Sites of Power and the Power of Sight: Vision in the California Mission Landscapes (2007)
34
N33SNn S3J.IS
Transcript of Sites of Power and the Power of Sight: Vision in the California Mission Landscapes (2007)
Al1Sll31INn
N33SNn S3JIS
LANDSCAPE AND VISION
N IVERSITY OF PIT T SBURGH PRESS
rsmallma
Typewritten Text
2007
reject for the Mourltall
)n C F imae Jrl II
usee ationauxArt
-c Th e con tinuity ()f onlt lr]ring its insuFfishy
c1 ou tside Seen frOlI
reh BLlt ( 11 in sccshy
Jpparenl The dinillg
hil1 a building II itllill
ions of the dining 1111
t Ollce practic ll IIH I
doing The slIbstIII(T
c it (li Sa ppC~1r 2
ling the dining Idl
odd for some of tile
II arellitccture of Ill l
middot1 oLli s Bou llcs ell() shy
Jbs LedOlPs EkI ltIshy
IFClwlI (ncl) lIlt
IOlI1tltlin for Ill e
Ilstrllcted II ithill HI e
(17Y) ) (fig kq )gt1 111
~gy pursued ea rli r ill
xamples del1l0ml rltc
lfurln and gill d irelshy
an ide] glos cclll er
~middotd preceden t ill 1ltc
SITES OF POWER AND
THE POWER OF SIGHT
Elizabeth Kryder-Reid
Vision in the California Mission Landscapes
Frolll til e first day I Llie CItS all these bealitiFul Irches dllcl tiled roofs it 11 1 been 111 )
cU I1 -lIll1ing desi re to rltlore what lias lackin~ ill tile bllileill f I Iis ioll ed [sic] 1 IClllTshyIhlc strllcture grollilinelloll illdeed with I CW bllt stil l relonably intael and t- -i ht of the Idn isliing lI alls ill lel tile Ieee ~ rOIIl Sltlllctllafl pai)led me Ccced ingl)
[ather St John OSlI lli ldll P15tor ilissio[) Sail JlI lll Capi lrlllo llP9
FATHER OSULLI ANS DESCRIPTION OF I llS FIRSTVI W OFTHE MISSION HE WAS TO
~e rve is redolent itll lmiddotiSI d illlagcn- 1 lh rough b ill ( Ie~ 011 the fll ins OSull iall s
imaginatioll Il~ sparked to cnvis iOlI what Inight be T he priest had come in lYlO to
the sleepy town of Sa Il Juan C lpi klllO south of Los Angeles in ill hea lth lnd tile
records imph- likely intend ed to plt llCl IIhdklc r little tim e rel1lltli ll ed of his le ti ve
181
Figure 91 Father OSullivans ga der Mission San Juan Capistrano c 1923 Photo COllr lesy
The Huntington lJbrary Father OSuliivans newly planted garden bears alilhe (lassie ellment
o f a mission garden edged paths plan led beds dldping vil1c~ and blooming flower
ll1illi ~tf
Ihe lI1iss
111 1 t nol
11C )cll
ollril t
11l crh ell
1ike lt11
a ruill l
lio11Th
of 1 cliffo I
left h) II
(J raped I ho WOI
)lt1
ologicd
tmc Ihl
illt 1110
(alld pc
Ii 11 i llg 1
IlnJc rst
is pinti d
L1HI Cll
n tillougl
1 gard
thosc
of ltli sp~
l1 lb
11111C11t
di scom
ilarl gt
prill1s
middotPhoto courtesy
the classic elements
owers
lrtlllistry there Vhether It lVas the e1ry zm the sUllny clllnale or the pZlss ion to r slore
the mission O Sllllivan rCI ived and went all to leael a tllcnty-three-ycar call1[xign othat not only rts tored the historic mission Gut clcvclopcc1 em enlire compl e with a T1
nell school parish house J l1Cl a guide prO_ram to host the incr ~ a s ill g number of ~
o ~tourists to the sitc Hc I1so was instrument~Il in the installation of a gardcn in the forshy rn 0
merly dUiv comtlm d (fig 91 ) OSullivans dcscriptive pdsSUgCis dlso telling bccduse gt like allY subjective lext it hespeaks his own perspective The licII of the lil iss ion as
Z o
a ruin and a relic of a bygone e[1 l)roviclecl the starting point for O SullIvans rcstordshy -I I m
tion The voices oftllOse who might have bO[J1e witness to d diffe rent heritage or told -u
of a diffe rcllt mcmory were not heard during the good pastors CCll11plifll In thc void o ~ m
left by tllcir silcllce the Pdst II lS renclerecl 1S a fo untain-fill ed 1Oc-plantcd and vin(shy 0
odraped Fcl c il This visioll of thc past in turn fra[m c1 the views of the site for those -n
who would follow V)
Jasper Johnss The Critic See (Fig 92) offe rs d compelling inwgc for the Il1cllloclshy
ological challen~f of ul1Clltrctdllding how vision I1rl ltin constfllcted I)y dinTS culshy
tures throughout history Johnss sculpl11clal brick WIth its protruding spectacles set
with mouths in lieu of ryc~ 1I0t only challnges us to qllestioll lilC lxrIJective of critic~
(and perhI]) architecllllc hiolcll-ial1s) bulll 11so an ilnage lhtI bcplkc rhe IlliiJshy
tlVlning of la11o11ne and vision throngh which wc makc mCdl1lW of our world Vi
unclerstcll1cl whdt we see CiS II C name it rhis 1i11~uilic luunelation of human thowht
is particularly CO2CJlt when lU(IJlpting to lllJllu lIIlO thc cllltmal perclption of VIt
landscapes
For historiccl] times we kl101I the human ex perience of vision in thc Llllcl scapc
throllgh written words- a cliar enITV capturing prilale thoughts lboutl momen t in
a garden travcl IlterltllfC wrlt tcn to evoke the expertence of exotic landscljX~ to
those who mlV never make the journey a legal document recording the bOllnoarie
of oispllted properl a letter describing the rolltine improvcmcnts to thc fanmncl so
an absent SOlI can picture tlli flulilv homestead It is a ceplcd that cdcll of these docshy
uments lot only records] landscape but also reAecl the tropes conventi ons and
c1iscoLH~lts of their clay and the cultural comiruction of I i 10 11 1h)l informs tiI cm Sil llshy
ileu]y visual records of landscaj1cs in forms sl1ch 1 murals kctchl c tcl ilcs cd rvllI ~s
prill t ll1el pllIltings offer another line of evidence for understanding how IctndsClj)(S
183
l
I
l
Figure 92 JiISfcr ohn$The entle -~S 1979 sculpmetal over plastic WIth glass CourtcsyThc Philadelphia
Mustum of All copy Jasper Johns Llccnsed byVAGA flcwYork NY
)re represcnted couihccl lt111cl rClci ill 1 partic lIbr cultl1ral context Th e~e tex tual dllcl
visual recorcls HC Il0t onl v lir e hi storians prilll ltnv cv ici enee for the three-dimensiollal
phys ie dlallClscltlpcs th clll selves but are ltllso our sources for 11lld e r~ t 11lding th e c ulshy
tural ClJlls truc ti oll md receptio ll of 1lt11lCbc lpcs
For thc ltlrC h1 cologist or landsca pe historian illl(s tiga ting prehis tory -a time
hefore writtcn words -the c irltIIJ IJ1SC of understanding th c culiurd COllstruction of
visi ()ll I)ecomcs pnlicll iltlrly ltlu lIe -Vith 1lt1St tilll esclles for Il hich th cre arc fell iJllshy
agl ami no IITitte ll reco rcls h011 c10es Ol1 e begin to dec iph er thc Iisua l Io(lhulary
of percepti on lt lIming th e Ilgnies of presena tion dIJ O OIl C to recover el t lclSt
some rellln 11lts of Plst ph ys ic d iltlnci sclt1 pes hOlI does onc lelt1111 to (e tiJ em as the)
184 EL I7 ABETH KRYDER-REID
were pcrce)
th e ll otion
1ll()IClllen t
to III 1 P ele l
viSllJi eliue
011e r
hon of SOJ l1(
th e situltcd
m0111 cu t I
pe ri cncc of
III ropoiogic
th e Ivorld t
each other
hncntly lin
Ciil I se ttings
bll t our rela
of th e exerc
ote
hllldscape I
equips m te
The sallle r
ofLnld sclp
turaJJ y spec
le 1111 to spc
amllhe COl
stnrcture 01
th e Ilo rd s
that is d SJC
th e cave ( 1
frame and
is COJlStruc
worIcI 1S til
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
LANDSCAPE AND VISION
N IVERSITY OF PIT T SBURGH PRESS
rsmallma
Typewritten Text
2007
reject for the Mourltall
)n C F imae Jrl II
usee ationauxArt
-c Th e con tinuity ()f onlt lr]ring its insuFfishy
c1 ou tside Seen frOlI
reh BLlt ( 11 in sccshy
Jpparenl The dinillg
hil1 a building II itllill
ions of the dining 1111
t Ollce practic ll IIH I
doing The slIbstIII(T
c it (li Sa ppC~1r 2
ling the dining Idl
odd for some of tile
II arellitccture of Ill l
middot1 oLli s Bou llcs ell() shy
Jbs LedOlPs EkI ltIshy
IFClwlI (ncl) lIlt
IOlI1tltlin for Ill e
Ilstrllcted II ithill HI e
(17Y) ) (fig kq )gt1 111
~gy pursued ea rli r ill
xamples del1l0ml rltc
lfurln and gill d irelshy
an ide] glos cclll er
~middotd preceden t ill 1ltc
SITES OF POWER AND
THE POWER OF SIGHT
Elizabeth Kryder-Reid
Vision in the California Mission Landscapes
Frolll til e first day I Llie CItS all these bealitiFul Irches dllcl tiled roofs it 11 1 been 111 )
cU I1 -lIll1ing desi re to rltlore what lias lackin~ ill tile bllileill f I Iis ioll ed [sic] 1 IClllTshyIhlc strllcture grollilinelloll illdeed with I CW bllt stil l relonably intael and t- -i ht of the Idn isliing lI alls ill lel tile Ieee ~ rOIIl Sltlllctllafl pai)led me Ccced ingl)
[ather St John OSlI lli ldll P15tor ilissio[) Sail JlI lll Capi lrlllo llP9
FATHER OSULLI ANS DESCRIPTION OF I llS FIRSTVI W OFTHE MISSION HE WAS TO
~e rve is redolent itll lmiddotiSI d illlagcn- 1 lh rough b ill ( Ie~ 011 the fll ins OSull iall s
imaginatioll Il~ sparked to cnvis iOlI what Inight be T he priest had come in lYlO to
the sleepy town of Sa Il Juan C lpi klllO south of Los Angeles in ill hea lth lnd tile
records imph- likely intend ed to plt llCl IIhdklc r little tim e rel1lltli ll ed of his le ti ve
181
Figure 91 Father OSullivans ga der Mission San Juan Capistrano c 1923 Photo COllr lesy
The Huntington lJbrary Father OSuliivans newly planted garden bears alilhe (lassie ellment
o f a mission garden edged paths plan led beds dldping vil1c~ and blooming flower
ll1illi ~tf
Ihe lI1iss
111 1 t nol
11C )cll
ollril t
11l crh ell
1ike lt11
a ruill l
lio11Th
of 1 cliffo I
left h) II
(J raped I ho WOI
)lt1
ologicd
tmc Ihl
illt 1110
(alld pc
Ii 11 i llg 1
IlnJc rst
is pinti d
L1HI Cll
n tillougl
1 gard
thosc
of ltli sp~
l1 lb
11111C11t
di scom
ilarl gt
prill1s
middotPhoto courtesy
the classic elements
owers
lrtlllistry there Vhether It lVas the e1ry zm the sUllny clllnale or the pZlss ion to r slore
the mission O Sllllivan rCI ived and went all to leael a tllcnty-three-ycar call1[xign othat not only rts tored the historic mission Gut clcvclopcc1 em enlire compl e with a T1
nell school parish house J l1Cl a guide prO_ram to host the incr ~ a s ill g number of ~
o ~tourists to the sitc Hc I1so was instrument~Il in the installation of a gardcn in the forshy rn 0
merly dUiv comtlm d (fig 91 ) OSullivans dcscriptive pdsSUgCis dlso telling bccduse gt like allY subjective lext it hespeaks his own perspective The licII of the lil iss ion as
Z o
a ruin and a relic of a bygone e[1 l)roviclecl the starting point for O SullIvans rcstordshy -I I m
tion The voices oftllOse who might have bO[J1e witness to d diffe rent heritage or told -u
of a diffe rcllt mcmory were not heard during the good pastors CCll11plifll In thc void o ~ m
left by tllcir silcllce the Pdst II lS renclerecl 1S a fo untain-fill ed 1Oc-plantcd and vin(shy 0
odraped Fcl c il This visioll of thc past in turn fra[m c1 the views of the site for those -n
who would follow V)
Jasper Johnss The Critic See (Fig 92) offe rs d compelling inwgc for the Il1cllloclshy
ological challen~f of ul1Clltrctdllding how vision I1rl ltin constfllcted I)y dinTS culshy
tures throughout history Johnss sculpl11clal brick WIth its protruding spectacles set
with mouths in lieu of ryc~ 1I0t only challnges us to qllestioll lilC lxrIJective of critic~
(and perhI]) architecllllc hiolcll-ial1s) bulll 11so an ilnage lhtI bcplkc rhe IlliiJshy
tlVlning of la11o11ne and vision throngh which wc makc mCdl1lW of our world Vi
unclerstcll1cl whdt we see CiS II C name it rhis 1i11~uilic luunelation of human thowht
is particularly CO2CJlt when lU(IJlpting to lllJllu lIIlO thc cllltmal perclption of VIt
landscapes
For historiccl] times we kl101I the human ex perience of vision in thc Llllcl scapc
throllgh written words- a cliar enITV capturing prilale thoughts lboutl momen t in
a garden travcl IlterltllfC wrlt tcn to evoke the expertence of exotic landscljX~ to
those who mlV never make the journey a legal document recording the bOllnoarie
of oispllted properl a letter describing the rolltine improvcmcnts to thc fanmncl so
an absent SOlI can picture tlli flulilv homestead It is a ceplcd that cdcll of these docshy
uments lot only records] landscape but also reAecl the tropes conventi ons and
c1iscoLH~lts of their clay and the cultural comiruction of I i 10 11 1h)l informs tiI cm Sil llshy
ileu]y visual records of landscaj1cs in forms sl1ch 1 murals kctchl c tcl ilcs cd rvllI ~s
prill t ll1el pllIltings offer another line of evidence for understanding how IctndsClj)(S
183
l
I
l
Figure 92 JiISfcr ohn$The entle -~S 1979 sculpmetal over plastic WIth glass CourtcsyThc Philadelphia
Mustum of All copy Jasper Johns Llccnsed byVAGA flcwYork NY
)re represcnted couihccl lt111cl rClci ill 1 partic lIbr cultl1ral context Th e~e tex tual dllcl
visual recorcls HC Il0t onl v lir e hi storians prilll ltnv cv ici enee for the three-dimensiollal
phys ie dlallClscltlpcs th clll selves but are ltllso our sources for 11lld e r~ t 11lding th e c ulshy
tural ClJlls truc ti oll md receptio ll of 1lt11lCbc lpcs
For thc ltlrC h1 cologist or landsca pe historian illl(s tiga ting prehis tory -a time
hefore writtcn words -the c irltIIJ IJ1SC of understanding th c culiurd COllstruction of
visi ()ll I)ecomcs pnlicll iltlrly ltlu lIe -Vith 1lt1St tilll esclles for Il hich th cre arc fell iJllshy
agl ami no IITitte ll reco rcls h011 c10es Ol1 e begin to dec iph er thc Iisua l Io(lhulary
of percepti on lt lIming th e Ilgnies of presena tion dIJ O OIl C to recover el t lclSt
some rellln 11lts of Plst ph ys ic d iltlnci sclt1 pes hOlI does onc lelt1111 to (e tiJ em as the)
184 EL I7 ABETH KRYDER-REID
were pcrce)
th e ll otion
1ll()IClllen t
to III 1 P ele l
viSllJi eliue
011e r
hon of SOJ l1(
th e situltcd
m0111 cu t I
pe ri cncc of
III ropoiogic
th e Ivorld t
each other
hncntly lin
Ciil I se ttings
bll t our rela
of th e exerc
ote
hllldscape I
equips m te
The sallle r
ofLnld sclp
turaJJ y spec
le 1111 to spc
amllhe COl
stnrcture 01
th e Ilo rd s
that is d SJC
th e cave ( 1
frame and
is COJlStruc
worIcI 1S til
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
reject for the Mourltall
)n C F imae Jrl II
usee ationauxArt
