Source area and tectonic provenance of Paleocene–Eocene red bed clastics from the Kurdistan area...

Journal of African Earth Sciences 109 (2015) 68–86

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Source area and tectonic provenance of Paleocene–Eocene red bedclastics from the Kurdistan area NE Iraq: Bulk-rock geochemistryconstraints

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.04.0191464-343X/� 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Hassan).

Muatasam Mahmood Hassan a,⇑, Brian G. Jones a, Solomon Buckman a, Ali Ismail Al Jubory b,Sabah Ahmed Ismail c

a School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australiab School of Earth Science, Mosul University, Iraqc School of Earth Science, University of Kirkuk, Iraq

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 31 October 2014Received in revised form 29 April 2015Accepted 30 April 2015Available online 27 May 2015

Keywords:Iraqi Red BedsProvenanceZagros MountainsMafic source

a b s t r a c t

Paleocene–Eocene Red Beds exist along a narrow belt in the NW–SE oriented imbricate zone in northeast-ern Iraq and are composed of clastic rocks including conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone.

Trace elements show that the lower part of the Red Beds (unit one) was derived mainly from mafic andultramafic rocks. A decrease in mafic and ultramafic components in the upper part of the Red Beds isaccompanied by an increase in felsic components indicating the exposure of both felsic and intermediateigneous bodies in the source areas.

Trace elements normalized to upper continental crust confirmed the mafic and ultramafic source forthe lower part of the Red Beds. Unit two and the overlying unit four reflect a style showing felsic andmafic trends with transition elements being depleted in these parts. The intervening unit three showsvarious patterns partly similar to units one and two depending on clast abundance.

The concentrations of rare earth elements in the mudstone reaches up to 60% of the main chemical ele-ments, therefore it is useful to concentrate on this facies for geochemical studies.

� 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction source rock, weathering in the source area and diagenesic effects

Generally, the geochemical composition of the rocks is gener-ally a useful tool for drawing a clear picture of the characteristicsof the sediment’s source area (Roser and Korsch 1988). Trace ele-ments are a very useful tool to determine a clear picture of thesource area (López et al., 2005), therefore, this study analysedselected samples from all the studied sections from different areasof the Red Beds. In general the high field strength elements (HFSE)and large ion lithophile elements (LILE) decrease and the transitiontrace elements (TTE) increase in pelitic rocks.

Rare earth element (REE) analyses in combination with Th andthe transition or high field strength elements, such as Cr, Co and Hf,are very important for inferring the source area of the Red Beds.The REE, especially Eu/Eu⁄, provide very important evidence fordetermining sedimentary source rocks because they tend to bestable in different rocks and minerals during weathering and theyare not modified during metamorphism. Thus the nature of the

can be deduced from the geochemical composition of clastic rocks.In this research, geochemical analyses were undertaken on mud-

stone, sandstone and conglomerate samples but they were focusedmore on the mudstone facies because it is not highly affected by dia-genetic processes (McLennan et al. (2003), LaMaskin et al. (2008)and it also has the capability of reflecting the average compositionof the regional source area (Andersen, 1995; Heller and Frost,1988). The interpretation of source rocks for the Iraqi Red Bedswas based on trace, Rare earth elements of various lithologies atall stratigraphic levels because previous petrographic studies ofthe sandstone Power et al. (2000) was not critical enough to inter-pret the source rock and the degree of alteration of the ophiolite.

2. Geological setting and stratigraphy

The current research was undertaken in two different areas inthe Kurdistan region of northern Iraq. The Mawat–Chwarta areais located in the southeastern part of the Red Bed basin, 45 kmnorthwest of Sulaimaniya city, whereas the Qandel area is locatedin the northwest, to the north of Erbil city.

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Fig. 1. Location of the Qandel and Mawat–Chwarta study areas in the Kurdistan region of northern Iraq.

M.M. Hassan et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 109 (2015) 68–86 69

The Zagros Mountains of northern Iraq are geologically part of theextensive Alpine mountain belt. They form a narrow strip along theborder between Iraq and Iran and include two main zones: theZagros Simply Folded Belt in the southwest and the Zagros SutureZone in the northeast. These zones are both included in the ZagrosOrogen. A foreland basin occurs southwest of the ZagrosMountains. The tectonic development of the Zagros Mountains indi-cates that the foreland basin was initiated in the Late Cretaceousduring ophiolite obduction along the Zagros Suture Zone followedby continental collision of the Arabian plate with Eurasia in theCenozoic. Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene foreland basin depositshave been folded and now form part of the Zagros Simply FoldedZone. Miall (1983) noted that most foreland basins around the worldare composed of deep marine, shallow marine and overlying conti-nental sedimentary rocks. In northeast Iraq, the former Zagros fore-land basin included Cretaceous shallow-marine deposits of theShiranish and Tanjero formations that were overlayed by continen-tal deposits of the Paleogene Red Beds (Figs. 2 and 3). The Paleogenesedimentary rocks in the foreland basin record sedimentation devel-oped during the Alpine Orogeny. The Red Beds are structurally over-lain by thrust sheets that are part of the Zagros Suture Zone. In theMawat–Chwarta area the Red Beds are structurally overlain by thevolcanic rocks of the Naopurdan Group (Al-Mehaidi, 1975).

In order to clarify the tectonics of northern Iraq, stratigraphicrelationships between the Upper Cretaceous and Palaeogene succes-sions and their equivalent successions in Iran are considered in thissection. The studied formations were described as shown below:

2.1. Tanjero formation (Maastrichtian)

The 2010 + m thick Tanjero Formation is an Upper Cretaceoussuccession that is widespread in the Kurdistan region of northernIraq (Buday, 1980). The upper part of the Tanjero Formation consistsof 1530 m of mixed siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary rocksincluding silty marl, siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate, and organicdetrital limestone. It consists of foraminiferal tests of Maastrichtianage. The lower part of the Tanjero Formation is composed of 480 mof globigerinal marl and rare siltstone. An interfingering �45 mthick interval with gradational contacts is present between theTanjero and Aqra formations in the Mawat–Chwarta area(Sorakalat section). It is composed of sandy detrital limestone,

which progressively changes upwards to calcareous sandstones,rich in shell debris. Shale, siltstone and intraformational conglomer-ate are also recorded in this interfingering section. The carbonatesare ridge to cliff-forming and consist mainly of limestone withlocally dolomitized limestone (1.5–2 m thick). According to Buday(1980) the Tanjero Formation represents a turbidite successiondeposited in a rapidly sinking NW–SE trending trough. The bound-ary between the Tanjero Formation and Tanjero – Aqra interfin-geringand the overlying Red Beds in the Mawat–Chwarta area islocally masked by Quaternary sediments. In the Mawat–Chwartaarea, the upper contact of the Tnajero formation is considered con-formable and transitional. Furthermore, such a boundary is also rec-ognized in nearby Sorakalat village, where fossiliferous limestonebeds are recognized within the lowermost part of the Red Beds.

2.2. Red Beds (Paleocene–Eocene)

The Red Beds are composed of mudstone, sandstone and con-glomerate with a few carbonate interbeds that only confined tothe lower part of the Red Beds unit. In the Mawat–Chwarta areathe lower contact of the Red Beds with the Tanjero Formation isconformable, as occurs in the Mawat–Chwarta area(Fig. 4A and B). Karim et al. (2011) noted that this contact is sharpin some areas and transitional in others. At transitional contactsthe lower boundary of the Red Beds is placed at the first appear-ance of the reddish brown to purple silty claystone. Adjacent tothe Zagros Suture Zone, northeast of the main outcrops of theTanjero Formation, an angular unconformity occurs between theRed Beds and the underlying Qulqula Formation in the Mawat–Chwarta and Qandel areas (Karim et al., 2011). A similar angularunconformity was also recorded in the study area close to theKanarroy and Suwais sections (Figs. 3 and 5). The Walash–Naopurdan Nappe is part of the Zagros Suture Zone and comprisesmainly volcanic and turbidite sedimentary rocks that everywherestructurally overlie the Red Beds.

3. Sampling and methods

The current study used conventional geological methodsincluding geological field surveys, clay mineral analyses, X-ray

Fig. 2. Regional geological map of northern Iraq (Kurdistan area) and northwestern Iran showing locations of the study areas, Late Cretaceous formations and thrust sheets.

Fig. 3. The stratigraphic relationships of the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene rocks fromthe Suwais area (Qandel) and Basina-Chwarta area (close to the Kanarroy section inthe study area) within the former foreland basin. Modified from Karim et al. (2011)and confirmed by the current study.

70 M.M. Hassan et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 109 (2015) 68–86

fluorescence, inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometer(ICP–MS) analysis. In the field work, six exposed sections werestudied from the Red Beds, 53 four sections from the Mawat–Chwarta area and two sections from the Qandel area (Fig. 1). Thestratigraphic sections were carefully selected to represent 54well-exposed sequences within the depositional basin but werelimited by the safety of fieldwork in these war-torn areas.

A total of 146 samples were selected from all sections andexamined by X-ray diffraction analysis for the determination ofclay minerals types. A total of 135 whole rock samples from theSuwais, Sorakalat and Kalacholan–Mawat sections were analysedfor trace elements using a X-ray fluorescence, inductively coupledplasma–mass spectrometer (ICP–MS) in the School of Earth andenvironmental Sciences at the University of Wollongong, Australia.

