1

SOIL DEGRADATION IN EAST TIMOR WITHIN THREE

PERIODS OF CHANGING DESTINY OF AN ISLAND TO BE

AN INDEPENDENT COUNTRY

(OVERVIEW)

Prepared by

Delfim da Costa

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

ASSOD : Soil Degradation in South and South-East Asia

GLASSOD : Global Assessment of Human-induced Soil Degradation

NAP : National Action Program

NGO : Non-Governmental Organization

PCCSP : Pacific Climate Change Science Program

RDTL : Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste

REPELITA : Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun (Five Years Development Plan)

SOL : Seed of Life

TLINC : Timor-Leste Initial National Communication

UNCBD : United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USDA : United States Department of Agriculture

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LIST OF FIGURES

CONTENTS PAGE

Figure 1. Interaction among processes, factors, and causes of soil degradation 3

Figure 2. Map of Timor-Leste 5

Figure 3. Geology map of Timor-Leste 6

Figure 4. Banda Arc Plate Boundaries 6

Figure 5. Soil Order in Timor-Leste 7

Figure 6. Soil Texture Map 8

Figure 7. Observed annual average values of total rainfall 10

Figure 8. Average Monthly temperature and rainfall from 1990-2009 10

Figure 9. Mean monthly temperature 11

Figure 10. Annual rainfall map 12

Figure 11. Sea-surface temperature 13

Figure 12. The first soil map of Timor-Leste 14

Figure 13. Land cover from 989 to 1999. 15

Figure 15. Forest cover 17

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NO. CONTENTS PAGE

List of Acronyms ii

List of Figures iii

I SOIL DEGRADATION

1.1 Soil physical degradation

1.2 Soil biological degradation

1.3 Soil chemical degradation

II SOIL DEGRADATION CAUSES

2.1 Processes

2.2 Factors

2.3 Socio-economic and political causes

III BASELINE CONDITION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1 Location

3.2 Geology

3.3 Soil Type

3.4 Climate

3.5 Current Soil Management Practices

IV CHANGES

4.1 Climate change in Timor-Leste

4.2 Soil degradation and its Current Management in Timor-Leste

4.2.1 Soil degradation during Timor Portuguese period (1515-1975)

4.2.2 Soil degradation during Indonesia Occupancy period (1975-1999)

4.2.3 Soil degradation and addressing approaches in independence

period (2002 up to now)

List of References

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I. SOIL DEGRADATION

Soil has a complexity to define, due to its contents, functions, and formations. Hence, soil

can be defined based on the proper purposes. As per agricultural view, soil can be defined as

combination of organic and inorganic materials on the earth that provide a proper medium for plant

growth. However, soil has a multifunction so often a matter of debate or even arising social

conflicts. As other natural resources, soil also has being affected by humans induced in terms of

getting beneficial from soil through inappropriate practices, one of the impacts is soil degradation.

Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality whether physical, biological, or chemical, that

are caused by improper use, usually for agricultural, pastoral, industrial or urban area. As cited by

Oldeman in 1998, soil degradation was defined in GLASSOD and ASSOD as a process that

describes human-induced phenomena which the lower the current and /or future capacity of the

soil to support human life. Through that study succeed to describe and delineate situations where

the balance between climate aggressively and the potential resistance of the land has been broken

human interventions.

1.1 Soil physical degradation

Soil physical degradation is a process of physical changes that has a relationship with mass

of soil, volume of soil, water, and gaseous in order to resist disruptive forces by natural or

anthropogenic. Most of the effects from the physical degradation are soil physical, mechanical,

rheological (flow), and hydrological properties.

The common process of soil physical degradation such as structure breakdown process,

dispersion of aggregates on quick immersion in water, crusting or surface scaling (formation of a

thin crust on the soil surface characterized by high strength and low permeability to water and air),

increasing soil bulk density, decrease in aeration porosity, erosion, desertification (degraded due

to accelerated erosion by water, wind, and other processes).

