Science Challenge - a novel language learning project at Kochi National College of Technology

ISSN 1346-4302

Annual Report of JACET-SIG on ESP

Volume 15

The Japan Association of

College English Teachers

Special Interest Group on ESP

Kanto Chapter

December 2013

Editors & Reviewers for Annual Report Vol. 15 (2013)

Chief Editor: Masa Tsuneyasu

Associate Editors: Yo Innami, David Rear, Setsu Tsuji, Mitaka Yoneda

Reviewers: Masako Horiuchi, Laurence Anthony, Aika Miura,

Kayoko H. Murakami, Hisashi Naito, Charlie Robertson,

Masa Tsuneyasu, David Rear, Mitaka Yoneda

Annual Report of the JACET-SIG on ESP

Volume 15

ISSN 1346-4302

JACET-SIG on ESP, Kanto Chapter

Publication Contact:

Masa Tsuneyasu

Liberal and General Education Center

Utsunomiya University

350 Mine-machi, Utsunomiya

Tochigi 321-8505, JAPAN

Phone & Fax +81-28-649-8185

E-mail: mtsuneyasu@cc. utsunomiya-u.ac.jp

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Table of Contents

Foreword

Charlie Robertson, Reiko Fujita, Kayoko H. Murakami ---------------------------------------6

Original Paper

ESP 教育における動的プロセスとしてのニーズ分析

Needs Analysis as a Dynamic Process for In-house ESP Training

大津明子---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8

Pilot Study on Using Literature in the EFL Classroom for In-Training Future Healthcare

Professionals – Focusing on the students’ changes of attitude toward literature use

Emiko Ubukawa, Yoko Miyazaki ---------------------------------------------------------------------20

薬科大学における基礎英語学習の評価のための観点

Evaluation Strategies for EFL Programs on the Pharmaceutical Course – Aiming at the motivational

development from course credits to career

山田恵、大野拓恵---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34

Research Report

Adapting and Supplementing Textbook Activities to Increase Productive Skills in Japanese ESP

Classrooms

Mutahar Al-Murtadha ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------41

Meeting Needs – ESP within an English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) Program

Travis J. Cote --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46

Using Online Flash-card Software to Raise Business Students’ TOEIC Scores

Brett Milliner --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52

Science Challenge – A novel language - Learning project at Kochi College of Technology

Michael Sharpe ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61

多重知能理論の知能特性に目を向けた英語授業作り－工学部・農学部生を対象に

Designing English Classes Depending on Students’ Intelligences

恒安眞佐 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68

活動報告

ESP 研究会（関東支部）2013 年度活動報告

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70

Annual Report of JACET-SIG on ESP, Volume 15, December 2013

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Foreword

With great pleasure, we present the 2013 Annual Report of the JACET-SIG on

ESP, Volume 15. This year's issue contains three articles and five research reports on

ESP. It also includes an outline of the JACET-SIG on ESP (Kanto Chapter) activities

which took place in 2013.

We are very pleased to present a wide variety of articles and reports within

several ESP fields in this issue. The 2013 Annual Report includes investigations of: an

English needs analysis for company employees, the use of literature within a nursing

education program, the effects of an evaluation strategy on pharmaceutical science

students, the communicative activities which develop productive-skills for technology

and engineering students, the ESP curricula challenges within a new university-level

tourism and hospitality program, a targeted vocabulary-training program for

university-level business students, the design and implementation of a science-based

collaborative EFL project for first-year junior engineering students, and an English

language course design which considers students’ intelligences.

Akiko Otsu attempts to identify and analyze the language needs of construction

company employees in Japan. Her study suggests that needs analysis does not always

provide unambiguous results and, thus, might require revision on a regular basis. Emiko

Ubukawa and Yoko Miyazaki argue the appropriateness of using medically-related

literary works in the EFL reading classroom as a means of instilling "sensitivity, insight,

and empathy" in Japanese in-training healthcare professionals. An article by Takue

Yamada and Megumi Ono investigates the effects of an evaluation strategy on the

motivational development of pharmaceutical science students who are enrolled in a

six-year course.

Mutahar Al-Murtadha reports on activities, used to teach ESP students at the

Kanazawa Institute of Technology, which aim to move students from "receptive to

productive learning." Travis J. Cote introduces a new language program within a college

of tourism and hospitality and examines its English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

component. His report suggests the need for a greater balance between the inclusion of

EAP and ESP within this new curricula. An article by Brett Milliner investigates the

effect of a specific online flashcard program on student performance. Milliner's study

examines how vocabulary acquisition can be facilitated through the use of online

learning tools and demonstrates that students were able to increase their test scores and

receptive vocabulary knowledge. Michael Sharpe's preliminary report on the design and

implementation of a science-based collaborative EFL project for first-year engineering


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students provides a clear look at both the opportunities and challenges faced when

designing, launching and evaluating such a project. Masa Tsuneyasu examines how,

through the framework of Multiple Intelligences Theory, English classes can be more

effectively designed once students' intelligences have been considered.

The publication of the Annual Report is the culmination of many efforts made

by the ESP Kanto Chapter. We hope that the assortment of voices featured in this issue

will shed more light within the field of ESP and will serve as a source of new

knowledge and ideas for ESP teachers. Last of all, we would like to express our

sincerest gratitude to the Chief Editor (Masa Tsuneyasu), the members of the editorial

committee, and to the reviewers who gave us their valuable time to help assemble and

complete this year's issue.

Charlie Robertson (Chair)

Reiko Fujita (Vice Chair)

Kayoko H. Murakami (Vice Chair)


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Original Paper

ESP 教育における動的プロセスとしてのニーズ分析

Needs analysis as a dynamic process for in-house ESP training

大津明子

大東文化大学

Abstract: The present study is an attempt to identify and analyze the language needs of employees of a

construction company in Japan. A written questionnaire and interviews with participants of an in-house

English training course were conducted at the outset of the intensive course and after the participants

were sent abroad where they need to use English for work more frequently. The results show that the

participants feel the need to improve their oral communication skills, especially those for small talk. Also,

while these employees answered that it was less necessary to learn specific vocabulary and phrases for

their own field during the in-house training, they are likely to see the need to have acquired sufficient

technical terms and expressions when they start working in a new linguistic environment where English is

used as a business lingua franca. In conclusion, the study argues that needs analysis does not provide

definite results, and the process needs to be reviewed, revised or reiterated periodically.

I. はじめに

ビジネスのグローバル化に伴い、英語で円滑なコミュニケーションを図ることができる

社員を育成したいと考える日本企業は多い。しかし、研修カリキュラムを作成するにあた

り、ニーズ分析に力を入れている企業はさほど多くない。実際の受講生 1 人 1 人の声に耳

を傾け、かつニーズ分析を繰り返し行うことで見えてくるものがあるのではないか。

本研究は、ある日本企業の集中英語研修に焦点を絞った質的研究である。建設会社の社

員に特有な言語ニーズを明らかにすると同時に、より的確な分析のため、ニーズ調査を複

数回実施することを提案する1。

II. 言語ニーズの経時的可変性

ニーズ分析は、一度で確定的な結果を提供するものではなく、そのプロセスは定期的に

見直され、改訂され、繰り返されるべきものである。これについて Brown (1995) は、Pratt

(1980, p. 79) のニーズ分析の定義を引用しながら、こう述べている。「ニーズとは、絶対的

なものではない。ひとたび特定されたとしても、それらが受講生の真のニーズであり続け

ているかどうか、常に妥当性を検証することが必要である。(p. 36 筆者訳)」同様に、

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) も、ニーズ分析は一度きりの活動ではなく連続するプロセスで

あり、その結論は常に確認し、再評価されるべきものであると論じている (p. 59)。

また Norton (2000) は、カナダに移民した 5 名の女性の第二言語習得経験について 2 年間

にわたる研究を行った。これによると、5 名のアイデンティティは時間や空間を通じて常に

変化した。Norton (2000) は、主にアイデンティティに焦点を置く研究ではあるが、この中


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で強調されているのは、参加者の言語ニーズの、教室内のみならず職場やコミュニティに

おける可変性である。

この言語ニーズの可変性は、企業研修で英語を学習する日本人社員の職場の文脈にも当

てはまる。これらの研修受講生は、将来的に中長期海外に派遣されビジネスで英語を必要

とすると想定される社員の中から選ばれる。ゆえに研修終了後、受講生は言語的にまった

く異なる環境で働いている可能性が非常に高い。英語を使用する機会は劇的に増え、言語

ニーズも大きく変化しているだろう。そこで、社員達のさらなる言語スキルの上達のため

には、追跡ニーズ分析をすることが望ましい。

III. 本研究の背景と意義

本研究は、日本の建設会社社員の言語ニーズを特定、分析しようという試みである。対

象となる X 社は、日本有数のゼネコンの１つであり、主に国内でビル建設、土木工事およ

び不動産開発に携わってきた。しかし、国内マーケットが飽和状態となり、X 社は海外進出

を図る傍ら、ビジネスの共通語としての英語を適切に使用することができる人材育成に力

を入れるようになった。そのため、X 社は企業英語研修の実施を言語教育機関 Y に委託し、

10 週間にわたる計 288 時間の集中研修が年に 4 回行われている。受講生数は回によって異

なるが、通常 2～6 名の少人数クラスである。このうち、本研究は 2012 年 1～3 月の回に参

加した 4 名の受講生を対象としている。

日本企業における ESP の使用状況あるいは研修について実施された質的ケーススタディ

の数はまだ少ない。日本の企業研修と言語ニーズについての質的研究（Cowling, 2007;

Handford & Matous, 2011 等）の数に比べると、他のアジア、ヨーロッパ諸国の企業で行

われた研究の方が遥かに多種多様である（ Ehrenreich, 2009; Evans, 2010;

Louhiala-Salminen and Charles & Kankaanranta, 2005; Wozuniak, 2010 等）。そして、

いずれの国や地域でも、情報管理が厳格な企業を対象にした ESP研究は困難であるという

報告がある。例えばドイツの多国籍企業で質的研究を行っている Ehrenreich (2009) は、

それを ”enormous challenge” (p. 127) と呼び、Edwards (2000) にも、部外者である研究

者が、実際のビジネスミーティングにアクセスする困難さが述べられている (p. 295)。

企業英語研修を受講後、海外赴任を命じられた社員を追跡調査することは、さらに困難

である。研修中、すなわち「受講生」というステイタスを持っている間であれば、言語教

育機関または教師の要請に応じ、研修内容やその成果について快く回答することができて

も、海外でまったく異なる職場環境に移った後では、研修内容を振り返ったりコメントし

たりする心身の余裕が少なくなるのも当然だ。本研究では、10 週間の集中研修の間、筆者

がボランティアアドバイザーとして随時教室を訪れ、授業の一部を担当したり、他の授業

を観察し助言をしたりすることによって、研修終了後も続く信頼関係と協力体制を構築し

た。こうして本ケーススタディで得られた結果は、効果的な ESP 研修を実施するために、

日本企業における言語ニーズ分析のデータ蓄積に貢献するものと考えられる。

IV. 本研究の参加者と方法


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本研究は、X 社の企業英語研修受講生 4 名に焦点を絞り、アンケートとインタビューを

実施し、受講生自身が把握する職務上の言語ニーズの経時的変化を探るものである。具体

的には、受講生が、(1) 現在どのような部署でどのような仕事をしているか、(2) どのよう

な場面でどの程度英語を使用しているか、(3) 自身の英語力についてどう思うか。どう改善

し、どのような能力を身に付けたいか、という質問を、それぞれ研修開始時と海外赴任後

に尋ね、回答を比較する。

1. 参加者

4 名の研修受講生は、X 社の異なる部門から集められた。それぞれの所属部署と勤務年数

は、表 1 のとおりである。

表 1. X 社受講生のプロフィール

所属勤務年数

受講生 A 設計部 20 年

受講生 B 機械部 14 年

受講生 C 建築部 8 年

受講生 D 業務管理室 2 年

全員が中学校と高校の 6 年間および大学で 1 年の英語教育を受けている。研修開始時に彼

らが受験した TOEIC の平均スコアは 402.2 点で、最高点は 545 点、最低点は 325 点であっ

た。

研修終了後、筆者はこの 4 名の受講生と主に E メールで連絡を取り続けた。ほどなくし

て、受講生 B は香港に、受講生 C はシンガポールに派遣された。受講生 B とは、3 か月の

香港赴任後に彼が東京本社に戻った際、半構造化インタビューを行った。同時期に、シン

ガポールに赴任中の受講生 C とは、オンライン電話システム Skype を利用して半構造化イ

ンタビューを行った2。

2. 方法

本研究に先立ち、2011 年夏に同じ X 社の集中英語研修に参加した 2 名の受講生に対して

パイロットスタディを行った。具体的には、授業の見学と 30～40 分の個別インタビューを

する機会が得られた。これらのインタビューおよび授業中のやり取りを通じ、X 社で仕事を

するうえで社員がどのような場面で英語を必要とするかについての情報が収集できた。

次に、パイロットスタディの結果を基に、Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) の “pre-course

information quesitionnaire”および Reeves and Wright (1996) の”Rotterdam foreign language

needs questionnaire”を参考にして、本研究のためのアンケートを作成した（別表 1）。アン

ケート調査の利点である、多数の回答者から、焦点が絞られ、標準化され、系統立った大

量のデータを得られること、または回答者の匿名性が保てること (Long, 2005) は、本研究

には該当しない。しかし、このアンケートは、個別インタビューの質問項目、段取りを提

示する “interview schedule (Long, 2005, p. 37)”として有用であった。


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インタビューについては、ニーズ分析の段階と状況に応じ、非構造化インタビューと半

構造化インタビューの両方を採用した。非構造化インタビューが、参加者と研究者のラポ

ール作りと、参加者の専門領域でどのようなタスクが行われているかを概観するのに役立

つ (Gilabert, 2005, p. 196) のに対し、interview schedule を用いた深層半構造化インタビュー

は、すべての質問が適切に答えられたかを確認することに役立った。インタビューは、Kvale

(1996) のインタビューガイドラインに沿って行い、30～140 分にわたった。その内容は、参

加者の許可を得て IC レコーダーで録音し、後に分析のため書き起こした。

V. 結果

1. 研修開始時

1.1 Small talk の重要性

アンケートとインタビューの両方から、オーラルコミュニケーションのスキルを向上さ

せたいという回答が最も顕著であった3。例えば、質問 9（この研修で、現在のご自分の英

語力をどう改善し、どのような能力を身につけたいですか。）に対し、受講生 A、B および

C は「スピーキング能力を向上させたい」と回答し、受講生 D は「長い文章を聞き取れる

ようになりたい」と回答した。

受講生が向上させたいと考えるオーラルコミュニケーションの能力をより詳細に見てい

くと、ひとつのスキルが特定された。雑談または世間話、いわゆる small talk である。受講

生は、small talk の重要性を強調し、職務上特有の専門用語や表現を学習するよりも、社交

のための英語を習得したいと回答した。受講生 B は、研修に期待することとして、インタ

ビューでこう述べた：

まずファーストセッション、そのコンタクトでのコミュニケーション。例えば、外人の人と、英

語圏の人と話をする、ま、会話。最初の、やっぱり Nice to meet you から先がなかなか出なかっ

たんですよね。一般的なことをしゃべりつつ具体的な中身に入っていくみたいな、まったくでき

なかった。専門的なものだったらなんとなく、話は、話っていうか、ごり押しで、これはこうだ

ろう、みたいな感じでいけるんですけど、はい。

受講生 B によれば、自分の専門の話、例えばトンネルの掘削機械の部品の発注について

は、具体的な部品の仕様、求める見積もりとその提出期限があり、英語力に限りがあって

も、紙とペンがあれば図や数字を書いて説明することができる。しかし、ファーストコン

タクトで場を和ませるための会話では、臨機応変に言葉が出て来ないことがよくある。

1.2 専門用語習得のニーズ

自分の専門分野に関する技術用語について、受講生 A と C は、英語から日本語にまたは

日本語から英語に翻訳することは、比較的問題でないと回答した。代わりに、受講生 A は、

ミーティングで英語の話し手が何を言っているかを聞き取れるようになりたいと答えた。

彼の専門分野である原子力発電所の設計に関する用語や語句については、インタビューで

こう話した：


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それは、また別に勉強しなければいけないと思ってはいるんですけど。そんなに問題ではない。