31 Samples from the stratigraphic sections at Suwais, Sorakalatand Kalacholan–Mawat were analysed for REEs by ALS Chemex(Australian Laboratory Services in Brisbane, 134 Queensland). Thisanalytical method provides a very important geochemical studybecause it gives a clear picture of the source rocks and the geochem-ical conditions during the formation of the minerals and rocks.

Fig. 4. A and B the contact between the interfingering interval of the Aqra-TanjeroFormations and the overlying Red Beds in the Mawat–Chwarta area (Sorakalatsection). Limestone bed overlain by olive mudstone dipping 35� northeast in theupper Tanjero Formation (35�45052.6800N 45�27036.8400E). (B) The Red Beds with redmudstone and thin beds of siltstone.

Fig. 5. Siliceous radiolarian chert showing a medium-scale fold and fault in theQandel area (Suwais section, 36�21030.9000N 45�02011.2400E).

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Fig. 6A. Vertical and lateral distribution of Zr within all sections from thenorthwest side of the basin to the southeast side (see appendix A, Table 1 for thevalues).

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Fig. 6B. Vertical and lateral distribution of Hf within all sections from thenorthwest side of the basin to the southeast side (see appendix A, Table 1 for thevalues).

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Fig. 6C. Vertical and lateral distribution of Ta within all sections from thenorthwest side of the basin to the southeast side (see appendix A, Table 1for thevalues).


Table 1Co/Ni and Zr (ppm) contents in different rock types.

Rock types Zr Co/Ni Reference

Dunite 1.5 0.052 Aswad et al (1993)Harzburgite 4.5 0.058 Aswad et al (1993)Lherzolite 12.3 0.081 Aswad et al (1993)Basalt 104 0.114 Hofmann (1988)Upper continental crust 190 0.5 Taylor and McLennan (1985)Zr and Co/Ni values from the current research

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Fig. 6D. Vertical and lateral distribution of Nb within all sections from thenorthwest side of the basin to the southeast side (see appendix A, Table 1 for thevalues).

1000

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(m)


4. Mineralogy

The mineralogical compositions of the examined samples in thestudied sedimentary sections vary both vertically and laterally. Theclay mineralogy of the Red Beds indicates that the kaolin group,chlorite, vermiculite and palygorskite group are the dominant clayminerals. Mixed-layer clay minerals are also recorded while smec-tite and illite are only present in minor amounts within all sections.

The difference in the vertical and regional distributions of theclay minerals are different in each section which probably reflectsthat the source area for each section was different and the sourcearea varied with time within each section. The Mawat area wasaffected by mixed and complex sources, whereas the Qandel areawas less affected by a changing source.

The differences in kaolinite percentages within the same areacould be differences in the local source area. In addition, the differ-ent clay percentages between the sections may reflect the trans-port direction that provided clay minerals to the Red Bed basin.Thiry and Jacquin (1993) said that during transportation clay min-erals undergo differential deposition. In addition, Thiry and Jacquin(1993) stated that the kaolin group minerals occur in different pro-portions. Higher halloysite contents may be derived from theweathering of igneous rocks that are rich in K-feldspar to the northof the Mawat and Qandel areas. Kaolinite is the second most abun-dant mineral in the group which may be derived by weathering ofbiotite. In support of a hydrothermal source for the halloysite inthe Red Beds, morphologically most of the Red Bed halloysite isvermiform or tube halloysite. This shape of halloysite has beenderived from altered pyroclastic or altered hydrothermal rocks thatoccur to the north in the area of the collision between the Iranianand Arabian plates (Adamo et al., 2001). A possible source of chlo-rite within the upper part of the Red Beds is the degree of meta-morphism in the source area, especially slate, which is regardedas one of the main sources of clay minerals in Tertiary sandstones(Folk, 1980). The presence of both smectite and chlorite–smectitewithin the lower part of the succession also indicate hydrothermalcontributions to the sequence. The occurrence of chlorite-smectitewithin the Red Beds may also reflect the intensity of surfaceweathering of chlorite at the time of chlorite–smectite formationBlatter et al. (1973). Illite is concentrated around the contactbetween the lower and the middle parts of the succussion. Thesame contact includes planktonic foraminifers which indicate aPaleocene age and the presence of marine deposits. Most of theillite–smectite, illite and other clay minerals occur as small brokenplates with deformed morphology suggesting a possible inheritedorigin provided by erosion of source rocks (Berrocoso et al., 2008,p.397). The diversity of diagenetic processes probably controlsthe assemblages of clay minerals in the Red Beds more than theoriginal source rock or different depositional environments.Therefore, the diagenetic modifications are the principle controlon clay mineral distribution within the Red Beds.

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5. Trace element geochemistry

Trace elements are a very useful tool to determine a clear pictureof the source area (López et al. (2005). Therefore, this study analysedselected samples from all the studied sections from the two differ-ent areas of the Red Beds (Table A1). In general, high field strengthelements (HFSE) and large ion lithophile elements (LILE) decreasewhile transition trace elements (TTE) increase in pelitic rocks.

00 10 20 30 40

Y values (ppm)

Fig. 6E. Vertical and lateral distribution of Y within all sections from the northwestside of the basin to the southeast side (see appendix A, Table 1 for the values).

5.1. High field strength elements (HFSE)

High field strength elements have high ionic charges, such aszirconium (Zr4+), hafnium (Hf4+), tantalum (Ta5+), niobium (Nb5+)

thorium (Th4+) and uranium (U4+ or U6+; Table 1). These elementshave high ionic charges, they become insoluble and immobile dur-ing weathering and metamorphism and they have a low sensitivityto post-crystallization alteration (Grosch et al., 2007; Koralay,2010; White et al., 2002). These elements are essentially unaf-fected by hydrothermal alteration, weathering and low to mediumgrade metamorphism (Koralay, 2010) and they also tend to con-centrate in felsic rocks more than mafic rocks (Etemad-Saeedet al., 2011).

As shown in Figs. 6A–E, the HFSE and yttrium tend to beenriched more in felsic than in mafic rocks. Yttrium values in the

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lower, middle and upper parts of the Red Beds are less than 37 ppmwhich is lower than the upper continental crust value (37 ppm)that showed by McLennan (2001) and Ranjan and Banerjee(2009) except for sample (S66) from the upper part of unit twoin the Sorakalat section which exceeded the upper continentalcrust value (37 ppm). According to Feng and Kerrich (1990) theHFSE and yttrium tend to be enriched more in felsic than in maficrocks.

Tantalum and Nb are depleted in continental crust relative toother incompatible elements (Barth et al., 2000), therefore, the pre-cise determination of these elements is important for provenancestudies. The Ta values vary from less than 1 ppm in most of theRed Bed samples to 13 ppm in the Kanarroy section (K13;Table A6). It has been mentioned by several authors that Ta andNb are depleted in continental crust relative to other incompatibleelements (Barth et al., 2000).

Niobium concentrations are low in most of the Red Bed samplesexcept for a few samples from different sections that range from 8to 12 ppm. The low Nb values reflect little impact from a felsicsource to the Red Bed sediments (Andersen, 1995; Krauskof,1979). Recently, in the upper continental crust of Australia,China, Europe, New Zealand and North America and these ratioswere essentially constant at 2.68 and 33.7, respectively (Hu andGao, 2008). The equivalent ratios obtained during the currentstudy were compared to these continental crust ratios and mostshowed significantly lower values, except for the samples fromthe middle part of the succession and a few samples from theupper and lower parts which are relatively close to the continentalcrust ratio (Table A1).

The Nb/Ta values from sandstone and conglomerate samplesshowed that one sample from the unit two at the Merga section(Nb/Ta = 12.22, sample M24) and at the Sorakalat section (12.97,sample S67; Table A2) are close to the ratio of 13.77 for the 30 allu-vial samples from the upper continental crust sediments reportedby Kamber et al. (2005), while all the other samples had lowerratios. By plotting Zr and Nb on the diagram proposed byTatsumi et al. (1983) most of the Red Bed samples are in the arcand back-arc fields. According to this relationship we can say thattwo important arc or back arc sources affected the Red Bed sedi-ments (Fig. 7A). Zr/Hf ratios are low in unit 1 and generallyincrease toward the upper parts of the Red Beds (Table A2).Taylor (1965) showed that the rapid crystallization of volcanicrocks caused little difference in Zr/Hf ratios but the Zr/Hf propor-tion increased from ultramafic to felsic plutonic rocks. It should

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Nb

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Arc

Back-Arc

Fig. 7A. Zr versus Nb diagram for all the selected sections showing that most of theRed Beds plot in the field of arc and back-arc affinities which reflect two sourceareas active during deposition of the Red Beds.

be mentioned, that the Zr content is high in some samples fromthe lower parts of the Red Bed succession while most samples fromthe middle and upper parts are represented by sandstone and con-glomerate with abundant volcanic clasts. The Zr/Hf ratios probablyreflect a contribution from a felsic source in these upper parts ofthe succession in addition to the dominant mafic source Taylor(1965).

Taylor (1965) stated that there is not much variation in Zr/Hffrom mafic to felsic volcanic rocks but the ratio decreases frommafic to felsic plutonic rocks. The present study shows that thereis a strong correlation between Zr and Hf in the Suwais andMerga sections in the northeastern part of the basin. This indicatesthat these sediments have a more coherent source than for theSorakalat, Kalacholan–Mawat, Tagaran and Kanarroy sections fromthe southeastern part of the basin (Fig. 7B).

Figs. 6A and B also showed that samples from the lower parts ofthe Red Beds have relatively low values of Zr and Hf because theywere derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the source area,while the values increase in the middle and upper parts of the suc-cession reflecting a depletion of mafic and ultramafic erosion or theintroduction of different more felsic thrust sheets during their timeof deposition Taylor (1965).

