetadata,automateprocesses,performanalysisandrapidlydevelopapplications.TheI&Mprogramisnotgoingtoreinventthewheelandwilllookinternallyandexternallyforstandardizepracticesinthedataandinformationmanagementarena.ExistingdatastandardsdevelopedbytheServiceandotherssuchastheFederalGeographicDataCommittee(FGDC)metadatastandards,GlobalBiodiversityInformationFacility(GBIF;www.gbif.org),andtheIntegratedTaxonomicInformationSystem(ITIS)willbeused.AlistofexistingdatastandardsrequiredbytheServicecanbefoundat(https://intranet.fws.gov/region9/data/standards/index.html).TherecenteffortbytheUSFWSCadastralWorkingGroupisanexampleofhowthedevelopmentofdatastandardsfacilitatedsharingofwaterfowlproductionarea(WPA)boundariestothepublic.ThisteamcomprisedofindividualsfromeachregionworkedtogethertoidentifystandardsfordevelopingNWRSboundarydatalayers.Eachregionwasresponsibleforproducingthesegeospatialdatasetsindependentlyand,oncecompleted,thestandardizeddatawerethenabletobemergedtogetheranddynamicallydisplayedinlandscapelevelwebmappingapplication.AteamapproachtodatastandardswhichincludesparticipationfromallregionsisvitalforI&Mprogramsuccess.Therefore,datamanagementstafffromthenationalofficeandgeographicareaswillimmediatelyformaNationalI&MDataStandardsTeamtoidentifyanddevelopstandardsforI&Mprojectpriorities.Thisteamwilluseinternetbasedcollaborationtoolsalongwithperiodicfacetofacemeetingstoaccomplishtheirtasks.AsdatastandardsaredevelopedandadoptedbytheI&Mprogram,nationalofficestaffwillformallysubmitthestandardsusingIRTMguidelines.Simplyestablishingdatastandardsaren’taguaranteeofsuccess.Thestandardsmustbeincorporatedintothedatabasedesignandneedtobeenforcedthrough“chainsofaccountability”with“ownership”ofdataclearlyestablished.Datagovernancemustbeemployedtoensuretheimportantdataassetswegenerateareconsistent,accurate,complete,accessible,protectedandefficientlymanaged.ADataGovernanceTeamwillbeestablishedtoprovidetheframeworknecessarytopromoteconfidenceintheuseofourdatafordecisionmakingpurposes.EstablishingandimplementingdatagovernancewillrequireactiveparticipationfromkeynationalandregionaltechnicalstaffandwillincludemembershipfromNWRSleadershipandatleastonebiometrician.