（日英、英日に）置き換えれば。専門については自分で勉強できますので。

建築士である受講生 C も同様のコメントをしている。彼が本社で働いていた際、海外のク

ライアントが日本にビルを建設する時、あるいは海外支社から本社に業務応援要請があっ

た時に英語を使用する機会があった。例えば、イタリアの国際ブランドが日本に店舗ビル

を建設する場合、打ち合わせの言語は英語であり、設計図面や指示も英語で書かれていた。

受講生 C は、それらが日本の法規に適しているか確認し、工期や経費を計算し、それを削

減するためにデザイン変更の提案をすることを担当した。この業務について、受講生 C は

インタビューでこうコメントした：

数字とかデザインは（日本語でも英語でも）同じですよね。そうですね、単純に言葉を適した語

彙に直すとか、天井だったら ceiling とか、床だったら floor とか、この仕上げは壁紙ですとか

いったら cloth、仕上げ、finish とか。わりとそれは、もうやったの結構昔なんですけど、建築

用語辞典みたいなのを片手に、翻訳して、上司が最後チェックみたいな。それは時間かければで

きるような話。

このように、受講生たちは、企業英語研修においては、それぞれの専門分野で必要な技術

用語や表現を学習する必要をさほど感じていないという結果となった。

一方で、X 社の集中英語研修では、プレゼンテーションスキルの授業に建設業界の専門用

語を取り入れることにしている。具体的には、言語教育機関 Y が、FIDIC (International

Federation of Consulting Engineers 国際コンサルティング･エンジニア連盟) が出版して

いる ”Conditions of Contract for Construction（建設工事の契約条件書）” をもとに、X

社専用のオリジナル教材を作成して使用している。これは、海外赴任の経験のある X 社人

事部社員の要請によるものだ。

この FIDIC 教材が実際の授業でどの程度使用されているかというと、筆者が授業見学を

した日、6 時間の研修のうち、50 分しか使用していなかった。今回の研修の受講生 4 名に

尋ねると、日常業務でこのような用語を使用することはほとんどないという回答だった。

しかし、上記のアンケート、インタビューは研修開始時に行われたもので、受講生たち

は日本の職場で、主に日本語を使って仕事をしており、英語を使う機会が限られているこ

とに留意しなければならない。これらの社員が海外に派遣されたら、言語ニーズの認識は

どう変化するのか、またはしないのか。これを確かめるため、研修後に海外に派遣された 2

名の受講生、受講生 B と C を対象として追跡インタビューおよび E メールのやり取りを行

った。

2. 海外赴任後

2.1 Small talkの重要性

受講生 B、C の両名への調査から、X 社の社員にとって、英語で仕事をする上でオーラル


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コミュニケーションのスキルが重要であるということが改めて確認された。

受講生 B は、香港の Metro Transit Railway の延長プロジェクトのため、ジョイントベンチ

ャーに参加することとなった。ここでの彼の主要な業務は、工事を計画し、入札のための

見積もりを取ることだった。そのためには、地元の請負業者に英語でコンタクトを取り、X

社がプロジェクトのために必要なものを説明し、見積もりを出してもらわなければならな

い。ここで受講生 B は、研修開始時のインタビューと同じように、世間話の重要性を強調

した：

いつも仕事する時ってある程度世間話しながら入るのがたぶんうまくいく秘訣なんでしょうけ

どね、そこら辺が、要は緊張、初対面なんで緊張取らないといけないじゃないですか。それって、

いきなり、じゃこれ見積もりお願いしますって言っても、彼らも、相手も引くし、防御線張っち

ゃうんですよね。でも実際は、”Nice to meet you. Um…by the way, request for quotation.”み

たいな感じで（笑）

この発言は、受講生 B が英語で仕事をする際、日本にいた時と同様に香港でも small talk に

苦心したことを表している。

一方、受講生 C はシンガポールに赴任し、マレーシアの工場建設プロジェクトに携わっ

ている。基本的にはシンガポールのオフィスで設計を行い、オンラインミーティングや E

メールでマレーシアにいる現地エンジニアに指示を出す。オーラルコミュニケーションの

スキルは、週に 1 度のオンラインミーティングで議長を務め、工場建設の進捗を確認する

ために極めて重要であると確認された。

2.2 専門用語習得のニーズ

受講生 C は、研修開始時のインタビューで、英語で設計することは「単純に」翻訳する

ことであり、問題なくできることだと述べていた。しかし、実際にシンガポールで仕事を

していく中で、建築用語を習得することに苦心していた。職務上英語を使っていてどんな

時に困るか、というインタビュー質問に対し、こう回答があった：

語彙が分からなかったり、言い回しが追い付かなかったりする時ですかね。常に電子手帳は持ち

歩いてるんで、電子手帳はなかったら生きていけない感じなんで、常に手元に置いてますね。本

当に分かんない時は、ちょっと待ってっつって、で、あ、これだみたいな、それはやってますね。

この受講生は、急激に増えた技術用語のニーズに対応するため、建設用語や語句のリスト

を自分で作成、更新していると言った。しかし、海外で新しい職場環境、職務内容に慣れ

つつ英語学習を継続することは非常に困難であることも強調された。

さらに、海外赴任後のインタビューでは、前述の FIDIC オリジナル教材で建設工事契約

の専門語彙、表現を学んだことが役立ったかを質問した。受講生 B は、現在従事している

入札業務の中で、これは授業で学んだことだ、と気付くことがよくあると答えた。受講生 C

は、FIDIC 教材を利用した授業について、E メールでこうコメントした：


14

週 5 日英語漬けとなる中で、FIDIC の授業が唯一建築を扱っていて、実際の業務で使う思考を英

語の授業で発揮していたのでとても実践的だったと思います。赴任後に思うことは、もう少し

FIDIC のような業務に直結する授業があってもよいかなと思います。

受講生 B、C 両名とも、FIDIC 用語を学ぶことがさほど重要と考えていなかったものの、海

外業務を経てその有用性を理解することとなった。

VI. 考察

本研究では、海外赴任が予定されている建設会社社員には、オーラルコミュニケーショ

ン、特に small talk を必要とする意見が赴任前、赴任後を通して確認された一方で、専門用

語の習得の必要性に関しては赴任前、赴任後に変化があることがわかった。

1. Small talkの重要性と専門用語習得のニーズ

Small talk は「職場で幅広い機能を果たす。それは主として、親しみを表現したり、ラポ

ールを構築したり、職場の人間の団結を維持する、社交の機能として用いられる。 (Holmes,

2005, p. 353 筆者訳)」香港に派遣された受講生 B が、ビジネスのファーストコンタクトで

世間話をする際に感じる困難は、Cowling (2007) や Louhiala-Salminen, Charles, and

Kankaanranta (2005)による研究結果を支持している。すなわち Cowling (2007) は、多く

の日本の企業人は、最初のビジネスコンタクトにおける問題を克服する必要を感じている

と論じており、Louhiala-Salminen 他 (2007) は、職務上スウェーデン語を話す必要があ

るフィンランド人にとって、”ordinary small talk” が問題であると説明している。

専門家の赴任前研修というと、技術的な英語表現を多く導入すべきと考えがちであるが、

X 社社員へのインタビューから分かるように、建設業の打ち合わせはたいてい図表を用いて

行われ、言語によるコミュニケーションの不足は、図や数字を示すことで解決できること

が多い。受講生はむしろ適切な社交なための英語を苦手としており、これを習得するため

の授業が研修に組み込まれるべきと考えられる。

ESP 教育で各分野の専門用語をどの程度教えるか、という問題は Dudley-Evans & St.

John (1998, p. 81) 等で長く議論されている。X 社社員の渡航前の認識としては、自分の専

門領域の英語については各自で勉強できるもの、という意見が多かったが、実際に英語で

仕事をする環境に入ると、変化が見られた。シンガポールに派遣された受講生 C は、オン

ラインミーティング中に現地エンジニアとコミュニケーションする際、英語の語彙にどう

しても詰まったら、「ちょっと待って」と言って電子手帳を使用すると話した。この職場で

は、受講生 C 以外にも現地エンジニアや日本人上司等の英語のノンネイティブ・スピーカ

ーが多数いるが、英語の辞書を使ったり、用語を思い出すのに時間がかかったりするスタ

ッフは他に誰もいない。さらに受講生 C は議長という立場上、日本で英語を用いた仕事を

していた時より素早く英語で対処することを求められている。対策として、建設用語や語

句の英語語彙・表現リストを作成、更新してはいるが、新しい環境に慣れつつ英語学習を

継続することは非常に困難であり、研修中に十分な用語を習得していることが望ましい、

と認識が改められることが分かった。


15

2. より良いニーズ分析とその動的特性

本研究は、1つの建設会社の英語研修の受講生を対象に、ニーズ分析を行い、その結果が

時間の経過とともに変化することを確認した。ニーズ分析が ESP のカリキュラム・デザイ

ンにおいて極めて重要な部分であるということは、多くの研究者の一致した意見であるが、

その方法論についてはあまり議論されていない (Long, 2005, p. 2) 中で、このようなケー

ススタディの積み重ねには意義があると考える。

そして本研究は、実際に職務上英語を使用した経験のある社員を対象にしている点で、

新入社員または入職して間もない社員を対象とした Cowling (2007) や Wozniak (2010) と

異なり、受講生から具体的なエピソードを聞くことができた。ESP 企業研修は、受講生の

職場での経験ではなく、英語教育の専門家の推測に基づいてデザインされることが多い

(Jasso-Aguilar, 2005) が、本研究は、ニーズ分析の際に、より内部者の視点に注意を払う

ことの利点を示している。

一方で、これらの X 社社員のニーズ理解は、現在の自身の職場環境に限定されているこ

とも忘れてはならない。同じ受講生でも、異なる職場に移ることによってニーズの変化が

生じる。本研究のこの結果は、ある時点でのニーズ分析が絶対的な結果をもたらすもので

はなく、定期的に見直され、改訂され、繰り返されるべきであるという議論を支持するも

のである。

さらに、本研究のように研修参加者の英語能力が限定的である場合、彼らが把握する言

語ニーズは、他の関係者、例えば研修担当講師、コーディネーター、人事担当者、あるい

は他の海外赴任経験者といった視点からも確認、精査されるべきである。また、教室およ

び職場で実際にどんな言語活動をしているか観察することも有用だろう。筆者は、より大

きな枠組みの研究として、このような複数の視点からのニーズ分析にも着目している

(Otsu, 2013)。

また、ESP のニーズ分析の実施に際しては、その動的特性を念頭に置くべきであり、厳密

に手順を決めるより、いくらかの柔軟性を持たせることが必要である。Long (2005) は「慎

重に順序立てられた (sequenced) 2 つ以上の手順を使用することで、より良い情報を提供す

ることが期待される」(p. 33 筆者訳) と論じているが、実際のニーズ分析は必ずしも直線的

なプロセスではなく、常に順序立てることができるものではない。受講生は、英語を習得

する過程で、以前は表現されなかった、または軽視されていた言語ニーズに気付く、また

は説明できるようになるかもしれないからだ。

本研究のような質的調査は、創発的性質 (emergent nature) を持つものであり、リサーチ

を進める中で、当初は見つけられなかった、あるいは想定もしていなかった情報源や方法

が見つかることもある (Jasso-Aguilar, 2005)。それらを最大限活用するためにも、ニーズ分

析は間を置いて複数回実施すべきなのである。

本研究は、非常に小規模な調査であり、結論の一般化を求めるものではないが、Norton

(2000) が述べているように、特定の学習者それぞれの声、歴史、将来への希望に耳を傾け

ることは、教師がその学習者の教室、職場およびより広いコミュニティでの言語活動を容

易にする手助けをするための情報を得ることである。企業を対象にした ESP 研究は困難で

はあるが、このようなデータの蓄積により、日本企業の言語ニーズおよび英語研修につい


16

ての実態解明が進み、より適切な ESP 研修の実施につながることが期待される。

VII. 結論

本研究では、日本の建設会社社員の言語ニーズを特定し、また経時的変化を分析するこ

とを試みた。結果として、全受講生に、オーラルコミュニケーション能力、特に職場での

人間関係を構築し業務遂行を円滑にする世間話 (small talk) の能力のニーズがあることが

分かった。これは研修開始時と海外赴任後でも一様に必要性が強調されるスキルであった。

一方で、専門用語や語句を学習することの重要性については、ニーズ分析の実施時期に

より見解が分かれた。研修開始時には、全受講生が、自身の専門分野に特有の用語や表現

は自分で学習できるものであると回答したが、実際に英語で仕事をする環境に入ると、事

前に十分な語彙、表現を習得しておくことの大切さに気が付くことがわかった。ゆえに、

本研究では、経時的変化を考慮に入れ、ニーズ分析を厳密に順序立てた 1 回限りのものと

せず、定期的かつ流動的に実施することを提案する。

注

1本稿は、１つの日本企業の社員の言語ニーズ、英語研修の内容、実際の英語使用状況につ

いてのより大きな枠組みの研究の一部として、言語ニーズの経時的可変性に焦点を絞って

論じる。 2受講生 Dは、研修終了後直ちに海外派遣が予定されていたが、他の業務との兼ね合いで急

遽延期となったため、本稿執筆時点では研修後のニーズ調査が実施できていない。2013年

12月現在インドネシアに赴任しており、新たな追跡データの入手、分析を予定している。 3当該アンケートの集計結果詳細については、Otsu (2013) を参照されたい。

17

参考文献

Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program

development. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Cowling, J. D. (2007). Needs analysis: Planning a syllabus for a series of intensive workplace

courses at a leading Japanese company. English for Specific Purposes, 26(4), 426-442.

Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A

multi-disciplinary approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Edwards, N. (2000). Language for business: effective needs assessment, syllabus design and

materials preparation in a practical ESP case study. English for Specific Purposes, 19, 291-296.

Ehrenreich, S. (2009). English as a lingua franca in multinational corporations. In A. Mauranen & E.

Ranta (Eds.), English as a lingua franca: Studies and findings (pp. 126-151). Cambridge

Scholars Publishing.

Evans, S. (2010). Business as usual: The use of English in the professional world in Hong Kong.

English for Specific Purposes, 29(3), 153-167.

Gilabart, R. (2005). Evaluating the use of multiple sources and methods in needs analysis: A case

study of journalists in Autonomous Community of Calalonia (Spain). In M. H. Long (Ed.),

Second language needs analysis (pp.182-199). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Handford, M., & Matous, P. (2011). Lexicogrammar in the international construction industry: A

corpus-based case study of Japanese-Hong-Kongese on-site interactions in English. English for

Specific Purposes, 30(2), 87-100.

Holmes, J. (2005). When small talk is a big deal: Sociolinguistic challenges in the workplace. In M.

H. Long (Ed.), Second language needs analysis (pp. 344-372). New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC). (1999). Conditions of Contract for

Construction. London: Thomas Telford Publishing.

Jasso-Aguilar, R. (2005). Sources, methods, and triangulation in needs analysis: A critical

perspective in a case study of Waikiki hotel maids. In M. H. Long (Ed.), Second language

needs analysis (pp. 127-158). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction for qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage.

Long, M. H. (Ed.). (2005). Second language needs analysis. New York: Cambridge University

Press.

Louhiala-Salminen, L., Charles, M., & Kankaanranta, A. (2005). English as a lingua franca in

Nordic corporate mergers: Two case companies. English for Specific Purposes, 24(4), 401-421.


18

Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. New

York: Longman.

Otsu, A. (2013). Language needs analysis at a Japanese company: Multiple perspectives for the

improvement of in-house language training. Asian Englishes, 15, 47-68.

Pratt, D. (1980). Curriculum design and development. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Reeves, N, & Wright, C. (1996). Linguistic auditing. Clevedon, OH: Multilingual Matters.

Wozniak, S. (2010). Language needs analysis from a perspective of international professional

mobility: The case of French mountain guides. English for Specific Purposes, 29(4), 243-252.