Samples from the lower parts of the Red Beds, represented byconglomerate, thinly bedded green fine-grained sandstone or marland red siltstone facies, in the studied sections have high contentsof Zr and Hf in the range from 100 to 150 ppm. These high contents

C

Fig. 7B. The relationship between Zr and Hf from the studied sections. (C)Discrimination diagram for tectonic environments showing the Red Bed sampleswere derived from more than one source rock situated in different tectonic settings(diagrams modified after Pearce and Norry, (1979)).


from different facies probably relates to the nature of the sedimen-tary environments and the contributions from a felsic source, evenif they are in the same unit as samples with lower Zr contents. Forinstance, the thinly bedded green marl from the lower part of theKalacholan–Mawat section (KM9) probably reflects shoreline mar-ine sediments exposed to windy conditions that concentratedhigher percentages of zircon. Other facies, such as a conglomeratewithin the Sorakalat section (S20), which is petrographically com-posed of igneous minerals such as plagioclase, clinopyroxene andamphibole, probably reflects a local volcanic component whereasan overlying red siltstone (S34.8) was probably deposited in a quietfloodplain environment that may have been exposed to windy con-ditions that concentrated the heavier zircon grains (Rudnick andGao, 2003). The ratio of Zr/Y versus Zr is an important factor fordetermining source area environments, for instance, it discrimi-nates between MORB, plate basalt, subduction related tholeiitebasalt and IAT (Pearce and Norry, 1979). The results show thatthe Red Bed sediments could be related to three tectonic settings.The Red Bed samples from most of the Suwais, Sorakalat andTagaran sections plotted in the back-arc basin field, except thosesamples with high Zr values that plotted outside this field. Someof the Sorakalat and Tagaran section samples plotted in the

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Fig. 7D. The relationship between Zr and Y in the all studied sections. (E) Showingthe relationship between Zr and Y in all sections, (D) discrimination diagramshowing that most of the Red Beds plotted in the arc-related field of (Müller et al.,2001) which is regard as a source area of the Red Beds from these analyses.

volcanic arc field (Fig. 7C). This means that the Red Beds sedimentswere affected by three main sources or thrust sheets and themajority of the samples were derived from a source area ofback-arc basalt origin, subduction related volcanic arc orwithin-plate basalt fields that have high Zr values.

Yttrium has chemical characteristic similar to heavy rare earthelements (HREE), therefore, it shows the same behavior as theseelements. It typically occurs in pyroxene and apatite crystalswhereas it is not present in plagioclase. The relationship betweenZr and Y (Fig. 7D) generally shows a low amount of these elementsin the lower part of the Red Beds because of the dominant ultra-mafic and mafic nature of the source area during their deposition.In contrast, the middle and upper parts of the Red Beds have largeramounts of both Y and Zr because of the depletion of the maficcomponent from the source area, as mentioned before. The separa-tion of several samples from the general trend in the Zr and Y dia-gram (Fig. 7E) could be interpreted as an increase of Y-bearingminerals in these rocks. This may mean that the source rocks con-tain Zr that is naturally different from the Zr in the other parts ofthe section, and the high Zr contents in several samples from theupper and middle part plus the conglomerates from the lower partsupports this interpretation. Müller et al. (2001) Y versus Zr dia-gram can also be used to determine the source area and most ofthe Red Bed samples plotted in the arc-related field, therefore,the source area for most of these samples was arc-related.

5.2. Large ion lithophile elements (LILE)

Large ion lithophile elements (LILE) are mainly represented byRb, Ba, Sr, Th and U that are characterized by their high solubilityin water. Therefore, they are considered to be generally mobile(non-conservative) elements during metamorphism and weather-ing processes (Pearce and Peate 1995 in Grosch et al., 2007) andthey have the ability to be absorbed onto clay mineral surfaces.Stratigraphically, these elements in the Red Beds do not reflectpositive correlations between each other since they do not havesimilar geochemical behaviors. However, they show positive corre-lations with other elements such as Ti and Nb, especially in themudstone-rich beds in the lower part of the succession, whichcould be controlled by clay distribution or other phases that areassociated with clays in the Red Beds (Etemad-Saeed et al., 2011;Pantopoulos and Zelilidis 2012). LILEs show positive relationshipsin the Mawat area (Sorakalat and Kalacholan–Mawat sections)and moderately positive relationships at the Suwais and Mergasections which may indicate a chemical coherence between theseelements in these four selected sections.

According to the high percentage of calcite identified in the pet-rographic analyses, there is a high positive relationship between Sr,Ba and Ca in the Red Beds and probably most of the Sr and Ba arepresent in the carbonate. The distribution of Ba in the sedimentaryrocks is different from Sr because of the lower stability of Ba. Thehigh content of Sr and depletion of Ba, especially in the lower partsof the succession (see Table 1), indicates that the Red Beds havebeen affected by low intensity chemical weathering (Wani andMondal, 2010). The current study found that the Ba content inthe sandstone of unit two is close to the Ba values that were col-lected from 30 alluvial samples from weathered younger continen-tal crust in Queensland, Australia. This suggests a greater crustalsource for unit two rather than the mafic and ultramafic sourcefor unit 1.

The relationship between Th and other transition or high fieldstrength elements, such as Cr, Co and Hf, is very important forinferring the source area of the Red Beds. Plotting V, Ni and Thon the ternary diagram of Wronkiewicz and Condie (1987) showsthat most of the Red Bed samples fall in the mafic and ultramaficsource region (Figs. 8A–H). Th, Hf and Co were also plotted on

Fig. 8A. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower part of theRed Beds that are rich in Ni and are concentrated toward the Ni corner.

Fig. 8B. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower and middlepart of Suwais section. The red colours represent the lower part while the blackcolours are the middle part. (For interpretation of the references to colour in thisfigure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 8C. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower and middlepart of the Merga section (see A1 for the sample positions).

Fig. 8D. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower part (unitone) of the Sorakalat section (see A1 for the sample positions).

Fig. 8E. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower part (unitone) and the middle part (unit two) of the Sorakalat section (see A1 for the samplepositions).

Fig. 8F. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower and middlepart of the Kalacholan–Mawat section (see A1 for the sample positions).


Fig. 8G. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower and middlepart of the Tagaran section (see A1 for the sample positions).

Fig. 8H. V–Ni–Th diagram (from Bracciali et al., 2007) showing the distribution ofRed Bed samples derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks from the lower andmiddle part of the Kanarroy section (unit four).

Fig. 9A. The Th, Hf and Co ternary diagram shows that most of the samples plotclose to the tholeiite (Th) field. For comparison with these results the fields forNASC (North American shale composite), PAAS (Post-Archean Australian Shale),tonalite TO N and granite (Gr) from Wronkiewicz and Condie (1987) are alsoplotted.

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Weathering trend

Fig. 9B. The cross-plot of Th/U versus Th reflects the amount of weathering andsediment recycling (after McLennan et al. (1993)). This figure shows that most ofthe Red Bed samples have upper crustal igneous values of 3.5–4.0.


the ternary diagram from Bracciali et al. (2007; Fig. 9) which showsthat most of the Red Bed samples, especially those from the lowerpart, were placed close to the TH and TON fields, while a few sam-ples from the middle and upper parts plotted close to the PAAS andNASC fields. This evidence also confirms that the lower units aremostly derived from mafic rocks while felsic and mafic sourcerocks both supplied detritus to the middle and upper part of theRed Beds.

According to Marques et al. (2011) Th is the most immobile ele-ment during weathering, transportation, deposition and diagene-sis. Th/U is also a very useful indicator to determine the amountof weathering and recycling of sedimentary rocks (Asiedu et al.,2000; Pantopoulos and Zelilidis, 2012). The plot of Th/U versusTh (Fig. 9B) shows a pattern similar to the distribution offine-grained sediments reflecting a normal weathering trend(McLennan et al., 1993; Taylor and McLennan, 1985). The Th/Uratio in most of the mudstone and sandstones samples from thevarious sections and units plotted below the upper continentalcrust value of 3.5 except for 10 samples from units two and threethat were above this value. Asiedu et al. (2000) noted that ifintense weathering or sedimentary recycling does not affect

sediments, the U in the sediment will increase and the ratio ofTh/U will increase as well similar to values in the Red Bed sedi-ments that show high U contents in most of the studied sectionsand units. These results showed that the Red Beds, especially inthe lower part of the succession, are not recycled sediments and/orwere only affected slightly by weathering except for the samplesfrom the middle and upper parts of the succession that follow amore intense weathering trend (Table A2).

According to (Pearce, 2008) Th/Yb versus Nb/Yb is other impor-tant ratio which differentiates between the volcanic, arc and MORBtectonic settings. The results from all analysed sections mostly plotin the volcanic arc field over the MORB line, except for two samplesfrom the Sorakalat section that plotted in the E-MORB field and onesample from the same section that plotted in the N-MORB field(Fig. 9C).

5.3. Transition trace elements (TTE)

Transition trace elements (TTE) also called ferromagnesian traceelements. They include V, Co, Ni, Cr and Cu which show convergentbehavior during the evolutionary processes of volcanic rocksArmstrong-Altrin et al. (2004). These elements are very importantfor determining provenance and tectonic setting Armstrong-Altrinet al. (2004). It is well known that these elements concentrate in

0.01

0.1

1

10

0.1 1 10 100

Th/Y

b

Nb/Yb

OIB

Fig. 9C. Th/Yb versus Nb/Yb showing that most of the Red Bed samples plot in thevolcanic arc field (after (Pearce, 2008).


mafic and ultramafic rocks and they are more common in peliticrocks than in shale and the NASC (Feng and Kerrich 1990; Osaeet al. 2006; Wani and Mondal 2010). This feature is also confirmedby the Red Bed analyses.

