Sociolinguistics I Variationist Theory

Introduce and discuss two traditional social groupings (e.g.social class, ethnicity, race, gender, occupation) that have beenused to understand and measure language variation and change.Explain how they are thought to relate to LVC, and discuss prosand cons of using such social groupings. Next, discuss severalsources that draw on newer understandings of localized identity(e.g. community of practice, linguistic marketplace, stylegroups, etc.). Explain how they contrast with the two traditionalsocial-group approaches in terms of data, participants andanalytic approach, and discuss their significance for languagevariation and change.

Introduction

Even among people who speak the same language there is

always a variation in the way people use the language (Chambers,

1995). The variations could be in terms of structure or sound

which is phonetics or grammar. In some cases, the variations are

only slight touching on the form of the language. For instance, a

minor variation in pronunciation or small changes in grammatical

structure, which do not interfere with communication within a

group? Language may also vary based on gender, social class

ethnicity, race, occupation, or even age groups. In some cases,

language variation obstructs intergroup communication.

Thiraphat Sawasdithep 16/01/2014 1

There are several kinds of variation. Phonetic variation is

the kind of variation in pronunciation which does not affect the

language at the phonemic level (Hoffman and Walker, 2010). For

instance in New York City, alveolar consonants are pronounced

like they are dento-alveolar but in standard dialects, the

alveolar consonants are not dental. In phonological variation,

there is variation in pronunciation but the variation is at the

phoneme level. For example, some dialects pronounce caught and

cot in the same way, while some other dialects, the two are not

homophonous. On the other hand, semantic variation is the

variation in the meaning of words. Some words have different,

meanings from dialect to dialect.

Language change involves making permanent alterations in

the way a language is used as well as its features. All natural

languages changes, like English, change. The changes could be in

terms of sound, lexis, semantics and even changes on the syntax

of the language (Hoffman and Walker, 2010). Language change is

brought about by both socio-linguistic factors and

psycholinguistic factors. Socio-linguistic factors are those

factors found outside a language system while psycholinguisticThiraphat Sawasdithep 16/01/2014 2

factors are found within a system. To understand language

variation, one needs to pay attention to both the grammar and

society in which the language is spoken.

Language change takes many forms, mainly change in

vocabulary. Slang for example changes after every few years. It

is considered improper and even embarrassing to use old slang

words that have been replaced by new slang words (Wolfram,

2007).The meaning of words in language also changes over time.

For instance, the word gay was previously used to refer to an

emotion. These days it is mostly used to refer to a sexual

orientation. Grammatical construction of sentences also changes.

Whereas it was common to not used without auxiliary in earlier

English, in modern English, not must be preceded by the auxiliary

do. Sounds in a language change as well.

Ethnicity

One major social grouping used to understand and measure

language variation and change is ethnicity. Ethnicity is one of

the main factors that drive language variation. Ethnic groups are


always associated with a particular language like Spanish. It is

also associated with race, for instance African Americans.

Although it is closely tied to geography, it has been found to

drive language variation even in areas outside geographical area

where the specific ethnic group resides. For instance, African

Americans share many characteristics in their language regardless

of whether they live in the south or not (Wolfram, 2007)

Language is a form of social behavior, with each ethnic

community displaying its own behavior. Even within the

communities are groups each displaying behavior that is different

from the other. Through language one is able to note that the

differences in behavior among the communities that make up the

ethnic community. Every ethnic community varies language

vocabulary and skills differently from the other while using it.

Ethnicity has been used to understand and measure language

variation and change. Each ethnicity has linguistic features that

are found within that ethnic society. For instance, the term

Ebonics is used to refer to the kind of language spoken by

African Americans (Wolram, 2007). Use of language for instance


English, varies from one ethnic group to the next. This is

clearly seen in the accent the different ethnicities speak in.

Every ethnic group speaks in an accent different from the other.

Unfortunately, language variations are accepted differently

in different communities. What is considered normal meanings and

pronunciation of words in one community may be considered funny

and frowned upon in another community. Some language variations

are considered more prestigious than others. For example, pidgin

is not considered to be prestigious and those in the ethnic

communities that speak pidgin that do not are often seen as odd

(Wolfram, 2007). Most of the words in pidgin are borrowed from

other more widely accepted languages. Different countries have

different degrees of language variation. For instance, the US has

a higher language variation than the UK.

People have different attitudes towards different language

variations. This is associated with ethnic identity as well as

attitudes towards the regions where the language is spoken

(Chambers, 1995). Unlike geography where one can move from one

part of the country to the other, one cannot change his ethnicity


and neither has one a choice on which ethnicity he wants to

belong to. Within the language of people who share the same

ethnicity is vocabulary and pronunciation which has its origins

from the ancestry of that community. People belonging to a

certain ethnic group not only share language features but also

behavioral patterns.

Ethnicity influences language change and variation that the

community has great influence on the lives of members including

the language and vocabulary. Ethnicity influences how members of

community define themselves as well as how they are defined by

others.