19

別表 1. 研修開始時ニーズ調査シート

Name：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　

１．現在お持ちのTOEICその他のスコア、資格を教えてください。

・TOEIC　（　　　年　　　月受験）　　　　　　　点・英検　　（　　　年　　　月合格）　　　　　　　級

・TOEFL　（　　　年　　　月受験）　　　　　　　点・その他　（　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

２．社会人になってから、どんな方法で英語を勉強したことがありますか／していますか。

　　あてはまるものに○をつけてください。

( ) 全く勉強していない

（　　　）市販の教材で自習　　(教材名：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

（　　　）学校に通う　（学校名：　　　　　　　　期間：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

（　　　）その他　　（　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

３．海外滞在経験があれば教えてください。

（　　　）留学　（国名：　　　　　　　　　　　　　期間：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

（　　　）仕事　　（国名：　　　　　　　　　　　　　期間：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

（　　　）旅行　　（国名：　　　　　　　　　　　　　期間：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

（　　　）その他　（国名：　　　　　　　　　　　　　期間：　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　）

４．現在どのような部署でどのようなお仕事をされていますか。

５．今後、海外赴任・出張のご予定があれば教えてください。

６．現在、または将来のお仕事で、日本語、英語以外の言語を使うことがありますか。あれば具体的に教えてください。

７．現在、どのような場面でどのくらい英語を使っていますか。またこの講座を受講後、どのような場面で英語の使用が想定されますか。

1= 頻繁にある、 2= 時々ある、3= まったくない、のうち該当する番号をそれぞれの欄に記入してください。

現在将来

電話を受ける

電話をかける

Ｅメールを受け取る

Ｅメールを送る

技術文書（マニュアル、論文等）を読む

技術文書（マニュアル、論文等）を書く

一般的なビジネス文書を読むコメント：

一般的なビジネス文書を書く

顧客の案内をする

スピーチ、プレゼンテーションをする

交渉をする

ミーティングに参加する

ミーティングの議長を務める

８．現在のご自分の英語力についてどう思いますか。

　 1＝自信がある、2=少し自信がある、3= あまり自信がない、4=まったく自信がない、のうち該当する番号をそれぞれの欄に記入してください。

読む

書くコメント：

聞く

話す

９．この研修で、現在のご自分の英語力をどう改善し、どのような能力を身につけたいですか。

その他、この研修について疑問、要望等があればお聞かせください。


20

Pilot Study on Using Literature in the EFL Classroom for In-Training

Future Healthcare Professionals:

Focusing on the students’ changes of attitude toward literature use

Emiko Ubukawa Yoko Miyazaki

Gunma Prefectural College of Health Sciences

Abstract: The introduction of literature in nursing education began in the United States during the 1960s.

Most nursing educators who used literary works in nursing education in both the U.S. and the U.K.

claimed that their undergraduate and graduate students could enrich their empathy and insights into

patients’ feelings through vicarious experiences, which eventually would nourish their own mental growth.

The aim of this research is to prove the appropriateness of using medically-related literary works in the

EFL reading classroom by requiring students to read a critically-acclaimed novel with medical themes

and, through use of a questionnaire, measuring their attitudes; 1) toward literature as a resource for

vicarious experiences, and 2) toward the necessity of experiencing a wide range of human situations

within their future professions, even if such situations are experienced vicariously. It is concluded that

after treatment the students showed positive changes of attitude toward literature as a resource for

receiving vicarious experiences and toward the necessity of vicarious experiences for in–training future

healthcare professionals. The study also suggests that literature has the potential to help Japanese

in-training future healthcare professionals to nourish their own sensitivity, insight, and empathy by way of

vicarious experiences.

1. Introduction

The introduction of literature use in nursing education began in the United States

during the 1960s. Around the same time, the field of medical education also introduced

the use of literature in the classroom. This emergence of literature in medical education

in turn led to the publication of ‘Literature and Medicine’ by Johns Hopkins University

(McLellan & Jones, 1996).

Most nursing educators who used literary works in nursing education in the U.S.

and the U.K. claimed that their undergraduate and graduate students could enhance their

empathy and insights into patients’ feelings through vicarious experiences, which

eventually would nourish their own mental growth (Ubukawa et al., 2013).

The fostering of mental growth has long been considered to be one of the

objectives for using literature in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) reading

classroom (Carter & Long, 1991). This objective corresponds neatly with the

above-mentioned nursing educators’ claim. We believe that using literature in the EFL

reading classroom for in-training future healthcare professionals can provide valuable

opportunities for them to develop empathy and gain insight into the potential difficulties

within clinical settings.


21

As Mukuhira et al. (2003) point out, teaching with literary works or materials in

combination with application of ESP (English for Specific Purpose) concepts might

very well contribute to the enhancement of English education more relevant to learners

needs in society. Darbyshire (1995) stresses it is important that the literary work chosen

as a course text have a resonance with students’ personal and professional experiences.

Carter and Long (1991) suggest that ‘literature can be a special resource for personal

development and growth, an aim being to encourage greater sensitivity and

self-awareness and greater understanding of the world around us.’(3) In the case of

teaching English for in-training future healthcare professionals, therefore, using

medically-related literary works is considered appropriate for two reasons; 1) literature

can provide students with vicarious experiences that may enhance empathy and foster

self-growth, and 2) such vicarious experiences are likely to be useful in the clinical

settings where they are expected to be working in the future.

The aim of this research is to prove the appropriateness of using medically-related

literary works in the reading classroom by requiring students to read a

critically-acclaimed novel with medical themes and, through use of a questionnaire,

measuring their attitudes 1) toward literature as a resource for vicarious experiences,

and 2) toward the necessity of experiencing a wide range of human situations within

their professions, even if such situations are experienced vicariously.

2. Research purpose

There were two research goals in this study:

1. To examine whether the use of medically-related literary works in the EFL

reading classroom changes students’ attitudes toward literature as a

resource for vicarious experiences.

2. To examine whether the use of medically-related literary works in the EFL

reading classroom influences students’ attitudes toward the necessity of

experiencing a wide range of human situations within their future

professions, even if such situations are experienced vicariously.

3. Method

3.1 Participants

The participants were 22 sophomore students enrolled in English IV, which is one

of four required English subjects, and which focuses on reading. Among the 22 students,

19 were majoring in nursing and 3 were majoring in radiological technology.


22

Table 1. Breakdown of Students in English IV Class

Majors N

Nursing 19

Radiological technology 3

3.2 Materials

The novel Tuesdays with Morrie1)

, written by Mitch Albom, was selected as the

reading text for this course. This novel is based on the relationship between a newspaper

journalist, Mitch, and his former college professor, Morrie, who is suffering from a

serious illness. Mitch contacts Morrie after not having any interaction with him for 16

years and decides to visit him each Tuesday. His visits with his former professor last 14

Tuesdays. This novel was chosen because it offers opportunities for students to

understand a medical patient and others surrounding him. Moreover, the novel was

actually used for nursing research in nursing education in the U.S. A movie based on

this novel was also used in this reading class.

3.3 Procedure

3.3.1 Pre-Test and Post-Test

The reading class consisted of 15 sessions in which the students were asked to

read Tuesdays with Morrie with the aid of worksheets designed in advance by the

authors of this paper.

Before the first lesson, the students were asked to respond to a questionnaire as a

pre-test (see Appendix 1). After the final lesson, the same questionnaire was

administered as a post-test. This questionnaire consists of seven items (Q1~Q7)

measuring their attitudes toward reading novels. For each of the seven items, they were

asked to rate their extent of agreement by using a five-point Likert scale (5= strongly

agree, 4= agree, 3= neither agree nor disagree, 2= disagree to some extent, 1= strongly

disagree). Moreover, they were asked the reasons for their responses to item Q4.

Q1 You usually read novels.

Q2 You are prone to be emotionally involved with characters while reading.

Q3 Reading novels is necessary for healthcare professionals.

Q4 In addition to reading novels, being familiar with music and fine arts is

necessary. Please explain why you think so.

Q5 You need many experiences in order to understand patients’ feelings.


23

Q6 You can acquire a variety of experiences vicariously via novels.

Q7 It is necessary to have various experiences, even if only vicarious ones, so

that you can understand patients’ feelings and have good relationships with

them.

Items Q1 and Q2 measure the students’ present situation in terms of reading

novels. Items Q3 and Q4 show the students’ awareness of the necessity of humanities

for healthcare professionals. The information culled by items Q5~Q7, however, is the

primary focus of our research. Through analysis of the students’ responses to items

Q5~Q7, we hoped to find their attitudes toward literature as a resource for vicarious

human experiences and toward the necessity of experiencing a wide range of human

situations within their future professions, even if such situations are experienced

vicariously.

3.3.2 Lessons

Each lesson was conducted with the aid of a worksheet that consisted of a

‘reading comprehension’ section (to better understand the outline of the story), a

‘grammar and phrases’ section (to better understand the sentence structures, including

important grammatical points and phrases), a ‘vocabulary’ section (to build up students’

vocabulary), and an ‘activity’ section (which included a discussion activity and the

writing of a short comment to deeply reflect on one’s own understanding of oneself and

of others). In order to help students to understand the outline of the story, the first half

of a film version of the story (shown on DVD) was shown at the beginning of the course,

and the latter half of the film was shown in the middle of the course.

Tuesdays with Morrie contains twenty-seven chapters. Eighteen of the chapters

were used in the course. Worksheets were created and used for only seven of the

eighteen chapters. Of the seven worksheets, four were designed and used for chapters

which focused on what happened to Morrie and Mitch before their reunion, and three

were designed and used for chapters on the first, second, and fourteenth Tuesday on

which they met. Each of the remaining eleven chapters, The Third Tuesday to The

Thirteenth Tuesday, was assigned to one of eleven pairs of students who were asked to

read their assigned sections by themselves and to do presentations. In the presentations,

they reported what they thought Morrie wanted to tell Mitch in their allotted sections.

They were also asked to find and report on some words and phrases they thought were

important and explain them.


24

Table 2. Tuesdays with Morrie: Chapters Used in Class

Titles of Chapters

Worksheet

The Curriculum

The Syllabus

The Student

The Orientation

The First Tuesday, We Talk about the World

The Second Tuesday, We Talk about Feeling Sorry for Yourself

The Fourteenth Tuesday, We Say Good-bye

Presentation Presentati The Third Tuesday ~ The Thirteenth Tuesday

4. Results

As discussed in Section 3.3.1, the students were asked to rate the extent to which

they agreed with seven pre-and post-test items (Q1~Q7) by using a five-point Likert

scale (5= strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= neither agree nor disagree, 2= disagree to some

extent, 1= strongly disagree). They were also asked about their reasons for their

responses to item Q4. The scores of the pre-test and the post-test were then compared.

Table 3 shows the results of items Q1 to Q7. The table shows the number of the

students answering each question for both the pre-and post-test.


25

Table 3. Pre- and Post-Test Results

Question Item

5

(strongly

agree)

4

(agree)

3

(neither

agree nor

disagree)

2

(disagree

to some

extent)

1

(strongly

disagree)

Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post

Q1. You usually read novels. 0 1 8 6 6 7 4 4 4 4

Q2. You are prone to be

emotionally involved with

characters while reading. 6 6 6 10 5 5 3 0 2 1

Q3. Reading novels is necessary for healthcare professionals.

3 4 7 10 10 7 2 0 0 0

Q4. In addition to reading novels,

being familiar with music and

fine arts is necessary.

4 7 12 11 4 4 2 0 0 0

Q5. You need many experiences in

order to understand patients’

feelings.

18 16 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q6. You can acquire a variety of

experiences vicariously via

novels.

5 8 10 10 7 4 0 0 0 0

Q7.

It is necessary to have various

experiences, even if only

vicarious ones, so that you can

understand patients’ feelings

and have good relationships

with them.

5 9 13 10 4 2 0 1 0 0

Items Q1 and Q2 measure the students’ present situation in terms of reading

novels. The result of item Q1 shows that not many students read novels in their daily

lives. However, in item Q2 the total number of the students who ‘strongly agree’ or

‘agree’ is 12 for the pre-test, but 16 for the post-test. In items Q3 and Q4, which aim

to measure the students’ awareness of the necessity of humanities for healthcare

professionals, the number of the students who ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ is 10 in the

pre-test and 14 in the post-test. The number of the students who ‘strongly agree’ or

‘agree’ for item Q4 is 16 in the pre-test and 18 in the post-test, which shows a slight

increase. Items Q5, Q6 and Q7 measure the students’ attitude toward literature as a

resource for vicarious experiences and toward the necessity of various experiences. In

item Q5 all the students ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree.’ In item Q6, which asks about the

potential of reading literature for vicarious experiences, the number of students who

‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ shows a slight increase, and the number of the students who

‘strongly agree’ is larger by 3 than that of the pre-test. The increase from 5 to 8 can be

considered to be rather large considering that the total number of participants is only 22.

In item Q7, which asks about the necessity of experiencing various human situations,


26

even if such situations are only experienced vicariously, for understanding of patients’

feelings, the number of students who ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ is only a slight increase.

The number of students who ‘strongly agree’ is larger by 4 than that of the pre-test.

From the result of item Q7, which measures the students’ feeling on the necessity

of various experiences, even if only vicarious, we can say that the total number of

participants who ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ do not show much difference. If we look at

the number of the participants who ‘strongly agree,’ however, the number in the

post-test is almost double of that in the pre-test. This indicates a more significant

increase in the strength of their agreement.

Table 2 below shows the key phrases that were produced in response to item Q4’s

tag question, which asks the reasons for the necessity of music and fine arts, in addition

to that of novels, for healthcare professionals.

Table 4. Key Phrases Produced in Response to Q4

Q4: Why do you think, in addition to reading novels, being familiar with music and fine

arts is necessary?

Key Phrases

Number

Pre Post

Interpersonal understanding others (patients)

building a good rapport with others (patients)

4

8

4

5

Intrapersonal

becoming highly cultured

enhancing sensitivity

reducing stress or healing him/herself

4

6

4

2

3

5

Overall, the number of the key phrases that students produced in response to item

Q4’s tag question in the post-test (n=19) is decreased from that in the pre-test (n=26).

Therefore, in the case of item Q4, we should pay attention to the quality of the key

phrases that students found and produced on the written questionnaire. The key phrases

written by the students were categorized as either interpersonal or intrapersonal.

Interpersonal key phrases focused on the importance of coping with other people,

whereas intrapersonal key phrases focused on the significance of enhancement of

oneself.

Two kinds of key phrases are categorized under interpersonal: ‘understanding

others (patients)’ and ‘building a good rapport with others (patients).’ Three kinds of

key phrases are categorized under intrapersonal: ‘becoming highly cultured,’

‘enhancing sensitivity,’ and ‘reducing stress or healing him/herself.’

In the interpersonal key phrases category of the pre-test, the number of

‘understanding others’ is 4 and the number of ‘building a good rapport with others

(patients)’ is 8. In the interpersonal key phrases category of the post-test, the number of


27

‘understanding others’ is again 4, but the number of ‘building a good rapport with others

(patients)’ falls to 5.

In the intrapersonal key phrases category of the pre-test, the number of

‘becoming highly cultured’ is 4, the number of ‘enhancing sensitivity’ is 6, and the

number of ‘reducing stress or healing him/herself’ is 4. In the intrapersonal key phrases

category of the post-test, the number of ‘becoming highly cultured’ falls to 2, the

number of ‘enhancing sensitivity’ falls to 3, but the number of reducing stress or healing

him/herself’ rises from 4 to 5.

Although the total number of key phrases found in the post-test decreased from

that in the post-test, it might be better if we compare the number of each key phrase in

the ratio to the total number of key phrases.

Figure 1. Pre-test: Number of Key Phrases within Each Percentage

Figure 2. Post-test: Number of Key Phrases within Each Percentage

Figure 1 shows the ratio of the number of each key phrase within the ratio to the

total number of key phrases found in the students’ responses.


28

The ratio of interpersonal and intrapersonal key phrases showed no change. The

ratio of each item showed a slight change. In terms of interpersonal, the ratio of the key

phrase ‘understanding others’ increased from 16% in the pre-test to 21% in the post-test.

In the intrapersonal aspect, ‘reducing stress or healing him/herself’ increased from 15%

in the pre-test to 26% in the post-test.

5. Discussion

Our primary purpose of research was to see if the students’ attitudes toward

literature as a resource for vicarious experiences would change through use of

medically-related literary works inside the reading classroom. Among seven items

Q1~Q7 on the questionnaire, item Q6 is directly related to our primary purpose for this

research. The total number of the participants who ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ shows a

slight increase in the post-test. Furthermore, looking at the number of the students who

‘strongly agree’ with item Q6, the increase from 5 to 8 is considered significant.

From this result, we can say that using medically-related literary works in the

reading classroom is likely to have a positive influence on the students’ attitudes toward

literature as a resource for vicarious experiences.

Our secondary research purpose was to investigate whether using

medically-related literary works inside the EFL reading classroom might positively

influence the students’ attitudes toward the necessity of various experiences, even if

only vicarious, in their future profession.