In some parts of the Red Beds V values reach up to 208 ppm,especially within the Kalacholan–Mawat section (Table 1). Masonand Moore (1982) mentioned that this element occurs in the struc-ture of pyroxene, amphibole, biotite and oxides that have titaniumin their structures. Therefore, V has high values in samples that arerich in pyroxene. According to Wodepohl (1978), Cr occurs inigneous rocks in spinel minerals, such as chromites, and it alsooccurs in ferromagnesian minerals, such as pyroxene and olivine.In ultramafic igneous rocks Cr content is more than 2000 ppm, inbasalt it ranges between 150 and 200 ppm; it reduces to 25–80 ppm in intermediate rocks and to less than 20 ppm in graniticrocks. During weathering of the source rocks the behavior of Cr3+,which occurs in the silicate minerals, is geochemically similar toFe3+ and Al3+, therefore, it occurs in the clay minerals. During moreintense oxidation conditions Cr3+ is probably oxidized to Cr6+ toform CrO4

2� that may be deposited in chromate minerals such asCaCrO4 and PbCrO4. The Cr that occurs in chromite and spinel isgenerally resistant to geochemical weathering Wodepohl (1978).Therefore, Cr is transported from the source area to the sedimen-tary environments in the resistant minerals, which stronglyreflects the Red Bed situation.

Wani and Mondal (2010) reported that an increase of Co anddecrease of other transition elements does not always reflect amafic rock origin but could be due to sedimentary sorting

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Co/

Ni v

alue

s

Cr values

Fig. 9D. The relationship between Co/Ni versus Cr in the studied sections.

processes. This has happened in the Red Beds in the Mawat–Chwarta area in unit three in the Sorakalat section (Table 1). A neg-ative relationship occurs between Co/Ni versus Cr in several sam-ples from the upper part of unit two in the Sorakalat and Suwaissections (Fig. 9D, Table A2), while the Co/Ni values are generallysimilar in the other samples although strong variability occurs inCr contents in unit one. This probably indicates that the Cr in theRed Beds occurs mainly in detrital chromite mineral grains.Chromite was not uniformly distributed in the source rocks (suchas dunite) but was concentrated in pockets. Therefore, the amountof chromite derived from this source depends on the surface areaof chromite bodies that were exposed to weathering. The ratio ofCo/Ni (Table A2) in the Red Beds is not affected greatly by sortingbecause these elements occur in the silicate minerals and theirabundance is related to weathering products such as illite–smec-tite and montmorillonite that are common in the Red Beds(Fig. 9E). The small variation in the Co/Ni ratio in unit 1 of theRed Beds indicates little variation in the nature of the source rocksduring their sedimentation. The stronger variation of this ratio inthe upper parts of the Red Beds reflects contributions from anothersource whereas there is little variability in the Cr content in thispart of the sequence relative to the lower parts. When the Co/Niratios and Zr contents were compared to data from other rocksfrom northern Iraq and elsewhere it was shown that most of thelower Red Bed samples were close to values from dunite, harzbur-gite, lherzolite and basalt while most of the unit 2 Red Bed samplesplus sample S20 from unit 1 are similar to the upper continentalcrust analyses (Table 1). Aswad et al. (2011) recently analysedCr-spinels from the serpentines from northern Iraq and mentionedthat much of the matrix of the serpentines was derived fromharezburgites and lherzolite of fore-arc affinity.

The amount of Ni in the Red Beds increases in the upper partswithin the conglomerate facies, which probably reflects a contribu-tion of felsic components. It should be mentioned that the Cr andNi in the Red Beds have low concentrations in the Merga andKanarroy sections which probably reflects less exposure of anultramafic source during the deposition of these sections orbecause a different river channel supplied these deposits to thebasin.

Hiscott (1984) stated that the Cr contents in the Taconian oro-gen from North America reached 3950 ppm. According to Garveret al. (1996) if Cr and Ni > 100 ppm and they show a high correla-tion they probably indicate derivation from ultramafic componentsin the source area. A Cr/Ni ratio of 2 or more indicates a maficsource. Therefore, since most Cr and Ni values from the lower partof the Red Beds plot within this range they would have come froma mafic source, while the sandstone of unit 2 and conglomerate of

Fig. 9E. The relationship between Co/Ni versus Cr in the studied sections.

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

Zr Nb Y Rb Sr Th U V Co Ni Cr Cu

HFSE LILE TTE

Suwais section middle part





Suwais section lower part





Fig. 10A. Plot of trace elements normalized to upper continental crust values (from Rudnick and Gao (2003)) for the Suwais section. The red arrow refers to the stratigraphicheight. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

0.1

1

10


HFSE LILE TTE

Upp

er c

ontin

etal

cru

st v

alue

s

Merga section middle part

Merga section lower part







Fig. 10B. Plot of trace elements normalised to upper continental crust values (from Rudnick and Gao (2003)) for the Merga section. The red arrow refers to the stratigraphicheight. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000


HFSE LILE TTE

Sorakalat, upper part




Sorakalat, middle part







Sorakalat, lower part

Sorakalat, lower part

Fig. 10C. Plot of trace elements normalised to upper continental crust values (from Rudnick and Gao (2003)) for the Sorakalat section. The red arrow refers to thestratigraphic height. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


unit 3 were beneath this ratio and would have had a less maficsource (see appendix A, Table 1). These results exactly coincidewith the research of Wani and Mondal (2010). They stated thatpelite samples tend to be enriched with Cr and Ni but contentsare slightly lower than the actual mafic volcanic rock samples inthe Baster craton plotted by Srivastava et al. (2004). In contrast,their coarser grained samples of sandstone and quartzite plotted

in the field of post-Archean crust reflecting derivation from graniteand gneiss in the Baster craton (Mondal et al., 2006). The decreasein Cr and Ni contents in units 2 and 3 of the Red Beds probablyreflect the final stage of tectonism or the complete erosion of theophiolite thrust sheet. Therefore, these two elements reflect thetemporal and lateral variability of the ultramafic source in theactive orogen to the north of the Red Bed sediments.

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000


HFSE LILE TTE

Kalacholan-Mawat, middle part





Kalacholan-Mawat, lower part











Fig. 10D. Plot of trace elements normalised to upper continental crust values (from Rudnick and Gao (2003)) for the Kalacholan–Mawat section. The red arrow refers to thestratigraphic height. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

0.0010.01

0.11

10100

1000


HFSE LILE TTE

Tagaran, middle part

Tagaran, lower part

Tagaran, lower part

Tagaran, lower part

Tagaran, lower part

Tagaran, lower part

Tagaran, lower part

Fig. 10E. Plot of trace elements normalised to upper continental crust values (from Rudnick and Gao (2003)) for the Tagaran section. The red arrow refers to the stratigraphicheight. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

0.1

1

10

100


HFSE LILE TTE

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Kanarroy, unit five

Fig. 10F. Plot of trace elements normalised to upper continental crust values (from Rudnick and Gao (2003)) for the Kanarroy section. The red arrow refers to the stratigraphicheight. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


6. Normalization

For further discussion about the behaviors of transition ele-ments, the analysed Red Bed samples were normalized to theupper continental crust (cf. Rudnick and Gao 2003). Figs. 10A–Fshow that there is no similarity between the Red Bed samplesand the upper continental crust trend. High field strength elementsshow depletion in comparison with upper continental crust valueswhile LILEs also reflect depletion except for Rb and Sr values thatare relatively similar to upper continental crust values. In contrast,the transition elements show higher values than the upper conti-nental crust. This trend reflects that, while the main source ismafic, particularly within Mawat area, the source of the Red Beds

included a secondary felsic component or more than one thrustsheet. The strong enrichment of Cr and Ni in unit one in the mud-stone facies, except for the Merga section, and unit four in theKanarroy section, clearly reflects a mafic and ultramafic source(Fig. 11A). Units two and three do not show the same enrichmentof these minerals and probably indicate another source or anothercomponent of the ophiolite sheet acting as a source, although theystill have a partial mafic impact. The enrichment of Ni within themudstone facies was probably derived from disintegrated pyrox-ene, olivine and serpentine in the source area of the Red Beds,which supports the idea of Garver et al. (1996).

Cr and Ni were also plotted on the ternary diagram from Taylorand McLennan (1985; Fig. 11B) that showed all the fine-grained

Fig. 11A. Relationships between Cr and Ni from all studied sections show that most samples have high concentrations of Cr and Ni close to the oceanic crust field (Taylor andMcLennan, 1985, p.63) except 4 samples from the upper part or the Red Beds are close to the Archean field.