-c Th e con tinuity ()f onlt lr]ring its insuFfishy
c1 ou tside Seen frOlI
reh BLlt ( 11 in sccshy
Jpparenl The dinillg
hil1 a building II itllill
ions of the dining 1111
t Ollce practic ll IIH I
doing The slIbstIII(T
c it (li Sa ppC~1r 2
ling the dining Idl
odd for some of tile
II arellitccture of Ill l
middot1 oLli s Bou llcs ell() shy
Jbs LedOlPs EkI ltIshy
IFClwlI (ncl) lIlt
IOlI1tltlin for Ill e
Ilstrllcted II ithill HI e
(17Y) ) (fig kq )gt1 111
~gy pursued ea rli r ill
xamples del1l0ml rltc
lfurln and gill d irelshy
an ide] glos cclll er
~middotd preceden t ill 1ltc
SITES OF POWER AND
THE POWER OF SIGHT
Elizabeth Kryder-Reid
Vision in the California Mission Landscapes
Frolll til e first day I Llie CItS all these bealitiFul Irches dllcl tiled roofs it 11 1 been 111 )
cU I1 -lIll1ing desi re to rltlore what lias lackin~ ill tile bllileill f I Iis ioll ed [sic] 1 IClllTshyIhlc strllcture grollilinelloll illdeed with I CW bllt stil l relonably intael and t- -i ht of the Idn isliing lI alls ill lel tile Ieee ~ rOIIl Sltlllctllafl pai)led me Ccced ingl)
[ather St John OSlI lli ldll P15tor ilissio[) Sail JlI lll Capi lrlllo llP9
FATHER OSULLI ANS DESCRIPTION OF I llS FIRSTVI W OFTHE MISSION HE WAS TO
~e rve is redolent itll lmiddotiSI d illlagcn- 1 lh rough b ill ( Ie~ 011 the fll ins OSull iall s
imaginatioll Il~ sparked to cnvis iOlI what Inight be T he priest had come in lYlO to
the sleepy town of Sa Il Juan C lpi klllO south of Los Angeles in ill hea lth lnd tile
records imph- likely intend ed to plt llCl IIhdklc r little tim e rel1lltli ll ed of his le ti ve
181
Figure 91 Father OSullivans ga der Mission San Juan Capistrano c 1923 Photo COllr lesy
The Huntington lJbrary Father OSuliivans newly planted garden bears alilhe (lassie ellment
o f a mission garden edged paths plan led beds dldping vil1c~ and blooming flower
ll1illi ~tf
Ihe lI1iss
111 1 t nol
11C )cll
ollril t
11l crh ell
1ike lt11
a ruill l
lio11Th
of 1 cliffo I
left h) II
(J raped I ho WOI
)lt1
ologicd
tmc Ihl
illt 1110
(alld pc
Ii 11 i llg 1
IlnJc rst
is pinti d
L1HI Cll
n tillougl
1 gard
thosc
of ltli sp~
l1 lb
11111C11t
di scom
ilarl gt
prill1s
middotPhoto courtesy
the classic elements
owers
lrtlllistry there Vhether It lVas the e1ry zm the sUllny clllnale or the pZlss ion to r slore
the mission O Sllllivan rCI ived and went all to leael a tllcnty-three-ycar call1[xign othat not only rts tored the historic mission Gut clcvclopcc1 em enlire compl e with a T1
nell school parish house J l1Cl a guide prO_ram to host the incr ~ a s ill g number of ~
o ~tourists to the sitc Hc I1so was instrument~Il in the installation of a gardcn in the forshy rn 0
merly dUiv comtlm d (fig 91 ) OSullivans dcscriptive pdsSUgCis dlso telling bccduse gt like allY subjective lext it hespeaks his own perspective The licII of the lil iss ion as
Z o
a ruin and a relic of a bygone e[1 l)roviclecl the starting point for O SullIvans rcstordshy -I I m
tion The voices oftllOse who might have bO[J1e witness to d diffe rent heritage or told -u
of a diffe rcllt mcmory were not heard during the good pastors CCll11plifll In thc void o ~ m
left by tllcir silcllce the Pdst II lS renclerecl 1S a fo untain-fill ed 1Oc-plantcd and vin(shy 0
odraped Fcl c il This visioll of thc past in turn fra[m c1 the views of the site for those -n
who would follow V)
Jasper Johnss The Critic See (Fig 92) offe rs d compelling inwgc for the Il1cllloclshy
ological challen~f of ul1Clltrctdllding how vision I1rl ltin constfllcted I)y dinTS culshy
tures throughout history Johnss sculpl11clal brick WIth its protruding spectacles set
with mouths in lieu of ryc~ 1I0t only challnges us to qllestioll lilC lxrIJective of critic~
(and perhI]) architecllllc hiolcll-ial1s) bulll 11so an ilnage lhtI bcplkc rhe IlliiJshy
tlVlning of la11o11ne and vision throngh which wc makc mCdl1lW of our world Vi
unclerstcll1cl whdt we see CiS II C name it rhis 1i11~uilic luunelation of human thowht
is particularly CO2CJlt when lU(IJlpting to lllJllu lIIlO thc cllltmal perclption of VIt
landscapes
For historiccl] times we kl101I the human ex perience of vision in thc Llllcl scapc
throllgh written words- a cliar enITV capturing prilale thoughts lboutl momen t in
a garden travcl IlterltllfC wrlt tcn to evoke the expertence of exotic landscljX~ to
those who mlV never make the journey a legal document recording the bOllnoarie
of oispllted properl a letter describing the rolltine improvcmcnts to thc fanmncl so
an absent SOlI can picture tlli flulilv homestead It is a ceplcd that cdcll of these docshy
uments lot only records] landscape but also reAecl the tropes conventi ons and
c1iscoLH~lts of their clay and the cultural comiruction of I i 10 11 1h)l informs tiI cm Sil llshy
ileu]y visual records of landscaj1cs in forms sl1ch 1 murals kctchl c tcl ilcs cd rvllI ~s
prill t ll1el pllIltings offer another line of evidence for understanding how IctndsClj)(S
183
l
I
l
Figure 92 JiISfcr ohn$The entle -~S 1979 sculpmetal over plastic WIth glass CourtcsyThc Philadelphia
Mustum of All copy Jasper Johns Llccnsed byVAGA flcwYork NY
)re represcnted couihccl lt111cl rClci ill 1 partic lIbr cultl1ral context Th e~e tex tual dllcl
visual recorcls HC Il0t onl v lir e hi storians prilll ltnv cv ici enee for the three-dimensiollal
phys ie dlallClscltlpcs th clll selves but are ltllso our sources for 11lld e r~ t 11lding th e c ulshy
tural ClJlls truc ti oll md receptio ll of 1lt11lCbc lpcs
For thc ltlrC h1 cologist or landsca pe historian illl(s tiga ting prehis tory -a time
hefore writtcn words -the c irltIIJ IJ1SC of understanding th c culiurd COllstruction of
visi ()ll I)ecomcs pnlicll iltlrly ltlu lIe -Vith 1lt1St tilll esclles for Il hich th cre arc fell iJllshy
agl ami no IITitte ll reco rcls h011 c10es Ol1 e begin to dec iph er thc Iisua l Io(lhulary
of percepti on lt lIming th e Ilgnies of presena tion dIJ O OIl C to recover el t lclSt
some rellln 11lts of Plst ph ys ic d iltlnci sclt1 pes hOlI does onc lelt1111 to (e tiJ em as the)
184 EL I7 ABETH KRYDER-REID
were pcrce)
th e ll otion
1ll()IClllen t
to III 1 P ele l
viSllJi eliue
011e r
hon of SOJ l1(
th e situltcd
m0111 cu t I
pe ri cncc of
III ropoiogic
th e Ivorld t
each other
hncntly lin
Ciil I se ttings
bll t our rela
of th e exerc
ote
hllldscape I
equips m te
The sallle r
ofLnld sclp
turaJJ y spec
le 1111 to spc
amllhe COl
stnrcture 01
th e Ilo rd s
that is d SJC
th e cave ( 1
frame and
is COJlStruc
worIcI 1S til
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
Figure 91 Father OSullivans ga der Mission San Juan Capistrano c 1923 Photo COllr lesy
The Huntington lJbrary Father OSuliivans newly planted garden bears alilhe (lassie ellment
o f a mission garden edged paths plan led beds dldping vil1c~ and blooming flower
ll1illi ~tf
Ihe lI1iss
111 1 t nol
11C )cll
ollril t
11l crh ell
1ike lt11
a ruill l
lio11Th
of 1 cliffo I
left h) II
(J raped I ho WOI
)lt1
ologicd
tmc Ihl
illt 1110
(alld pc
Ii 11 i llg 1
IlnJc rst
is pinti d
L1HI Cll
n tillougl
1 gard
thosc
of ltli sp~
l1 lb
11111C11t
di scom
ilarl gt
prill1s
middotPhoto courtesy
the classic elements
owers
lrtlllistry there Vhether It lVas the e1ry zm the sUllny clllnale or the pZlss ion to r slore
the mission O Sllllivan rCI ived and went all to leael a tllcnty-three-ycar call1[xign othat not only rts tored the historic mission Gut clcvclopcc1 em enlire compl e with a T1
nell school parish house J l1Cl a guide prO_ram to host the incr ~ a s ill g number of ~
o ~tourists to the sitc Hc I1so was instrument~Il in the installation of a gardcn in the forshy rn 0
merly dUiv comtlm d (fig 91 ) OSullivans dcscriptive pdsSUgCis dlso telling bccduse gt like allY subjective lext it hespeaks his own perspective The licII of the lil iss ion as
Z o
a ruin and a relic of a bygone e[1 l)roviclecl the starting point for O SullIvans rcstordshy -I I m
tion The voices oftllOse who might have bO[J1e witness to d diffe rent heritage or told -u
of a diffe rcllt mcmory were not heard during the good pastors CCll11plifll In thc void o ~ m
left by tllcir silcllce the Pdst II lS renclerecl 1S a fo untain-fill ed 1Oc-plantcd and vin(shy 0
odraped Fcl c il This visioll of thc past in turn fra[m c1 the views of the site for those -n
who would follow V)
Jasper Johnss The Critic See (Fig 92) offe rs d compelling inwgc for the Il1cllloclshy
ological challen~f of ul1Clltrctdllding how vision I1rl ltin constfllcted I)y dinTS culshy
tures throughout history Johnss sculpl11clal brick WIth its protruding spectacles set
with mouths in lieu of ryc~ 1I0t only challnges us to qllestioll lilC lxrIJective of critic~
(and perhI]) architecllllc hiolcll-ial1s) bulll 11so an ilnage lhtI bcplkc rhe IlliiJshy
tlVlning of la11o11ne and vision throngh which wc makc mCdl1lW of our world Vi
unclerstcll1cl whdt we see CiS II C name it rhis 1i11~uilic luunelation of human thowht
is particularly CO2CJlt when lU(IJlpting to lllJllu lIIlO thc cllltmal perclption of VIt
landscapes
For historiccl] times we kl101I the human ex perience of vision in thc Llllcl scapc
throllgh written words- a cliar enITV capturing prilale thoughts lboutl momen t in
a garden travcl IlterltllfC wrlt tcn to evoke the expertence of exotic landscljX~ to
those who mlV never make the journey a legal document recording the bOllnoarie
of oispllted properl a letter describing the rolltine improvcmcnts to thc fanmncl so
an absent SOlI can picture tlli flulilv homestead It is a ceplcd that cdcll of these docshy
uments lot only records] landscape but also reAecl the tropes conventi ons and
c1iscoLH~lts of their clay and the cultural comiruction of I i 10 11 1h)l informs tiI cm Sil llshy
ileu]y visual records of landscaj1cs in forms sl1ch 1 murals kctchl c tcl ilcs cd rvllI ~s
prill t ll1el pllIltings offer another line of evidence for understanding how IctndsClj)(S
183
l
I
l
Figure 92 JiISfcr ohn$The entle -~S 1979 sculpmetal over plastic WIth glass CourtcsyThc Philadelphia
Mustum of All copy Jasper Johns Llccnsed byVAGA flcwYork NY
)re represcnted couihccl lt111cl rClci ill 1 partic lIbr cultl1ral context Th e~e tex tual dllcl
visual recorcls HC Il0t onl v lir e hi storians prilll ltnv cv ici enee for the three-dimensiollal
phys ie dlallClscltlpcs th clll selves but are ltllso our sources for 11lld e r~ t 11lding th e c ulshy
tural ClJlls truc ti oll md receptio ll of 1lt11lCbc lpcs
For thc ltlrC h1 cologist or landsca pe historian illl(s tiga ting prehis tory -a time
hefore writtcn words -the c irltIIJ IJ1SC of understanding th c culiurd COllstruction of
visi ()ll I)ecomcs pnlicll iltlrly ltlu lIe -Vith 1lt1St tilll esclles for Il hich th cre arc fell iJllshy
agl ami no IITitte ll reco rcls h011 c10es Ol1 e begin to dec iph er thc Iisua l Io(lhulary
of percepti on lt lIming th e Ilgnies of presena tion dIJ O OIl C to recover el t lclSt
some rellln 11lts of Plst ph ys ic d iltlnci sclt1 pes hOlI does onc lelt1111 to (e tiJ em as the)
184 EL I7 ABETH KRYDER-REID
were pcrce)
th e ll otion
1ll()IClllen t
to III 1 P ele l
viSllJi eliue
011e r
hon of SOJ l1(
th e situltcd
m0111 cu t I
pe ri cncc of
III ropoiogic
th e Ivorld t
each other
hncntly lin
Ciil I se ttings
bll t our rela
of th e exerc
ote
hllldscape I
equips m te
The sallle r
ofLnld sclp
turaJJ y spec
le 1111 to spc
amllhe COl
stnrcture 01
th e Ilo rd s
that is d SJC
th e cave ( 1
frame and
is COJlStruc
worIcI 1S til
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
middotPhoto courtesy
the classic elements
owers
lrtlllistry there Vhether It lVas the e1ry zm the sUllny clllnale or the pZlss ion to r slore
the mission O Sllllivan rCI ived and went all to leael a tllcnty-three-ycar call1[xign othat not only rts tored the historic mission Gut clcvclopcc1 em enlire compl e with a T1
nell school parish house J l1Cl a guide prO_ram to host the incr ~ a s ill g number of ~
o ~tourists to the sitc Hc I1so was instrument~Il in the installation of a gardcn in the forshy rn 0
merly dUiv comtlm d (fig 91 ) OSullivans dcscriptive pdsSUgCis dlso telling bccduse gt like allY subjective lext it hespeaks his own perspective The licII of the lil iss ion as
Z o
a ruin and a relic of a bygone e[1 l)roviclecl the starting point for O SullIvans rcstordshy -I I m
tion The voices oftllOse who might have bO[J1e witness to d diffe rent heritage or told -u
of a diffe rcllt mcmory were not heard during the good pastors CCll11plifll In thc void o ~ m
left by tllcir silcllce the Pdst II lS renclerecl 1S a fo untain-fill ed 1Oc-plantcd and vin(shy 0
odraped Fcl c il This visioll of thc past in turn fra[m c1 the views of the site for those -n
who would follow V)
Jasper Johnss The Critic See (Fig 92) offe rs d compelling inwgc for the Il1cllloclshy
ological challen~f of ul1Clltrctdllding how vision I1rl ltin constfllcted I)y dinTS culshy
tures throughout history Johnss sculpl11clal brick WIth its protruding spectacles set
with mouths in lieu of ryc~ 1I0t only challnges us to qllestioll lilC lxrIJective of critic~
(and perhI]) architecllllc hiolcll-ial1s) bulll 11so an ilnage lhtI bcplkc rhe IlliiJshy
tlVlning of la11o11ne and vision throngh which wc makc mCdl1lW of our world Vi
unclerstcll1cl whdt we see CiS II C name it rhis 1i11~uilic luunelation of human thowht
is particularly CO2CJlt when lU(IJlpting to lllJllu lIIlO thc cllltmal perclption of VIt
landscapes
For historiccl] times we kl101I the human ex perience of vision in thc Llllcl scapc
throllgh written words- a cliar enITV capturing prilale thoughts lboutl momen t in
a garden travcl IlterltllfC wrlt tcn to evoke the expertence of exotic landscljX~ to
those who mlV never make the journey a legal document recording the bOllnoarie