From the result of item Q5, it can be seen that all participants of this study see the

necessity of many experiences in their future professions, which no doubt require the

ability to understand patients’ feelings. The number of students who ‘strongly agree’

increased by 4 while that of ‘agree’ decreased by 3. If we look at the total number of

students who both ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree,’ we see that there was 18 in the pre-test

and 19 in the post-test, which means an increase by one. Conversely, the number of

students who neither ‘agree’ nor ‘disagree’ decreased by 2. As a whole, we could say

that the students’ attitudes shifted in favor of agreement with the Q7 statement.

The results of items Q5 and Q7 indicate that the students’ attitudes toward the

necessity of having various experiences, even just vicarious ones, in their future

healthcare professions can be improved through the use of medically-related literature

in their course curriculum.

From the result of item Q1, we can see that the students’ reading habits show no

change after treatment. It may be said that the students had less time to read because of

their tight schedules during the semester. From the result of item Q2, however, it can be

seen that there was a change in students’ attitude toward emotional involvement while

reading. After 15-week course activities, more students claimed they were prone to be

emotionally involved with characters. It seems reasonable to think that they learned to


29

read a novel in a way that they involved themselves emotionally with the characters

through the course activity or they found themselves more emotionally involved with

characters while reading. It is considered for the teacher to achieve a successful

outcome, the students be provided with opportunities to consider how they feel in

Morrie’s place. Two kinds of class activities, ‘Pre-reading’ and ‘Activity,’ in the

worksheet are likely to serve the role of encouraging students to understand others’

feelings deeply and to share their own thoughts with their peers after reading the novel.

(see Appendix 2)

In items Q3 and Q4, which ask about students’ awareness of the necessity of

humanities for healthcare professionals (reading novels, listening to music, and

enjoying fine art), the students showed positive attitudes. From this result, it can be said

that the human experiences portrayed by literature, music, and art can have a profound

and positive influence on students' attitudes toward their own future professional

situations. In particular, the reading of Tuesdays with Morrie appears to have

highlighted for the students the representation of real life situations and emotions within

the novel. This discovery, for the students, can lead to a greater appreciation of reading

novels.

The result of item Q4, measuring the need of humanities such as music and fine

arts, as well as literature, shows that the students find music and fine arts, as well as

literature, to be necessary. From the result of the written questionnaire for item Q4,

asking why they think music and fine arts are necessary for healthcare professionals, it

is found that the students thought being familiar with music and fine arts was necessary

for two kinds of interpersonal reasons ― ‘to understand others’ and ‘to build good

rapport with others (patients)’ ― and three kinds of intrapersonal reasons ― ‘to

become highly cultured,’ ‘to enhance sensitivity,’ and ‘to reduce stress and heal

themselves.’

Given that becoming highly cultured and fostering sensitivity will eventually

result in building good relationships with patients, the majority of students can be

considered to show a positive attitude toward humanities for healthcare professionals.

6. Conclusion

We have affirmed that the use of medically-related literary works inside the EFL

reading classroom is likely to have a positive influence on the students’ attitudes toward

literature as a resource for vicarious experiences, and might positively influence

students’ attitudes toward the necessity of various experiences, even if only vicarious, in

their future professions. At the same time, however, we should keep in mind that there

were only a small number of students who participated in the study; therefore, it might

not be appropriate to say that the results speak for all present and future in-training

healthcare professionals.


30

In conclusion, it should be noted that, after treatment, the students showed a

positive change in attitude toward literature as a resource for getting vicarious

experiences and the necessity of vicarious experiences for in–training future healthcare

professionals. The study also suggests literature has the potential to help Japanese

in-training future healthcare professionals to nourish their own sensitivity, insight, and

empathy through vicarious human experiences.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Professor Raymond Hoogenboom of Gunma University for proofreading and

giving us valuable advice.

Note

1 This story is a memoir written by Mitch Albom in 1997, an American journalist, based on real meetings

between Mitch and his old professor, Morrie, who met for the first time in sixteen years after his

graduation. Mitch, who was busy as a journalist, accidentally found Morrie on TV. He was forced to stop

his job as a professor specialized in sociology at Brandies University since he developed ALS

(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Mitch’s decision to meet his teacher after a lapse of sixteen years

rekindled the relationship between them. Their Tuesday-meetings provide Mitch with opportunities to

have profound thinking on how to live and die. (Albom, Mitch (1997). Tuesdays with Morrie: An old man,

a young man, and life’s greatest lesson. New York: Broadway Books)

References

Carter, R., & Long, M. N. (1991). Teaching literature. London: Longman.

Darbyshire, P. (1995). Lessons from literature: Caring, interpretation, and dialogue. Journal of

Nursing Education, 34(5), 211-216.

椋平淳・野口ジュディー・深山晶子(2003). 文学系 ESP は可能か？―「EGP」対「ESP」の

構図を超えて (Is there an ESP approach for teaching literature?: Looking beyond ESP

vs.EGP). JACET 関西紀要第 7 号 105-114.

McLellan, M. F., & Jones, A. H. (1996). Literature and medicine: Why literature and medicine? The

Lancet, 348, 109-110.

Ubukawa, E., Miyazaki, Y. and Hayashi, N. (2013). A study on nursing articles on literature-based

education in both the US and UK. Bulletin of Gunma Prefectural College of Health Sciences,

8, 45-63.


31

Appendix 1 Questionnaire (Pre- and Post-test)

[5: 非常に当てはまる 4: 当てはまる 3: どちらとも言えない 2: あまり当てはまならない 1: 全く当てはまらない]

Question 5 4 3 2 1

Q1. あなたは普段小説を読む。 5 4 3 2 1

Q2. あなたは、小説を読むとき、登場人物に感情移入しやすい。 5 4 3 2 1

Q3. 小説を読むことは医療従事者には必要なことだと思う。 5 4 3 2 1

Q4. 小説以外に絵画や音楽に親しむことも医療従事者には必要なことだと思

う。

5 4 3 2 1

Q4 について、なぜそのように思いますか？

Q5. 患者の気持ちをよりよくわかるようになるためには多くの人生経験は必要

だと思う。

5 4 3 2 1

Q6. 小説による疑似体験でも多くの経験は得られると思う。 5 4 3 2 1

Q7. 疑似体験による経験でも、将来患者の気持ちを理解し、うまく対応できるよ

うになるために必要なことだと思う。

5 4 3 2 1

Appendix 2 (Worksheet)

8. Tuesdays with Morrie The Second Tuesday We Talk about Feeling Sorry for Yourself (p.55~p.61)

*Pre-reading Activity:

Do you ever feel sorry for yourself?

I. Reading comprehension:

Answer the following questions in Japanese.

Q1. What does ‘this ‘refer to? In light of this, my visits with Morrie felt like a cleansing rinse of human kindness. (55.14) Q2. Morrie considered himself lucky. Why did he think so?(57) Q3. ‘You want me to do that?’ What does ‘do that’ refer to?(58.11)

Q4. What were Connie’s instructions? Pretend that your partner is Morrie and follow her instructions. (58) Q5. When Mitch held Morrie, what did he feel? (58-9) Notes: mimick: まねる picketer :デモ行進者、ピケ隊 replacement worker: 代替え労働者 vermicelli : バーミセリ・細いパスタ

baklava : バクラヴァ・ナッツや密のはいった中東のデザートパイ

bellow: 大声で言う。commode : 寝室用便器 mourn: 悲しむ straight: ゲイではない armpit: 腋の下

leaf through: さっとめくる。hoist: 持ち上げる dead weight：ずっしり重い groan:うめく gotcha: =got you thump on…:…に倒れる。 yank O up: O をぐいっと引き上げる。


32

II. Grammar & Phrases

Focus on the underlined part, and translate the English sentences into Japanese.

1. I looked forward to these visits more than one would think, considering I was flying seven hundred miles to sit alongside a dying man. (55)

2. I seemed to slip into a time warp when I visited Morrie, and I liked myself better when I was there. (55) 3. I asked Morrie if he felt sorry for himself.(56) 4. It wasn’t always easy for him to lift the bell,…(56.21-2) 5. I mourn the slow, insidious way in which I’m dying. (57.1-2) 6. I thought about all the people I knew who spent many of their waking hours feeling sorry for

themselves.(57.12-13) 7. I studied him in his chair, unable to stand, to wash, to pull on his pants.(57.23-24) 8. When you lift someone, you expect their arms to tighten around your grip. (58.19-21) 9. He was mostly dead weight, and I felt his head bounce softly on my shoulder and his body sag against me like a

big damp loaf(58.21-23) 10. More often than not, someone ends up crying. (60.6) 11. We laugh in embarrassment. (60.13)


33

III. Vocabulary:

♦Make sentences with the following words.

Word meaning sentence 1. insane

2. wilt

3. befriend

4. flinch

5. have a crush on…

♠Match the following definitions with the words in the box below.

1. a situation in which there is an angry disagreement between people or groups who have different opinions ( )

2. a strong feeling of sympathy for people who are suffering and a desire to help them ( ) 3. to shout in a loud deep voice, especially because you are angry ( ) 4. to feel and show sadness because somebody has died ( ) 5. spreading gradually or without being noticed, but causing serious harm ( )

mourn, insidious, confrontation, bellow, compassion

IV. Activity:

Morrie sometimes felt sorry for himself in the mornings. But he concentrated on all the good things still in

his life to stop feeling self-pity. Can you suggest any other way to stop feeling self-pity? Let’s discuss with

your partner.

NO[ ]NAME[ ]


34

薬科大学における基礎英語学習の評価のための観点

Evaluation strategies for EFL programs on the pharmaceutical course:

Aiming at the motivational development from course credits to career

山田惠大野拓恵

北海道薬科大学薬学部

Abstract: The present study investigated the effects of an evaluation strategy on the development of

students on a six-year course on pharmaceutical sciences who required ESP for their academic and

occupational needs. The overall assessment of the students’ grades was comprised of several evaluation

factors, including term tests on ESP and mini-tests on self-learning EGP, which the students were required

to carry out online. To examine the effect of the online learning component, a four-item questionnaire

with a five-point Likert scale was given to the students at two points during the course. The items were as

follows: 1) I was interested in this program; 2) I worked seriously on these tasks; 3) This program

enhanced my interest in English; 4) I felt satisfied with this program. The results suggested that the

program increased the students’ motivation in two ways. Starting with much reluctance, the students

gradually lowered their barriers against English and began to motivate themselves toward developing

their occupational expertise.

Ⅰ．はじめに

いわゆるグローバライゼーションに伴う人的資源の交流とその流動性は，わが国では特

に経済界を中心に国際競争力へのある種の危機意識へとつながり，コミュニケーション手

段としての英語力向上，および英語教育における具体的な成果を求める声の高まりとなっ

ている（e.g., ESP 北海道, 2007）。表音文字であるカナによる表記システムを含む母語の日

本語と，世界のほとんどすべての情報を高度に専門的な知識に至るまで母語で得ることが

できるわが国の独特に発達した言語環境では，英語学習の意欲はこれまで持続的には育た

なかった（e.g., Sakai & Kikuchi, 2009; 山田・大津・斎藤, 2009）。

大学における英語学習・教育の内容は，かつては一般的な基礎教養の一部としての英語

力（English for general purposes: EGP）の向上を目的としたものが大部分であったが，

近年では，学部修了後のキャリアを強く意識しての英語力（English for specific purposes:

ESP）を目指す傾向が顕著である。ただし，現行の大学英語教育の環境では，学習者の英

語基礎知識（EGP）の習得程度が低く，ESP のシラバスを組むものの，実際には ESPの教

材を用いて EGPの知識の充足を図っているのが現状である。いずれにしてもその対象とな

るのは，従来の学習方法への反動としてのオーラルコミュニケーション重視へと傾く学校

英語教育を経て，大学での英語学習に必要な基礎知識さえ未習得の学習者たちである（e.g.,

山田・大津・斎藤, 2009; 鈴木, 1999）。

評価方法やその基準の妥当性も充分ではない。例えば TOEIC など，全般的な英語能力を

測定することを目的としながらも，出題内容にある種の偏りがあるものを標準化テストと

して用いる場合，その得点要因の分析がなされていなければ，公平で信頼性のある成績評


35

価は得られない。また，ビジネスの場面からの出題が特徴的な TOEIC では，その内容に関

連した背景知識を持たない受験者は解答意欲を喪失し，その結果得点も低くなり，英語へ

の苦手意識を助長させるという悪循環に陥っていく。

英語教育と英語学習において目的がそれぞれ，一方では国際競争力のための英語，もう

一方では自己表現力の一部としての英語習得というように乖離し，その結果学習者に納得

のいく学習意欲の方向づけがなされにくい現状において，それでは，英語学習への意欲を

育てるにはどのような方策が考えられるであろうか。また，薬学６年制教育とその後の薬

剤師の職能としての英語教育も視野においた時，学習者の達成感を高め，学習意欲をさら

に引き出すために，現行のシラバスや教材はどのように利用できるであろうか。

北海道薬科大学の基礎英語科目のシラバス 1には，学習者に薬剤師の職能の一部として必

要な英語力を意識させる方策として，TOEIC を指向した e ラーニングプログラムによる学

習と，その成果の自己確認のための TOEIC Bridge IP および TOEIC IP 受験が，入学後 3

年次終わりまでの薬学６年制基礎英語教育に，学習目標として段階的に組みこまれている。

本研究は，この間における同シラバスによる英語学習者の学習意欲と意識の変化を探った

ものである。同時に，これらの課外学習活動に対する評価付けが学習者の意識変化にどの

ような影響を与えるのかを見ようとしたものである。

Ⅱ．方法

1．参加者

参加者は６年制薬学教育の基礎教育としての英語を学習する北海道薬科大学生 215 名

（2012 年度入学者 229 名のうち 2013 年度２年次へ進級した者）であった。これらの参加

者は，週２時間，市販の医療系テキストを用いたリーディングを中心とする授業（ESP を

指向した授業）を受講しているが，このほかに課外学習課題として, 1 年次では EGP の

e-ラーニングプログラム（Newton TOEIC 対策）A コース，２年次では同 B コースが課さ

れている２。A コースはコース全体が，B コースはコース全体のほぼ三分の一が必修の達成

目標となっており，Ｂコースの残り三分の二は任意の追加課題 G コースとして課されてい

る。尚，１年次での A コース達成後の B コース移行，２年次での B コース達成後の G コー

ス移行を遂げた先行学習者に対して，学期末成績評価において追加点（100点満点の評価に

対して最大 10点分の加点）が与えられている。

参加者の英語力については，１年次では入学直後に実力テストとして，２年次では前期

の終了時（７月）に学力テストとして受験した TOEIC Bridge IP の結果を，上記 215 名分

を抽出し，その得点傾向（x軸）と人数（y 軸）を図 1，図 2，表１に示してある。


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表１．１年次と２年次の TOEIC Bridge IP 統計量比較

平均値中央値最頻値標準偏差

1年次 119.05 118 114 19.95

2年次 125.27 124 134 19.13

2．材料

2012 年度に入学し，翌年２年次へ進級した学生全員に対して，課外学習 e ラーニングへ

の取り組みについてのアンケートを実施した。１年次と２年次でのアンケート調査には，

共通の材料として 4つの質問項目と 5段階の Likert 評価方法が用いられた。これらの質問

項目と評価方法は，北海道薬科大学教務課が行う授業アンケート調査と同じものであった。

質問項目は次のとおりである。1）私は e ラーニング課題内容（TOEIC 対策 A コース，

B コース）を理解できた。2）私はこの e ラーニング課題に積極的にまじめに取り組んだ。

3）私はこの e ラーニングから新たな課題や問題意識を持つことができた。4）この e ラー

ニングを総合的に判断して満足できた。評価の 5段階は次のとおりである。1）全くそうは

思わない。2）そうは思わない。3）どちらとも言えない。4）そう思う。5）強くそう思う。

また自由書き込み欄が用意された。

２年次の調査には更に次の質問項目が追加された。5）私は昔にくらべて英語を学ぶこと

に抵抗を感じなくなった。6）私は昔思っていたよりも良く英語を学んでいる。7）これか

らもっと英語力を伸ばすための基礎力は身についた。8）英語を学ぶことは私の将来の職業

を考えるためにも必要だ。9）5～8の質問についてのコメントを書いてください。

3．手続き

アンケート調査は，１年次は年度末３月初旬に，２年次は前期末７月中旬に行われた。

両調査とも，学内の授業連絡オンラインシステム（ポータルサイト）に乗せて配信された。

アンケートへの参加要請は，各学生への個別メールシステムを通じてそれぞれの年次で３

回配信された。これらのメールによって，アンケート参加が１年次では B コース，２年次

では G コースへの移行，つまり先行学習の条件であることが伝えられた。

Ⅲ．結果

アンケートには１年次では 156 名（全体の 73％），２年次では 70 名（全体の 33％）が

回答した。１年次アンケートに回答した 156 名は調査時点で全員が A コースを修了し，次

年度課題である B コースを始めていた。また２年次アンケートに回答した 70 名は，調査時

点で全員が B コースを終え達成者 G コースを始めていた。尚，この 70 名は G コース移行

者（全体の 85％）の約 40％に当たる。

１年次２年次共通の質問項目への回答結果を図 3～図 6に，２年次での追加項目への回答

結果を図 7～図 10 に示した。なお，図では左から右に向かって肯定的評価が 1～5 へと高

くなるように表示した。また，１年次回答の自由書き込みで，この学習方法の長所および

短所と指摘された要素を分類して図 11 と図 12 に示した。２年次回答の自由書き込みは，

指摘内容を分類して図 13 に示した。


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図 3. 課題内容を理解できた図 4. 課題に積極的にまじめに取り組んだ