0.01

1

100

10000

0.1 10 1000

Cr

(ppm

)

Ni (ppm)

Primitive mantle

Oceanic crust

Lower crustTotal crust

Weaver-Tarney crust

Upper crust

Orogenic andesites

Fig. 11B. Cr–Ni cross-plot showing that samples from the lower and middle of theRed Beds occur in or near the Early Archean fields that are rich in Cr and Ni, while afew samples from the upper part plot in the Post-Archean field of Taylor andMcLennan (1985).


sediments (mudstone) in unit 1 plotted close to the Early–Archeanfields, far from the post-Archean field, except for a few conglomer-ate samples from the upper part which plotted in the post-Archeanfield. This indicator provides strong evidence that most of the RedBeds, especially unit 1, were sourced from a mafic and ultramaficsource and the relative depletion of the Cr and Ni within the mid-dle and upper parts of the Red Beds probably reflects a differentthrust sheets or a felsic source. Probably at the time of depositionof the upper part of the sequence most of the ophiolite had beeneroded and the rocks beneath the ophiolite appeared on the sur-face during the Eocene time as determined from planktonic fora-minifers (Al-Essa, personal communication 2011). This evidenceconfirms that a large amount of the Red Bed sediment was not onlyderived from ultramafic and mafic rocks but it was also sourcedfrom the rocks that have a high olivine mineral content, such asdunite and harzburgite. This evidence could also correspond tothe ideas of Garver and Scott (1995) as they said that the sedimentswith low concentrations of Cr and Ni and a Cr/Ni close to 2 or morewere derived from a volcanic arc. The average andesite has a verylow abundance of these elements (between 30 and 50 ppm) and

some of the Red Bed samples plotted within this field, especiallysamples from the Merga and Kanarroy sections.

The high vanadium values in several samples probably reflectsedimentation in a marine environment but most of the sampleshave low vanadium contents and, therefore, according to Potteret al. (1963), the main sedimentation of the Red Beds occurred inan alluvial environment. Hiscott (1984) mentioned that a plot ofCr/Ni versus Y/Ni is very important for determining an ophioliteprovenance and McLennan et al. (1993) said that the Cr/V ratioreflects the enrichment of Cr relative to other ferromagnesian ele-ments while Y/Ni provides a representative ratio for the HREEs.

7. Conclusions

Petrographic and mineralogical studies show that a diversity ofsource rocks supplied detritus to the Red Beds, reflecting the upliftand unroofing history of older rocks, coupled with intensive oro-genic movements, during Red Bed deposition Dill et al. (2007).The Red Beds are divided on the basis of provenance into two parts.A lower unit is dominated by radiolarian chert detritus with aminor component of ophiolitic detritus while an upper unit lacksradiolarian chert and ophiolitic detritus and has a mixed prove-nance of volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Vertically, the chemical composition of the Red Beds shows thata high proportion of mafic to ultramafic source characterizes thelower part of the Red Beds while the middle and the upper partis characterized by a mixed source area. Geographically, theMawat–Chwarta area sections have been more affected by maficand ultramafic sources than Qandel area sections (Suwais andMerga). This information was inferred by the trace elements anal-yses such as Cr and Ni from selected samples from the Red Beds.

The concentration of transition elements with HFSE in the lowerparts and depletion in the upper parts reflect regressive erosion ofthe mafic components upwards through the section with littleeffect from a felsic source. Spider diagrams reflect the main deriva-tion of mafic sediment in lower parts of the Red Beds with a minorfelsic contribution fed into the middle and upper parts.

Regarding to their geochemical signatures, the Red Bed sedi-ments were deposited in a range of predominantly subaerial sedi-mentary environments and derived from a source area with varied

Table A1Concentrations of trace elements in the Suwais, Merga, Sorakalat, Kalacholan–Mawat, Tagaran and Kanarroy sections through the Red Beds.

Elements High field strength elements Large ion lithofile elements Transition trace elements

Sth Snu Zr Hf Ta Nb Y Rb Ba Sr Th U V Co Ni Cr Cu Ce

1 – Suwais sectionUnit one 4 TL1 27.4 0.88 0.9 3.1 10.1 21.3 270.1 555.1 3.1 2.2 83 49.6 247.7 344.1 61.6 0.19

23 TL3.5 30.8 0.99 0.9 4.1 10.9 23.4 267.1 579.2 3.3 2.7 55.6 43.8 249.1 342.7 26.2 22.760 TL5.5 24.4 0.98 1.6 3.2 10.6 18 2042 564.8 2.7 2.1 64.3 44.7 221.6 713.7 27.3 0.1995 TL6.6 23.4 0.99 1.2 3.4 10.7 19.1 1842 760.2 2.4 2.2 30.4 9 235.6 96.1 19.1 0.19

135 TL8.5 22.1 1.1 1.1 3.3 10.9 20.1 183.1 740.4 2.2 2.1 35.5 18.4 246.3 311.3 22.9 41.3165 TL9.5 27.4 0.7 1.3 3.3 13.5 21.3 224.2 569.7 2.1 2.3 42.1 19.8 379.1 310.7 13.8 0.19207 TL10.5 106.6 2.6 4.8 7 17.9 50.4 392.1 296.1 5.7 1.5 100.3 45.4 34.7 107.7 52.9 26.6250 TL12 26.8 0.88 0.9 5.1 9.8 21.8 102.8 615.8 3.1 1.6 46 17.3 210.5 259.4 15.6 20.5340 TL16.5 20.1 0.89 1.3 2.6 10 12.5 157.7 401.8 2.2 1.2 61.1 2.9 233.1 1249 6.6 0.19389 TL20 21 0.99 0.9 2.6 10.2 14.3 131.8 476.8 2.2 1.7 44.4 9 313.1 1102 16.1 0.19

Unit two 422 TL24 42.4 0.87 5.4 8.8 10.7 26.8 213.3 472.1 2.6 1.7 80 16.7 276.1 593.3 20.4 16.3481 TL27 27.3 0.89 1.1 3.3 11.3 19.5 192 365.2 2.2 1.3 84 34 240.1 782.2 53.6 35.7686 TL45 26.9 0.9 1.2 3.3 11.1 20.2 176.2 575.7 4.2 2.1 23.4 18.1 0.9 0.9 21 32.1

2 – Merga sectionUnit one 4 M1 99 3 0.9 5 19 37 1046 431 5 5 22 21 20 81 22 32

20 M3 127 4 2 6 18 40 845 285 5 3 16 10 20 46 20 2532 M4 123 4 0.9 7 20 45 638 262 6 5 24 14 24 28 27 2.0

148 M8 144 5 0.9 9 22 78 286 195 7 4 38 9 33 18 18 50168 M9 156 5 0.9 8 21 62 219 227 5 4 32 11 33 77 33 42180 M9.5 161 5 0.9 9 23 70 216 235 8 5 32 21 34 49 16 38

Unit two 564 M19.5 154 6 0.9 7 19 42 205 323 5 3 13 2.9 24 94 24 34580 M20 53 2 0.9 3 22 21 132 689 3 6 7 2.9 4 1 12 41652 M25.5 200 5 0.9 11 24 63 200 193 8 5 39 19 35 57 21 47

3 – Sorakalat sectionUnit one 3.0 DM1 174.1 6.5 8 34.8 19.8 36.7 221.7 172.3 5.3 2.1 83 49.6 370 279.3 61.6 53.4

18.0 S29 20.1 0.6 0.99 3.1 6.2 1.1 33.3 97.4 0.19 1 61.6 9.7 248.9 401.3 51.4 32.529.0 DM3 24.9 1 1.2 3.6 8.8 10.7 41.8 109.4 1.3 1 55.6 43.8 362 303.8 26.2 17.342.0 S20 113.2 0.3 0.99 6.6 17.4 40.5 320.8 288.7 5.4 2.2 67.6 2.8 26.5 87.9 18.6 39.252.0 S21 31.4 0.99 0.99 0.8 18.5 1.8 118.4 113.4 0.19 0.47 300.6 75.5 217.5 65 24.4 262.0 S31 23.9 1.4 5.6 3.5 7.6 2.8 31.8 109 1.3 1.1 364.2 52.9 740.2 1934 18.9 2572.0 DM4 21.5 0.7 0.8 2.2 7.3 5.9 30.2 166.8 0.9 2.4 114.3 9 445.8 817.7 21.4 285.0 DM5 29.9 2 3.8 2.6 11.9 6.8 70.8 114.7 0.19 0.3 64.3 44.7 498.1 589.9 27.3 2