1.2 Soil biological degradation

Soil as abiotic factors in an ecosystem but it has content of many living organisms. Soil

organisms has extremely important function as well as driving agents of nutrient cycling, control

the dynamic of soil organic matter, greenhouse gas emissions and soil carbon sequestration,

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holding the physical structure and water regimes, and influence plant health as well as nutrients

provisioning.

In predicting and measuring a biological degradation of soil there is an indicators of soil

biological degradation that usually used to knowing a soil quality for any particular purposes. In

2012, Upasana Mishra and Dolly Wattal Dhar have given an indicators for soil biological

degradation such as community diversity, nutrient cycling, accumulation of pollutants, and redox

status.

Moreover, Rattan Lal, at al., 2004 explain that changes in soil biological processes can

increase soil degradation and adversely affect the quantity and quality of the soil organic carbon

pool activity and species diversity of soil biota, and increase in relative proportion of soil borne

pathogens.

1.3 Soil chemical degradation

Soil chemical degradation issues are more on the existence of the chemical compound in

the soil and their relationship with the plants and other existing organisms. Several adverse changes

may leads soil be in degraded status such as acidification, salinization, alkalization, toxification,

and nutrients depletions.

Acidification process is a decline in soil pH caused by leaching of bases or addition of acid

producing fertilizers. The producing fertilizers that contribute to the acidification like Sulphur,

chlorine, phosphorus and nitrogen. Most of that kind of degradation occurred in cropland area by

misapplying the inorganic fertilizers.

Salinization and alkalization are concern on soluble salt and sodium salt in root zone that

affecting nutrient absorptions process by plant. Since, pollution and toxification are more related

to industrial effects on the soil quality, the effects can be in mine waste and urban pollutants waste.

II. SOIL DEGRADATION CAUSES

Soil degradation is always caused by many factors that interconnected each other.

Biophysical process of soil degradation is not a single factor that leading soil to be degraded,

however socio-economic and political causes are really to be considered as driving process of the

degradation on soil. Degradation could be happen when the mismanagement practices on soil are

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being applied in terms of diminishing biological component in the soil, disturbing physical

structure and feature of soil, and depleting chemical content within the soil.

Figure 1. Interaction among processes, factors, and causes of soil degradation (Rattan Lal, 1997)

2.1 Processes

Three main process that associated to the soil degradation are physical, chemical, and

biological process. The process of physical degradation such as deforestation, biomass burning,

denudation (a process of reduction of elevation and relief by wearing away the earth surface),

tillage in slope area, uncontrolled grazing, and monoculture practices. In chemical degradation

could come up with the use of inorganic fertilizers, expansion of industrial activity, no or rare

treatment for domestic and industrial waste. Moreover, in Biological degradation process by

Removal and/or burning of residues, No or little use of bio solids (e.g., manure, mulch),

Monoculture without growing cover crops in the rotation cycle.

2.2 Factors

Factors that contribute on soil degradation are type of soil, climate, terrain and vegetation.

Type of soil can be found in different such as platy type, prismatic and columnar type, blocky type

and granular type. These classification based on type of soil structure, each type of structure has

different degradation rates in terms of their capacity as well as temporally and spatially. The types

of soil are contributing to the soil degradation factor. For example, Inceptisols, the natural

productivity of the soil varies widely, depend up on organic matter content and clay or other

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edaphic factors. Vertisols is rich of materials limestone, Mollisols is characteristically dark and

rich with organic matter giving it a lot of natural fertility

Climate factors are playing important role in relation to soil degradation. Rainfall,

temperature, evapotranspiration, soil moisture are determined the soil resistances in degradation

process. Indirect effects will coming through the climate even, runoff, erosion, landslide, flooding

etc. hence, most of physical changes are associated to climate factor.

Factors of terrain and vegetation be seen very important in soil degradation which are the

determining factors of erosion, leaching process, and runoff flow on upper layer of soil regarding

to slope length and slope gradient. Less vegetation on the soil will enhancing runoff process,

sedimentation, and even erosion. From the different terrain feature could be predicted the potential

degradation particularly soil physical quality, and the availability of biochemical component in the

soil.