図 5. 新たな興味や問題意識を持つことができた図 6. 総合的に判断して満足できた

図 7. 英語学習に抵抗を感じなくなった図 8. 昔思ったよりも良く英語を学んでいる

図9. 英語力を伸ばすための基礎力は身についた図10. 英語学習は将来の職業に必要だ

図 11. １年次の自由書き込み－長所図 12. 1年次の自由書き込み－短所

図 13. 2年次自由書き込みの評価内容

１年次，２年次共通の質問項目に対して，両年次とも大多数の学生たちが課題に「積極

的にまじめに取り組み」（図 4），「課題内容を理解できた」（図 3）と感じている回答をした。

また課題を通して「新たな興味や問題意識を持つことができ」（図 5），「総合的に満足でき

た」(図 6)と回答した。しかし１年次と２年次では，２年次での方がその肯定的評価の割合

は減少している。２年次のみに追加された質問項目については，それほど積極的に「英語


38

学習に抵抗を感じなくなった」わけではなく（図 7），「以前よりもよく英語を学んでいる」

とも思えていない（図 8）し，「基礎力が身についた」（図 9）と強く実感してもいないが，

「英語は将来の職業に必要だ」（図 10）ということを大多数の学生が感じていた。また自由

書き込みの回答は，１年次では単語学習，反復学習に役立った（図 11）が，課題量が多い

ことに不満があった（図 12）ことを示した。２年次の自由書き込みでは，肯定的な評価が

多数を占めた。

Ⅳ．考察

一般的な英語力における課題学習効果を，TOEIC Bridge IP のスコアから推定したとこ

ろ，１年次と２年次の間に平均値と中央値で 6ポイント，最頻値で 20ポイントの増加で示

された。スコアの分散からは，全体的な英語力向上が示された。その英語力向上の一要因

となっているであろう e ラーニング学習についての学習者の達成意識は（図 3～図 6），２

年次では１年次ほどの高評価は見られなかった。この要因の一つとして，２年次課題では

英語知識の応用的使用の要素が加わり，そのため一定学習時間当たりの進捗度が下がり，

学習中の困難感が上がったためと思われる。実際に，自由書き込みにも一部指摘があった。

にもかかわらず，２年次でもほぼ全員が必修課題を達成し，さらに追加課題コースに移行

していた。これには，１年次と同様に２年次でも追加課題達成に期末評価で特別加点が与

えられることが直接の要因として指摘されていた。特別加点などを用いた評価方法の柔軟

な運営が，学習の困難感を上回る課題取り組みへの意欲へとつながったことが示唆された。

一方，２年次での全般的な英語学習意識をみると（図 7～図 10），肯定的な回答傾向が示

されているものの，大部分の参加者で学習への抵抗感はそれほど低下していない。また，

基礎英語力の習得の自覚もあまり高くはない。学習努力についての自己評価からは，薬学

部で学年が進むにつれ専門科目に費やする学習時間が増え，それに比して英語にかけられ

る時間が少なくなっていることが示唆された。しかし，将来の職業との関係での英語の重

要性の認識の高まりははっきりと示されている。これら重要性への認識度，英語に向けら

れる学習努力，英語基礎力の自己評価，将来へ向けての英語の重要性の認識の傾向を総合

すると，以下のように言うことが可能であろう。

薬学部の ESP における学習意欲の変化は，専門科目の学習の深まりと強い関連性を示す。

専門科目での英語使用や職業場面での日常会話を含む英語使用には，まず EGP の語彙力や

文法知識が基礎となる。それゆえ，薬学部における英語科目のシラバスでは，その中に EGP

と ESP の学習要素がともに明示的に示される必要がある。EGP部分では，学習者の学習達

成感を高め，英語に対する情緒的な抵抗感を徐々に低め，次の学習段階への意欲を上げて

行く。また，薬学部の英語教育での学習評価には，これら段階的な学習意欲の変化を反映

させていく方法が必要となろう。英語への学習意欲を定量的に測定することはできないが，

例えば本研究のシラバス運営における，追加課題とその達成への加点などの方法を用いた

間接的な評価は可能である。そして，この間接的な評価を，成績評価の一部として組み込

むことによって，学習者は自らの英語学習への取り組みを総合的に見ることができるよう

になるであろう。


39

Ⅴ．まとめ

本研究では，薬学部基礎教育における英語教育の一つの試みとして課外学習課題（e ラー

ニング）とその評価への取り込み方が学生の学習意欲にどのように影響を与えるかを見よ

うとした。シラバスには ESP の要素として薬学専門教育に関連のある医薬，健康を内容と

するテキストの読解と，EGP の要素として英語基礎学力のための課外学習が含まれていた。

学習者の英語力とその変化は，１年次，２年次で受験した TOEIC Bridge IP の結果を用い

て測定した。学習者はこれらのテストの間に，ESP の内容を含む 3 種類のテキスト（１年

次前期・後期および２年次前期）を用いた授業と，EGP を内容とする TOEIC 対策 e ラー

ニングの A コース（１年次，難度低）と B コース（２年次，難度高）に，授業時間外で行

う必修課題として取り組んだ。両コースの e ラーニングでは，ほぼ全員が必修課題を達成

した後，各自のペースで任意学習の追加課題へと学習を進めた。これらコース必修課題達

成時点（１年次は A コース習得時，２年次は B コース習得時）で，課題学習や英語学習全

般についての意識調査を実施した。調査項目ごとの回答傾向を分析し，学習者の英語に対

する全般的な学習意欲の変化を探った

大学薬学部の基礎学習としての英語には，EGP と ESP の二つの学習要素が必要である。

現行のシステムでは，平面的な時間配置でその２つを同時にシラバスに含むことは困難で

ある。そこで，本研究に用いたシラバスでは，ESP の内容による教材を授業時間内で用い

て，その予習を自己学習とする一方，EGP を内容とする e ラーニング教材も自己学習課題

とした。そのことによって，学習参加者は EGP と ESPの両方を自己学習するものとした。

また，e ラーニング課題においては，その達成状態から学習者の英語学習意欲の向上が推定

できるものとみなし，一定の評価を与えた。

本研究の限界として，アンケート回答数（特に２年次）および質問項目数が少ないこと

があげられる。更に精度を上げたアンケート結果となるよう改良が必要である。今後へ向

けた取り組みとしては，薬学専門課程に進んだ後の本格的な ESPの学習プログラムの可能

性を，特に専門語彙習得について検討中である。また，卒業後の薬剤師等医療社会人の英

語生涯学習プログラムを，薬学専門教員との連携のもとに進めつつある。この社会人向け

英語学習では特に，EGP と ESP の知識を全般的に習得できるものとすべく検討中である。

注

１本研究に用いた薬学６年制基礎教育における英語科目は，１年次の英語Ⅰ（前期）と英

語Ⅱ（後期）各 2 単位，２年次の英語Ⅲ（前期）と英語Ⅳ（後期）各 2 単位，３年次の英

語Ⅴ（前期）と英語Ⅵ（後期）各 1単位であった。このうち１，２年次は ESP 的内容の市

販テキストを用い，３年次は文法と語彙知識の確認の演習問題を内容とする市販の TOEIC

対策テキストを用いた。また１年次前期，後期と２年次前期には e ラーニングを用いた。

２ Newton TOEIC 対策 A コースは，基礎的な語彙知識，文法知識，コミュニケーション

能力の習得を目標とする。教材の難易度は TOEIC Bridge または TOEIC スコア 450 に対

応し，単熟語，例文，ディクテーション等の演習問題を含む課題が，基礎的入門に相当す

る Part1 から基礎習熟に相当する Part5 までの５つのパートに振り分けられている。

TOEIC Bridge 形式の模擬テストを利用して，学習者は自らの英語基礎力を随時確かめるこ


40

とができる。

Newton TOEIC 対策 B コースは，A コースに引き続き語彙知識，文法知識，コミュニケ

ーション能力の習得を目標とする。教材の難易度は TOEIC スコア 750 に対応し，課題が

TOEIC の問題構成に対応する Part1（写真問題）から Part7（読解問題）までの７つのパ

ートに振り分けられている。TOEIC 形式の模擬テストを利用して，学習者は自らの英語力

を随時確かめることができる。本研究での２年次前期（7月末まで）e ラーニング必修課題

は，B コース全課題の一部を利用した。また，B コースの全課題を含む学習サイトへは，必

修課題習熟後の学習者のみ 9月末までアクセスできるものとした。

参考文献

ESP 北海道（2007）．『北海道の産業界における英語のニーズ』大学英語教育学会 ESP 北

海道，北広島．

Sakai, H., & Kikuchi, K. (2009). An analysis of demotivators in the EFL classroom.

System, 37, 57-69.

鈴木孝夫（1999）．『日本人はなぜ英語ができないか』東京：岩波書店.

山田雄一郎・大津由紀雄・斎藤兆史（2009）．『「英語が使える日本人」は育つのか?』東

京：岩波書店.


41

Research Note

Adapting and Supplementing Textbook Activities to Increase

Productive Skills in Japanese ESP Classrooms

Mutahar Al-Murtadha

Kanazawa Institute of Technology

I. Introduction

Many English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners at the Kanazawa Institute of

Technology (KIT) struggle with almost all the language skills: listening, speaking,

reading, and writing. The question that arises in this situation is: How can ESP teachers

enhance their ESP students’ four language skills when teaching from a reading textbook,

full of information and new vocabulary? It is of crucial importance to focus on both

receptive and productive learning in ESP settings. Unfortunately, many Japanese ESP

students focus disproportionately on the receptive side of foreign language learning.

This paper reports on activities used to teach an English course to ESP students at KIT

over the course of one semester. The aim of these activities is to get students to move

from receptive to productive learning. Although a reading textbook was used to teach

this course, the focus was on all the language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and

writing. The paper reports on a combination of both traditional and communicative

activities used to enhance students’ language production, motivation, and autonomy.

II. Activities Used

1. PowerPoint Presentations

Computerized presentations have recently been widely used in language classrooms.

In many ESP contexts, the blackboard and handouts have been replaced with

PowerPoint. The research literature indicates that students prefer PowerPoint

presentations to other forms of presenting information (Apperson, Laws, & Scepansky,

2008; Cassady, 1998; Perry & Perry, 1998). It has many advantages such as “producing

better visual effects, high efficiency in information transfer, and precise and systemic

knowledge structure” (Xingeng & Jianxiang, 2012, p.61). The majority of ESP students

have poor listening skills, which makes it difficult for them to understand most of what

the teacher says. Therefore, it benefits students to receive information visually while

also listening. This can be achieved through the use of PowerPoint presentations. Recent

studies revealed that PowerPoint presentations help students improve their language and

understand the content (Al-Murtadha, 2012; Knight, 2012).

In this course, almost all classes contained a PowerPoint presentation to provide

students with the necessary classroom instructions and explanations of the reading


42

content. The presentation usually started with pre-reading questions together with

pictures to raise students’ motivation and interest about the content of the reading.

Then students had to do some vocabulary exercises prepared by the teacher. For

example, the teacher said some words in English while students were asked to say them

in Japanese as a class. Then students could check their answers by looking at the slide

that contained the answers. Afterward, the presentation moved to comprehension

questions where students looked at questions on the slides and with their partners or

individually found their answers from the reading text. Whenever necessary, the teacher

provided some explanations and additional examples to clarify any difficult points in the

content. Sometimes students were asked to create questions about underlined

information. When they finished making their questions, students were shown the

answers on the slides to compare them with their answers. Thus, the presentations

contained various activities to engage students and help them understand the content of

academic readings.

2. Content-Based Conversations

Students were encouraged to speak in pairs or in groups to improve their speaking

skills. However, it was noticed that students could not participate in communicative

activities because they neither had enough vocabulary nor the necessary spoken daily

expressions. Therefore, effective content-based conversations were created to

summarize and supplement the graded reading textbook taught to these students. These

conversations are effective tools for facilitating conversation (Wood, 2002), introducing

and practicing vocabulary, and giving some language practice (Doff, 1990).

The conversations created to teach this group of ESP learners combined the reading

content with some useful daily expressions. First, students were given some time to

practice the conversations in pairs. Then students who could memorize some parts of

the conversations and perform them in front of the class were awarded points. The aim

was to get students to practice some useful expressions used in daily life conversations

and at the same time to combine them with some information from the reading content.

It was expected that reading would become easier after practicing these conversations.

3. Vocabulary and Comprehension Worksheets

It was noticed that the textbook exercises were not enough as assignments because

they mainly contained multiple-choice and fill in the blanks questions and did not cover

most of the content in the text. Moreover, some of the questions were difficult for KIT

students to answer because some questions, for example, asked about the main idea of

the text or the paragraph. To answer such questions, students needed full understanding

of the whole text, which most KIT students considered difficult.

For these reasons, the textbook was simplified by supplementing it with worksheets.


43

Almost every text was supplemented with one or two worksheets. Usually about half of

the worksheet contained vocabulary exercises where students were asked to find the

Japanese meaning for the new vocabulary or to match the Japanese vocabulary with

their English meanings, and the other half contained comprehension questions.

Comprehension questions covered almost all the content of the reading text. The level

of the difficulty of the questions ranged from easy to difficult so that both poor and

higher-performing students could answer.

4. Textbook Exercises

Textbook exercises mainly contained multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and

matching questions. First, students were asked to do the textbook exercises as

homework at home and in the next class the teacher and students checked the answers

as a class. Since Japanese students do not usually volunteer to answer the questions in

class, even when they know the answer, the teacher frequently selected students one by

one from the list to answer the questions. This also reinforced the importance of

completing the homework before class. Sometimes students were asked to work in

groups of 3 to 5 to check their answers, and then each group was asked to share an

answer one question with the rest of the class.

5. Listening Exercises

Since the textbook mainly focused on reading (although there was one difficult

listening activity at the end of each unit), the teacher created relatively easy listening

exercises to supplement the text and to encourage listening skills. For example, the

teacher selected pictures from the internet that matched the reading content and created

listening exercises about them. Students looked at a slide containing 3-5 pictures and

then listened to questions about them. Students were asked to tell their partners their

answers and to discuss those answers with each other. Students were given enough time

to check with their partners after each listening question. Then students were shown the

right answers so that they could compare their answers with the teacher’s answers.

6. Group work

In a language class, interaction is the key to a successful learning experience. It is

very important to encourage cooperative learning so that students learn how to work in

groups and learn from the strengths of other members of their teams. Research literature

indicates that cooperative learning leads to higher achievement and more self-esteem

when compared to individual work (Johnson et al., 1991). Cooperative work can

facilitate learning (Chapman, Meuter, Toy & Wright, 2006; Wang, 2010).

In this course, students were divided into teams of 3 to 5 students. Each team was

responsible for working together to either answer comprehension questions prepared by


44

the teacher or to give a presentation about the content to class. Also, at the end of each

unit, each team was responsible for using one of the new words in the unit in a sentence

of their own. The teacher then collected all the sentences from all teams and wrote them

down on the board so that different teams could see each others’ sentences. This was an

interesting activity since students were interested in reading other teams’ sentences.

7. Pair work

For students who are reluctant to work in groups, pair work might be the appropriate

solution. This kind of cooperative work promotes the learning process (Hirst & Slavik,

2005). Therefore, the teacher included pair work as part of classroom activities. Each

pair of students was asked to fill in the blanks in a dialogue created by the teacher and

accompanied by a picture. Sometimes students were asked to first look at a picture in

the PowerPoint and then to create questions about it. Student “A” was asked to ask

student “B” a question about the picture, and student “B” was asked to ask student “A”

a different question about the same picture.