105.0 DM6 14.8 1 1 2.6 6.8 2.7 24.2 134.3 0.7 1.2 30.4 10 149.7 179.4 19.1 18.4112.0 DM7 14.2 1.3 2.4 2.5 3.9 3 45.4 161 0.9 0.8 42.1 19.8 588.6 936.4 13.8 2119.0 DM7.5 75.4 3.7 5.9 12 10.8 21.8 140.7 97.3 1.9 0.5 100.3 45.4 565 782 52.9 2125.0 DM8 71.2 1.8 2.8 12.1 12.5 12.4 86.1 73.3 1.8 0.9 46 17.3 250.3 390.3 15.6 33.7135.0 DM9 21.1 1 1 2.4 9.3 6 44.6 85.3 0.9 0.8 61.1 3 166.7 484.8 6.6 2138.0 DM10 30.1 1 0.9 5.7 13 5.3 47.8 97.5 1.6 1.1 44.4 10 120.4 231.5 16.1 34.9141.0 DM11 32.6 0.7 2 3.7 9.5 2.9 78.9 246.8 0.9 0.4 80 16.7 361.9 596.4 20.4 20145.0 DM12 37 0.8 6.6 4.3 10.2 3.2 82.3 249.8 0.9 0.4 84 34 401.5 662.2 53.6 2148.0 DM13 10.5 1 1 1.8 4.9 0.8 27.1 233.1 1 1 23.4 18.1 133.6 199.7 21 2155.0 DM14 19.9 1 1 2.6 6.9 16.4 46.5 210.9 2.3 1.2 37.1 3 132.4 144.8 225.6 22.7158 S32 69.3 1.2 1 4.4 15.4 28.5 194.8 316.2 3.7 2.3 38.3 3 18.5 23.4 49.7 22.1172.0 S33 34 0.7 2.9 2.4 15.6 6.1 79.1 105.7 1.4 0.7 90.2 36.2 553.6 1052 18.7 2178.0 S34 21.9 0.7 0.99 2.8 9.4 0.6 24.7 81.2 0.19 0.8 44.1 9.2 230.3 439.2 26.5 2277.0 S35 18.2 0.4 3.1 2.4 7.3 0.6 33 82.4 0.9 1 43.7 2.8 175 241.1 36.1 17.8300.0 S35.7 25 2 9.2 2.5 6.1 5 1.99 122 0.29 0.37 128 146.3 969.2 945.2 28.1 12320.0 S36 29.4 1.4 1.1 2.5 8.3 1.7 38.5 73.8 0.19 0.4 60 48.1 401.1 481.1 51.7 22.3333 S36.5 113.2 0.3 0.99 6.6 17.4 40.5 320.8 288.7 5.4 2.2 67.6 2.8 26.5 87.9 18.6 39.2346 S37 8.7 0.9 0.99 1.2 9 0.3 21.2 97.5 0.6 1.2 28.4 47.6 162.1 118.4 30.7 34.6359 S37.05 21.7 2.3 10.2 2.1 6.9 4.8 34 91.2 0.19 0.33 175.9 63.1 861.4 1661 24.5 0.19382 S37.3 12.1 0.8 0.98 1 6.5 6.7 71.2 60.3 0.4 0.27 13.4 87.6 166.2 32.3 28.6 23.6396.0 S37.5 42.2 2.3 5.9 3.9 16.9 7.4 49 71.4 0.7 0.7 112 46.6 618.1 1020 18.9 0.19425.0 S38 46.4 1.5 2.9 5.1 12.9 7.1 52.6 74.2 0.6 0.3 141.4 46.8 649.4 1135 28.2 26.27435.0 S39 121 3.7 0.98 6.9 16.1 44.5 276.9 207.7 4.1 1.7 90.5 9 87.3 104.6 41.9 46.5439.0 S40 106.4 1.2 0.98 6 15.6 36.8 219.6 255.2 4.3 1.5 53.2 9 44.5 73.8 17.2 33.3

Unit two 475.0 S43 35.6 0.99 0.99 2.6 12.9 14.8 151.7 806.2 2.9 2.4 23.5 2.9 3.7 0.09 7.5 24.3485.0 S44 107.1 4.4 2.8 6.9 17.4 57.5 261.9 239.9 5.7 1.7 103 16 33.4 59.8 56.9 14.4518.0 S45 61.2 0.99 0.99 4.3 12.1 31.1 553.1 432.5 4.4 2.7 43.8 2.9 10.7 26.7 13.9 14.6551.0 S46 118.9 1.7 0.6 6.9 17.8 48.8 563.4 353.3 5.6 2.2 76 2.9 26.6 62.1 25.6 16.4567.0 S47 140.4 3.4 0.99 7 18.5 49.7 227.1 342.5 5.5 2.2 77.3 9 28.4 68.5 27.3 23.7851.0 S66 64.2 3.9 0.93 0.9 37.2 0.99 24.2 94.2 0.09 0.38 44.8 55.6 2.4 0.09 57.2 0.19854 S67 166.1 3.9 0.91 11.8 12.5 25.8 197.8 186.1 9.8 2.4 83.2 53.7 27.1 62.3 74.7 15.7858.0 S68 167.2 5.1 2.7 11.5 12.2 17.9 142.2 185.9 10.2 2.8 73.6 333.9 25.1 58.6 90.6 34.1861.0 S69 13.2 0.99 1.8 0.3 12.1 1.4 80.4 78.5 0.09 0.9 66 70.5 35.5 0.5 44.8 0.19864.0 S70 58.6 4.5 0.99 0.8 32.7 0.2 27.6 94.9 0.09 0.9 46.4 219.1 2.7 0.09 25 24.3

(continued on next page)


Table A1 (continued)

Elements High field strength elements Large ion lithofile elements Transition trace elements

Sth Snu Zr Hf Ta Nb Y Rb Ba Sr Th U V Co Ni Cr Cu Ce

4 – Kalacholan–Mawat sectionUnit one 20.0 KM2 15.1 1.7 7.9 2.2 8.8 3.7 35 47 0.6 0.9 70.6 42.3 975.5 25.2 1339 0.19

40.0 KM 4 79.1 1.3 2.5 5.8 11.1 30.8 226.8 148.9 3.4 1.5 112.3 58.5 402.4 28.1 1220 0.1960.0 KM 5 92.9 3.1 5.6 5.2 15 32.2 1007 348.8 4.4 2.3 50.4 32.7 71.1 242.7 18.1 0.1964.0 KM 6 64.4 0.9 0.9 5.3 11.3 26.9 448.3 182.8 4.3 2.2 49.3 2.9 155.7 10.5 561.9 0.1980.0 KM 8 74 0.7 0.9 4.5 14 30.1 297.4 308.8 3.8 5 37.1 2.9 28.6 10.5 35.8 0.19

108.0 KM 9 140.5 2.4 0.9 8 17.1 53.9 477.8 261.9 6.4 2.3 79.3 23.6 31.4 19.2 70.8 17.9120.0 KM 10 112.2 0.6 0.9 5.7 19.3 31.7 185 348.1 4.7 2.3 46.2 18.2 16.5 11.9 97.2 0.19136.0 KM 11 97 1.3 0.9 5.8 15.9 41.8 613.3 312.1 5.3 2.4 58.7 32.7 24.6 11.4 49.6 0.19148.0 KM 12 143.8 2.7 0.9 7.8 19.1 52.1 325.1 344.6 6.1 2.2 74 25.4 27.2 29.9 55.2 0.19188.0 KM 13 145.8 3.6 0.9 9.1 19.6 77 328.1 278.1 7.2 2.5 93.6 93.3 38.7 29.4 61 32.8240.0 KM 14 94.9 0.6 0.9 5.6 18.2 36.7 263.5 430.5 5.7 1.6 53.3 26.4 18 24.1 33.8 0.19256.0 KM 15 86.1 0.8 0.9 5.6 17.5 38.3 233.2 380.2 4.7 1.8 65.8 33 26 29.7 64.1 26.8304.0 KM 16 127.7 3.1 0.9 7.6 18.1 53.5 302 281.8 6.1 1.4 82.6 64.1 31.8 40.6 73.4 0.19312 KM 17 103.8 0.9 0.9 5.3 17 40.5 410.1 393.2 4.6 2.2 56.7 42.1 22.4 26.1 43.1 33.5348.0 KM 19 104.8 2.2 0.9 5.4 15.7 41.5 283.3 329 4.5 2.3 53.1 45.5 17.3 19.2 73.3 0.19364.0 KM 20 109.7 2 2.5 6.1 17.2 41.9 251.6 350.4 5.5 1.7 52.7 47.2 18.9 16.5 54.7 29.5376.0 KM 21 132.5 3.2 0.9 6.6 18 44.8 509.8 334.7 5.2 2.1 61.5 23.3 21.8 24.9 48.3 0.19400.0 KM 22 68.2 0.7 0.9 4 13.6 29.9 283.6 486.3 4.2 2.7 37.4 2.8 9.6 14.1 15.4 32.7

Unit two 420.0 KM 23 143.9 2.9 0.9 8.4 19.6 60.4 234 283.1 6.8 2.8 73.4 280 30.9 22.4 60.9 38.5476 KM 25 140.5 2.2 0.9 8.5 19.8 59.7 613.4 335.3 5.8 2.2 146.8 24.8 45.3 57.7 136.3 32.2516 KM 26 106.2 3.1 4 6.9 17.4 60.9 359.9 437 5.8 1.9 137.5 12.4 40 36.2 97.1 35.1532 KM 27 146.9 3.6 3.2 11.1 21.4 108 294.4 301.3 9.1 2.2 145.7 19 53.2 47.7 82.8 41.9568 KM 29 98.1 2.5 0.9 6.2 17.1 52.2 3179 365.5 5.4 1.8 208.4 57.4 40.8 47.2 120.1 4.6592.0 KM 30 109.7 2.5 0.9 7.1 17.7 66.7 349.7 376.1 6.1 2.1 133.9 23.4 43.3 32.5 104.8 47.9612.0 KM 31 214.1 5.4 2.9 9.3 21.3 76.4 272.1 213.9 7.6 2.5 146.4 12.7 42.9 34.7 187.5 39.1628.0 KM 32 148.5 4.6 2.3 8.7 20.1 72.2 244.4 187.9 6.8 1.9 135.4 23.6 40 44.5 103.8 28.1640.0 KM 33 111.4 3.6 0.9 6.4 20.9 58.2 253.6 231.7 5 1 156.5 20.2 52 56 141.5 30.3648.0 KM 34 87.8 2.9 0.9 5 17.8 48 220.6 254.5 3.8 1.4 180.7 42.7 55.5 51.4 197.7 15.5

5 – Tagaran sectionUnit one 18 T1 7.3 3 0.9 0.8 3.9 0.3 24.7 221.2 0.9 0.9 143.5 <25 1787 2695 77.4 <2.0