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V.SUMMARY

TheRefugeSystemhasauniqueopportunitytodevelopanationally‐coordinatedI&Mprogramtonotonlyservetraditionalrefugeneeds,buttohelpleadthewayinprovidinginformationthatisrelevanttoadaptingtoclimatechange.Withaninfusionof$12millioninFY2010andthepotentialforanother$8millioninFY2011,wehaveoutlinedtheorganizationalstructureandinitialstaffingwith58FTEsinFY2010,withdetailsarticulatedintheAddendumtotheStrategicPlan.Datamanagementisrecognizedasasignificantcomponentofthisprogramfromtheonset.Werecognizeboththeneedandthepotentialforultimatelygrowingthisprogramto280FTEswitha$100millionannualbudget.WeidentifiedthefollowingfociforearlyconsiderationduringdevelopmentoftheI&Mprogram:abioticresources,bioticresources(includingbiologicaldiversity,populationsofpriorityspecies,vegetationinventoriesandmapping,geneticdiversity,wildlifehealth,andphenology),invasivespecies,waterqualityandquantity,fireandotherlandscapedisturbanceprocesses,contaminants,andWildernesscharacter.TheOperationalBlueprint,acompaniontothisdocument,furtherrecommendsinitiating(duringthefirsttwoyears:2010‐2011)abioticresourceinventories;designofinventoriesofbiologicaldiversity,assessingstatusandtrendsofpriorityspecies,invasivespecies,andwaterqualityandquantity;assessingimpactsofclimatechangeonfireregimes;andassessingvulnerabilityofcoastalrefugestosealevelrise.Someofthesecomponentsarepromotedas“pilotstudies”intheOperationalBlueprinttoavoidmissedopportunitiesandredundancyofI&Meffortsbyotheragenciesandtoprovideinformationneededtoguidedevelopmentandrefinementofmethodsandfutureprogrammaticdirection.ResourcesofNWRSlandsandwatersinAlaskaandinthePacificOceanarerecognizedasparticularlydifficulttoinventoryandmonitorforlogisticaland,consequently,financialreasons.Inaddition,weidentifiedseveralconsiderationsandapproacheswhicharecrosscuttinginnatureandcrucialtothelong‐termsuccessoftheI&Mprogram.Throughpilotstudies,werecommendacost‐benefitanalysisofpotentiallypartneringwiththreenationalI&Mprograms(USDAFIA,NRCSNRI,andEPANRCS)toleveragetheirdataasameansforassessingbiologicalintegrity,diversityandenvironmentalhealthoftheRefugeSystem.Spatialmodelingisadvocatedasausefultoolforassessinglandscape‐scalechangesinspeciesdistributions,predictingrefugevulnerabilitytoclimatechange,andstratifyingI&MeffortsonrefugeswithinGeographicAreas.Werecommendastrongcommitmenttoadaptivemanagementtoevaluateclimateadaptationstrategiesfromindividualrefugetoappropriatelandscapescales.Finally,weemphasizetheimportanceofworkingcollaborativelywithotherServiceprograms,withotherFederalandStateagencies,theJointVenturesandotherconservationpartnersinfurtherdefiningthequestionstobeansweredthroughinventoriesandmonitoring.

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VI.PLANCONTRIBUTORS

CorePlanningTeam:AndyLoranger,WillMeeks,MelindaKnutson,JohnM.Morton,ToddSutherland,DavidBrownlie,SallieHejl,MikeHiggins,TimMenard,HeidiNewsome.

ExecutiveOversightCommittee:GerryFranz,PatriciaHeglund,GrantHarris,DanielleJerry,KevinKilbride,MargaretKolar,TonyLeger,NealNiemuth,MikeParker,FredPaveglio,ElizabethSouheaver,MattSprenger,KeithWeaver.

Othercontributors:AndreyAndreyev,MeredithBartron,GiselleBlock,MatthewBowser,DanCraver,GabeDeAlessio,PatrickDonnelly,JennyEricson,LindyGarner,AndrewGude,JamesHaas,PhilJohnson,NoahKahn,MarkKoneff,MarkLaker,ChrisLett,R.DawnMagness,JimMaragos,JulieMichaelson,GeorgeNoguchi,AnthonyR.Olsen1,TiffanyParson,NancyRoeper,TomRoffe,KevinScasny,SandraSilva,GerryTande,WoodyTurner2,JakeWeltzin3,JohnWenburg,SueWilder,BillWilen,USFWSWaterResourcesTeam,NationalFireEcologistTeam.

Facilitation:MarkChase,PatriciaHeglund,SteveMorey.

VII.ADDITIONALINFORMATION

TheI&MCoreTeamproduceddraftwhitepapersfullydescribingtherationale,need,andspecificrecommendationsforseveraltasksidentifiedintheOperationalBlueprint(thetopicsincludeinvasivespecies;water,abiotic,andbioticinventories;fireecology;spatialmodeling;adaptivemanagement;anddatamanagement).Thesewhitepapersareavailabletothoseinterestedinmoreinformationandteamrecommendationsregardingthesetasks.

1EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,2NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,3USANationalPhenology

Network

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VIII.GLOSSARY

Term Definition

Adaptation Adjustmentinnaturalorhumansystemsinresponsetoactualorexpectedclimaticstimuliortheireffects,whichmoderatesharmorexploitsbeneficialopportunities(IPCC2007).