8. Book reports

Portfolios in general are effective tools for enhancing language learners’ motivation

and autonomy. Al-Murtadha (2012) conducted a study to discover the most motivating

activities for Science and Engineering students and found that portfolios motivated

students to learn English. They offer students the chance to express their own ideas and

reflect on books read.

At KIT, for 20% of their total score, students had to finish and submit 20 book

reports. Students were asked to read two books per week and answer three questions

about each book, such as “What did you learn from the book?” To answer each

question, students were required to write at least two sentences.

III. Conclusion

The main point of this paper was to describe traditional and communicative

classroom activities used to teach English to Science, Technology, and Engineering

students at KIT. In ESP settings, it is of crucial importance to focus on all the language

skills while teaching the content. This can be achieved through adopting a combination

of both traditional and communicative activities. These activities, it is hoped, will

enhance students’ language production, motivation, and autonomy.


45

References

Al-Murtadha, M. (2012). Which reading tasks help non-English majors understand

academic English readings? In R. Chartrand, S. Crofts, & G. Brooks (Eds.), The

2012 Pan-SIG conference proceedings (pp. 1-12). Hiroshima: Japan Association

for Language Teaching.

Apperson, J. M., Laws, E. L., & Scepansky, J. A. (2008). An assessment of student

preferences for PowerPoint presentation structure in undergraduate courses.

Computers & Education, 50, 148-153.

Cassdy, J.C. (1998). Students and instructor perceptions of the efficacy of

computer-aided lectures in undergraduage university courses. Journal of

Educational Computing Research, 19, 175-189.

Chapman, K. J., Meuter, M., Toy, D., & Wright, L. (2006) Can’t we pick our own

groups? The influence of group selection method on group dynamics and outcomes.

Journal of Management Education, 30, 557-569.

Doff, A. (1990). Teach English: A training course for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press in Association with the British Council.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Active learning cooperation in

the college classroom (3rd ed). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Knight, K. (2012). Teaching business case studies through PowerPoint presentations.

The Journal of Kanda University of International Studies, 24, 1-28.

Perry, T., & Perry, L. A. (1998). University students’ attitudes towards multimedia

presentations. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29, 375-377.

Wang, K. (2010). Using cooperative learning in English classrooms in China. Retrieved

from http://www.elt-china.org/pastversion/lw/pdf /wangkexian.pdf

Wood, D. (2002). Formulaic language in acquisition and production: Implications for

teaching. TESL Canada Journal, 20(1), 1-15.

Xingeng, D., & Jianxiang, L. (2012). Advantages and disadvantages of PowerPoint in

lectures to science students. I.J. Education and Management Engineering, 9,

61-65.


46

Meeting Needs:

ESP within an English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) Program

Travis J. Cote

Tamagawa University

I. Introduction

As education costs increase and students become more selective in their pursuit of

higher education, colleges and universities across Japan are pursuing educational reform

and curricular improvement to attract a new, globalized population of potential students

to their campuses. To that end, Tamagawa University began a language program in 2012

to service the English language needs of its students. In 2013 two further steps were

taken: the language program officially changed to English as a Lingua Franca and the

University created a new College of Tourism and Hospitality. This paper is the first of

its kind to indicate that for the students of the new CTH, and despite the ELF “blanket

designation”, their English language curriculum is within the sphere of ESP and covers

one related area: English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

II. ELF Program Overview

The Tamagawa ELF program began as a pilot in 2012 with two main goals: 1) teach

English in a way that stresses the use of the language, and 2) raise student English

language competency as reflected in higher TOEIC scores. The 2012 program was

comprised of 436 first-year students in three departments. In 2013 the name of the

program officially changed to English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and expanded to

include two more departments. Currently the program includes approximately 1,030

students (first and second-year combined) taught by 26 instructors from 11 different

countries. Beginning in 2014, the program will expand to include approximately 1,800

students, two additional departments and roughly 24 additional instructors. The ELF

Program is designed to help students develop and use their abilities and skills in English

as a tool for communication with people all over the world.

All first-year students are placed into ELF classes according to their proficiency as

measured by a TOEIC Bridge test and each ELF class is worth 4 credits. The lessons

equal about 50 hours of in-class time for the 15-week semester plus two hours per week

of out-of-class preview and review work required for each credit. However, that is

where the curriculum similarities between CTH students and all other colleges end.

English classes for students in the CTH meet five days a week with lessons 50 to 100

minutes in duration. Classes for students in other colleges meet two times a week with

lessons 100 minutes in duration.


47

III. The College of Tourism and Hospitality Core Curriculum

Since 2007, a Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management has co-existed

alongside the Department of International Management in the College of Business

Administration at Tamagawa University. In 2013, with the creation of a new College

specific to the tourism and hospitality fields, Tamagawa has plainly recognized the

widespread presence of tourism-related departments or faculties within Japan. As of this

writing, there are 67 tourism-related departments or courses at Japanese universities in

the Kanto region alone, according to Recruit Shingaku Neti.

It also signals a commitment by Tamagawa to establish the study of tourism on its

own campus as a robust academic discipline, which includes business, marketing,

sociology, economics, management and marketing systems, media studies, art tourism,

eco tourism and more. Through the study of tourism, related fields and English, the new

College aims to give students a global perspective that also includes the opportunity to

study abroad for one year.

IV. The College of Tourism and Hospitality ESP Curriculum

In the spring semester of 2013, 108 first-year students were accepted into the new

College of Tourism and Hospitality. The author will explain that, unlike their peers in

the other colleges, students accepted into the CTH have a unique English course

schedule and markedly different needs to satisfy in pursuit of a particular goal that will

be further elaborated upon in the next few paragraphs.

As mentioned in section II, students in the new CTH are required to attend five

English classes per/week, an endeavor by the University to provide an English

“immersion” experience on a Japanese campus. All students attend an EAP class three

days a week, ranging from 50 to 100 minutes in duration. The fourth day is devoted to

independent English study and is facilitated by one of the ELF instructors. The fifth day

of English class focuses solely on preparation for the TOEIC test.

In addition, and perhaps most crucial to the practice of ESP, the CTH students have

an opportunity to study in Australia for one year during their sophomore year. No other

college or department at Tamagawa University offers a 5-day English program which is

this intensive and with the singular objective of preparing its students for a one year

study-abroad experience in a native English-speaking country.

They will be streamed into ESL classes in Australia with other foreign students and

be required to apply EAP skills. It is this opportunity to study in a native

English-speaking country that has largely dictated the framework of the CTH English

curriculum, shaped the syllabi and provided the biggest reason why these students need

to develop a “specific competence” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.200) best served by ESP and

EAP.

i Recruit Shingaku Net http://shingakunet.com/gakkou_search_scl_dai_std_gakka.html


48

In the introduction, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), conceptualize the teaching

of English along a continuum, with “general” skills on one end and more specific

“applications”, or uses of the language, on the other (p. 8-9). They further suggest that

general academic skills, listening for example, are part of a broader educational process,

but a course taught “for international students about to embark on a postgraduate course

taught in English in an English-speaking country will be seen as ESP because it is part

of a focused course with a specific time period with clear and specific objectives” (p. 8).

I recognize that the CTH students I am referring to in this paper are only undergraduates,

as opposed to postgraduates, but it’s beside the point; the specific goal and international

context alluded to by Dudley-Evans et al. is exactly the same. Steps were taken in the

design of the English curriculum for the CTH with the aim of helping those students

meet their language needs and deliver content specific to their overseas objective.

IV. The Study Abroad Criteria

All CTH students who meet the overseas study eligibility criteria can study abroad

at one of three universities in Melbourne, Australia for one year. The study abroad

program starts in the second semester of their second year and continues through the

first semester of their third year. The credits earned abroad are transferable into credits

for courses offered by the College of Tourism and Hospitality. This allows the students

to graduate in four years.

To meet the study abroad criteria, students must satisfy two basic requirements: 1)

achieve a passing grade in the 202-levelii ELF class, and 2) achieve a score of 500 or

higher on a TOEIC IP test.

There are approximately 1,030 students in the current ELF Program from a variety

of colleges and disciplines. With the exception of students in the CTH, the ELF context

is appropriate for these other students. As Seidlhofer (2011) points out, “most learners

have other and far less specific and predictable purposes, and it does not seem

reasonable to impose such ESP objectives on them… (p.200). However, as outlined

above, the CTH students must be prepared to participate in an ESL classroom in another

culture, apply EAP skills and achieve a certain score on the standardized TOEIC test.

With these needs and goals in mind, and even though the campus is “blanketed” by a

department-wide ELF Program, the CTH English teachers have been working to deliver

a curriculum which focuses on academic skills, extensive reading and listening, and

TOEIC training to meet the needs of the CTH students.

V. Curriculum Adjustment: Accommodating the Specific Demands

ii The 200-level class is comprised of 201 (spring) and 202 (fall). Students in the 202-level class must

have a TOEIC score between 400-449.


49

1. Calendar Limitations

As mentioned, all first-year students are streamed into ELF classes based on a

TOEIC score. Currently, there are three levels/courses offered in the ELF program at the

100, 200 and 300 level. They are further divided into semester “blocks”. Typically, the

101, 201 and 301 courses would be offered in the spring semesters, and 102, 202, and

302 in the fall semesters. However, the design of the ELF curriculum and calendar

handicaps those tourism students who get placed in 101 during the spring semester of

their freshman year and if not addressed, would prevent them from meeting the first

overseas eligibility requirement: a passing grade in 202 by the end of the spring

semester of their sophomore year.

For example, a CTH student who scores below 280 on the TOEIC starts their first

year in 101. Assuming a passing grade in all subsequent ELF classes, a student in 101

would then progress to 102 in the fall and by the spring semester of their second-year,

enter 201. There simply is not enough time in a normal, two-semester academic year to

meet that one overseas eligibility requirement: passing the 202 level. However, the

university has provided an option for those CTH students who stream into the 101 level

during the first semester: intensive summer and winter EAP sessions.

Conversely, and again, assuming a passing grade in all courses, a student who

scores between 321-399 would be placed into 201 in the first year and then would

progress to 202 in the fall and then 301 the following spring. This student has just

exceeded that first overseas requirement (passing grade in 202). Turning to the second

overseas eligibility requirement - a TOEIC score of 500 or higher - a different issue had

to be addressed.

2. TOEIC Limitations

All students in the ELF program take a TOEIC IP test twice a year, once in the

spring and once in the fall semester. Regrettably, it is this fall semester test result at the

end of their freshman year that is used to determine if they have cleared the 500-mark

hurdle. Regrettable because even though the students have 3 semesters of English study

before the overseas program, they only have 2 semesters (less than 1 year) to satisfy that

TOEIC requirement and some research (Bresnihan, 2013; Saegusa, 1985; Tanabe, 2010)

has shown that considerable time is needed to make appreciable gains.

This presents a problem in regards to the estimated study hours required to advance

their TOEIC score. Upon entering the university, the CTH students held an average

TOEIC score of 310, almost 200 points less than what is mandated by the CTH overseas

requirement. With this in mind, the CTH curriculum requires students to take a

TOEIC-prep class one day a week for 100 minutes. There are 15 weeks in a semester

resulting in 25 hours of study per semester devoted specifically to TOEIC prep.


50

Unfortunately, in one large-scale study carried out by Saegusa (1985), 53% of students

who received an average of 84 hours of instruction had made gains of less than 50

points, a number which is less than the margin of error. Saegusa further indicates that

from 100 to 200 hours of instruction are needed before meaningful TOEIC scores can

be obtained. Even in one academic year, at 50 hours of study, the weekly 100 minute

TOEIC-specific class is not sufficient to make noticeable gains, let alone clear the

500-mark requirement. As the CTH curriculum evolves, this shortcoming will need to

be examined.

VI. Small Victories

Despite the high hurdles that have been set by the curriculum, College program

requirements and a “blanket” English program that does not yet officially address all

their needs, the current cohort of students in the CTH have achieved some modest

success both with TOEIC results and in the climb towards the ELF 202 course level.

Specified earlier, all students are placed according to the results of a TOEIC test

given at the start of the first year and the average TOEIC score for these students upon

entering the University was 310. After completing the spring 2013 semester - which, as

mentioned above, included one weekly ELF class specific to TOEIC-prep and one

TOEIC IP test administered in July - the average TOEIC score for first-year students in

the CTH increased to 415 (see Table 1). So even recognizing that the 100-minute

weekly TOEIC-prep class is statistically not sufficient to make noticeable gains, the

CTH students have raised the average by almost 100 points. Perhaps the opportunity to

study abroad is a strong, externally motivating factor that is pushing them to succeed

and maybe that one TOEIC-specific class is making a modest, positive difference.

Table 1

Average TOEIC scores of 1st-year CTHM students.

TOEIC TEST TYPE DATE TEST TAKEN AVERAGE SCORE

TOEIC Bridge (n=105) April 2013 310 (converted score)

TOEIC IP (n=103) July 2013 415

Note: TOEIC Bridge result from April 2013 was converted into an equivalent TOEIC

score.

Furthermore, in the spring 2013 semester, there were approximately 50 students

enrolled in the 100 level course and more than half of them - about 33 - took advantage

of the intensive ELF summer classes to get ahead and satisfy one of the study abroad

eligibility requirements: a passing grade in 202. This fall semester, those 33 students


51

will enroll in 201 and progress to 202 in the spring of 2014, thereby giving them the

chance to study in Australia.

VII. Concluding Remarks

Both the new College of Tourism and Hospitality at Tamagawa University and the

new, campus-wide English as a Lingua Franca program was briefly described in this

report. I would agree with Seidlhofer (2011) that ELF, at least on the international stage,

is the new English for General Purposes, and it has provided the CTH curriculum

planners a platform to support an ESP and EAP framework. For the students in the

College, there are many hurdles along the way. Not only must students satisfy two

challenging eligibility requirements, but they must also acquire EAP skills and apply

them in an international context. Further research should explore the limitations

imposed by the current path of progression through the English courses, it should

explore short-term methods to raise TOEIC scores, and it should explore the relatively

new genre of ESP: English for Tourism Purposes (ETP).

References

Bresnihan, B. D. (2013). Useful information teachers and administrators should know

about the TOEIC. In N. Sonda & A. Krause (Eds.), JALT 2012 conference

proceedings. Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Teachers.

Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific

purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University

Press.

Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learner-centered

approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Saegusa, Y. (1985). Prediction of English proficiency progress. Musashino English and

American Literature, 18, 65-85.

Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford, UK: Oxford

University Press.

Tanabe, H. (2010). Improving TOEIC training program of Tokyo Polytechnic University.

Tokyo Ko-gei Daigaku, Kougakubu Kiyo. Jinbun Shakaihen, 33(2), 1-6.


52

Using online flash-card software to raise business students’ TOEIC

scores

Brett Milliner

Tamagawa University

I. Introduction

Knowledge of technical English vocabulary in a specified area can have a

significant contribution to the successfulness of communications concerning that

discipline (Elgort, 2010; Nation, 2001). For a teacher working in an English for Specific

Purposes (ESP) context, how teachers approach the teaching of vocabulary can have a

significant impact on their students’ preparedness for interacting in their professional

fields. It is the teacher’s responsibility then to equip her students with tools to support

these interactions. This study is an evaluation of the implementation of a

vocabulary-training component, using an online flashcard program, Quizlet

(www.quizlet.com) for business students studying in an English as a Lingua Franca

(ELF) program at a Japanese university. The effectiveness of this vocabulary training

intervention was gauged by: comparisons between students’ results in the Vocabulary

Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007) and TOEIC Test before and after the intervention; an

analysis of the software usage logs; and student reactions to the vocabulary study

component based on their responses to a post-intervention questionnaire.

II. Developments in Vocabulary Acquisition Research

It has been argued that deliberate vocabulary learning is the most efficient

approach for students who want to memorize large amounts of vocabulary. Although

language learners are able to learn new vocabulary from incidental exposure to language,

intentional vocabulary learning with an explicit focus has been observed to result in

faster vocabulary gains, as well as increased chances of vocabulary retention (Elgort,

2010; Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2008; Spiri, 2008). When considering intentional learning

techniques, the use of flashcards has been identified in a number of studies over the last

decade as being most effective because it enables learners to memorize large numbers of

words in a short time (Elgort, 2010; Schmitt, 2008; McLean, Hogg & Rush, 2013) and

they can strengthen learners’ vocabulary retrieval skills (Nation, 2001; McLean et al.,

2013). It can be summarized then that recent research into vocabulary acquisition

suggests that language learners can achieve a very high return on their investment of

time if they engage in deliberate vocabulary learning using flashcards.