Language variations and changes associated with one

ethnicity may be used by people outside the ethnic group. For

instance, language variations found in African American English

is also used by people from other ethnicities especially in hip

hop (Wolfram, 2007). African American English are not only

related to southern region but is also related to their social

status. Ethnic groups that have lost ancestral language to other

bigger groups try to preserve their ethnic identity by varying


the language its members use so that it’s different from the

surrounding communities. For instance, in North Carolina, a

Native American group that has lost its ancestral language

strives to preserve its identity by using a form of English

language that varies from that spoken by other communities in

North Carolina (Romaine, 1994).

There is a very strong relationship between ethnicity and

language variation and change. There is always transfer of

language features from the ancestral language of the ethnic group

into the other major languages spoken in the area. This includes

transfer of grammatical patterns, lexis and phonological patterns

from ancestral language into the other language. This results in

a language variation specific only to ethnic community. The

language that results has characteristics similar to those found

in people who learn English as a second language. The pattern of

language use is also different and may not be available in other

ethnic communities that speak the major language. Communities

accept language variants from outside at different rates. People

from a certain ethnicity are perceived and perceive themselves to


be different from people who belong to other ethnicities. They

also share language and cultural interests.

Social class

Social class is another social grouping used to understand

and measure language variation and change (Mallinson, 2007).

One’s social class depends on the status and power he wields.

Status has to do with the respect that is accorded that person by

the rest in society while power refers to the amount of resources

a person controls. Also encompassed in the idea of social class

as related to language variation and change is the idea of a

person’s occupation (Chambers, 1995). People from a certain

occupation tend to use some technical words specific to their

profession in everyday language. Social status has to do with a

person’s identity and how one presents himself. Social class has

to do with grouping people together and according them status

(Mallinson, 2007).

Contrary to popular belief, it is lower middle class that

originates change in language then the others imitate. Classes


between the extreme upper class and the extreme lower class are

the most affected by changes in language. This group is also

quite sensitive to changes in the language that originate from

other areas (Mallinson, 2007). The differences in social classes

show prestige of the language variation. As the factor in

linguistic variation, social class does not act alone but acts in

conjunction with other factors like ethnicity. The most common

factors used in determining one’s social class are education,

income, occupation, and wealth.

Class is a major factor in language variation. It plays an

important role in class dialects. For instance, studies show that

people in New York pronounce R or not depending on their social

class. The upper class produced more R’s than people from lower

class. This meant that they are more comfortable with their

prestigious position in the society and want it to get noticed.

Speech style also changes across social classes. For instance,

lower classes are more likely to pronounce running as runnin’ as

opposed to higher classes. While lower middle class speakers use

less stigmatized features in their language (Mallinson, 2007).


Most people look at social status as having to do with one’s

income and how much money one’s family has but is also to do with

language (Romaine, 1994). People from upper social classes do not

have exactly the same dialect and accent as those from lower

social classes. For instance, a person from upper class will not

have the same accent as a person in lower middle class.

Speech variables among classes are different depending on

the geographical location. For example, earlier studies show that

r /r/ in New York is pronounced more by individuals from higher

social classes (Mallinson, 2007). In London it is pronounced more

by individuals who belong to the lower social classes. Hence it

is not right to assume that since a certain speech valuable

indicates a certain social class in one country, the same will

apply in another class.

Studies on language variation and change in relation to

social class have shown that people have similar characteristics

as far as education, income, occupation and wealth are concerned;

they seem to have almost similar language variations. According

to Mallinson (2007) language variation across social classes can


be attributed to the fact that children from upper class

socialize differently from those in lower classes. Families from

different social classes have different relationships with their

children. Same case applies to the attitudes that parents have

towards their children. Due to this upper class children are

exposed mostly to standard dialects while those in lower class

have access to both.

Advantages and disadvantages of using social groupings

Social groupings such as ethnicity and social class are

commonly used and widely accepted variables when it comes to

language variations and change. With availability of data it is

quite easy to determine a person’s class hence easily uses it to

understand and measure language variation and change. However,

generalizations concerning the groupings have not been accepted

without challenge.

For example, those who use social groupings ethnicity in

studying language variations and change have been accused of

trying to make it appear like there is a clear difference between


variations in one ethnic community and another whereas this is

not always the case. What is not pointed out is the fact even in

communities where different ethnicities have interacted for a

long time like the Afrikaans community; there is still a language

variation on ethnic lines. This causes doubts as to whether the

language variations are a result of interactions among the

ethnicities.

Although seemingly easy to use, classifying an individual

into the correct social group is not easy (Elsevier Science,

2001). For instance it’s not easy to decide whether an individual

falls in upper middle class or lower middle class. One could be

in a very prestigious occupation but earning less than someone in

a far less prestigious position. The situation is not different

when it comes to factors like ethnicity. Deciding how to

determine ones ethnicity is not easy. For instance there are many

people who speak English and they do not belong to the English

ethnic community. There are several approaches as how to

determine a person’s social status, making it confusing for

anyone trying to study language variation and change.