Adaptivemanagement(AM)

AdaptiveManagementisadecisionprocessthatpromotesflexible,informeddecisionmakingandthatallowsadjustmentasoutcomesfrommanagementactionsandothereventsbecomebetterunderstood.Carefulmonitoringoftheseoutcomesbothadvancesscientificunderstandingandhelpsadjustpoliciesoroperationsaspartofaniterativelearningprocess.Adaptivemanagementrecognizestheimportanceofnaturalvariabilityincontributingtoecologicalresilienceandproductivity.Itisnota‘trialanderror’process,butratheremphasizeslearningwhiledoing.Adaptivemanagementdoesnotrepresentanendinitself,butratherameanstomoreeffectivedecisionmaking,moreefficientmanagementandotherenhancedbenefits.Ithelpsmeetenvironmental,social,andeconomicgoals;increasesscientificknowledge;andreducestensionsamongstakeholders(Williamsetal.2007).

Adaptivemanagement,active

Activeadaptivemanagementisanapproachwherebymanagers,whenfacedwithuncertainty,implementmorethanonealternativetoseewhichwillbestmeetmanagementobjectives.Itischaracterizedby"activelyprobing"thesysteminordertodistinguishbetweencompetinghypotheses(wherethedifferenthypothesessuggestdifferent"optimal"actions)(Walters1986).

Adaptivemanagement,passive

Passiveadaptivemanagementisanapproachwherebymanagers,whenfacedwithuncertainty,implementthealternativetheythinkis‘best’withrespecttomeetingmanagementobjectives,andthenmonitortoseeiftheywereright,makingadjustmentsifdesiredobjectivesarenotinfactmet(Walters1986).

ComprehensiveConservationPlan(CCP)

Adocumentthatdescribesthedesiredfutureconditionsofarefugeorplanningunitandprovideslong‐rangeguidanceandmanagementdirectiontoachievethepurposesoftherefuge;helpsfulfillthemissionoftheRefugeSystem;maintainsand,whereappropriate,restorestheecologicalintegrityofeachrefugeandtheRefugeSystem;helpsachievethegoalsoftheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem;andmeetsothermandates(602FW1,603FW2,620FW1).

Functionalanalysis Theprocessofidentifyingstakeholders,interviewingusers,documentinguserinformationneedsandtranslatingthoseneedsintothespecificrequirementsasystemneedstomeet.

HydrogeomorphicAnalysis(HGM)

Amethodofassessingecosystemconditionandecologicalprocessesatasitetoevaluatedeparturefromhistoricconditions,identifyrestorationandmanagementoptions,andidentifyecologicalattributesneededtorestorespecifichabitats.

IntegratedTaxonomicInformationSystem

Easilyaccessibledatabasewithreliableinformationonspeciesnamesandtheirhierarchicalclassification.Thedatabaseisreviewedperiodicallytoensurehighqualitywithvalidclassifications,revisions,andadditionsofnewlydescribedspecies.TheITIS

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Term Definition

(ITIS) includesdocumentedtaxonomicinformationoffloraandfaunafrombothaquaticandterrestrialhabitats

InvasiveSpecies Alienspecieswhoseintroductiondoesorislikelytocauseeconomicorenvironmentalharm,orharmtohumanhealth.Alienspecies,ornon‐indigenousspecies,arespeciesthatarenotnativetoaparticularecosystem.TheRefugeSystemisprohibitedbyExecutiveOrder,law,andpolicyfromauthorizing,funding,orcarryingoutactionsthatarelikelytocauseorpromotetheintroductionorspreadofinvasivespeciesintheUnitedStatesorelsewhere(620FW1).

Inventory Asurveythatdocumentsthepresence,relativeabundance,status,and/ordistributionofabioticresources,species,habitats,orecologicalcommunitiesataparticulartime(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2009).

Monitoring Asurveyrepeatedthroughtimetodeterminechangesinthestatusand/ordemographicsofabioticresources,wildlifeorplants,habitats,orecologicalcommunities.Twomajortypesofmonitoringaresurveillancemonitoringandtargetedmonitoring;theyaddressdifferentkindsofmanagementobjectives(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2009c).