40 T5 38.1 4 0.9 6.1 11 6.4 66.6 368.3 0.7 0.9 111.6 83.2 758.2 1064 24.2 <2.084 T8 23 4 0.9 4.2 6.7 2.7 48.8 186.9 0.9 0.4 64.1 61.2 608 647.2 52.7 <2.0120 T12 9.6 5 0.9 0.9 4.8 2.2 50.9 215.5 0.9 0.9 169.3 44.6 1610 3158 35.9 16.2128 T13 27.4 5 0.9 4.4 7.8 3.4 44.3 162.3 0.9 0.6 86 86.8 858.1 1039 57.5 <2.0196 T16.2 16.3 5 1.8 2.3 7.3 4.4 43 141.4 0.9 0.9 82.3 94.3 994.5 838.7 13.3 20.4

Unit two 600 T30 16 6 3.6 2 6.5 1.1 34.7 162.3 0.9 0.4 97.9 90.5 919.6 1391 14.8 <2.0

6 – Kanarroy section4 K1 137 6 0.9 8 19 51 1086 296 6 5 24 22 28 39 84 52

18 K2 181 7 3 9 21 55 259 261 7 4 18 16 30 41 102 7224 K3 113 6 0.9 6 18 47 1576 334 5 3 62 22 23 44 105 127 K 4 125 5 0.9 8 19 55 287 303 6 4 30 22 33 29 63 5128 K4.5 158 5 0.9 8 20 51 575 463 6 5 33 27 26 89 114 3533 K 5 102 4 0.9 6 18 35 389 359 4 3 28 24 20 56 68 6639 K 6 110 3 0.9 8 19 48 166 331 6 4 24 18 28 37 49 2442 K7 97 5 4 6 16 43 1153 297 5 4 57 27 20 24 35 4346 K 8 143 4 0.9 9 19 61 316 221 7 4 51 28 33 70 124 2.052 K9 131 4 0.9 10 21 68 233 335 7 5 38 21 39 28 35 6959 K 10 139 5 0.9 6 18 43 319 286 5 4 0.9 37 23 146 133 6360 K 11 119 5 0.9 7 21 50 1345 324 6 5 38 15 27 34 51 2769 K 12 170 5 2 8 20 49 656 257 6 5 28 25 29 74 23 4272 K13 123 7 13 8 18 52 640 329 5 3 111 11 29 118 22 4675 K 14 114 4 0.9 7 20 44 163 294 6 4 44 15 25 37 85 3079 K 15 66 2 0.9 5 14 33 3380 372 4 5 64 3 16 14 33 1982 K 16 94 6 0.9 6 24 40 2949 652 6 5 54 3 21 25 122 989 K 18 162 7 0.9 9 20 61 318 299 6 3 58 27 39 75 174 3095 K 19 54 2 0.9 5 12 42 129 384 5 5 0.9 3 18 0.9 55 5199 K 20 156 5 0.9 9 20 71 305 215 6 3 56 21 42 70 40 37

105 K 22.5 136 7 1.4 8 22 55 391 304 6 3 40 17 30 34 105 44108 K24 157 5 0.9 10 23 83 239 568 8 5 31 16 43 36 30 50115 K 26 139 7 0.9 10 22 112 282 430 9 6 57 14 45 32 52 63118 K 27 112 5 0.9 6 18 47 492 373 5 4 27 27 21 88 103 43122 K 28 152 5 0.9 8 22 65 261 582 7 5 21 20 31 22 90 66128 K 29 96 6 2 6 18 52 765 451 5 5 13 19 28 11 120 56132 K 30 99 7 0.9 6 19 52 658 574 5 6 32 27 20 50 96 2.0138 K 31 139 5 0.9 7 18 53 304 383 6 4 35 24 28 60 88 64141 K 32 116 5 1.6 6 20 53 419 445 6 5 28 36 31 44 126 28142 K 33 93 4 0.9 5 18 41 415 335 5 4 0.9 18 21 33 98 59145 K 34 168 6 2 8 20 52 269 224 6 4 37 17 30 51 119 29148 K 35 133 7 0.9 8 19 57 311 297 6 4 33 21 36 65 98 52


Table A2Percent concentrations of trace elements in the Suwais, Merga, Sorakalat, Kalacholan-Mawat, Tagaran and Kanarroy sections through the Red Beds.

Sth Sun Zr/Hf Cr/Ni Cr/V Co/Ni Th/U La/Th Zr/Y Nb/Ta Cr/Th

1 – Suwais sectionUnit one 4 TL1 31.1 1.4 4.2 0.2 1.4 2.7 3.4 111.0

23 TL3.5 31.1 1.4 6.2 0.2 1.2 2.3 2.8 4.6 103.860 TL5.5 24.9 3.2 11.1 0.2 1.3 2.7 2.3 2.0 264.395 TL6.6 23.6 0.4 3.2 0.0 1.1 3.3 2.2 2.8 40.0

135 TL8.5 20.1 1.3 8.8 0.1 1.1 3.9 2.0 3.0 141.5165 TL9.5 39.1 0.8 7.4 0.1 0.9 4.8 2.0 2.5 148.0207 TL10.5 41.0 3.1 1.1 1.3 3.8 1.4 6.0 1.5 18.9250 TL12 30.5 1.2 5.6 0.1 1.9 2.7 5.7 83.7340 TL16.5 22.6 5.4 20.4 0.0 1.8 2.0 2.0 567.7389 TL20 21.2 3.5 24.8 0.0 1.3 2.1 2.9 500.9

Unit two 422 TL24 48.7 2.2 7.4 0.1 1.5 4.0 1.6 228.2481 TL27 30.7 3.3 9.3 0.1 1.7 7.6 2.4 3.0 355.5686 TL45 29.9 1.0 0.0 20.1 2.0 2.9 2.4 2.8 0.2

2 – Merga section

Unit one 4 M1 33.0 4.1 3.7 1.1 1.0 0.4 5.2 5.6 16.220 M3 31.8 2.3 2.9 0.5 1.7 6.9 3.0 9.232 M4 30.8 1.2 1.2 0.6 1.2 6.1 7.8 4.7

148 M8 28.8 0.5 0.5 0.3 1.8 8.8 6.5 10.0 2.6168 M9 31.2 2.3 2.4 0.3 1.3 4.2 7.5 8.9 15.4180 M10 32.2 1.4 1.5 0.6 1.6 2.6 7.0 10.0 6.1

Unit two 564 M19 25.7 3.9 7.2 0.1 1.7 4.0 8.0 7.8 18.8580 M20 26.5 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.5 2.5 3.3 0.3652 M24 40.0 1.6 1.5 0.5 1.6 2.7 8.3 12.2 7.1

3 – Sorakalat sectionUnit one 3.00 DM1 26.8 0.8 3.4 0.1 2.5 8.8 4.4 52.7

18.00 S29 33.5 1.6 6.5 0.0 0.2 3.2 3.1 2112.129.00 DM3 24.9 0.8 5.5 0.1 1.3 2.8 3.0 233.742.00 S20 377.3 3.3 1.3 0.1 2.5 6.5 6.7 16.352.00 S21 31.7 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.7 0.8 342.162.00 S31 17.1 2.6 5.3 0.1 1.2 3.1 0.6 1487.772.00 DM4 30.7 1.8 7.2 0.0 0.4 2.9 2.8 908.685.00 DM5 15.0 1.2 9.2 0.1 0.6 31.6 2.5 0.7 3104.7

105.00 DM6 14.8 1.2 5.9 0.1 0.6 11.3 2.2 0.7 256.3112.00 DM7 10.9 1.6 22.2 0.0 1.1 0.0 3.6 1.0 1040.4119.00 DM7.5 20.4 1.4 7.8 0.1 3.8 1.7 7.0 2.0 411.6125.00 DM8 39.6 1.6 8.5 0.1 2.0 3.1 5.7 4.3 216.8135.00 DM9 21.1 2.9 7.9 0.0 1.1 6.6 2.3 2.4 538.7138.00 DM10 30.1 1.9 5.2 0.1 1.5 0.0 2.3 6.3 144.7141.00 DM11 46.6 1.6 7.5 0.0 2.3 0.0 3.4 1.9 662.7145.00 DM12 46.3 1.6 7.9 0.1 2.3 0.0 3.6 0.7 735.8148.00 DM13 10.5 1.5 8.5 0.1 1.0 5.4 2.1 1.8 199.7155.00 DM14 19.9 1.1 3.9 0.0 1.9 0.9 2.9 2.6 63.0158.00 S32 57.8 1.3 0.6 0.2 1.6 0.4 4.5 4.4 6.3172.00 S33 48.6 1.9 11.7 0.1 2.0 2.6 2.2 0.8 751.4178.00 S34 31.3 1.9 10.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 2.3 2.8 2311.6277.00 S35 45.5 1.4 5.5 0.0 0.9 2.1 2.5 0.8 267.9300.00 S35.75 12.5 1.0 7.4 0.2 0.8 0.0 4.1 0.3 3259.3320.00 S36 21.0 1.2 8.0 0.1 0.5 0.0 3.5 2.3 2532.1333.00 S36.5 377.3 3.3 1.3 0.1 2.5 0.0 6.5 6.7 16.3346.00 S37 9.7 0.7 4.2 0.3 0.5 15.3 1.0 1.2 197.3359.00 S37.05 9.4 1.9 9.4 0.1 0.6 0.0 3.1 0.2 8742.1382.00 S37.3 15.1 0.2 2.4 0.5 1.5 16.3 1.9 1.0 80.8396.00 S37.5 18.3 1.7 9.1 0.1 1.0 0.0 2.5 0.7 1457.1425.00 S38 30.9 1.7 8.0 0.1 2.0 0.0 3.6 1.8 1891.7435.00 S39 32.7 1.2 1.2 0.1 2.4 0.0 7.5 7.0 25.5