of oispllted properl a letter describing the rolltine improvcmcnts to thc fanmncl so
an absent SOlI can picture tlli flulilv homestead It is a ceplcd that cdcll of these docshy
uments lot only records] landscape but also reAecl the tropes conventi ons and
c1iscoLH~lts of their clay and the cultural comiruction of I i 10 11 1h)l informs tiI cm Sil llshy
ileu]y visual records of landscaj1cs in forms sl1ch 1 murals kctchl c tcl ilcs cd rvllI ~s
prill t ll1el pllIltings offer another line of evidence for understanding how IctndsClj)(S
183
l
I
l
Figure 92 JiISfcr ohn$The entle -~S 1979 sculpmetal over plastic WIth glass CourtcsyThc Philadelphia
Mustum of All copy Jasper Johns Llccnsed byVAGA flcwYork NY
)re represcnted couihccl lt111cl rClci ill 1 partic lIbr cultl1ral context Th e~e tex tual dllcl
visual recorcls HC Il0t onl v lir e hi storians prilll ltnv cv ici enee for the three-dimensiollal
phys ie dlallClscltlpcs th clll selves but are ltllso our sources for 11lld e r~ t 11lding th e c ulshy
tural ClJlls truc ti oll md receptio ll of 1lt11lCbc lpcs
For thc ltlrC h1 cologist or landsca pe historian illl(s tiga ting prehis tory -a time
hefore writtcn words -the c irltIIJ IJ1SC of understanding th c culiurd COllstruction of
visi ()ll I)ecomcs pnlicll iltlrly ltlu lIe -Vith 1lt1St tilll esclles for Il hich th cre arc fell iJllshy
agl ami no IITitte ll reco rcls h011 c10es Ol1 e begin to dec iph er thc Iisua l Io(lhulary
of percepti on lt lIming th e Ilgnies of presena tion dIJ O OIl C to recover el t lclSt
some rellln 11lts of Plst ph ys ic d iltlnci sclt1 pes hOlI does onc lelt1111 to (e tiJ em as the)
184 EL I7 ABETH KRYDER-REID
were pcrce)
th e ll otion
1ll()IClllen t
to III 1 P ele l
viSllJi eliue
011e r
hon of SOJ l1(
th e situltcd
m0111 cu t I
pe ri cncc of
III ropoiogic
th e Ivorld t
each other
hncntly lin
Ciil I se ttings
bll t our rela
of th e exerc
ote
hllldscape I
equips m te
The sallle r
ofLnld sclp
turaJJ y spec
le 1111 to spc
amllhe COl
stnrcture 01
th e Ilo rd s
that is d SJC
th e cave ( 1
frame and
is COJlStruc
worIcI 1S til
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
l
I
l
Figure 92 JiISfcr ohn$The entle -~S 1979 sculpmetal over plastic WIth glass CourtcsyThc Philadelphia
Mustum of All copy Jasper Johns Llccnsed byVAGA flcwYork NY
)re represcnted couihccl lt111cl rClci ill 1 partic lIbr cultl1ral context Th e~e tex tual dllcl
visual recorcls HC Il0t onl v lir e hi storians prilll ltnv cv ici enee for the three-dimensiollal
phys ie dlallClscltlpcs th clll selves but are ltllso our sources for 11lld e r~ t 11lding th e c ulshy
tural ClJlls truc ti oll md receptio ll of 1lt11lCbc lpcs
For thc ltlrC h1 cologist or landsca pe historian illl(s tiga ting prehis tory -a time
hefore writtcn words -the c irltIIJ IJ1SC of understanding th c culiurd COllstruction of
visi ()ll I)ecomcs pnlicll iltlrly ltlu lIe -Vith 1lt1St tilll esclles for Il hich th cre arc fell iJllshy
agl ami no IITitte ll reco rcls h011 c10es Ol1 e begin to dec iph er thc Iisua l Io(lhulary
of percepti on lt lIming th e Ilgnies of presena tion dIJ O OIl C to recover el t lclSt
some rellln 11lts of Plst ph ys ic d iltlnci sclt1 pes hOlI does onc lelt1111 to (e tiJ em as the)
184 EL I7 ABETH KRYDER-REID
were pcrce)
th e ll otion
1ll()IClllen t
to III 1 P ele l
viSllJi eliue
011e r
hon of SOJ l1(
th e situltcd
m0111 cu t I
pe ri cncc of
III ropoiogic
th e Ivorld t
each other
hncntly lin
Ciil I se ttings
bll t our rela
of th e exerc
ote
hllldscape I
equips m te
The sallle r
ofLnld sclp
turaJJ y spec
le 1111 to spc
amllhe COl
stnrcture 01
th e Ilo rd s
that is d SJC
th e cave ( 1
frame and
is COJlStruc
worIcI 1S til
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
urtesyThe PhIladelphia
(t These textual lIld
e tllll -dilllellSional
jerstancling the culshy
Jl[middothistory -lt] tim e
l1r~11 construction of
h there J re few i lllshy
H viual vocabuLH)
e to rccover at leas t
to LL them as th ey
we re perceived in the past Even accepting the lllutabil it) of landscape experiencc shy Vl
---l
the notioll that neither place nor cOll lcxt nor se lf sta ys put thin gs arc always in m Vl
oIllovement a lways becoming~-what sort of theory allows liS the inlcrprdi ve traction T1
to map even plausible ~I of knowing the landscape in the absencc of icx tu81 m el U
o lt
ViSlld cvidcnce m 0
One response to this theore ti cal ltmelmethocloiogic81 chdleJl ~c is th e assumpshy raquo ti on of some llnivcrs81 opcrations of blld sclt1 pe ltVhile tlw visual dialect is frlJl1 ed by o
z
the situJtedllcs of the viewers cltiture fc ncl er life history even the conint of the ---l I m
moment wc may still draw broader co nnec tions alllong IWlT1aIls and our visLwl exshy u
perience of space that eell1 to op~ r8tc ac ross time and place It is a pfllnise of anshyo ~ m
thropological studies of iltlllci scltlpe that hlllllans both lea rn anci express their pla ce III 0
oth e wor ld throuih th e ll11ci scape I-Illlllans also negoti8te th ei r rel tionships with Uleach other throug h l8nd sca pc- in short the W8lS we li ve in ltlIld on lite land are inshy Cl
herently linked to our soc ialli vc~ Furthermore like language whcll practi ced III soshy I ---l
cia l se ttings vision is a lll eans by which we not only negotiate our place in the worlel
but our rellt1tioI1slllps with others In this respect ViSIOIl is an active md essential part
of the exercisc of power
L ot only cloes this und erstanding of thc recursive relationship of hlllllans and
landsca pe build on the li nguistic model rfiercnceJ by JohllS ~ sc ulpturc but it also
equips us to IIlterpret the vast Jivcrsity of 1110JCS of landscape recep ti on and mClrJlIlpound
The same mod el that lays thc fO lll1dati on for understanclin~ fundam ent1l ope rations
of 11Il dsGllX and hUlllan society across tilTl e also ltlcco unts for the uniquClIess of culshy
turally specific articulations oftlwt relationship arnel y thc penticular lan nllltlge we
ic J[n to spc lk molds our consciousness It frames both thc gralllrnJ[ of our thinking
c1l1d the conccptualialion of our thoughts Our und erstanding of time motion the
structure of the universc our rebtionships to others are all fundamentally shaped by
the worcls and linguisti c structures of the langllagc we speak The prominent peak
tlla t is a sacred I OCd lc the middot h ieEs residence perc hcel on el11 ea rthen tem pIe mound
the cave entrance that is a p8ssa~c between worlds-all tIl lS 1811clscape J11eanin~s
frame and are lrllneci by th e human experience of th e world Vi sion like bJlgl1ltl ~c
is CO Ll l lucted-a ullique cilltural vocabulary 8S fUll ciltlInent81 to our C perience of the
worlel as the langua( we speak It is a lI1eans of making lJ1 c8 nin~ in and of the world
185
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
The notion of vision and landscape as both culturally specifi c lll eltlJlill~ making
and as lt1 timeless exercise of power is useful for a stud y of landscapes that span llllllshy
tipl e times and cultures and it is therefore a parti cllICirl y 8pt appr08ch to th e decpk
laye red landscapes we know tocl8Y as Californ i8 The California landscape not (lilk
h]s d history that SP81lS pre-recordeel and recorded histor) but 81so includ es incligeshy
nollS peoples Spanish coloni7ers Mexica ns Anglos and the diverse cilicnn (Ji
Ca lifornia with its C 1l1clii ng loc al st8te and national cultures vVithin the broader
landscape th e mi ss ions T IC a primary site of Spanish colo ni za tion 8nd as SI( h
th eir landsc8 pes vere an instrument through whi ch the Spanish andlilc indige lloll
peoples Clttempted to con trol and res ist th e imposition of power Th e landscapc 1
al so the locus of colliding ideologi( ~ of landscape-radica lly different understanding1
of what it meant to hc in and of th e orld
The rela tionships of sigh t and power in mi ss ion history res id e in th e oilcs
eighteenth-century origills as a loc us of colonial encounters betwcen Spall ish Francisshy
cans and th e indigen ous peoples of California the missions development be~inning
in th e second half of the nineteenth centu ry as public sites including th e inventioll
of Cc1iifornia miss ion gardens and their prCSc llt incarn ation 8 5 touri st destinali olll
hil e seemingly disparate se tli ngs the impositi on of Western power on nati ve peopb
and thc creati on of romanticized 08ses in tOl lri st destinations are parallel in a nllmher
of rn pects particularly in the control of vision In the intersec tion of reconstructed
sites 1Il ei galcs lies som e glimpse of th eir meaning and significan ce to th ose who inshy
hab it these landscapes in the past and tod ay
There are twenty-onc California missions loca ted in ] chain originally about a
days ride ]part or what is now an hour s dri ve along the Californ ia coast and ildand
valley Th e first site ivlission Sa n Di efo was es tablisheel in 1769 Th e last Mission
Solano was fo unded in 1823 jllSt ten yeJ[s heForc sec ulari zation WJS cl ec reed by Mexshy
icos newly independent governm en t The missions were found eel during the wan ing
yea rs of the Spanish empire in th e Ncw vVorld b) Fra nciscan mi ss ionaries und er the
lea dership of Fr Junipero Se rra T heir purpose was simultaneously to claim what
was then known as 1lt8 Ca liforn ia for Spain and to conve rt the ineligenolls peoples
Th l~c n] tive peoples includ edl11any of the tribes of California the mos t jinguisti cally
and culturally diverse area in J orth America The area contained at leas t sixty-four and
ELIZABETH KRYD ER-REID
perhaps as ma
con tacl 111 C
I]()lll acli l loos
th e Chul1l)~h
variety of lllar
of their nona
C)1i forn in ex
Today
or reconslruc
mothcr - pal
lwo whi ch a
]Jrinlarilv b
sti es Tire rn
lrban area~
San Francisc
Vl ll cy SOln
is J favori te
ove r the Sltl r
md u1I1 ike1
come d vi t1
The llliss iOl
c tcd by ~e(
ltlnd Calho
a1i fo rni ltl
ot groups Sl
inlerest in
wh ether p
for the oite
for earll ed
si tes with
Onlt
llli ss ion g
186
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
peciG c meaning makiIl i
ndslapc thltlt span mulshy
I approlch to the (leep)
Jrnia landscape not only
Jut also includcs indigeshy
the diverse citilenry of
res Within the broltlc1er
oni l tion ltInd as such
nish ltI nc1 the indi~t no u s
Vc r The landscape was
li fferent Ilnderstandings
tory reside in th e sites
etween Spanish Francisshy
develop ment binning
including the invention
n as tourist dnlindtions
jlmveron nati ve peoples
arc parallel in a number
ec tion of reconstruc ted
lcance to those who illshy
hain OIi~ inall v about a
IFornia coast and inLlllci
1--69 The last Mi ss ion
)11 lIas decreed by Mexshy
lded during the waning
missionaries und er th e
ll1eOllsv to claim whltl t
he lIleliEc llOUS peoples
I the most linguisti ca lly
ICei at Icd sixty-four ~111c1
perh I[J~ as IllJny as eighty ll1utu ltl li y unintelli poundiblc languages It the time of Europea n
contJc t The groups socill or~a ni J ti o n and ubsislence prJcti ces rlnged frolll the onomadic loody orgll1i zeel tribes of the Mojave D se rt to the complex chicFd onls of Tt
the ChuI1lash lndiems indi genous peoples of the centwl COlst who thri ved on the rich -0
o Evariety of marine and forest reources particu larly harvests of acorns that were l staple m JJ
of their nonagricultural di et T he Hchleo logical record of these native peoples of raquo Ca liforn ia cxtends bOl ck Ol t leas t twe lve thousand yem llcl perhaps feH edrli er6 o
Z
Today all of thc mis iOIlS ltHe open to the public in varyIll l degree of re~tora ti o n -t I m
or reconstru ction The majority are owncd by the COltholic Church in one form or
o ano tI Icr- parishcs a seminary and a Ilili ve rsity Out of the twcnty-one missions onl y ~
m two which Jre stOlte parks regula rly receive governlll ental fun ds mos t are supported JJ
oprillleHily by charitable contri buti ons alld ea rned incollle from admi ssion and shop Vgt sa les The mi s ion toci e1Y He in d va ri ety of settings Some are in the midst of dell se C)
urban areas such a vli ioll San Gabri cl near Los Al~gel es and Vl i ~ ~ ion Delore in I -t
San Francisco Others are more remote uch as Mission Solecbd ll1 the Salinas River
Valley Some have been cata lys ts for local tomisl11 San Juan Bautitas historic plaza
is a favorite locale for picturesq ue picnics and filming movies despi te being directly
ove r the San AllCireOls hwlt San ta Ines is part of the VISitors plcb~e tour of the StllJll
aJld 11I1I Ji( iy Danish town of Solvmg Ollld Miss ion San Juan Cap istrano II a) beshy
come el Vital engi ne of the tou ri st economy in it tOWll an hour sOll th of Los Angeles
The miss ions have a prolllincnt plJce in Califorlll a history as exprcsscd in and inculshy
CJtcd by secillar structures such JS mandatcd fourth-grade state education tandarcls
and Ca tholi c-pomored publi c8 ti oll ~ll ie s md sympo ia Th e pasage of the 2003
California Mi5sions Pnserveltion Act along with a teady stream of visitors and growth
of groups sllch 15 the CaliFornia Mission StudiesssociltioJl ltl ttest to the strong Pllhli e
interest in the sitcs lJld th eir histories In addition the Illissions governing entities
whether parish churehes or ClllFornid Stelte ParL are dependen t on entrance Fccs
For thc sites continued fi nanc ial support Both the public in terest and the opportLlnity
for earned income continu c to inForm the presentation and th e IlIIII1iclllent of the
sites With an emp hasis on privileging viSItor access aud lnlCll iti cs
O ne of the most pop ular feature of th cse contemporary miss ion Ites IS tile