Monitoring,surveillance Monitoringthatisnottiedtospecificpredictionsofhowaresourcewillrespondtomanagementorenvironmentalstressorsbutratherisdesignedtodocumentthestatusorchangeovertimeofastationresource.Examplesincludemonitoringclimaticparameters,speciespopulationtrendovertime,diseaseincidence,contaminants,orwildernesscharacter(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2009c).

Monitoring,targeted Monitoringtoassesswhetheranaturalresourcerespondstoaspecificmanagementactionorsystemstressorinapreviouslyspecifiedmanner(‘target’).Thistypeofmonitoringinvolvesdefiningtheexpectedresponse,thensurveyingtomeasuretheresponseoracloselyrelatedindicator.Comparingmonitoringresultswithtargetvaluesidentifiedinthemanagementobjectivesmayindicatetheneedforafurthermanagementresponse.Inthispolicy,itgenerallymeansmonitoringinanadaptivemanagementcontexttoimprovemanagementorevaluateprogresstowardsachievementofmanagementobjectives(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2009c).

Priorityspecies SpeciesthatarethefocusofmanagementandconservationbytheNWRS.Thesemaybespeciesidentifiedinlawsorpolicies(trustspecies)orspeciesidentifiedthroughtheStrategicHabitatConservationframework(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2006,2008).

Resilience Theabilityofasocialorecologicalsystemtoabsorbdisturbanceswhileretainingthesamebasicstructureandwaysoffunctioning,thecapacityforself‐organization,andthecapacitytoadapttostressandchange(IPCC2007).

StationorRefuge AnyunitoftheNationalWildlifeRefugeSystem,includingwetlandmanagementdistrictsandwaterfowlproductionareas,otherthancoordinationareas.

StrategicHabitatConservation(SHC)

Anapproachtohabitatconservationfocusedonprovidinglandscapescapableofsustainingtrustspeciespopulationsatprescribedlevels.Thisapproachisfoundedonascience‐based,adaptive,iterativeprocessofbiologicalplanning,conservationdesign,conservationdelivery,andmonitoringandresearch(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2006,2008).

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Term Definition

Structureddecisionmaking(SDM)

Anapproachtodecomposingandanalyzingdecisionstoidentifysolutionsthatachievethedesiredobjectives,inamannerthatisexplicitandtransparent.Basedindecisiontheoryandriskanalysis,SDMisaconceptthatencompassesaverybroadsetofmethods,notaprescriptionforarigidapproachforproblemsolving.SDMprovidesclearrolesforstakeholdersandscientistswhenworkingonproblemsattheinterfaceofscienceandpolicy.KeySDMconceptsincludemakingdecisionsbasedonclearlyarticulatedfundamentalobjectives,dealingexplicitlywithuncertainty,andrespondingtransparentlytolegalmandatesandpublicpreferencesorvaluesindecisionmaking;thus,SDMintegratesscienceandpolicyexplicitly.

Surveyprotocol Adescriptionofthesurveymethodsufficientlydetailedtoallowsomeoneunfamiliarwiththeprotocoltolearnwhythesurveyisbeingdone,whatpersonnelandtechnicalskillsareneededtoimplementthesurvey,thetimingandnatureofthedatacollectionprocedures,andhowthedatawillbeanalyzed,reported,andinterpreted.Surveyprotocolsassurecontinuityofqualitydatacollectiontechniquesforboththedurationofthesurveyandbetweensimilarsurveysondifferentstations(U.S.FishandWildlifeService2009c).

Vulnerability Thedegreetowhichasystemissusceptibleto,andunabletocopewith,adverseeffectsofclimatechange,includingclimatevariabilityandextremes.Vulnerabilityisafunctionofthecharacter,magnitude,andrateofclimatechangeandvariationtowhichasystemisexposed,itssensitivity,anditadaptivecapacity(IPCC2007).

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