2.3 Socio-economic and political causes

Socio-economic causes include demographic parameters (such as population density,

education, and gender/ethnic equity), land tenure, institutional support, and access to market.

Increase number of population will increasing built up area, expansion of agricultural area,

increasing basic needs and arising competition on soil, then no enough resources for the people

later on. From the competitions, people would practicing acts less considering ecofriendly for

getting the resources, thus soil degradation can be happened.

According to Rattan Lal in 2004 argues that political causes include political instability,

which is an important cause of soil degradation. In contrast, policy incentives that enhance

investments in soil would reduce the rate and extent of soil degradation.

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III. Baseline condition of the study area

3.1 Location

Timor-Leste (East Timor) is located at coordinates between 8°50′S and 125°55′E, and the

country covers a total area of 15,007 square kilometers. Situated 550 km north of Australia, it is

the smallest and more eastern island of the Malay Archipelago. Timor-Leste includes the enclave

of Oecussi-Ambeno, situated on the Western (Indonesian) part of the island, and the islands of

Ataúro and Jaco.

Administratively, Timor-Leste is divided into 13 municipalities such as municipal of Aileu,

municipal of Ainaro, municipal of Baucau, municipal of Bobonaro, municipal of Cova-lima,

municipal of Dili, municipal of Ermera, municipal of Lautem, municipal of Liquica, municipal of

Manatuto, municipal of Manufahi, municipal of Oecusse-Ambeno, and municipal of Viqueque.

Municipal of Dili is the capital of the country.

Figure 2. Map of Timor-Leste

Official language for East Timorese are Portuguese and Tétum (national language), Apart from

these there are another 15 local dialects such as Baikeno, Bukais, Bunak, Galolen, Habun, Kemak,

Mambai, Tokodede, Idalaka, Kawaimina, Fataluku, Makalero, Makasae, Sa’ani, and Makuva.

Timor-Leste

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3.2 Geology

Timor-Leste country is occupied only half of the Timor Island (east part of island). In terms

of geologic time, Timor-Leste has geological formation that vary which are ranged from Paleozoic

age up to Cenozoic age. These variances of formation can be found across the country as shown

in geology map in figure.3

Figure 3. Geology map of Timor-Leste

Timor-Leste (half island of Timor) which is regarded as part of Outer Banda Arc islands

that recognized as non-volcanic arc, except Atauro Island (Small Island, only 34.8 km from

Municipal of Dili) has the Miocene-Pliocene volcanic island. (Audley-Charles, 1968).

Figure 4. Banda Arc Plate Boundaries

Source; S.J. Thompson, 2011.

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In 1967, J.J. Veevers has reported about the geology of Timor Island, Timor lies on the

orogenic Banda Arc and is bounded northward by a volcanic arc . Morphologically, Portuguese

Timor (Timor-Leste) consists of a number of narrow depositional coastal plains and recently

elevated coral plateaus on the north backed by a mountain range reaching 2920 meters along the

backbone of the island, and an area of foothills. The plains of the north and south coasts are

modern; the plateaus are Pleistocene to 'sub-Recent, and are capped by extensive coral reefs; the

range is a complex of thrust sheets of Permian to Miocene sedimentary, metamorphic, and eruptive

rocks; and the southern foothills a complex of lower thrust sheets, and Tertiary block

clays(synorogenic) and molasse (post-orogenic) deposits.

3.3 Soil Type

Timor-Leste has 6 types of major soil orders based on the United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA). These soil order are Alfisols_Ultisols, Entisols, Inceptosols, Mollisols, and

Vertisols (S.J. Thompson, 2011).

Figure 5. Soil Order in Timor-Leste

Based on soil texture, soil type in Timor-Leste are complex such as sandy, clay, and silty.

The distribution of the soil texture are in variative dispersion like loam, sandy loam, silty loam,

clay loam, and sandy clay as well as organic. In some specific area can be found alluvium soil

formation that really not suitable for agricultural practices.