miss ion ga rdcn (fi g 93) Printed on pos tca rd fea tured ill ga rd en magv illes and
t87
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
Figure 93 Courtyard MtSSlOn Santa 1nes 1993111 tlte cour1yard the garden is (entered on a two-tiered
fountain from whIch walkways extend among the four edged beds Photo E Kryder-Retd
coffee-table books and marketed in touri sm blOehures thesl vibrant grlrd en im8gcs
are embJ eim of the ro manticized histories presented at th ese s ites ~ Th e nch el)pal
mi ss ion g~Jrd en lies in th e hea rt of a quadrangle forlll ed by the miss ion blli lclings- 8
pan-iVledi terranea n aIIIa Igam of til ed fou nta i ns a nd pools cascltldi ng vi nes of bougainshy
villea intri ca te edged Rower beds and lltIIvlls intersec ted by pltl ths and pun ctuated wi th
co lul11n ar elements of palm or cypress In additi on to the sma ll muse ums associa ted
wi th mos t of the missions n1lt1 n) of the gardens displ ay a rtir~l c ts- ei ther surviving remshy
Il ltl nts or more recent donati ons to th e mi ss ion collecti ons in the la ndsca pe Mission
San Luis Reys co urtyard has exa mpl es of th e trltlditiona l marl os anci metales or grindshy
[LILA BETH KRYDtoR REID
ill t tools (
or (vcn III
1III SS llIi C C
iIlCmpora t
fu macc a
include III
ltlnd S a11 )1
tiviti es TI
forecourt
devoted b
111 (11101) r
In lt
hi story of
from 111ill
ish culo11
il npressio
gellcrali o
ill th e (
Illvlhi cltll
st11lces i
Til
amI the r
hOlY it
lh e land
icl cologi
11amed 1
eoll ectii
been bq
lhis Vo
II cre wi
h() gial
1110 C 1
188
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
I centered on a two iJend
KrydermiddotReld
vibrant garden images
si te~ middot Th e archetypal
e lTl i ~s i on buildinltis- a
ading vines of bougainshy
l S alld punctuated with
iiI museums associa ted
-either survivinii remshy
he lan clscclpe ivl iss ion
and 711etates or grindshy
ing tools (fig 9A) At many missions bells eIre hung from arches or wooden supports
or even molded into landscape lighting JVlost of the gardens are articulated to the omission Cr mekric either physically or through interpretive signage and many also -n
-uincorporate surviving lfchitectural elements or ruins in the gardens (tannery vats a o ffurnace a granary or portions of ruined walls and foundations) Mission gardens also m 0
include unique local fe atures such as scde models of the missions (as at San Cabriel raquo and Scm Juan Capistrano) folk art lttlld element related to conltmporary parish 8Cshy
z o
tivities These include picnic tables for a p8rish festival filling San Juan Bautistas -I I m
forecourt religious statuary at S8n Antonio de Pala and a memorial at San Rabel odevoted both to the five thousand Jtive Americans who died at the mission in f
mmemory of the 4000 hum8ns executecl daily without trial waiting birthdays 0
oIn contrast to the rel8tive uniformity of toclays mission gardens however the Tl
U1
history of these landscapes has borne witness to a Wide variety of change over timeshy Cl
from millennia-old Nati ve American architecture and subsistence practice to Spanshy I -I
ish colonial adobe construction to crumbling ruins captured by nineteenth-century
impressionist painters to mission revival cnchitecture to tourist destinations For each
ge neration the shaping of the land has been a way not only to inscribe their position
in the world but also to give it reference to a broader context whether that be a
mythical cosmology an imperial mandate or a constmctcd past In each of tbese inshy
stances it is the nexus of landscape and vision that naturalizes and reifies that position
The essential challenge of understanding landscclpes as a site of mea ning making
8ml the Ilegotiation of power I ies in interprcling the cultural context of the landscapcshy
how it was perceived by those who lived in 8nd acted upon it f wo brief accounts of
the landscape along the centrll coast offer an entry point into two seemingly disparate
ideologies of landscape A little less than a hundred years ago a Churnash woman
named JlIarfa Solares told a story to an anthropologist John Harrington who was
collecting oral traclitiol1S from the last of the C hul11ash pcakers IIarfa Solares had
been born at Mission Santa Ines and she told this story as an old wOJl1an There is
this world in which we live but there is also one above us and one below us
Here where we 1ive is the cen ter of our worlcl- it is the Liggest island AlIJ there are
two giant serpents thlt hold our world lip from below vVhen they are tired ther
move and th8t callses earthclllakcs The world above is sustained by the great SIov
189
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
I
l
I
I
Figure 94 Intel iar lOUI tyard fl lSslon San Luis Re) 1993 Display n f the tradi tiona l mojQs dnd
meMes gnnding lool~ Pholo 1-Kryder-Reid
who by sl1ctcilillg 11i W
wri tten in 1--09 by aSp
Barbara coa~l 11 0 1 far I
found 1( en l over
fin e gra~~l~ ~ar i ng
of the hore ovcr some
Ii ne Jry gms(s It
dry crecks If it can be
The vic repre~
molugy or ickolugy of
thai is qllitc different
a closcd lIl1icr~e COlT
und supported by po
grap hi lt clnler of the
wi th illCWJ illg dangt
pI Cl llls 11lima ls JIld I
lhe ~o( i J l lIn il lre
ura I bei ng II as a
coulJ lt iJ l llgc ltmel b
th ose lrum fonnaboIlS
lvigating places oft
ness rcqlli red plllden
the I orld to~cl h c r It
and lwtureclI1ture S(
II I contrast in
UTal wurld crealed by
eciucJ lioll illll111ed hi worhl wcrc hallmark
nahlfc Crespi 11sou
lc11ld prope rly 10 be
i11lprolCtl Ihat it 11
ollly lifc-~ l s ta inillg I
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
adltlClnal (TI(J()~ and
11 110 by tretching his wings causes the phas ~ of the l1Joon~ The secolld accoun t was
wri tten in 1769 by a Spanish Frmciscan Father Juan C respi who land ed 011 the Santa ()Rarbara coas t not far from Santa lnes In his journal he recorded the JanclsC]Jc be
fOLlnd 10 went over land that was all of it levcl dark and friab le wc ll covered with -0
o ~Ene grass middots lca ring Point Conception lJlher C respi went 011 to clucribe in sight m JJ
of the shore over some low rolling tableJclllds [1lasJ IITY cood dark fri lbl e so il ancl raquo fin drv grasses It was all Hat land excepting Oldy sOl11e ~ hort clescents into a fcw z
o dry cr eks If it ca n be dry-fa nned all thc soi l cOLlld be cu ltivl kcl J I
-i
m The view representcd in thc story recoulited by iaril ~ u hHes r-veab lt1 cosshy
omology or ideology of the universe and the lanclscape on which the ( hu lllash residcd ~
mtlt ]t is quite differ(ilL fr0111 a ( tern Ixnadigl11 CllLlJnI h stori Inap a concept of 1J
oa chLd universc composed of thiLl Hat circlllar wor lds suspended in a wea t abyss 01
ltIgt md suppor ted by powcrful supernatural beings 1 he Chullll h li ved a t thc gcoshy CI
grlt1p hic center of th e mid dle world amI moving fr0111 that ce nter Ille)nt bc ing Ill et -i
with increE ing dange r T he Chull1ash tales p lk of a pu onali zld ulliverc( where
plants anil11lls alld birds cclt lid bod ie and various nltltural forces ltlre l 1 part of
Ihe social universe where kinship was ex tellded to creltUfl plants and sl1pl matshy
ural beings11 It was a wo rld in which ob jects and beill poundgt UI Illutable where forills
co uld cilltlIlge 1I1el be i Il ~ cOlild bc trlIdorllled Thc nego ti llion or aloilb nce of
those transfoflnlti ons was olle of the challellc of existing in ) Ja ngerous uni verse
aviiltt ti nc places of transforllllt1 ti on sll e h a~ P II Clt1 i boJ i c~ of Wl l 1 and da rkshy
ness required prtl clt nce personal power and fluency in til e relntiollships th at huund
the world tog th er It was a lIo rd view in which Ca rtes ian dichotomi of lllindflJocly
and natureculturc see lll to have had littl e phlce
ln contrast in ( rr pis ( I tholic beli ef Sy tCIII the landsc)pe was part of a l1atshy
mal worlcl ereCi ted by ( od for the PL1fPO- of IllClnkincl l - C respis cightecnlh-centllry
ed ucation imb lled hilll with the beJicfthat ()h~crvltltioll and kn owledge of the natlllctl
wo rl d were ha111lllt1rks of h 1I1lllTl civil iz] tioll - the culture thJ l set h 1I11llt1ns apart frolll
nature Crespi also articulatecl the prelili se of his eapiLt ld 1V0rldview that cCl ll sidercd
md property to be owned presumab ly by the Spanish crown and a resource to be
improved Thlt it was lt1 rable impli ed it could be farill ed potentiallv prudueing not
only life-slls tainini Food but also surpillS that could be so ld ltI t loca l llIarkeb or e-shy
191
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
I
l
ported Laml in this economi c system requirecl labo r to rn8ke it procluc ti ve -to imshy
prove it-and one bbor somee Wc1S clea rly the incligenous population of Ci1iforniil
Th e stories of the founding of mi ss ions are illustr8 tive of this Spanish ideology
ofl anclscape The accounts idealized811 d filtered through predolllinantly Ca tholi cshy
produced histories may morc prope rl y be ca lled origin myths I They present a
cod ified narrative of poS)C il1g lmiddothe land - mille th e place (c1lways after a selinl ) dedicilk
it for God and for Spain rai se a cross ring a bell erec t 1 shelter and th e mission i
founded T he first missions were vernacular one-story adobe buildings with thatchcd
roofs The early buildings we re expcl1clecl to create substantial church es and surshy
rounding complexes genera lly in quadrangular or linear forill Th ese missi on instishy
tuti ons were far more than the ch urch structures th at now stand as th e centcrpieces
of historic sites they vere extensive agr iculture1 1 pla ntations and rancll C~ claiming
hundreds of KITS Even the core of the mission compl ex contained many composhy
nents the church the residential areas for the priests ltmd for thc neophytcs (J th e
baptized Indians were ca ll ed )H includ ing selxlwte quarters for th e unmarried girls
dedi ca ted work areas such as tanneries mill s and lavClndarias (laundries) va ter sysshy
tems with cis terns reservoirs and channels surround ing agricultural areas such as orshy
I chards and fi elds and of course th e ceme tery The miss ions served many fUI 1C hons
school workshop hospi tal plantation prison anel church In each aspect the landshyI
i sca pe Vas a means by which the Spanish padres attempted to convert and control the
i1 8ti ve peopl cs an d 3 means for resisting that imposition of power - in particlllar the
p~Htiti on ill g of space anel th e con tro l of visioll
rhe Iniss ion landscape may be reJ d in one ve rsion as a slmiddotage of colonialism
on which th e native peoples were removecl from th eir vill c1gcs denieel access to trashy
di ti ona l hunting aml fi shing areas and displaced from their sacred loclk j he clai m
of the lanel by Serra anel th e Franciscans in the na me of the Spa ni sh crown inaugushy
rated processes that within eighty yca rs eneled th e mill ennia-olel 11 1)S of life oftmiddoth e inshy
digenous peoples in the region In more particubr ways th e Spanish sh8ping of the
landscape lVas an instrument in th eir ac t of conquest The Spa nish organiza ti on of
space anel the ways in whi ch vision lVas controlled were regu latory prilclices th at
helped to impose the will of thc fcw Spanish over the many nlti ve peoples
The Sp81lish orderccl the landscape into wiles of speciali zed fun cti ons particushy
192 ELIZABETH KRY D ER-REID
brly areas of fi eld ore
111cnhng traditioml h
chiefdoms an d sC ll1i-~
slahle rcources of Iii
ollcself to the lanel-l
11 lt1 [Vesti ng tin ( whe
of th ese ways of livill
pastoral and 8griclllt
dislocated the nalive
rcsources Furlll CJlll
I foreign structure 01
T he impact of
WJ S not lost on the
hallmarks of civili z
1l1ll Sic and reci te th
vea led in an 1855 Ii
illtO three stages wi
cmployedmiddot at left P
mesti ca tioll of planl
fee t of the uncivi li
suggesting J ga rder
OnJ daily ba
as a se ri es of cliscipli
Fouca ult has identi
surve il1ancel ~ An e
monas tic life itself
mem ber of the firs
of 1 tiss ioll San C I
the Indialls
In hom Duri
made of bar
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
ake it producti ve- to imshy
population of Ca liforuia
bull of this Spanish ideology
predominantly CcJtholicshy
myths l1 They presen t J
VJ )S after a sall1t) dedicJtc
leIter and the mission is
buildillfjs with thatcllCd
mtial churches and surshy
Im l These mission instishy
tand as the centerpieccs
IS and rIIlches claiming
~ontainedll1any composhy
~or the neophytes ( ~I S the
for the unmarried girls
ius (laundrics) water sysshy
icultural areas LIch as orshy
i sened lllaIlY functions
111 clch aspect the laIldshy
COil vert and control the
OVlCl ill parti cular the
151 SI1C of colonialtsll1
p denied access to trashy
Icrcd locale The claim
Spanish crown lIla LIgUshy
old IJI oflife of the inshy
Spanish shaping of tILl
Spanish organization of
tory practices tha l
native peoples
tlized fLInctioIlS particll-
Ltdy areas of fidel orchards vineyards groves and walled courtyards thercby impleshy Vl
-j m IJ)I1lcnting traditional boundednessl For the Chumash who had supported complex oclliefdof11s and semi-sedentary settlement patterns by harvesting the abundant and v
sllble resources of the coastal waters ancl woodlands subsistence meant mapping o E01lCSC If to the la ncl-l itera lIy following the resourcco as the) c line into thei r seasona 1 m u
11llvesting times whether migrating sea mammals or ripening aco[]1s16 fhe collision raquo of these ways of living off the land meant that the Spanish ordering of a productive
z o
[xlstoral and agricultural landscape created a landscape of exclusion that not only -j
I m
dis located the native populations from their villogcs but also from access to traditional 1J