Unit two 439.00 S40 88.7 1.7 1.4 0.2 2.9 0.0 6.8 6.1 17.2475.00 S43 36.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.2 0.0 2.8 2.6 0.0485.00 S44 24.3 1.8 0.6 0.5 3.4 0.0 6.2 2.5 10.5518.00 S45 61.8 2.5 0.6 0.3 1.6 3.7 5.1 4.3 6.1551.00 S46 69.9 2.3 0.8 0.1 2.5 3.1 6.7 11.5 11.1567.00 S47 41.3 2.4 0.9 0.3 2.5 0.0 7.6 7.1 12.5851.00 S66 16.5 0.0 0.0 23.2 0.2 0.0 1.7 1.0 1.0854.00 S67 42.6 2.3 0.7 2.0 4.1 0.6 13.3 13.0 6.4858.00 S68 32.8 2.3 0.8 13.3 3.6 0.4 13.7 4.3 5.7861.00 S69 13.3 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.1 7.8 1.1 0.2 5.6864.00 S70 13.0 0.0 0.0 81.1 0.1 24.4 1.8 0.8 1.0

(continued on next page


)

Table A2 (continued)

Sth Sun Zr/Hf Cr/Ni Cr/V Co/Ni Th/U La/Th Zr/Y Nb/Ta Cr/Th

4 – Kalacholan–Mawat sectionUnit one 20 KM2 8.9 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.7 4.7 1.7 0.3 2231.7

40 KM 4 60.9 0.1 0.3 0.2 2.3 3.5 7.1 2.3 358.860 KM 5 30.0 3.4 4.8 0.5 1.9 6.2 0.9 4.164 KM 6 71.6 0.1 0.2 0.0 2.0 2.4 5.7 5.9 130.780 KM 8 105.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.8 5.3 5.0 9.4

108 KM 9 58.5 0.6 0.2 0.8 2.8 8.2 8.9 11.1120 KM 10 187.0 0.7 0.3 1.1 2.0 5.8 6.3 20.7136 KM 11 74.6 0.5 0.2 1.3 2.2 6.1 6.4 9.4148 KM 12 53.3 1.1 0.4 0.9 2.8 7.5 8.7 9.0188 KM 13 40.5 0.8 0.3 2.4 2.9 7.4 10.1 8.5240 KM 14 158.2 1.3 0.5 1.5 3.6 5.2 6.2 5.9256 KM 15 107.6 1.1 0.5 1.3 2.6 4.9 6.2 13.6304 KM 16 41.2 1.3 0.5 2.0 4.4 7.1 8.4 12.0312 KM 17 115.3 1.2 0.5 1.9 2.1 6.1 5.9 9.4348 KM 19 47.6 1.1 0.4 2.6 2.0 6.7 6.0 16.3364 KM 20 54.9 0.9 0.3 2.5 3.2 6.4 2.4 9.9376 KM 21 41.4 1.1 0.4 1.1 2.5 7.4 7.3 9.3400 KM 22 97.4 1.5 0.4 0.3 1.6 5.0 4.4 3.7

Unit two 420 KM 23 49.6 0.7 0.3 9.1 2.4 2.7 7.3 9.3 9.0476 KM 25 63.9 1.3 0.4 0.6 2.6 7.1 9.4 23.5516 KM 26 34.3 0.9 0.3 0.3 3.1 6.1 1.7 16.7532 KM 27 40.8 0.9 0.3 0.4 4.1 6.9 3.5 9.1568 KM 29 39.2 1.2 0.2 1.4 3.0 5.7 6.9 22.2592 KM 30 43.9 0.8 0.2 0.5 2.9 6.2 7.9 17.2612 KM 31 39.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 3.0 10.1 3.2 24.7628 KM 32 32.3 1.1 0.3 0.6 3.6 7.4 3.8 15.3640 KM 33 30.9 1.1 0.4 0.4 5.0 3.5 5.3 7.1 28.3648 KM 34 30.3 0.9 0.3 0.8 2.7 3.2 4.9 5.6 52.0

5 – Tagaran sectionUnit one 18 T1 2.4 1.5 18.8 0.0 1.0 1.9 0.9 2994.4

40 T5 9.1 1.4 9.5 0.1 0.8 3.5 6.8 1520.084 T8 5.9 1.1 10.1 0.1 2.3 3.4 4.7 719.1

120 T12 2.0 2.0 18.7 0.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3508.9128 T13 5.6 1.2 12.1 0.1 1.5 16.9 3.5 4.9 1154.4196 T16.2 3.0 0.8 10.2 0.1 1.0 18.4 2.2 1.3 931.9

Unit two 600 T30 2.6 1.5 14.2 0.1 1.8 14.6 2.5 0.6 1545.6

6 – Kanarroy section

Unit four 4 K1 22.8 1.4 1.6 0.8 7.2 8.9 6.518 K2 25.9 1.4 2.3 0.5 8.6 3.0 5.924 K3 18.8 1.9 0.7 1.0 6.3 6.7 8.827 K 4 25.0 0.9 1.0 0.7 6.6 8.9 4.828 K4.5 31.6 3.4 2.7 1.0 5.1 4.3 7.9 8.9 14.833 K 5 25.5 2.8 2.0 1.2 5.7 6.7 14.039 K 6 36.7 1.3 1.5 0.6 5.8 8.9 6.242 K7 19.4 1.2 0.4 1.4 6.1 1.5 4.846 K 8 35.8 2.1 1.4 0.8 7.5 10.0 10.052 K9 32.8 0.7 0.7 0.5 6.2 11.1 4.059 K 10 27.8 6.3 162.2 1.6 7.7 6.7 29.260 K 11 23.8 1.3 0.9 0.6 5.7 7.8 5.769 K 12 34.0 2.6 2.6 0.9 8.5 4.0 12.372 K13 17.6 4.1 1.1 0.4 6.8 0.6 23.675 K 14 28.5 1.5 0.8 0.6 5.7 7.8 6.279 K 15 33.0 0.9 0.2 0.2 4.7 5.6 3.582 K 16 15.7 1.2 0.5 0.1 4.3 3.6 3.9 6.7 4.289 K 18 23.1 1.9 1.3 0.7 8.1 10.0 12.595 K 19 27.0 0.1 1.0 0.2 4.5 5.6 0.299 K 20 31.2 1.7 1.3 0.5 7.8 10.0 11.7

105 K 22.5 19.4 1.1 0.9 0.6 6.2 5.7 5.7108 K24 31.4 0.8 1.2 0.4 6.8 11.1 4.5115 K 26 19.9 0.7 0.6 0.3 6.3 11.1 3.6118 K 27 22.4 4.2 3.3 1.3 6.2 6.7 17.6122 K 28 30.4 0.7 1.0 0.6 4.2 3.0 6.9 8.9 3.1128 K 29 16.0 0.4 0.8 0.7 5.3 3.0 2.2132 K 30 14.1 2.5 1.6 1.4 5.2 6.7 10.0138 K 31 27.8 2.1 1.7 0.9 7.7 7.8 10.0141 K 32 23.2 1.4 1.6 1.2 5.8 3.8 7.3142 K 33 23.3 1.6 36.7 0.9 5.2 5.6 6.6145 K 34 28.0 1.7 1.4 0.6 8.4 4.0 8.5148 K 35 19.0 1.8 2.0 0.6 7.0 8.9 10.8



source rocks. This is evidenced by the analyses of Zr and Hf in theselected sections.

The provenance of the Red Beds can be inferred from the geo-chemical evidence to be predominantly mafic as shown by HFSE,high ratios of transition elements and high Cr/Th ratios.Generally the Red Bed sediments were affected by an ultramaficand mafic source with different lateral and vertical variations.

The normalization to upper continental crust showed that thereis no similarity with the upper continental crust trend. High fieldstrength elements reflect depletion in their values according toupper continental crust values while LILEs also reflect a depletionstyle, except for Rb and Sr values that are relatively similar tothe UCC trend values. The transition elements reflect high valentelements related to the upper continental crust. This trend reflectsthe occurrence of a secondary felsic source while the main sourceof the Red Bed sediment is mafic. The source area of the Red Bedswas probably composed of mafic and ultramafic rocks that mainlyfed the lower part (units 1 and 2). The high contents of ferromag-nesian elements in the lower part generally indicate that this partwas derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks that contained a highcontent of olivine, such as dunite and harzburgite.

Trace elements were also normalized to upper continental crustand showed that the lower part of the Red Beds (units 1 and 2)have higher values than the upper continental crust supportingthe previous evidence of the current study that said the source areaof the lower part is mainly mafic and ultramafic components. Themiddle and upper parts reflect another style with transition ele-ments being depleted in these parts.

The LILE, HFSE, transition concentrations are different betweenthe lower part (mudstone dominant), middle part (sandstone dom-inant) and upper part (conglomerate dominant) of the Red Beds.The general source area for the Red Bed sediments includes a maficthrust source for the mudstone facies in the lower part with adecreasing mafic impact laterally and temporally as a result ofactive orogenic activity rather than the occurrence of a mixedmafic to felsic source for the middle and upper parts.

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of MMH’s PhD thesis at University ofWollongong (Brian Jones) which was financially supported by theMinistry of Higher Education and Scientific Research in the Iraqigovernment.

Appendix A

See Tables 1 and 2.

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Source area and tectonic provenance of Paleocene–Eocene red bed clastics from the Kurdistan area...

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