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Figure 6. Soil Texture Map

3.4 Climate

Timor-Leste has two seasons such as Dry season on June to November while, Wet Seasons on

December to May. This climate is characterized by the Asian tropical monsoonal system due to its

topographic relief and geographical location. From the northern to the east and southeast part of

country showing difference rate of annually rainfall from the lowest as 500 mm/annum along the

northern coast to as highest as 2000 mm/annum in mountains. The average temperature during

rainy season ranges from 29° - 35°C. Dry season temperatures between May and November

average 20° - 33°C. Day temperatures are warm to hot, but are cool to cold at night in mountainous

areas.

3.5 Current Soil Management Practices

Generally, Soil management practices in Timor-Leste are based on the farmer’s habits as

derive from their traditional experiences which are the majority of them are practicing shifting

cultivation, forest fire, slash and burning, and uncontrolled grazing. Using slope area for cropland

are mostly be found in watershed area by temporary farmers (who are be a farmer when no other

livelihood). As mentioned by NAP in 2008, that shifting cultivation with slash and burn practices

and free grazing are still the main farming methods which are being practiced countrywide,

particularly in sloping upland areas.

Food demands is prompting farmer to increase food production, however due to lack of

skill and knowledge on soil management, most of farmers are applying soil tillage with no depth

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estimate on slope area, so that it can be stimulating erosion and sedimentation in river basin or low

land as a whole. Even those activities cannot be avoided but there are a positive things to be

maintain which is almost all the farmers are never using agrochemical such as non-organic

fertilizer, pesticide, and plant growth hormones (http://gov.east-

timor.org/MAFF/English/environment_protection.htm).

4. Changes

4.1 Climate change in Timor-Leste

Climate in Timor-Leste have been changed as from Portuguese colonial time up to now.

Only a few data were available to predict the changes of climate, even though the crude predictions

have done for rainfall and temperature based on a single data that can be recorded during

Portuguese colonial time (1914-1975) and several data from Indonesia Occupation period during

24 years (1975 to 1999). However from 1999 to 2000 no meteorological and hydrological services

were available, only in November 2000 there was established Automatic weather stations funded

by Australian government in three mains site in the country they are at the main airports

(Municipality of Dili, Baucau and Suai) for predicting climate in the whole country (Barnett, et.al.,

2003)

Based on historical rainfall and temperature record, the region is divided into three different

climatic zones, i.e. (i) north coast region, characterized by average mean temperature of more than

24 0C, annual rainfall amount less than 1500 mm, with a dry season lasting for around five months;

(ii) mountainous region, characterized by average mean temperature less than 24 0C, annual

rainfall amount more than 1500 mm and dry season lasting for four months; and (iii) South coast

region, characterized by average mean temperature more than 24 0C, annual rainfall amount of

about 2500 mm, and dry season lasting for only three months (Kirono 2010) cited in TLINC, 2014.

Based on meteorological site in Dili (Capital of Timor-Leste) recorded that the annual

rainfall from 1950 until 2005 seems decrease, it has proved that extension of drought season is

being occurred.

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Figure 7. Observed annual average values of total rainfall (bars) at Dili Airport. Light blue, dark

blue and grey bars denote El Niño, La Niña and neutral years respectively (PCCSP, 2015).

Solid black trend line indicates a least squares fit. For monthly rainfall and temperature data

have generated in average as shown in figure 4. The average rainfall getting high on December

to March, then respectively decrease from April to July, since August to October is the drought

period in a year. The rainfall data tell us that only 3 to 4 month for wet season while, 5 to 6

months are under 100 mm of rainfall. On the other hand, average temperature maximum found

on November, hence the coolest month is August.

Source: World Bank, Climate Change Knowledge Portal

Figure 8. Average Monthly temperature and rainfall from 1990-2009.

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Even though the maximum average temperature is less than 27oC, but in detail data per

municipality (district old name) have recorded by Seed o Life, Timor-Leste showed in some

municipality has a temperature close to 30 oC, but in other place is veru low like in Maubise

(municipality of Ainaro).