oresources Furthermore for those who came to live at the missions it also introduced E
m I foreign structure on their habitll s- their Wl) of being in and of the land 0
oT he impact of the Native Americans transformed rebtionship with the land
IIIS not lost on the Spanish In fact teachmg l2ricultural practices was one of the Vl
CJ htllmarks of civilizing the Indians along with teaching them to read sing choral I
-j
Illusic and recite the cJlcchisrn l~ A striking personification of this Il1etaphor is reshy
ICJled in an 1855 lithograph (fig 95) depicting the California Indian as classified
illto three stages wild on thc right partly civllIzcd in the cen ter Jnd civilized and
employed at left Particularly telling is the treatment of the ground In which the doshy
meshca tion of pla nts para lie Is til e civil iza lion of the Indian 1alive plants grow a t the
feet of the uncivilized Indian while the civiltzed chief is separated by d ridge of soil
suggesting a garden furrow
On a daily basis this process of civilizing at least in its ide 11 form may be seen
as a series of disciplining exercisD - classic examples of the methods historian ifi chel
[oucaLllt has identified as timetables collective trall1ing exerci es total and detailed
surveillancc l ~ An elmple of 11011 thtse roll tines structllred the da) llluch as they did
lllonastic life itself is recordell 1I1 a 1786 account by the COll1te de La Perollse a
member of the first French expedition to Cal iforniJ who described the daily regime
oft1ission SaIl Carlos in Cannel (fig 96)
the IDelialls rise with tbe SUIl allel irnnlediateJy go to prdyers Jllell1ldSS which hl sls for
311 hom Duri ll i this tillle three iIT2C boilers Jf( ~(l all the fi re for cooking J killd of soup
mlde of b8rley Ined Each hut sew faT tilt nl10wdllce of all its illhabitults
193
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
FIgure 9S Three Swges 0 (lYIltZOLJon flOM Tile An)~ ) San rranosm by Fronk Soule Jrl n H Glhor
Figure 9 6 Fr Jose Cardero MD ltj Jarles N isbet 185) The ltqualtOn of savagery wll r wll c1 l1d l we IS illustrated in this Cngrwing
Courtesy Herman B Well~ Llblary Indlann Urllversrty Bloomington
Th ere i ~ nci th er co nfusion nor eli so rcler ill ti e el istribution ltlllel middothen th e hoil ers are
11lt111) e1l1ptied the thicker portion at Ihe bottom is di stributed to th ose children Iill()
hae ~J i J th eir el teehism th e best Irter th e lll CtI ] the) ] 11 go to work so nle to
till thc grounelwilh oxell some 10 eli ~ the ga rd cn whil e olh( 1S Ir( i lllplo)CC1ill domes tic
occupation J nri 11 under the e)c of on e or tllOJllissi()JJltlri e~ At nooll th e hell s give
Jlotice of lhe hme of di nn er T hey rcsume Iork from 11 0 llntil [om or Fi ve oc lock
IIhell the) rcpa ir to th e ele nillg prayer whi ch cOlltintlc for nea rh-liI hour l1] eI is fol shy
1001eel bl 1 distribution of th e )tol thc Sd lll e as ltll brca kFast
194 ELIZABETI I KRYDER RE ID
Disciplined fonmatton IS rep
Califomld Berkeley
La Perouscs accou nt (
to collecti ve training I
lIlosl impor tant are th
Illd rtgu]ation of sury
John Slilgoe hi
Ilion of ondschaftsshy
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
HGihon
I this engaving
Ie hoil er a r
iJi lelrC 11 middotbo
middotork SO llie 10
I in elOI Jl E-sl ie
Il l he lJ ~g i (
hlC oc lock
Irmiddot lid is fol-
Rgure 96 Fr Jose Urdero 86 RceplJon olJeonFron~OIS rl La Ptrouse OlMSSIon Carmel 1791-179
DISCiplined onmatlon IS repnsented in thl~ depictIon CourtesyThe Bancroft Lbrary University of
Caltfomla Berke ey
11i)erOl I ~ c~ lCCOUllt c len ly (lescribes Ilildtiple exe rci l of control from tim etltJbles
I() collecti ve training but for our discu ssion ot i ion l1lLl power in the land scape th e
111()st important are th e rrcllion of focal points in th e idndscape the infrastructure
ltllld reguiltJtion 01 Url eillanci md the icono ~ I I[h) of vision
John Sti Loe historian of the Amcrican ltJnc1c~l[le hltJs written about the creshy
ation of landscfwh promllJent fcatur es in the landscape snch as st eplcs lightshy
195
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
hOllses and columns that not only crclte focal points visibl e at 8 di stltm ce but liso
fC1tures that mark a central place O1ncl signifiers of 8 civili zed locus in th e midst of
wi ld erness Rather thelll Hchitectural landschafts Nable American cosmologies
lppe01r to privi lege prominent peaks as symbolically charged locations points ill
which th e spheres of the world met and places of sacred power The sca le of archishy
tectme in these native traditions however was no lltnger than the dorned llLlclclr
and extendcd family Chumlsh dweJlmgs In contrast th e cons tru c ti on of missiollS
WIth th eir imposing facades CamfJ071arios (walls with nich es or piercings for bells)
eSfJ adailas (ornamental false fronts) and bell towers reprcsented a sca le of architecture
unlike any in Altl California beforc that time Accounts of approac hes to th e mi ssions
such as Alfred Robinsons description of Santa Clara note th c impa ct of th eir profilc
visible for miles rising out of the distant plains n San Juan Capistranos ch urch begull
in 1796 was built of stone with a 18o-foot long nlVe vau lted cei li ng seven domes lJlcl
a bell towe r tlwt IS reportedl y visible for ten miles The fd cade of Mission Santa Barshy
bara was visible from the harbor and must have been for th e Chumash unlike all)
frdme of reference outside of the natural landforms Th e degree of traIl sference of noshy
ti ons of the powcr of prominen ce be tween natllral and architec tural elemen ts is not
articulated in any written records but the reception of these Illi ssionlandschafts sugshy
gest In intersection not merely of displays of wea lth (the rule by os tentatioll
llod el ) ~~ but al so the aliglllilent of hUl11an anc1natural forces
These mission flCld cs also offered phltforms for survcying the surrounding landshy
scape md looking into the centrJI pla zas of the missions Th e design of the mission
quadrangles Ilso offered opportunities for detailed surve ill lIl ce As noted in La
Perollses de c ription lllllch of th e commllnal ac ti vity took place in a central plaza
that WclS surrounclcd by fOllr buildings gcnerlll) of Jdobe with interior corredors
The Cjlladrmgle plan hl J long ITadi ti oll withi lll1lonastic Mediterrancan and Roman
architecture md a number of its des ign principles have made It an effcctive archishy
tecture of surveilLlllce in elch case The padres private and communal rooms the
girls skcping Cluarters Clnc1many of th e ac tivity lfeJS were located in th e quadrangle
In the dormitories and some of th e other ac tivit) arcas thc only passage bctween
rooms was olltside through the arched colonnad e Th e buildings 11lany windows and
doors openecl onto the interior mainly with restricted access to the outside only
196 ELIZ ABET H KRYOFR- RE IO
IIHougll the convento the c
openings and their quadran
fOl illternal sLHleillanc( of
hilT it is less important th
comtant possibility of so III (
There is another YIli
Icr~encc of both I071dscho
Sallta C LUJ amI San JifJ1
Cod An unsigned undll
exllnple vVithin doctrinal
11](1 in clch Cdse ldS place
pro rlm At Santa Cb r) tl
rooHine D escriptions of I
th is bcade was visible for r
has becll r~s torecl IS it W]S
~lILIr Ahile this symbol is
cOll tex t it appears linked
amI the 1Llthority of th e n
eye was a Sylll bol of the or
calion implies that the alit
11110 cOlllmissioned the p~
~clves as Cods re pr~scnl ~
Th e dyna mics of th
heyolld th e control of sigl
tire prolonged drought th
pb nts introduced hI b Ir
PICt on nati ve trade alll
tlll ence on the SpltlIlish c(
llli ss ions fLlllcti oned wi th
ci Iher in th e service of Srshy
I rol of vision appears to b
of power
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
~
c
Jle at a distan ce but also
zcd locus in the midst of
merican cos mologi es
roed locations points in
IweLl The sca le of Clrchishy
lhan the domed nuclear
20nstru ction of missions
es or piercings for bells)
led a sca le of architecture
proaches to the missions
li e impact of their profile
Ipislranos church begun
eiling seven domes and
Jc of Miss ion Santa Sltlrshy
Ie Chul118sh unlike any
ree of transference of noshy
itectural elements is not
miss ion (andschafts sugshy
e rule by ostentation
es
Ig the surrounding landshy
le design of the mission
lI ance As notecl in La
place ill a centrltll pla za
with interior corredors
ciiterranean and Roman
cle it an dfe ti ve arc hi-
communal rooms th e
aled in the quaclran~l e
on I) passage betlcen
ngs many windows and
css to the ou tside only
- ---i
openings and their quadrangle arrange ment lent themselves to at least the po tential m
through the conlento the church and one or two Cltlrt passages in the wallszl These
U1
ofor interllal surveillal1ce of the pla73 and th e colonl1acic In the principle of surve ilshy --
lance it is less important that someone be constan tly watching thall that ther( is the -0 o
constant poss ibili ty ofsoJ11coJl e wa tching m D
Therc is another vivicl image of th e missions in which resides a powe rful conshy ~
c r~ence of both andsc1wft and surveillance In two known executed examples at o Santa Clara anci Sail Miguel are found a symbol known as the Al l-S ee ill ~ -Jlt ye-ofshy ---i
I m
God All ullsigned Illldatcc1 drawing in the San tCl Ba rbara archi ves providel third 0
oexample il ithin doctrina l iconography thi s eye in d triangle represented the Trini ty euro
m md in each caSl W8S placed in a prominent elevated position within the decorative 0
program At Santl ClarCl the Eye of ocl WClS painted on th e facade at the PCl k of the o - rooRine Descriptions of visitors approaching Santa Clara across Cl flat plain report
this facade was visibl e for miles (fig 97) At San Vligllel the All-Seeing-Eye-of-God shy has been resto rcd ltlS it was rea lized in three-dimensional form jutting ou t above the
altar While th is symbol is not unique to thc Californi8 missions I-v ithin the mission
context it appea rs linked to the surveillance principl es of the mission architec ture
and the authority of th e mission pr ies ts Placed in its central elevated posi ti on this
eye was d symbol of the oJllnipotence and omnisc ience of the AIl-SLcillg God Its loshy
ca ti on implics that the au thority of the image was translated in some way to the priests
who co mmissioned the raintill~s led the liturgy beneath them and presented th emshy
selves as God s rcpresentatives on en th
The dynamics of the imposition of colonial power in Alta California clearly go
beyond the control of sight in the lanclsCltlPc MlIitary forces elt the regional presidios
the prolonged drought thlt stresscd trad itional subsistence resources the diseases and
plants introduced by Europeans the introduction of ne goods and their radi ca l imshy
pact on nati ve trade and di stribution netvorks-alJ thcse factors had 1 profound inshy
Ruence on the Spanish coloni81 incursion into California And yet on a cidi ly b8sis the
missions functioned with apparent stabili ty and relati vely mini ma l explicit violenccshy
either ill the service of Sprlll ish domination or Native American resistance The conshy
trol of vision 8ppems to be one of the technologicmiddot employed in that daily imposition
of p0lIer
197
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
Figure 97 james P Ford Interio- courtyard MISSIon Santa Cial-a daguerreotype c 1854 This IS the earll
est known photograph of MIssion Santa Clara and dfthough (alnt depicts the Eye of God mage at the
top of the facade Coutesy Santd Clara University A-chves
lother per
leived b) the Chu II IC Chumash expc
Ihis subaltem peTS
surveillance-a m
ar) of wlllt1 James
Llllce to Ihe UiSCOll
)ne reg111~ 1
movel nenl throl1euro
ngulate~ 1110VC1l1(
iduals w311derinl
oistrihulio1H (
c()11lple(cs Lo gro
cipline writ largt
lhwarted by Spal a vital tool for nshy
basket-making m
[ormal iOlls for vi
the bell Ihe wn(
presence of lock
to molt] the neD
strietion of mOVI
isolated but quit
tively penneablc
in kinship net
to native village
such as gambh I he miss
iew of the Ian
1110e11lCIII el
vicinit (lf the 1
ral1 ches Ih11 0
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
18 4This is he earl
of God imdge t the
Another perspec ti ve on thc land scclpe is holl the lanel I1light hll ( bee n pershy Vl
- m ccived by the ChU III dl and what role vision and landscape might hell ( lJtJ )ltd ill Vgt
othe Chulllash ( pcricllcc of lIld res istance to the imposition of Span ish rulc From
Lhis sulxdtern perc pective vi sion in the Iand sCltlpe 1111 ) have se rved as the in vc rse of J
o ~ surve illallClt l Ill eans to ciolk mlsk ltJI1d lli e ld [(U Ill view It is the physical co rolshy rn 0
la r of whdt James ~ l() tt has ca lled th c hidden IL lmuitgtt Ihat exprcss ion of resistshy raquo zance to the di scourse of dominant ic1 eolol)middot o O nf (~ulatory technique or di sc ipline It th e miss ions was th e orglIli zatioll of
- I m
IIlovemcn t through the landscape Fo ucault wrote A disciplin e fi xcs it arresh or o regul]tes 1ll 0Velllents it clears up confusion it diss ipltltes compact gro Upill gS of inclishy ~ m
Imiddotjehwls wa nd ering ]bollt the coulltry II) unpredictable IVltI )S it es tabli shes cal Illated 0
odistributi ons )( Ce rtainly the introdu c ti on of th e perJll]nent yeltl r-round mi ssion 1
Vgtwillplexes to grollps who had ~ l mi-nomltld i c settl elllcnt p~lttern s lVas this sor t of di sshy Cl
cipline writ Lngc Traditional environm ent 11 lll]n ~Clllel1t lc(hniqlles were ltl lso I -