In addition to using flashcards, there are a variety of approaches a teacher can

take in order to implement explicit vocabulary training. For example, providing glosses

with reading texts and post-reading or post-listening exercises which focus on the target

http://www.quizlet.com/


53

vocabulary can be useful. While these activities may be effective, they can take a long

time for a teacher to prepare, and according to Schmidt (2008, p.352), a simple

“translation + memorization” approach is proven to be much more time efficient

compared to these “incidental + follow-up” methods listed above. Additionally, it can be

argued that approaches such as post-reading or post-listening exercises do not support

students in developing their own vocabulary learning strategies. In response to this

concern, a number of recent studies have advocated that a good vocabulary training

program will provide students with an opportunity to use a variety of learning strategies,

foster autonomy and cater to individual learning styles (Kilickaya & Krajka, 2010;

Nakata, 2008; Nation, 2001). As a stronger student-centered approach is also

recommended for teaching in an ESP context (Fujita, 2008), ESP teachers need to

establish a vocabulary training component which focuses on the needs of their students

while also allowing the student to develop their own learning strategies.

Studies comparing the effectiveness of online and traditional pen and paper

vocabulary learning approaches for language students at the tertiary level have reflected

greater gains in vocabulary acquisition (Kilickaya & Krajka, 2010; Nakata, 2008; Spiri,

2008; Zhang, Song, & Burston, 2011). Furthermore, it appears that students find the

online approach more enjoyable (Spiri, 2008), more motivating and contributive to

students’ autonomy (Kilickaya & Krajka, 2010). An online vocabulary learning

approach also has a number of other advantages. In the case of online flashcards,

students can add pictures which provide an instantiation (McLean, et al., 2013), students

can share or download cards more easily, and students can use hyperlinks, which allow

a word to be clicked in order to receive further information or a definition (Spiri, 2008).

An online program can give students instant feedback as well as data driven reports on

their progress. For example, test or quiz score histories, study frequencies and

comparisons with classmates which can help students, teachers and researchers alike

when evaluating learning performances (Spiri, 2008). Furthermore, online programs

also use this data to generate new activities such as adaptive flashcard sequencing,

which encourages students to overcome their weaknesses (Nakata, 2011; McLean, et al.,

2013). Finally, by creating large stacks of flash-cards online, card stacks have become

much more portable, and busy students can take advantage of short gaps in time to

study vocabulary on their smartphone or other mobile devices (Zhang et al., 2011).

In response to the evidence that greater gains in vocabulary acquisition can be

achieved with the use of flashcards and the potential to create a more learner-centered

approach with an online platform, the author decided to experiment using an online

flashcard program Quizlet, for a focused vocabulary training intervention.

III. Methodology

1. The Context


54

This vocabulary training intervention was undertaken in two English classes for

second-year, Business Management students. Apart from the goal of increasing students’

lexicons and TOEIC scores, this intervention was also a pilot study to determine

whether this online vocabulary-learning component could be incorporated into the entire

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) course at Tamagawa University. The students were

streamed into these pre-intermediate level classes based on their TOEIC scores, with the

average TOEIC score for the entire sample being 411. The classes met for 30-100

minute class periods twice a week over the duration of a 15-week semester. Students

were quite motivated to improve their language skills for a number of reasons. Firstly,

many students intended to enter an overseas exchange program. Second, the university

imposes strict grade point average guidelines in order for students to be able to

graduate; hence students are very concerned with their current grades and the grades

they need to achieve in the future. Most importantly however, students are very

concerned about whether they will be able to find long-term employment upon

graduation and how a globalized economy has influenced a growing number of

companies to use TOEIC scores as an important criteria for selecting new employees

(Chujo & Oghigian, 2009) and making promotion decisions (Tsuji & Tsuji, 2006). As a

result, the students in this study were very motivated to increase their TOEIC scores as

they felt it would greatly affect professional success within their chosen field of

Business Management.

2. Procedure

1. During the first class of the semester, students were introduced to the

vocabulary-training component and the Quizlet system was promoted as a tool

to help students learn vocabulary for the TOEIC test.

2. For the purpose of evaluating students’ receptive vocabulary knowledge, or the

volume of words which a student is able to read and make sense of, students

were asked to complete the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) on their personal

computers during the second class of the semester (Nation & Beglar, 2007;

Victoria University of Wellington, n.d).

3. During the third class, students created Quizlet accounts and they were trained

on how to navigate the site using their personal computer and smartphone.

Students then practiced creating and editing their own vocabulary flashcards.

4. Students were then asked to bring the TOEIC test training textbook, TOEIC®

Test Basic 2200 (Fujii & Miyano, 2006) to class. This text was chosen because

all Business Management students were asked to purchase the textbook for

individual English study. The ELF curriculum designers were also interested in

learning whether this textbook and online component could be introduced to the

wider ELF curriculum in 2014.


55

5. Starting from the fourth week of the semester, the author presented a flashcard

set (approximately 100 terms) representing one chapter from the textbook’s

corpus every week until the fourteenth week of the semester. Each card had the

English word on one side and the Japanese translation provided by the TOEIC

textbook on the other. Although it has been observed that the learning of new

words is optimal when the number of flashcards is not too large (McLean et al.,

2013), the author decided to share a relatively large set of flashcards with

students because the students had already been using the text for individual

TOEIC study and the author wanted to promote the individual customization of

card sets. Individual customization, in this case, can be defined as students

deleting cards for the words they already knew and the adding of extra

information, which, could assist with memorization.

6. After the initial training and set-up, 10~15 minutes of class time (from class #5

to #25) was dedicated to students interacting with this software. As it is

recognized that students need to meet a new word many times before it can be

deeply internalized (Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2008), the teacher made a point of

directing students to review previous card sets and complete short vocabulary

tests generated by Quizlet.

7. To reward students for hard work and motivate the class group, special awards

were given during classes 18 and 30 to those students who used the software

most frequently. These events also encouraged students to use Quizlet’s

feedback component in order to reflect on their own study performance.

8. Students sat for the TOEIC test during the 12th

week of the semester. At the time

of taking this test, students had been actively using the Quizlet program during

class time for 20 lessons, or a total of 10 weeks.

9. During the final class of the semester, students completed the VST test once

more and they reviewed their Quizlet user logs. Finally, students were asked to

reflect on their experiences receiving this vocabulary training intervention and

the Quizlet software in an online survey generated by Surveymonkey.com.

While it is recommended that an explicit memorization focus on learning new

vocabulary achieves the highest rate of new vocabulary retention, deeper levels of

vocabulary retention can only occur when students’ exposure to the language is

maximized (Schmitt, 2008). To increase students’ exposure to language then, students

were asked to read one Graded Reader and write a book report on the class’ blog every

week. In addition, students were exposed to the target language while completing

reading and listening exercises in a TOEIC training textbook, TOEIC® Test: On Target

(Benfield, Browning, Thayne, & Dagher, 2011). It needs to be recognized here that

while students in this study were engaged with explicit vocabulary learning using the


56

online flashcard program, they also had opportunities to retain new words while taking

part in the other learning components of this course.

3. Data Collection and Results

In the following section, the results from each evaluation used for this analysis

will be described.

3.1 Comparison of TOEIC scores

Students’ TOEIC test scores were compared between the time when they took the

TOEIC test as first-year students in December 2012 and, again, when they took the

TOEIC test after the Quizlet intervention in July 2013. Table 1 indicates that the average

TOEIC score improved in both classes after the Quizlet intervention. For the entire

group (n=42), the average TOEIC score increased 13%, from 411 to 464.

Table 1

Comparison of average TOEIC scores between December 2012 and after the Quizlet

program implementation

Class December 2012 After Quizlet

Intervention

(July 2014)

% Increase

Class 1 (n=22) 501 540 8%

Class 2 (n=20) 307 376 22%

Total Group (n=42) 411 464 13%

3.2 Vocabulary Size Test Results

The second analysis compared students’ results from the Vocabulary Size Test

(VST) (http://my.vocabularysize.com/), which students were asked to undertake on their

personal computers during the second and last classes of the semester. The results from

this analysis (see Table 2) indicated that the average vocabulary size for both classes

increased 8% after students received the Quizlet implementation.

Table 2

Comparison of average VST results before and after the Quizlet implementation

Class Before Quizlet

Implementation

After Quizlet

Implementation

% Increase

Class 1 (n=22) 6291 7022 12%

Class 2 (n=19) 6652 6841 3%

Total Group (n=41) 6454 6956 8%


57

3.3 Quizlet Usage Logs

The Quizlet software generates a report illustrating a user’s usage history. For

the purpose of this evaluation, the score for a student’s total “study sessions”, or total

amount of Quizlet activities completed were evaluated. The average amount of

completed “study sessions” was 136. Table 3 indicates that Class 2 (M=164) scored

considerably higher average of Quizlet study sessions. However, it needs to be noted

that this class had a much wider range (41~531, SD=111). Surprisingly, one student was

able to complete 531 “study sessions” during the 15-week semester.

Table 3

Average Quizlet study session volume after a semester

Class Average Study Sessions Standard Deviation

Class 1 (n=22) 113 43

Class 2 (n=20) 164 111

Total Group (n=42) 113 42

3.4 Students’ Questionnaire Results

During the final class of the semester, students were asked to complete an online

questionnaire concerning the Quizlet vocabulary study component. Students completed

this questionnaire on either their smartphone or personal computer. Students were

allowed to respond in English or Japanese. A total of 44 students responded to this

questionnaire.

One of the most interesting results to emerge from the questionnaire was that

57% of respondents indicated that they generally used Quizlet on their smartphones.

This result was in despite of the fact that Android smartphone users (43% of the cohort

group) were unable to access the program as a mobile phone application, rather they had

to access the site using their phone’s internet browser. As students appear to be very

comfortable using their smartphone as a study device and smartphones are owned by

almost the entire class population, these results suggest that Quizlet activities could be

undertaken in regular classrooms on students’ personal mobile devices in the future.

There was also a positive response to the Likert style questions concerning

students’ reaction to receiving the vocabulary training intervention. 64% agreed or

strongly agreed that Quizlet was a good way to learn vocabulary, 48% of respondents

also agreed that they would use Quizlet for their own personal language study, 59%

agreed or strongly agreed that Quizlet practice should be incorporated into every lesson,

68% felt it was a good way to study for the TOEIC test, and 55% felt Quizlet was a

good tool for learning “work-related” vocabulary.

Students were then asked to comment on what they liked about the Quizlet

software, eight (18%) students commented on how the software was easy to use. Four


58

students commented on how they enjoyed the flexibility of being able to use the

program whenever or wherever they liked. For example, “We can learn anywhere

anytime” and “It’s very convenient because I can do it on my iPhone” were common

responses. This issue also appeared to be reflected in students’ overall usage of the

software, where, again, 57% noted that they usually used Quizlet on their smartphone or

tablet device.

Although students appeared to respond favorably to Quizlet’s mobile capabilities,

there were still a number of concerns to emerge during this pilot study. Firstly, it became

apparent that there were discrepancies with students’ usage histories in the Quizlet

system. It was discovered that usage histories were sometimes not updated after a

student completed a Quizlet task on their smartphone. Although this issue was observed

with some iPhone users, it appeared to occur mostly with Android users. 25% of

students recognized this discrepancy when they were asked to comment on what they

did not like about Quizlet. This issue was reported to the program designers and it

deserves careful consideration because it prevents students and teachers alike from

being able to effectively reflect on and evaluate learning progress.

A second concern raised by students was that Quizlet did not have a mobile

application designed specifically for an Android smartphone. Android users were still

able to use the Quizlet software using their smartphone’s web browser; however, four

students cited this issue as a concern and one student even noted that they were unable

to use Quizlet on their Android device at all. With almost half of all respondents (43%)

being Android smartphone users, more support from the software is needed to assist this

group of learners. Lastly, twenty-five respondents either skipped or answered “no

comment” to the question, which asked what students disliked about the Quizlet

software. This lack of response suggests that while there were some technical concerns,

students generally held a very positive opinion of this software.

IV. Discussion & Conclusions

In response to some of the technical problems which emerged during this study,

the author is hopeful that they can be rectified in the near future. As of this writing

Quizlet just released a mobile application for Android devices. The issues relating to

usage log errors have also been reported to Quizlet and the author hopes that these

technical issues will be eliminated before this study is repeated in Fall semester, 2013.

From a curriculum planning perspective, the context where this study was

undertaken required the author to focus on a specific corpus dictated by a preparatory

textbook for the TOEIC test. In alignment with Nation (2012), however, who

recommends using the VST to identify what vocabulary training intervention (or corpus

of words) the students will require needs a deeper review. For example, whether this

student group would be better served by establishing a solid grounding with the


59

Academic Word List or a business-related corpus, which could have a more positive

contribution to their professional lives needs further investigation.

This pilot study has revealed that, after the implementation of regular

vocabulary training using Quizlet, students were able to increase their TOIEC scores

and breadth of receptive vocabulary knowledge. Students appeared to enjoy using the

software and their willingness to study using their smartphones indicates that this

approach could be introduced in a regular classroom. The results also show that it is

possible for ESP teachers to facilitate a growth in vocabulary and language skills in a

very short period of time, while also maintaining a student-centered approach.

References

Benfield, W. L., Browning, T. L, Thayne, D., & Dagher, E. A. (2011). TOEIC® Test: On

Target <Book 2>. Tokyo: Nanundo.

Chujo, K., & Oghigian, K. (2009). How many words do you need to know to

understand TOEIC, TOEFL & EIKEN? An examination of text coverage and high

frequency vocabulary. The Journal of Asia TEFL. 6(2), 121-148.

Elgort, I. (2010). Deliberate learning and vocabulary acquisition in a second language.

Language Learning, 61, 367-413.

Fuji, T., & Miyano, T. (2006). TOEIC® TEST 究極単語 Basic 2200. Tokyo: Goken.

Fujita, R. (2008). ESP course report: English course for tourism department. Annual

Report of JACET-SIG in ESP, 10, 3-12.

Kilickaya, F., & Krajka, J. (2010). Comparative usefulness of online and traditional

vocabulary learning. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational

Technology, 9(2), 55-63.

McLean, S., Hogg, N., & Rush, T. W. (2013). Vocabulary learning through an online

computerized flashcard site. Jaltcalljournal, 9(1), 79-98.

Nakata, T. (2011). Computer-assisted second language vocabulary learning in a

paired-associate paradigm: A critical investigation of flashcard software. Computer

Assisted Language Learning, 24(1), 17-38.

Nakata, T. (2008). English vocabulary learning with word lists, word cards and

computers: Implications from cognitive psychology research for optimal spaced

learning. ReCALL Journal, 20(1), 3-20.

Nation, I. S .P. & Beglar, D. (2007). A vocabulary size test. The Language Teacher,

31(7), 9-13.

Nation, P. (2001). How good Is your vocabulary program. ESL Magazine, 4(3), 22-24.

Nation, P. (2012). The Vocabulary Size Test. Retrieved from

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/Vocabulary-Size-

Test-information-and-specifications.pdf

Schmitt, N. (2008). Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning.


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Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 329-363.

Spiri, J. (2008). Online study of frequency list vocabulary with the WordChamp website.

Reflections on English Language Teaching. 7(1), 21-36.

Tsuji, K., & Tsuji, S. (2006). ESP in business contexts. Annual Report of JACET SIG on

ESP, 8, 3-11.

Victoria University of Wellington. (n.d). Vocabulary Size Test. Retrieved from

http://my.vocabularysize.com

Zhang, H., Song, W., & Burston, J. (2011). Reexamining the effectiveness of vocabulary

learning via mobile phones. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational

Technology, 10(3), 203-214.


61

Science Challenge:

A novel language - learning project at Kochi College of Technology

Michael Sharpe

Kochi College of Technology

I. Introduction

Kochi College of Technology (KCT) is one of the 63 national colleges of technology

in Japan. Students at the college begin a five-year study program at age 15 in either

mechanical, electrical, information systems, materials science, or environmental and

civil engineering. As with students at a regular Japanese high school, KCT students

have a program of general English language classes, organized by the Department of

General Education. For the most part these classes focus on developing grammatical

and lexical knowledge through grammar/translation activities. As an addition to its core

curriculum, the KCT language department has introduced ‘English Expression’ classes

that aim to build a more comprehensive communicative competence.