Figure 9. Mean monthly temperature (Source: Seed of Life)

The annual rainfall is vary across the country, as mountainous country the relief and its

landscape gives different rate of precipitation as shown in figure 5. Below. The high elevation

level gets high annual rainfall, while in low elevation particularly along the coastal area gets low

level of rainfall.

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Figure 10. Annual rainfall map.

The climate changes issues are not only occurred on terrestrial, but it also covered to marine

and freshwater. Historically data on sea-surface temperature has captured by PCCSP indicated an

increasing temperature in Timor-Leste over time from 1900 until 2000 the increasing point

achieved 0.5 oC. The increasing temperature on sea surface is/will be affecting the marine

biodiversity, as cited in National Fourth report to UNCB in 2011 that there are a lot of marine

biodiversity that needed to be protected.

“the country has also been recognized as part of the Coral Triangle, a global center of marine

biodiversity that is home to 76 percent of all known coral species, more than 3,000 species of

reef fish, six of the seven turtle species, whale sharks, manta rays and a diversity of marine

mammals such as 22 species of dolphin, and a variety of whale species.”

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Figure 11. Sea-surface temperature (source: PCCSP, 2011)

4.2 Soil degradation and its Current Management in Timor-Leste

In Timor-Leste soil has its own history that could not be separated from the history of the

country because in discovering this island country and given the important of soil has much more

relationship with the civilization, colonization, illegal occupation and finally became an

independent country in 21st century. The highlighted concern on soil was the ability in

provisioning the complete necessary of microclimate and nutrients for the naturally growth of

sandalwood trees (Santalum album) in the country. This particular tree (Sandalwood) was

attracting Portugal country in 16th century to came in to and took over this resources, by then

colonization had been followed (Matos, 1650-1670).

“O sândalo, que só se dá em climas com uma estação seca bem marcada, é espontâneo nas

ilhas da Pequena Sonda, abundando sobretudo em Timor e em Sumba … continuava a ser Timor

o seu principal produtor, e isso atraiu para a ilha as atenções do comércio internacional…”

Due to high economic value of the sandalwood at that time, it was pressured and caused

overharvesting acts and even the roots of the tree had been dug and transported whole to the

Portugal and other commercial country, apart from the lifestyle of native East Timorese did shift

cultivation and burning forest area for agriculture, colonial acts on harvesting sandalwood were

causing environmental and soil degradation has been started.

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4.2.1 Soil degradation during Timor Portuguese period (1515-1975)

Very few literature on (Timor Portugal) period that keeps issues of environmental

degradations, however in the article of Sousa in 1718 describe a general process of commencing a

mercantilisms and economic reforms at that time, which were resources exploration like

sandalwood further being accelerated. Apart of the commercialisms by colonial there was followed

an investigations, observations, and study of exploration of raw material that arising significant

topics are “Abundances and fertility of the land”. There was started with a regime that implied the

East Timorese, on an economic reformation. Since of discovered those resources there was more

depletion through colonial way were applied on.

“ … da investigação, observação, e estudo a exploração das matérias-primas, …torno dos

temas da “abundancies” e da “fertilidade” da terra”.(Sousa, 1718)

As of two century of depletion on the natural resources with no map or geographic sign

direction for commercialism purposed, finally, the colonials want to know more the Island,

therefore a soil map was created in 1963 by Overseas Mission of Agronomy Studies (Missão de

Estudos Agronômica de ultramar). Even though no data or information that describe any

environmental degradations were be found.

Figure 12. The first soil map of Timor-Leste (Source: Garcia, J. Sacadura et.al. 1963)

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4.2.2 Soil degradation during Indonesia Occupancy period (1975-1999).

Soil degradation issues has been familiar with the many East Timorese people since the

island had been occupied by Indonesia for 24 years. There were have bit difference reasons of

degradation compare to Portugal Colonial time, in colonial time the main causes of degradation

was over harvesting the Sandalwood for commercialism purposes, however during Indonesia

occupancy time were fire forest, over harvesting, illegal logging, and inappropriate use and

management of land such as slash and burning, over grazing and use slope area (> 450) for cropland

purposes.