thwarted by Spanish authoriti es intenti onal controlled burning which had been
] Iital too l for l1lan wing wildfires and for promptillg ~rowth of fa vo red plan ts alld
basket-making materials WclS baIlncd 27 Other forms of control at ltI smaller scale- the
formati ons for visi tors and forced marchillg the asselllb ly of Indians at the ringill CT of
the bell th e synchronized movements 0 standing and kneeling at th e 1middot15 and th e
pr(~e ll lC of locked doo rs and barred indOlI- werc I ll forms ot discipline desi ~ n cd
to mold the neophytes into docile suhj ects But resi stan ce to this regul atio n and reshy
striction of movement is also wielel y clocumented The mos t drarT18tic eviclence is of
isola tcd but qu ite VIolent remIts but th ere is also evidence of run]lIa)s ami even relashy
ti vely permea ble bounclari es of the miss ion where neoph ytes continlllc1 to participate
in kinship networks practice traditiona l subsistence pr]ctices ltlncl retum periodicI11 y
to nati ve v illa~es There are also numero ll s refe rcllces to th e persis tence of activiti es
Ieh as gambling and dancing which we re not condon ed by the lTli s ~ ionarj es ~
The miss ions went far beyond the confin es of the present sites and this broader
liew of the landscape sllgges ts that the operations of surveillance ltI nd th e control of
1I10vern ent were gtgotiable to those who kll ew the lanel well Beyond the immediate
Iicinity of th e missions were outlying I)Jstures lield s orchards and even more distant
fltlIlehes that operated almost as sate llite miss ions with their own supervisors labor
199
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
force and sometim es chapels In the highly varied geography of California with its
valleys and ranges the distan ce of even a few miles ClIl make a large difference in
temperature rainfall and th e se8sonal availability of resources A diseno or pictorial
map of a ranchero of Miss ion Slll Antonio de Padua reveals th e diverse catchment
areas that were exploited at th e outposts The key to a Illap of the ranchero idenshy
tifies among oth er [c ltures land under cultivation irrigable land deer hill s sheep
folds springs as well 8S roads to other missions and settlernents 29 lJa tive peoples
working and li ving at th e ranch eros inhabited traditional lands even if employing
new tech niqu es of agriculture and pJstorali sm This exploitation of the traditional
resources is furth er documented by excavations of neophyte barracks indica ting thilt
IndiJns at the mi ss ions continu ed to supplement mission di e ts with tradition al foods
and Illaintain trldition 81 trade networks 11
Recent studies by archaeologists and geographers including John Johnson Julia
Costello and DJvic1 Hornbeck have combined climatic reconstructi ons with statistics
from miss ion censuses and the patterns su~gest that th e mission population changed
seJsonJlly lS Indi3ns took advantage of the stable rations and clothing supplies during
ce rtain times of the year while returning to their own settlements Jt other times
Th ese authors ha ve conclud ed that given th e deterioration of traditional reso urce
bases due to drought and sea temperature changes and given th e profound impact
of Spanish se ttl ement on indigenoLls socia l economi c and political structures the
dec ision to join the mission system was one of risk lllanClgement In other words
joining lt1 mission was one of the best options prescnted to a people in the midst of exshy
treme delllogrltlphic ltlnd environmental stress I
The more permeable boundltlries presented by such recons tructions suggest
th at far from being a walled compound equdted visually lith classi c panopti c plans
of a cloistered monastic community or a prison with a central exercise yard the misshy
sions were 8t least in some places mel times residential commuIlities with relati vel
porous boundlfies The decision to join a mission was irrevocable from a Fr8Ilciscan
perspective but the stri ctures imposed cleltlrly cou ld be negotiated and resisted The
visual landscapes that the mission Indians inhabited therefore were far fro III bounded
by the walls cactus hedges and quadrangles of the Spanish but instead included their
traclitionallands with th e spiritual significance that resona ted in th em
200 ELIZABETH KRYDER-REID
On a small er scali
sistmce to control thrOl
(iomdieus phrasc - litc
kid elltlborately painted
kw architectural histori
scver)l of their restorario
tive programs and has al
mission Indians i jvlort
cX8 rnples of grafflti b
form and th e other as ve
ill the nave of San IvligL
destin e irn ges is not kl
Cllristian imagen that
tiollal iconography and
lief in visible Form on tl
sign of resistance l
One aspect of c(
ltlttempt to eliminate 01
l1lunities It is a classic
correctional prisoll) s
society parti cu larly w
ing Fhe colonization I
elle( ides or caciques II
to maintain there 31
r1so trained to specii
had be en based on ki
sllaman in the miSi
carpenters soa p mal
with Spanish notions
clll tural seasonal del
bring in the harvcst c
the creation of visLlC
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
hy of California with its
ltI ke a large difference ill
ccs Adiselo or pi ctoria l
Is the di ve rse ca tcl1lllCIli
ap of th e ranc hero iclenshy
Ie lanel dee r hills sheep
lllell tsI J la tive peopl(s
ands even if employing
lilation of th e traditio nal
barracks in dica ting that
cls wi th traditional food s
luingJohn Johnson Juli Cl
lIlstructions with sta ti sti cs
s ion population changed
I clothing supplies during
rtlenlcnts Clt other tim es
n of traditiona 1 resource
len the profou nd illl pact
d political structures the
gement In other word
people in the midst of ex-
I reconstructiolls sugocst
ith class ic PClll OptiC plans
r~ll exercise )Cl rd the misshy
mmunities with relati ve ly
oClble from lt1 Francisc~lIl
~otiatcd and res isted Thc
re erc far from bounded
but instcad included their
ted in them
On a sma ller scale the cHchitecture of the miss ions reveals an element of reshy
sistance to control through surveillance -forms of symbolic violence to use Pierre If)
oBourdi eus phr~l sc - literCll ly inscribed on the wa lls Many of the mission ch urches
had elaborately painted wa lls and ceilings Torman l euerburg hls been one of the 0
o ~few architectura l historia ns who has studied miss ion church interi ors Clllclllo rked on m xJ
several of their res torations He has identi fi ed a llumber of the clesigners of the decorashy raquo tive progmms and has also identified portions of the wa ll pl intings likely executed by o
z -Imi ss ion IncliansL More interes ting for this discllssion Ncuerb urg identified severa l I m
exa mples of graffiti by Native Americans Thc~c imJges one obviously a human ofo rm and the other as yet unidentified we re fOllnd on the bottom portion of a column ~
rnill the IlClve of Sa n Miguel Th e circurnstances of these anonymous presuIllably clanshy xJ
odcstille images is not known hut their direct contrCldic ti oI1 to thc EuropeCln-derivecl If)
Christian imagery tbelt they litera lly overwrite s u ~gcs ts the ac tive practi ce of tradishy CI
tional iconography al1(l perhaps traditional belief sys tems The execution of that l)eshy
Iiltf in visible form on the very walls of the church nave points to a subtl e yet enduring
sign of res istance H
One as pec t of control excrted at the miss ions was to impose hierClrchy and to
attempt to eliminate or dilute th e ties that bou nd peop le wi thin their twditional CO11 shy
IllUnities It is 8 classic pri nciple of regulation or di sciplines familiar to military b1)( s
correctional prisons schools and in thi s case miss ionsH The hierarchy of Spa nish
society parti cularly Vv ithin the military Clnd church instituti ons that were spea rheadshy
ill ~ the coloniza tion was incul cClted in the Indian population Ind ian leaders ca ll eel
alcaldes or caciques we re chosen and according to one observe r their fun ct ion was
tn maintain there an air of good order and contemplati on The neophytlts we re
al so trained to specialize in various occupatiollS Vhere before the soc ial organi zCltio n
llld been based on kinship gender ro les and the politic81lec1clers hi p of a chief and
Itllllan in the mission system the Ind ians were partiti oned into weavers masons
carpenters soap makers blacksmiths and tcmne rs v T hese roles werc also aligned
with Spanish notions of gencler-a ppropri8te lcibo r medi8ted by the pragm ati cs of agrishy
cliltural seasonal demands that required th e com bined efforts of the labor force to
brillg in th e 11C1rvest or process the crops At the missions the pa rtitionil lg of space and
tlt e crea tion of vislla Ily segmcntcd landsclpes reinforced these divisions Girls were
201
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
separated from th eir llucl ea r families work areas were isolated mel housing was rc~shy
illlenl-ed into long bl ocks of rooms_
Despite thcsc techniqu es th ere arc sllggc tions in th e docllmentary record and
in the Lilldscl pe that horizontal so li cbrity pers isted among th e mission Indians_A sigshy
nificant aspect of this resistance is the con tillli ed Jgcney of nativc women_Although
oilly beginning to be explored by scholars inciigcnolls systems of gendcr and sexuJlity
were antith eticcli to a palTiareillt11 ici cology in whi ch gender hierarchy malc dOlllishy
nJt-io n and heteroscxuality were the exclusi ve organi zing principles of dCire sexushy
ality marri lge and faJllil y~ Whilc critica l fa cets of th c SpolllJsh efforts to civili ze
were the control of sexuality and I-he impos ition ofVcstern ideologies of gend er roles
th e records of punishments lt-md repeatcd exhort8tions Sllggcs t th Ol t defiance of the
[lIles persisted Furth ermore the spatial segrcgl ti on that IVas to protcc t th e chasti ty
of native women actually fl cilitOl ted th e solidarity of womens netlvorks_ For ins tl nce
segrega ti on of women in sepcHatc clormitories while cl evastating for formation s of
Iluclear L1lTlily bonds also reinforced omen s Igcnc) ~lIld co mmunity Similarl y
the a val1derfa 3l Vli ss ion Sail Luis Rey whi ch was locatcri in what 1lt1 c8 11 ed the
sunken garden lt1 relati vch secluded and visually shi eld ed area provickrl a ve nue for
I I llngl lard ed interactions
Miss ion landscapes ha vc played th e role of tourist sites in C3lifornia sin ce the
late nineteenth century Each of th e miss ions has a nnique expression of its particular
i history and each has a unique set of constituencies whethcr seminarians ]oc31 parishshy
ioners students th ose li ving on all Indian reserva ti on park ran glTs or docen ts from
I-he town but the missions are also conceived as a corpus sharing 3 co III IIIon h e rill~e
andlillked physi cally in 3 cilain stretching from San Diego to north of San Franshy
cisco Thi s noti on of ea ch site as L1 link in the chain of miss ions has been prescnt
since their founding along the EI C3111ino Real when they wen sited to be approxishy
IIIatell a da ys rid e ltl p3rt now approximatel y the equivalen t of an hour s dri ve _
This conceptuali zL1tion 8 S a se ries of des tinations has been 3 majo r h ctor in
th eir hi story following th e miss ion period Sincc their scclllariza ti on in 1834 mel parshy
ti cularly following statehoocl ilJ 1) 0 th e miss ions have capturecl the popular iJl3gishy
n3tion of travcle rs md artis ts who SltlW their cru mbling walls anel decclying roofs 3S
202 ELIZABET H KRY D Ek - REID
picturesqu e ruin s and
the first si tes ill the We~
11ll1 to Cll ifo[Jlians see
1ike Los Angelcs The
into thc intercsts of the
C l u b sponsored tours (
and tran sportation infr
Sunset published l1UJll
Sleepy HoLl ol that e
ll iss ions Real Joy R
sicd the tourist l]Xr
sistcntly minimi zed til
pl rishes th e tclJllli f~
native peoples in the c
Illission laJlds_ Photos
thc sitcs but imllad
empty cmd ruined
The paradox ofl
lati on d rorts spemhec
IS Charko11IJllJllis ltII
Club balanr(r] the lc
I ize the ac10be bllildir
patina of the sites R(
Ne ws a mOJlthl y pub
tt ~lcl writer noted
thesc ruins just as th e
Irc th ey than lllY effc
gr11c rclpidly when e
1I-113t littl e remaiJl of
put it even morc bak
tlirly well restored 3[
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
and hOll i1 lClS regshy
CLl11lelltary record and
mi ss ioll IlldillIS A sigshy
tive 11011 Ifn AI thollgh
gtf gender and selIality
1ierarcI1l Ilw1c dOlllishy
lCiples of dcsire ~ClIshy
ish e forts to eil ilie
llogics of gel]der rol es
it thal ddi IIICC of the
to protect the chltlstity
Illl arks For instance
tiil~ for forllldtiollS of
oIllI1lLlnih Sjlllilarly
11 what IIS eltllled the
I prm ided a Ilt nlle for
n California sincc thc
ress iol] of ih p31tieular
l1inarilIls local parish-
19Cfi or docents from
19 ]C011lInOIl heritage
to north of Sa n hanshy
Ions has bCt1i pr(scnt
re si teel to be a pproxishy
lJl hour dri ve
cell a Illajor factor til
atioll in ItlH amI parshy
ed the poplliar illlagishy
mel decl l ing rouFs as
picturesquc ruins alld artifacts of ] wliialitieied past The IllissiollS IVcr sOllle of
the first sites ill the Vcst actil el) Illarb lcd as rustle retreats appealinc both to tourists olIlU to Californial]s seeking to escape froIll the incrcasil]g crowds ofilllrgonillg eili c -u
like Los Angeles Tile notion of th e IllissiollS ltI S a series of clestinatiollS fell sqllareh o ~into tile interc [s of the eillergil]g car illcustn in (diforni~1 as IIell The lnyo ROltlel m 7J
Club spoll)ofed tOlIlS oFthe lllissiOll5 and sil11ult81leously HilleU fen improved foads raquo Zand t[ltlmportatioll infrd ttllcture Popuhlr Ill ag~17il]l ~ such J ~ Land OlSuTVZille anu o