Social groupings themselves are not independent.

Consequently, it’s difficult to study language variations and

change based on a single grouping. For instance, by considering

gender alone, you are ignoring other important factors like

geographical region age and gender (Elsevier Science, 2001).

These also are factors in language variation. Every person,

despite his ethnic identity belongs to a certain gender.

Nevertheless, social groupings are easy to reach the conclusion

of a study once you categorize every person into his social

grouping.

Newer Understandings

Newer studies of language variation and change are moving

away from the socio-economic status indices traditionally used,

for instance social status, to ranking individuals depending on

the value of the different linguistic variations in different

circumstances. One such new approach is the linguistic market

place (David, 2001)


In socio-linguistics, linguistic marketplace is the idea

that the value of an individual’s choice of words depends on his

role in society. Lawyers, authors and other professionals who

depend on language are expected to choose their language more

carefully as compared to those people whose lives do not depend

on language (James, 2001). Those who are in jobs where they are

expected to interact more with the people, for instance actors,

are also expected to be more proficient in language. In terms of

data, the theory considers how language is affected by dealing

with many different people not just people of his class or

ethnicity.

Linguistic marketplace recognizes that the speech of men is

different from women. It also recognizes that one’s choice of

language varies with age. Seeking to find employment also forces

people to stick to standardized language as that is the language

most commonly used in the area. The theory acknowledges that

through language individuals send important information

concerning who they are, where they come from and even who they

associate with (Eckert et al., 2001).


Linguistic marketplace differs from other social groupings

like ethnicity and social class in that while it recognizes a

person’s need to adjust his language depending on his immediate

context, the two do not. One changes his choice of language

depending on the situation. The way one speaks while addressing a

gathering is not the same one speaks while talking with his

friends, hence language variations.

Another way of understanding language variations and change

is by looking at community of practice. A community of practice

is a group of people who engage in a common activity in an

ongoing basis (Eckert, 2006). Members of a group share a common

interest or hold a common position on an issue. Community of

practice links individuals amongst themselves as well as the

outside world. Out of these interactions emerge language

variations. An example of a community of practice is a book club

or a church congregation.

Eckert (2006) explains that during the course of carrying

out their regular activity the community of practice comes up

with ways of carrying out their activity, and even new ways of


talking. Thus community of practice is a good alternative to the

traditional way of looking at linguistic variations and change.

The traditional speech communities include social class,

ethnicity, gender, age, and race.

One major disadvantage of the traditional speech communities

as compared to the newer understandings, like community of

practice, is that using them, one could not link abstract

patterns to the meanings the speakers are trying to construct

(Eckert et al, 2001). This problem is dealt with by newer methods

like the community of practice. Another advantage of the newer

understandings of studying language variations and change is that

unlike older methods, community of practice finds a setting that

the speakers are in their local setting and fully articulate

their linguistic behavior. This was a tough task with the

traditional speech communities (Eckert, 2006)

Community of practice creates a link between local practice

and broader categories, even those that are not local. Since

community of practice is a group of people that share a common

interest, it is possible for the person studying language


variations and change to select a group that best answers the

socio-linguistic questions he is seeking to answer (James, 2001).

Unlike ethnicity or social class, community of practice

combines various factors together. An African American in a book

club speaks to other African American males, white females, upper

class member of the group and so on. Hence by using a community

of practice to study language variations and change one is able

to look at the speaker articulating himself in broader category

than if he was studying say the ethnicity factor alone.

One major significance of community of practice on the study

language variation and change is that it allows for study on a

broader category than traditional factors, for example social

class (Eckert, 2006). Participants in a community of practice are

more permanent as compared to say social class. This is because a

community of practice is composed of a fixed number of people who

meet habitually as opposed to a social class which is an abstract

idea. This enables the data to analyze on a broader category as

it has got from subjects of different genders, races, ages social

classes and so on.


In sociolinguistics style can simply be defined as a set of

linguistic features socially distributed in a certain way (Eckert

&Rickford, 2001). It denotes the range of variation in an

individual’s speech. This variation cold be due to the user or

due to the language use itself. People could speak differently

because they belong to a certain group or simply of the way they

intend to use whatever they are saying.

One advantage of using style groups to study language

variations and changed over traditional factors like ethnicity is

that style enables one get an understanding on all linguistic

levels (Eckert &Rickford, 2001). These include grammar, phonology

semantics and so on. Style is influenced by setting, audience,

and situation and so on. Style enables one notice how speech

shifts say from formal to informal, something which is not easy

to do with the traditional speech communities. Eckert &Rickford

(2001), points out that there are several approaches to style

groups. These include the speaker design, and audience design.

The fact that it operates on all linguistic levels enables

understand and measure language variations at a level broader


than that offered by traditional groupings such as social class

or ethnicity.


References

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Sociolinguistics I Variationist Theory

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