As per studied of Professor George J. Aditjondro, of the Satya Wacana Christian University

of Central Java, the five major causes of environmental degradation in Timor-Leste are

Transmigration, absent ownership of land, the consequences of war, the implementation of

resettlement of indigenous East Timorese into "guided villages"; and

oil exploration in the Timor Gap (Aditjondro, Intellectual 9-24 cited in Craik Jhonson).

Bouma and Cobryn have reported a summary of land cover changes in Timor-Leste within

10 years from 1989 to 1999 as shown in figure 13. The most critical changes was happened in

Woodland, it was covered of 31 % in 1989 but after 10 years had deep reduction that reached of

19% from the total area in year of 1999.

Cover type Area (km2) 1989

Percent of

area1989

Area (km2) 1999

Percent of area

1999

Dense forest 410.5 5 265.02 3

Forest 833.3 10 758.78 9

Plantation 260.57 3 421.43 5

Forest/coffee 467.19 6 575.05 7

Woodland 2555.64 31 1497.56 19

Woodland (poor) 568.48 7 1749.06 22

Heath/shrub 213.45 3 401.69 5

Figure 13. Land cover from 989 to 1999. (Bouma & Cobryn, 2002, pg.4)

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On the other side, Adjar Subadi H. made an evaluation on implementation development

plan V (1989 to 994) in Timor-Timur (Timor-Leste) specifically on forest sector, found that fire

forest and burning for agricultural purposes had increased from 950 Ha in 1989 to 1,036 Ha in

1994. These destruction acts have followed by landslide, erosion and flooding in several area in

Timor-Leste at that time.

The relocation program in early 1980s gave a pressure to environmental as extended built

up area, and most cases was the mostly people constructs a new houses by cutting down the trees

near by their local area, it was also exacerbated degradation due to whole material for houses

construction were 100% woods. This case have more related to the some recent articles. In 2011,

Susana Barnes, stated that in the early 1980s the Indonesian military began relocating the

population. Most of the population residing in the villages (Suco) prior to the invasion was

relocated from isolated upland settlements to linear settlements along the main road network.

The whole processes above had lead Timor-Leste into an environmental problem, not much

data available for specific case of degradation neither soil degradation nor another elements of

environmental degradation. However, since topographically of the country is 40% dominated by

slopes, therefore by human activities in burning and clear cutting the forests are much evidenced

as prone for erosion and landslide.

4.2.3. Soil degradation and addressing approaches in independence period (2002 up to now)

Since 2002, the independence restoration was fully recognized by the United Nation, this

country stablished a general election for Constituent Assembly instantly to produce Constitution

for Timor-Leste. Soon after produced the Republic’s Constitution, the executive election was done

to form a government. One of the priority program was reforestation and restoration for the whole

degraded area along the country as seen in section 61 part 3 of Republic Constitution (Constitution

of RDTL).

“The State should promote actions aimed at protecting the environment and safeguarding the

sustainable development of the economy” (Section 61, part 3).

The common causes of soil degradation in Timor-Leste are deforestation, shifting

cultivation, and free grazing. Most of the farmers are abandoning the cropland after cultivated in

2 to 3 years, then seeking to another productive land (new forest area) to be clearing for the next

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cultivation session. Overgrazing is predominant activity by the herdsman, which are affecting

many grassland area be in compacted then run-off can occurred everywhere. According to NAP in

2008, state that the recent causes of land degradation are shift cultivation, forest fire and slash and

burning, free grazing, and wood collection still being practiced in Timor-Leste.

Separately, in 2011 by Fourth National report to the UNCBD showed the forest degradation

is being occurred in last 10 years (from 1999 to 2010). By the forest degradation, directly affected

soil, water, and the whole environmental components. Erosions, sedimentations, and landslide

were the result of that acts.