SUl1set published 1ll1lli ero us arlicles OIl the missioIlS II ith titl es such ltI S Soutllllest -1 I m
Sleepy HolloI that emhedded them in 1 lll ) thie P8s t ltInu jvlotorillg Among the -0
oMissions Real Jo Ride Through the CltheclrallcJIIls ofCaliforlia that elllpk1 shy ~
miiltd the touri sl expe rience of e01lS1l 111 in g the site WT he ~Hticles howeve r also COI1- 0
oislIntly minillli Led the sites lt1etie li se bv the Catholic priests who scrved the local 2parishes the tenant LJrJllers Iho icls(d buildings for agricultural purPChCS or the Cl
natile peoples in the eOJnlllJllihes who were descendants of those buried within the I -1
11Ii j~ion Imds Photos ]eeol1lpltlIljing the Hticle farely included thlgtc re icients of
the sites but imll](l elepicted the touri sts or photogr~phers posed in frOllt of til e
empty mel ruinecl buildings as ] ncord and eOlllmemoration of their visit
The paradox of the presentation of tillse sites is ohviowi even in the early prese rshy
vation efforts speJrheadecl bl civie leaders anel bllsiness men Mission J(hoelt1tes sllch
~I S e hHies LUlllmis and others who sponsored rcstoratiollS throllgh The Lmdlllarks
Club blt1LlIleed the tcnsion in their presenation deeisiollgt betlleell lIec-ding to stabishy
li7e the adohe bllildings and wanting to preserve the pictmesqlle charm emd ancient
patina of the sites Recountin ~ J visit to ivlis ioll San Di ego for the Pacific Mutual
[ews lt] 1ll011thly publication by til e life imllr]llce eOlllpelll) of the same l1lt1me the
rrltl ve l Ilriln noted Vould it not be 1 fin e thill Verc th ere sOllle way to preserve
th tse ruins jU c l I th e) are so much Illore ron18 Il tic elllU suggestive of Plst gree1tn sS
] re thel than am effort I t restorlt1tion CJn el er nwke thel1l 7 But adobe bricks uisinteshy
grate rapidl IhC11 exposecl to the weather mel Illlic the buildings are restored
IIhat little relllltlillS of I1WIl) of the vli ss iollS will soon Ilal C vanished 4() nother visitor
put it fl Cll lllore beddll At Sail Luis ReI she Iloted The church building has been
fairly IIe ll restored amI it wo uld be hlt1rd to Slt1V just why rlw lterior is Ilot Illore plcasshy
203
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
ing b llt ce rtainl y robbed ofth at some thll1g wherein li es the cllltlrlll of th ese lovely old
mi ss ions at their best For one thin g her make-up is ullqu cs ti onably on the vivie side
for one her 3ge~ I
J he resonance of th e mission sites vvith a romltlnti cized pas t continuccl through
the rventielmiddoth century and th e noti on oftrlVeling to see allCI cxperi ence the site in pershy
son a pilgrimage to these hi stori c shrines became ltIn iconi c element of thc Cal iforllia
experi ence Following the mi ss ion trail became a codifi cd jOllfney ill the consumplioll
of hi stori c lllemory Mo rked by uniform rold signs ltdong the El Camin o Rcd and hy
th e ubiquitous miss ion bell to uri sts could tra vel to th e clcl in Cl ti ons in th e footsteps
of thc padres In her ltl ce-Oll nt With a Sketch Boo k Along the Old Mi ss ion Trail
Maude Robson Gun th orp exa l teel the experien ce of seei ng instead of j list tOllrillg
If onc still has left to hill) the exc iting ael ve nlme of visitillg C1Iiforni1 for th e fir l hilL
how fortun ate is he if he comes wilh a mind conditioned to bedr liim beyo nd the signshy
board ofl marvelous modern comlllOn lVca lth to the fas t-fading background of Ca lishy
fornia s romantic past It is indeed one thing to tour Ccdifornia mcl another 10 see
her mel to kn o her ill her most fa scinating aspects It is to kn o her thll s Ihat we chershy
ish Vhlt rernJ ill S of Imiddothe chain of olclmissi ons th c las t CI11111 hI illi relies of th c mos t pieshy
tmcsqlle and rOlll anti c era in the history of the Ves t- silllple reminders ofth e lellC]cr
fj race of th c clay th ll is el eacP
Such constrtldions of thc past we re reinforced hy visual media that propga ted
th e miss ions as both rOlTl8nti c oases and tourist des tina ti ons As eady as the 18 --05
ph otographs of th e miss ions were sold as loccd so u venirs ~ Artists sll ch CiS AlexClnder
H3rmer and ph otogra ph ers uch as mell1 bc r~ of th e amateur Pasadena Clm era Club
traveled to the sites to clpture them as artisti c subj ec ts Their work has left a ri ch vis181
record from thi s pe ri od and it is telling th lt th eir composition of vicws consistently
privilege th e lan dsca pes as empty ruinecl splces Th eir kHlling of the ol bando necl
buildings and eroding adobe not onl y bespeaks th e ninctccllth-centmy prefe rence
for th e picturesque but al so the rccCptioll of th(( sites as reli cs of a by-gone era
William Henry H ldso11 who pll bJi shed J -c~ ri es of skctches of the miss iollS eul ogized
the expcrl cnce of visiting th ese refugcs of th e modern world
204 ELIZABETH kRYDER-REID
The lll isions oflt n li f
tender sentiment (
Iorlel atm osphere of
is to step OLl t of th e
of yesterday and I he
lions of hi story or tl
power- a magic not
em worl d to dream
Among the most f
tile pi oneers of photogr
snbjc cts from th e built
framing vi sion as (I me
llii ss ion images such d ~
tographs of the natural
undulating mounds of
forlll s of hi s geological
prcsents are generally d
IS aba llc1 0necl ruill s 1
Jacksons Ancient Ivl isqj
is Miss ion San Juan (
lcrnpor]lleous settlers
surfaces and repea tin~
lcssness and th eir bel
rcmnants of another C
bypass i ng those who
This reprcoenta
travclers to the sites 1
pIcr tim es wcre cxpre
the elll cring Califor
widely ava ilable imag
as picturesque rui n
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
larlll of these lovely old
Jna bl y OIl the viv id side
111st co ntinued through
pcri we thc site in pershy
I I le nt of the Jlifomia
le in th e consuillption
- 1Camino Rea l ltmel hy
lati ons ill th e foo ts te [ ~
the Old Vl iNs ion Trail
instead of just touring
Jli l() rniJ For the Il rst lim e
lear hi III beond th c signshy
ding hJckgTO ullcl of Cllishy
iforni 8 and 811 0th er to see
Oil her th us tl Jd t we chershy
ing rel ics of the mos t pi cshy
reminders of the teJlder
lll cdia thM propagated
As earl y as thc 16705
td o uch as Akx~llld e r
asaden1 Ct lllera C lub
ork has Ie fL l rich visua I
n of views CO l1 sis tently
lill~ 01 til e abandoned
lth-cen turv prefe rence
lies of a b~ -go ll e era
I ll T1li ss ions eul ogi7cd
The missions of Califo[1lia pltlssed ltJway leling behincl Ihel1l nothing but d memory - mA tender sen timent clings about them - in their enclosures we brva lil e a drollS) oldshy U)
oworld atmospherc 01 pclce To linger wjtlli n their lVltl lls or to muse in their graH) ards
is to step ou t of the noisy present into th c sil ence of cl epartcd errs where everything is o of yC~ te rd a ) 8nd llhose marve lolls naturdl bea uty is but rarely touched b) the ctssocictshy ~
rn
lions of hi story or til l charm s of romJll CC These things hdve ltl slIl)tl e dnd peculiclr raquo J
powe r- a magic not to be Il ikd by 811) olle who tmIlSFrom th e hi ghways of the l11odshy z o
em wo rlel to e1ream Jrnong the sce nes where middothe old padres to iled mel c1i ecl H I -
m
oAmong the most famoLis of these photographers is Carleton Watkins - One of m
till pioneers of photography in the West he includ ed the miss ions as one of his few 7J
osllhjec ts from th e burlt enVironment and his photosrCl phs are class ic ( ~II11ples of -n
framing vision as a means of co nstwcting th e pas ti he eompos ihon of Watkins s VI
GO lIIission images such JS San Juan Capistrclil o and San Carl os are similar to his phoshy I
-
togrJphs of th e natured lanclscJpes of the es t the tex ture of th e I)uildings and the
undula ting mo unds of eroded and co ll apsed adobe rlca ll th e tex tures pa tll rns and
forms of h is geo logical sub jects Ex isti ng in splendid isolati on the missions Watkins
pre~e nts are poundenerally devo id of any evidence of hu mans Th is conven ti on of missions
IS abandoned ruins was furth e r dissemi na ted in publica ti ons such as William Henry
Jackso ns Ancient Mission s and Churches of America (1894) In the photograph s sLlch
J Miss ion San Juan CapistrclllO (fi g 9R ) both thc o ri ginal occ upants and the co nshy
telllporan eous settlers are erased from the sce nes and onl y th e muted tOlles e roding
smClees emd repeating patterns of arehes of the buildings shell s remJ in Their tinl Cshy
iessness md their faded glory signi fy th e llos talgic romanheism smrollnding th ese
remnants of another era while at the sa lile time convc nicntly clispossess ing or CI t least
I)p~l ssing those who continu cd to lay claim to th e properti es
T his representation of the m issions was not mere ly 1 Ill ] rketing pl oy to lure
L[Ive lers to the sites The rOlll3n ti ciz8 ti Oll of thc pas t clil el nos talgic impu lse for simshy
pler ti mes we re expressions of the place of the miss ions ill th e hi stori Ccll memory of
the emerging California state id entity G raci e sc hool clirricul a POPUlcH prc~~ and
wid ely available illlages dissemin lted the same prese ntati on of the s itc~ to the pllbli c
as picturesque ruins that privil eged th e Franciscans minimized th e darker si(les of
205
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
i
Figure 9 B Ms~ion Sn JUdn Capirtrmiddotano from William Henry Jilckson Ancien v1J~siols and Chlilches or Anlfcrtca 189middot1 Coul-tesyThC Huntington Library
colon iali sm illld largely crased th e di vc rse peoplcs who hadlivcd at the miss ions in
th e previous 120 )lCJrs 1949 Californi8 hi story tex tbook opens the chapter on misshy
SiClIlS with Th e miss ion fath ers werc happy Fa th cr Serra was th e happi est of all To
build missions in Califorllia and IC8ch the Indians wcre IIhat hc hld dr(lI ll cd of
doing for I1lall) )ca rs Th e mission billers made fr iend s with th e I nclia n s~( Th e
rlIid cl)ooks and arti cles similarly discounted not only the rca lities of the Jali vc Amershy
ican p~I ~L 1t th e site but also th e Ia ri ou ~ middotct lkl 111an) of tl le111 1(x icltl 11 Americans
who hJd li ved ltIt the ites lJlel continu ed to me th em These selecti ve histori ca l narshy
rati ves celebrak( l th c paelw abO c ill else parti cularly th c fou nelill ~ jJc1 er Serra
T hc generall) skipped th e illconveni elll M ican interllicl e ill lmiddothe history alld sirnulshy
206 ELI Z ABETH KRYDErlt RE ID
tll1eOllsl) cither remnv(middot rl tl
It IS of docil e pup il an cl ( 1
It is in th is crllcihk 1
I di ffere ll t rendition of tIl e
11S J key mediator in this te
()flli e patina of age by in t
clements that evoked all
At tIl ei r most basic
lrrels as ornllllen tal spac
SOlllld T hey are el es igl led
arc intended above eill tc
hca lltiful oa~cs are not rn
cli et in fund amcntal )]ld
pal ios CiS work spaccs clel
lnd food The gard ens n
th ev knew Thc~ deny tIl
funcl311lllltal c crcisls 0
~I S a labor force to prodL
Iising mall ) of the same
the mission Indians lh
clcnlenls of the siles 111
is profOlilldh di ffiClll t 1lt
One of the proll1i
control of lllOI t nl cnt tl
pcri enccs are l e~s ~ ITi ct
1ount Vernon or the 1
miss ions halC Oll1C $orl
ing process and passagt
prctive Jre) This oispl
it lllay be J ~h op with a
JllllSe Ulll Ji spbys have
mosl have nti fa cls ass
of th e ll arr~llives in llr
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
em Missions onci Churciles or
d li ed at the missions ill
pens the Ch up tcr on mi sshy
as the Ilappicst or aIL To
ltI1 lt he Ilad drClJl1eel of
Iith the IndJJI1S middot I T h e
litie of the lalive r lle r-
Icm iV1c ican An lericam
e selective historical nJ rshy
lC foundil1 ~ leader Scrra
in the hi stulY and silnulshy
taneollslv either 1i11IOled the NJ tivc ll1ericJ IlS d togcther or reduced them to tllc stashy
tus uf docile pupil and cagcr ncophyte oIt is in till emeible that tht In issioll garden itsllf 1 born dnd tllC stage ~c t for -
~l cifflt rci lt rendition of thc visual conSUl11ptioll of thc ll1iioll la ll el~lapc Thc (a rck ll o ~ws a key mediltur in thi s li l1sion between architechlral restoration and the preservation 171 0
of the patina of age by introducing timcless plantillg fountlins and other garden raquo Zd ement that evoked an old wodcl origin mcl a pan-Medi te rranean llstlletic o
At their most basic level the mission gardens reprl~ l Ilt the patios amI cOllrtshy -I I m
)Ircl as ornamental -paces They 1[lt dedicated to the pleasure of sight smell and o so und TIle are des igned to attract visitors with their bea uty color and artistry Til t) ~ I rl intended above all to enhance the visitors experience of the lllissioI1s Id th cgtc 0
beautiful oases arc not mcrcly thc product of neutral lc ~ thcti c choi ccs tll c contra shy o - (n
dict in fundamental and naturaliLing ways the historical functions of the pla i ~l S ~lI1d Cl
patios as work SPJ CCS devoted to prudllling life-~Iltainillg ~1I1d pro ht-maki llg products I -I
~l ll cl fooel The ga rd clli rcmove a people from thc l1l ion past dnd Illask the li f middot that
the kne They deny the trJditional relatiollShips with the bnd And thc erase the
fundamental e t rcis ts of power inhere llt in the utiJiLation of th l~ T ~lti ve r rn ericms
d S d labor forc e to produce food and profit Furthermore tlw per form tltl t erasure
lISillg lTlallY of the SaI1Ie visudl illstrurnellts of control used by till padre to subjugatc
Il le lJ1ission Indians T hcl controlmovCl ncnt they direct the gde to emphd~l( some
d ements of the sitlt s and screc il others and they present a nnrati e of the p~l s t tklt
is pro folln cl h difficult to pen etrat c bcc ~llIse it is illscr ibed in nlture itself
One of the prominent 11lt1 5 the sitcs die framed as tourisl p~ICC is through the
con trol of mOlel1lent thro ugh the creation of prescrillCd paths These structmed exshy
pericIlces arc less strictly choreographed tklT1 at Tllu rc (klbely visitcd sites such as
i1 ount Ve rn on or th e Elj ivb kd r hut th ey art sequenced to vanous degrees All the
1I 1issions have some sort of Ori e lJt ~ltion expcric nce ge nerally includinpound a formal hcketshy
illg process anel passage into a gathering spacc thM often includes cl display or illkrshy
prchH are This display space may utilize traditionalmnclllll CISlS an(1 panels or
it may be a shop with an ana) of religious obJ ccts Jlld missioll-reldteel souvenirs T Il e
IllUSelllll clisplays havc ly iJ1 g d cgrce~ of profe s ionlt1lisl1l in thei r r re se l lt ~ltions but
lllOt have artifacts associated with the mi ss ion history amI reli gious d vution lost
ur the narrati lcs in th esc llluseUlll exhibits outline the Imtorv of the mi gt inns and
207
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
celebrate pmticular achi evements of illustriolls persons associated with th e missions
Some of the missions take 1 dec id edl y 3rchitectural tra ck in th eir interpretations
whil e oth crs present of a socia l hi story of the missions As might be expected these
narratives are constructed from th e perspcc ti ve of the Clment proprie tor which is
the Ca tholic C hurch in all bul two instances Deconstruchng the narra ti ves of th esc
interpretations is a hwer subj ect than Cltll1 be addresscd here but the key th emcs arc
th e cou rage and sa nctity of th e founding padrcs th e success and produ cti vity of tIl e
missions at their height and th e va kmt efforts of the church ovcr the years to mainshy
tain and restore th e sites It is also interesting to note that in contras t to the guideshy
books amI popul ar publi shed literature the interprctive narratives at the missions
often highlight the local pari sh hi stories and current 3ctivities
Rather than form al tours th e visitors cxperien ce at th e Californi3 missions is
3lmost cntirely self-guid ed with the exception of sc hool tours There is relativel)
little signage and alm os t no guid ed or human-mediated interac ti ons at most sites alshy
though 1110st missions have some so rt of guidebook or brochure ava ilable The routes
and sequ ence of th e tour experi ence are shaped almost entirely by th e built environshy
ment itself and viSItors generally follow a prescribed patlern Foll owing the orientashy
tion experi ence the visitor usually exits into an inn er co ur ty8rd of th e site where
geIlerally three choices are prccllted to walk th e corriclors and visit whatever roollls
arc open for viewing to explore the ornamental garclens in th e center of the courty3rci
(or exteri or forecourts cl epenciIng on the missi on) or to visit the church A few sites
such as Santa Barbara restrict access into th e gmden itse lf although visitors c3nlook
into th e garclen ( fi ~ 99) The proscribed route culmina ti ng in the sacred space conshy
VCIS a sense of ga ining access to an inner sa nctum at the miss ions The impress ion
of pri vileged entry into a sacred space is reinforced by signs indi ca ting the bounds of
the publi c HtltlS mel by th e generall y subdu ed compor tmellt of othe r visitors exhibi tshy
lllg the ltlppropri3te contemplative pos tures of th e miss ion touri st The atmosphere of
th ese sp3ces is c har~l(l ith 3 combin ecl reverence for the histori c and th e religious
Vhil e th ere is essentially free choice on th e route and sequence of th e experishy
ence at mos t of th e missions clear highlights of th e vis it 3re designed by their pos ishy
ti ons of prominence cOIllC artifacts include the mi ssion hells and wood en crosses
rerni1lJ Ccnt of the or iginal crosses In th e guidebooks each mission has 3n epith et Figure 99 Ccultyard garden such as Queen of the vlissions or Pride of th e iVli ss ions which personifi es its per-
ELI ZABETH KRYDER-REID 208
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
ssociated with the miss ions
middotck in thei r i nterpreta ti ons
s IIlight be expected these
llrrent proprietor wh ich is
cting the flCHratives of th ese
lere but the key theilles arc
cess and productivity of the
lrch over th e yeclrS to mainshy
at in contrast to the gllideshy
~ narratives at th e mi ss ions
ilities
It the Californ ia l11iss iollS is
)1 tours T here is reblively
nterlctions at mos t sites alshy
Ilhure ava ilab le The routes
ntirely by th e built env ironshy
tern Following th e orientashy
courtYlrd of th e site where
)[S and VIsit whatever rooms
n the center of the courtyard
visit the church f few sit ~
If although visitors ca n look
ing in the slcred space conshy
e misions The impression
ns indica ting th e bouncls of
lent of other visitors exhibitshy
1 tourist T he atmosphere of
Ie histor ic and the religious
ltlnd sequence of the experishy
l ilre designed by th eir posishy
n bells and wooden crosses
ach lllission has an ep ithet
which personifies its per- Figure 99 Courtyard garden MISSion Santd Bdrbara 1992 P ot t Kryd rmiddot d
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
SOT13lity along the mission chain Each is al so known fo r one or more iconic fea tures
- particularly striking architec tural eicIllcllis such at th e c(Jmpanarias at San Antonio
de Pa la or unique botanical specimens such as a pepper trce Cit SlJl Lui~ Rey At some
missions with more ex tensive grounds there ltHe also oppor tunities to stroll the area
aroLln c] th e mission buildin~ He fe one may encounter th e local variati ons 0 11 the
mission gHdcn them e- an intrigui ng range of folk art spaces for parish functioll
cvi dell cc of the pnishs politico]1 concerns and outreach scout projccts dem onstrashy
ti on ga rdens native plant lnd botanica l specimen gard ens and vha tever excava tcd
remil i ns of th e miss ion complex 11lt1 ve SLl rvi vcd
vVhat is less vi sibl e eith er because of its complete absence misinterpreta tion or
periphewl placcll1ent is th e pr(~cn ce of Native Americans on the hll1clscape vVith the
exception of the cemeteries some of which contain thousands of Indian burials Ihe
representatioll of these Indi an r( iJcnts and workers at th e mission is minimized The
neophyte barracL--sl)le housing hl rJrely survived and has not been deemed a priori~
for reCon lnrction vVhere direct remnants of the Indians role as laborers survive the
interpretati ons generally range from absent to euph emistic A smelting furnace ~I t San
Juan Capistmn o is label ed no t as a place wh ere Native peoples worked bllt as the firsl
inciustri d si te in Orange County Even when the labor of Imiddoth c Indians is lcknowleclgcd
such 15 their role in bllilding th e miss ions they are generall y posited 1S helpers
Artifac ts associated wi th th e Na tive Alllerican ways of life are sometimes presented as
part of the before portion of the StOl) cplaining the traditional li ves prior to the comshy
ing of the Spanish In other e lSeS representations of ll ative middot-ys of lil~ JPpear drconshy
tc tua li zcd slich as the maiias and metates noted earlier at San FernlIldos
One of th e more telling exa mplegt of th e contested natme of representing the
nali ve past at th e mi ss ions is th c reconstructi on of traditi orwl d~clling At San Juan
C~1 pi s trano 1 dom ed house sits in the forecourt of the miss ion in the midst of a rose
gm1en with minim11 interpretivc signage At Sclllta Barbclra J simil ar reconstructi on
is even more marginall y placed in a side p8rking lot behind a chain-link fence (fi g
910) 41 On th e fence hangs a hand-lettered sign that reacl s This Chul1lImiddoth traclitional
house was built May 1997 bj C hurnash Inclian cbccndants JOIf]1 111 Robl es Vhiteoak
and Nas lll1ll Hoate It depicts the type of hoult originally built by loc11 Indiclrls By
the early 18005 d villagc oflargcr adobe houses W8S built (over 200 homes) vh ere the
parking lot is currently loccl ted
2 10 ELI ZABETH KRY DER-REID
Figure 9 10 Joaqur Robles W
Santa Barban packing lot 199
Along with the c
structu ri lIg the touricl e
va ri es depend ing (Ill th ~
itor ha ve ca rd ully craf
Fou ndation plantings s
jl llipers 11lJ c edars ((
1l1lintained ith great
porcH) wilter politics b
po in t for debate In lll Z
photo opportJ llli ti e wi
in fron t of the cascrclil
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
or lIl o)e iconic rl atllre~
71pana rio CI t Sa n -Jl tun i()
at Sa n Luis Rey t ~orn e
1uni ti s to stroll th areas
le local vniatioll s on th e
aces for parish functions
~ o ut proJcc ts J elll ollstrashy
and whatever excavated
nee misinterpretati on or
n the landslmiddotape VIith th
nds of Indian burials the
lission is minimized he
ot been de Jllec1 ltI priority
Ie as laborers survive th e
smelting furnace at San
lts worked but as thc first
~ Indians is aeknoVkd~ed
ally posited as helpers
middotc sOJlle tilTl e~ presen tecl as
JIlalli ves prior to the C011Ishy
ways of 1 ife appea r dec(lIlshy
an Ferllando1
ature of reprcselltili g t-he
al dwellings t San )uJ1J
ion in thc mid st of a rose
1 a similar rceonstruchol I
lei a chain-link fence (fi g
This C1111 Jll lsh traditiollal
Joaqun Robles Whiteoak
built by local Indian s By oer 200 home) where the
Figure 910 IOrlCjur Robl ~ Whiteoak dnd a hun Hoate Gumash dwelling reconstruction Issie
Santa BiI1J~d pilll ng 101997 PhClO E KJ yde R d
Al ong ith th l control of movement one of th e oth er fundamental aspects
structuring the touri st experi encc is th e control of sight The approach to the missions
Iari es depending 0 11 their loca tion but I I lany of thosc more ori ci I ted to the touris t visshy
dor have carefull y crlCrcd ril e l JfJroach to tile site for the 111 n imal visual impact
lo llllclation plantin gs so ftell thc massil fronts while verdant hl wns lI1d dark ~re n
junipers and cedars contriJ t with th e white facad es In an arid clim8te lallll s are
Illaintlin ed with gr l t d fur t and th e c) llnt to which thel Ire iegitillliLin (I contemshy
porary water politi middot by embedding the greensward in Californi umiddot ea rl ) history is a
I)oint for dehate III many of the missions thio Ipproilch is complemented by staged
photo opportuniti es where the quintess( llti81 JI Ot call be tlkell throllgh the arch or
ill fro llt of the easea cJ ing vi ll e_ or reRected in the qui et surfacc of the pools Some of
211
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
these images are deeply ingrained in the received history of th e miss ions through Ill cir
appearan ces in popul ar meclia and as advertising illustrations on fruit cr8tes zlIld
can ned goods Other images CCl n be trac ecl mo re speci fi ca IJy to the texts that helped
inform the desi gn of the mission g][elens in the ea rly Lvventie th century Populari zers
of 1editerranean hmdscapes such as Byne anel Bynes 1924 Spanish Gardens and Pashy
tios inA II enced th e res iden tial la ndsca pe 1lC1 ti ona Il l bll t wi th in C81 i fornia the style
was scized lIpon as a perfect fit for th e climate and the resort culture it aspired to ~1
Ca lifornia adopters of Imiddothe tvlediterranean reviva l gardens could also look to the missions
CIS 10callandl1larks echoing th e aes thetic while gardeners at the missions we re simultashy
neollsly echoing populJr trends of th e day 51 Within the mission landscapes the play
of shadow and light along the corridors similarly all udes to the lvlediterranean aesthetic
pr8ised by th e ea rli er travel books All of these sights are of course avaihlble for tourists
to capture ancl possess with th eir own cameras or availelble for purchase when they exit
through tlIC gift shop -tokens of thei r own au thentic and historic experi ence
If the exerci ses of pOlI([ through the control of vi sion and movemen t in the
landscape are similar in missions colon izing landscapes and th eir tourist clestination
landscapes what then might be th e forms of res istance in th e tour ist experience
jvli ss ions have been pickelcd over the canoniza tion ofJull1pero Serra who represcl1ts
to some the founde r of Catholicism in Californ ia and to others th e au th or of their
peoples rc llocid e but to date 110 one has protes ted the planting of marigolds or the
builcling of 811 intenti ona11y antiquecl fountain~ The heated pi tch of academic and
political debates over the role of the miss ions in the conquest of Californ ia h3s largely
bypassed the ci ec ision-m aki ng processes shap ing th e contemporary landsca pes of
th ese missions Complicating po tentiltll reinterpretations at the sites is the fact thltlt the
church stands as both th e historically accllsed and the current occupmt Furthershy
more as elt Williamsburg and oth er colonial rev iva l sites the gardens have become
historic landscapes in th eir own right In th e midst of the controversial canoniza ti on
process of Junfpero Serra and accusations of renocide debates over whether to reshy
placl a bed of roses with a du sty courtyard seem S111311 stakes indeed But the same
power of landscape to naturalize relationships of power rei~ ro mantici zed images of
the past and erase a kgelcy of oppress ion IS also th e potenti11 to crea te a landsca pe
of reconcili cl ti on -one that makes conscious th e subtexts of vision landsCJpe and the
intewts th ey serve
212 ELI ZA BETH KRY DER-REID
FOUR VIEW
THROUGHI
(Ilt1s5 helped r alit) more cle which 11 bCIl
FROM AN AERIAL pOlr
Welr su burb IIIS
which seemed to
how it would 10
th e lI1C1ugural is
at the Sl1ne tim
th e postwar sub