Figure 15. Forest cover (Source: National Biodiversity working group, RDTL)

Soil degradation in Timor-Leste somewhat ignored or very few data on that, but we can

see some relevant data such as soil loss by water erosion, the most reasons are fire forest and slash

and burning were caused. According to Mota (2002) cited in Jeus et. al., 2012, it is estimated that

the loss of soil is put at 26 tonnes/ha/year, very high taking in consideration that the world average

is around 10 tonnes/ha/year).

The shifting cultivation gives many direct effects on the soil quality, which have shown in

several area in Timor-Leste, According to Egashira et al. (2006) cited in Jeus et. al., 2012, shifting

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cultivation in Timor-Leste has negative effects on soil in the following aspects: erosion, decline in

fertility, acidification and sedimentation of the lowlands, further it has supported by (Lança and

Parreira in 2006 that as a result of deforestation, soils are degraded by erosion caused by the

combination of forest clearance and bad farming techniques, in a particular climatic context

conducive to severe erosion processes.

National Action Plan to Combat Land degradation in 2008 has recognized that soil

degradation is a threat on the food security, income generation and wellbeing for the whole people

of Timor-Leste as it has more than 80% are farmers.

“Degraded soils will no longer be able to support any agriculture activity on it. This will result

in reduced yield production, reduced income, malnutrition and further deterioration to

community wellbeing in rural areas.”

Soil use management is extremely important to the farmers in having sustainability

agricultural yields. Soil conservation practices, permanent garden, less forest clearing are bit

practiced nowadays in several municipality. Integrated farming system, using crops variety in high

quality, reducing free grazing practices, and applying terrace method in slope area. Those activities

are being implements in several municipality due to efforts from the Ministry of Agriculture and

Fisheries of Timor-Leste, NGOs, and volunteer organization where concern in environmental

issues and agriculture, even though still not covered the whole country yet.

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List of references

Adjar Subadi H. (REPELITA V, 1989-1994). Evaluasi Pelaksanaan repelita V. Propinsi Timor-

Timur. Sector kehutanan. Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana. Indonesia.

Barnett, J., Dessai, S., and Jones, R. 2003. Climate Change in Timor-Leste: Science, Impacts,

Policy and Planning. Briefing to Government, civil society, and donors, República

Democrática de Timor-Leste.

Craig Johnson. "East Timor: environmental degradation linked to human rights violations, the

ability of NGOs to affect policy, and a causal explanation for the lack of action"

Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. 2011. Timor Leste’s forth national report to the UN

convention on biological diversity.

http://gov.east-timor.org/MAFF/English/environment_protection.htm. Soil and Fertility.

Accessed on July 9, 2015.

J. SACADURA GARCIA.1963. The Soil Map of Portuguese Timor The Eastern End (*)

Preliminary representation. Portuguese Overseas Organization for Agricultura Research

and National Agronomic Station.

Matos, A. Teodoro. 1650-1750. TRADIÇÃO E INOVAÇÃO NA ADMINISTRAÇÃO DAS ILHAS

DE SOLOR E TIMOR.

Michael Geoffrey Audley-Charles. 1968. The Geology of Portuguese Timor. Geological Society

of London. Burlington House 9 London.

Monteiro and Pinto. 2003. Exploring Timor-Leste: Minerals Potential. Pacific Economic

Cooperation Council-PECC Minerals Network Brisbane, Queensland.

NAP. 2008. Timor-leste National Action Programme to Combat Land Degradation. Dili, Timor-

Leste.

PCCSP. 2014. Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research | Volume

2: Country Reports. Chapter 3. East Timor.

S.J. Thompson. 2011. Geology and Soils in Timor-Leste.

SOL. 2012. Soil texture map of Timor-Leste.

Sousa, C. Ivo. 1718. Mercantilisimo, Reformas E Sociedade Em Timor No Secullo XVIII (O

Regimento Do Capitão Das Ilhas De Solor E Timor).

TLINC. 2014. Timor-Leste initial National Communication under UNFCCC.

World Bank. 2009. Timor-Leste: Country Environmental Analysis. Sustainable Development

Department East Asia & Pacific Region.