For the 2013/14 academic year the Mechanical Engineering Department at KCT

decided to experiment with its own English course for 1st year mechanical and electrical

engineering students. The main instigator, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Professor Shigenori Akamatsu, had several rationales for organizing the program.

Like many stakeholders in Japanese engineering education, Prof. Akamatsu

identifies a need for trainee engineers to develop a communicative competence in

English for future academic and workplace needs, and, in particular, an ability and

confidence to converse at a functional level. Over the past two decades similar points of

views have been heard throughout the engineering profession. The Japanese Society of

Mechanical Engineers, for example, has long argued that for Japan to remain

competitive in the global marketplace and an engine for economic growth and

international competitiveness, there is a pressing need for greater internationalization

within the domestic engineering community - in particular better language skills. Other

commentators, including Okada (1998), Iino (2002), Ohashi (2004), Okamoto et al.

(2007), and the panel of the Japan Times forum on English education (Anthony et al,

2009), have also voiced the opinion that improved language skills will help to advance

Japanese engineering, its workforce, and also the domestic economy, in multiple

contexts. Moreover, the consensus among these stakeholders is that the need is for

productive skills, particularly speaking, and not the passive skills that are the focus of

tests such as the TOEIC. According to Anthony (quoted in Anthony et al, 2009),

evidence of the need for better oral language skills can be found in the recent trend for

Japanese firms to relocate their manufacturing bases to neighbouring countries

(particularly China), or else to outsource work, in which contexts the medium for


62

communication between managers and workers is frequently English. Meanwhile, in

their study on software engineering, Okamoto et al point out English has been adopted

as ‘the lingua franca’ (Okamoto et al, 2009: 251) for professional communication, and

the ‘de facto’ medium of work. They conclude that programmers who cannot use

English to communicate might find themselves disadvantaged in their professional

careers.

In sum, as a result of industry trends, in some engineering sectors the ability to use

English has become an important criterion in the recruitment of new personnel. And

while demand for engineering graduates remains high, there are indications that English

communication skills will no longer be required only of a small elite, but across a much

larger cross-section of Japan’s engineering workforce.

However, the question for many in engineering education is how to bridge the gap

between the levels of proficiency required in work and study contexts and the generally

low proficiency levels of engineering students when they begin their study programs.

From Prof. Akamatsu’s viewpoint, which takes in his experiences as a language learner

and as a teacher of junior engineers, a key objective for L2 programs at KCT should be

to encourage language output, because output is crucial to the process of becoming an

effective communicator. Under the present language curriculum KCT students have

much opportunity for learning, but not for practicing L2 oral communication skills. And

when they do have opportunity for practice, students are often hesitant to try and

communicate, a situation he attributes to several factors including a preoccupation with

accuracy. He identifies a clear need to deliver language education that is functional,

enjoyable and motivating, which will provide incentives for students to become English

users, rather than simply learners, and inspire in them from a young age a lasting

interest in the English language. His long-term aim is to build a comprehensive study

program at KCT for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year junior engineers that meets all these criteria,

and provides opportunities for the progressive development of the language skills that

they really need.

With this aim in mind Prof. Akamatsu sought and won approval to initiate the first

component of the program - a science project-based mini-course for 1st year students.

As proposed, the project in question would be related to dynamics - one of the subjects

students study in their 1st year. Students would work in small groups to conduct the

experiment, and then write up the results in a simple experimental report. This approach

would create an informal, relaxed atmosphere for study, maximize opportunities for

students to interact with their language instructor and also offer useful practice in the

other three macro-skills. His desire was that the course should also be taught entirely in

English.

The program was scheduled to run across the two semesters of the 2013/2014

academic year and a native speaker part-time instructor (the author) was contracted to


63

provide 60 50-minute classes over the year. During that time a total of 80 students

would take the course, in groups of ten; each group would have three once-weekly 100

minutes sessions (each session being two consecutive 50 minute lessons).

II. Design

There were several pre-determined design criteria. The course had to:

● Present opportunities for students to practice all four macro-skills, particularly

speaking.

● Be related to dynamics.

● Be achievable within the three-session timescale.

● Encourage cooperative learning.

The instructor searched online resources for an appropriate project theme. Before

progressing with the detailed design, a draft list of suggested themes was discussed with

the head of the mechanical engineering department. We decided to base the course

around a mini-project in which groups of students designed and constructed a

mechanical device capable of projecting a golf ball over a 1-metre-high barrier. After

they had tested their devices and made any necessary modifications, groups would take

part in an informal competition to see which of the devices performed best. Finally, each

participant would submit a written report in English in which they described the project

objectives, the construction process, the results of testing and the competition, and

finally their overall conclusions. The reasons for selecting this theme and methodology

were both pragmatic and educative. Firstly, construction of a functional device was

considered to be sufficiently challenging yet within the capability of the participants.

Because of the number of potential solutions to the design brief, there was plenty of

latitude for innovation and creativity in the design process. At the same time the

simplicity of the materials and construction techniques were such that no special skills

or complex equipment would be required. Finally, all the necessary materials were

readily available. From a language learning perspective, it maximized opportunities for

interaction in the target language as the instructor observed and interjected in the design,

construction and testing phases. It also presented opportunities; to teach the basic

structure of an experimental report; for the learners to practice in the target language

several key technical language genres (Description, Sequence, Cause and Effect,

Comparison); to introduce key scientific/technical vocabulary. Finally the project

encouraged creative thinking and cooperative learning.


64

The final syllabus included four phases.

1. Introduction, explanation of learning objectives, and design brief.

2. Design, production and testing.

3. Competition.

4. Project write-up.

This syllabus was proposed and approved without modification and the first

three-session course commenced in April 2013. The setting was a regular classroom,

with desks for 4 students and a whiteboard. Participants were a mixture of 1st-year male

and female mechanical, and electrical engineering students.

III. Implementation

In the first session, students divided into groups of 2-3. Each participant was given a

handout in English describing; the project theme, specific language objectives,

timetable and procedures. The handout also had a paragraph explaining in simple terms

the basic operation of a specific type of launcher (a catapult) and the scientific

principles (conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy) involved, with key

vocabulary translated into Japanese. The instructor spent some time talking through this

handout; students were also encouraged to try and interact with the instructor in English

as much as possible during the course of the project, and were also taught phrases that

they could use to request assistance or guidance.

Student groups were next invited to preview the supplied materials. The teacher

outlined the key design features of a good launcher - strength and stability - and also the

importance of achieving a correct angle of trajectory when launching the ball. This was

done through practical demonstrations and simple graphics. They were also told that

during grading, they would be judged on both the written report and also for the quality

of their design - both overall performance and innovation. Following that the groups

were asked to spend time discussing possible designs for their device among themselves

and to draft rough plans. During this phase the instructor circulated among groups,

asking questions and eliciting information regarding design features, and clarifying any

points not clear from the introductory lecture and handouts.

In the following session groups had to complete construction and then test their

machines in advance of the actual competition1. Where necessary, the instructor

provided advice and/or recommendations as necessary for modifications/improvements

i.e. the need for reinforcing, additional bracing and so forth. At the end of the session,

1 In terms of the material costs, the approximate cost of each device was ¥500. Some recycling of materials was possible.


65

groups competed in a knock out tournament in which they used their machines to

launch a plastic ball over a one metre high barrier, from a point one metre 50

centimetres distant. The distance to the barrier was increased in increments until all but

one team remained.

In the final session, students completed a basic experimental report. Every

individual was required to submit a report; however members of the same group were

allowed to submit reports with the same content. In advance, each individual was also

provided with a structured guide to experimental report writing, divided into 4 parts

(Introduction, Methodology, Results and Conclusion). This guide presented in table

format (similar in layout to what one finds in the ‘grammar guide’ in many EFL

textbooks) several alternate means of explaining in descriptive and procedural language

the project objectives, planning, design, construction and testing phases, finally their

analysis of the results and conclusions.

After submitting the reports they were graded by the instructor; marking criteria

were length, and quality of writing (grammatical correctness/accuracy).

IV. Results and discussion

As previously stated, this is an interim report on a work in progress and as such it

would be premature to make claims on its effectiveness in achieving the project goals.

After completing the course, participants are being asked to complete a 9-item survey,

in which responses are recorded on a 5-point Likert scale. Through this survey students

are also able to comment on any aspect of the course. The head of the mechanical

engineering department, and also two other engineering department professors who

have observed the teaching, have also been asked to give their feedback. Feedback from

the survey will be available for analysis at the end of spring semester 2014. Together

this data will be used to judge its effectiveness and to help in revision and improvement.

It is hoped that these findings will be presented in a follow-up report.

However, from the instructor’s perspective, it is possible to make at least some

preliminary observations. Firstly, thus far all of the groups have been able to complete

the project within the available time frame, and all students have completed their

written reports to a satisfactory standard. Secondly, one of the most positive aspects of

this project is the relatively small class size (max 10 in any one class). This factor

creates a low-key and hopefully relaxed atmosphere, and increases opportunities for

informal interaction between the instructor and the learners. Although initially reluctant,

many did make efforts to communicate in English with the instructor - a key objective

for the course. Finally, although it is difficult at this stage to determine the effectiveness

of this approach in promoting interest in and motivation for learning English, a number

of students have expressed their satisfaction with the course.


66

On the other hand, one observable trend (a disadvantage with any small-group based

project) is that some group members have taken a passive role, excluding them from the

learning process. Secondly, the time spent on construction was longer than anticipated,

which limits the amount of time available for post-project in-class feedback. In addition,

the writing guide provided a great deal of scaffolding for the report writing, to the extent

that it might be considered formulaic.

V. Conclusion

This paper reported on ongoing efforts to implement a science-based ESP project at

an engineering college. Although the project is still in its infancy, the results that have

been achieved thus far have been encouraging, in terms of the general classroom

observations and the enthusiasm and positive feedback from both the participating

students and the college staff who observed the classes. The findings of the feedback

survey are keenly anticipated. Until such time it is hoped that this report has shown how

a ‘semi-ESP’ type course can be designed and implemented for younger learners in

order to provide an alternative or supplement to a regular EGP program.

References

Anthony, L., Hiraga, M., Hirai, M., Yamazaki, A., M. Otsuka. (2009, October 5). Japan

Times forum on English education: Engineers must have English skills to succeed.

Japan Times, p. 8-9.

Iino, M. (2002). Language and English Education in Japan. In R.E. Silver, H. Guangwei,

& M. Iino (Eds)., English Language Education in China, Japan, and Singapore

(pp. 79-97). Retrieved from National Institute of Education, Nanyang

Technological University, Singapore web site:

http://www.nie.edu.sg/nie_cma/attachments/topic/147e7c6cb6ZG/Silver_Monogra

ph.pdf

Ohashi, H. (2004, September 10). Establishing Engineering Profession in Japan –

Accreditation, Professional Qualification and CPD. Paper presented at 3rd ASEE

International Colloquium on Engineering Education, Beijing. Retrieved from

http://homepage3.nifty.com/hideo3/docs/ASEE.pdf

Okada, H. (1998). Toward the globalization of JSCE. Retrieved from Japan Society of

Civil Engineers web site:

http://www.jsce.or.jp/kokusai/civil_engineering/1998/foreword.pdf

Okamoto, K., Yamamoto, E., Dan, H., Fuyuki, M. (2007, October 1-3). Consolidative

ESP. In Proceedings of the 2007 Professional Communication Conference. Paper


67

presented at the 2007 IEEE International Professional Communication Conference,

Seattle, Washington (pp. 89-95). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE).

Okamoto, K., Yasumuto, Y., Yamamoto, E., Fuyuki, M. (2009). From a language learner

to a language user. In V.K Bhatia, W. Cheng, B. Du-Babcock, & Lung, J (Eds.),

Language for Professional Communication: Research, Practice & Training (pp.

250-257). Hong Kong, Asia-Pacific LSP and Professional Communication

Association.

The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers (2014). English website accessed Sept

2014: http://www.jsme.or.jp/English/

Online resources for junior science projects

www.nasaexplores.com

http://www.sciencebob.com/experiments/index.php

http://www.jsme.or.jp/English/

http://www.jsme.or.jp/English/


68

多重知能理論の知能特性に目を向けた英語授業作り－工・農学部生を対象に

Designing English classes depending on students’ intelligences

恒安眞佐

宇都宮大学

I. はじめに

個性を大切にしながら学生を観察し、彼らにとって学びやすい環境作りを念頭にいれ

ながら授業するよう心がけている。ある時、発音練習・英作問題・聴解問題に消極的に

取り組んでいる工学部の学生を見て「英語に関して興味がないのだろう」と限られた教

授経験から判断した。しかし、文法問題に関する質疑応答中の同学生は積極的であった。

そこで、彼らへの理解を深めるために、各学生の興味ある分野・得意な項目を知る方

法はないかと考えた。その際、留学中に学習した Multiple Intelligences Theory(多重

知能理論、以下 MI 理論と記す)を土台とした学習者の知能特定を測定する質問紙があ

ることを思い出した。

II. 多重知能理論: Multiple Intelligences Theory

MI理論の提唱者、ハワード・ガードナー(1983)は、人間には少なくとも 8種類の知能

があると述べている。それらは、言語的知能、論理・数学的知能、内省的知能、対人的

知能、音楽的知能、空間的知能、博物的知能、身体的知能である。Christison(2005)によ

ると、多くの学校現場では、特定の知能(言語的知能と論理・数学的知能)に焦点をあて

た授業形態、活動内容、評価方法が多い。MI 理論は一見すると斬新な考え方にも思え

るが、8つの知能という視点は、これまでの英語教育における実践理論のあちこちにち

りばめられていると考えることができる。重要なのは、各活動の特徴を理解して授業デ

ザインすることである。学生の潜在的可能性を伸ばし、新たな可能性を発見するには、

できるだけ多くの知能を活性化させるような活動・評価方法を取り入れる工夫が必要で

ある(本田,2006)。

III. 授業の実践報告

実践の目的は、学習者の知能特性に焦点をあてた授業を通して、学習者の英語学習に

対しての動機を維持発展させることである。MI 理論を使った授業の手順は、以下の 3

段階に分かれる。(1)学生の知能特性を測定・傾向を把握、(2)知能特性に応じた英語活

動を実践、(3)学生の反応を観察。協力者は、日本の大学一年生、工学部と農学部の EFL

学習者、合計 64名である。英語活動に関しては、MI理論の知能特性を参考に分類され

た枠組みを参照し授業をデザインした。英語学習は言語的知能に直接関わっていること

は自明であり、ひとつの活動は複数の知能が関わっていることが多いが、この実践では、

学生の得意な知能に焦点をあて、それに適合した活動を取り入れることを狙いとした。

知能特性の質問紙の結果、工学部は、内省的知能、論理・数学的知能が強く、農学部

は、内省的知能と博物的知能が強い傾向となった。具体的な活動例として、内省的知能

に関しては、自己表現・目標の設定をテーマとした作文、論理・数学的知能に関してワ

ードハント、キーワードを抜粋するリーディング、マッチングを取り入れた単語学習を

実践した。博物的知能は、マインドマッピング、アナグラム、品詞や文型等の分類を通


69

して文法の復習、自然や環境問題を扱った教材や動物や生き物に関する教材の取り組み、

また単語学習のためのビンゴ等を実践した。

IV. 学生の反応

学生の反応に関しては、簡単なレポート程度の実施であったが、様々なコメントがも

らえた。肯定的な反応として、「英語を違った形で学ぶことができた」、「(教員が)工夫

してくれたので、飽きない授業だった」また否定的な反応は、「一つの活動に説明が長

く、時間がかかって面倒だった」、「答えを自分達で考え、解答をなかなか教えてくれな

かったのではっきりしない授業だった」、「毎回の授業スタイルが違うので、気が休まら

ない」等であった。

MI理論そのものは英語教育にまったく新しい地平を開くというよりは、これまでの指

導法に対して知能という枠組みを設定したものであると捉えることができよう。個々の

学習者にとって適切な活動はどれなのか、活動につまずいた場合、その原因がどこにあ

るのか、教員がどのようなフォローをすれば活動が達成できるのかを把握できる。学習

者それぞれの個性や持ち味を、時間と手間をかけて把握する教師の努力が日本の教育を

支えてきたと言っても過言ではない。これに対して、MI 理論は、教員が学習者をより

良く把握するための一つの手段であり、個々の学習者を観察し、彼らに対してより適切

な指導を進めることが可能となるであろう。

V. 今後の課題

今後の課題として、「学生が気付いていない知能・弱い知能を伸ばすことも重要ではな

いのか」、「毎回、個々に目を向けた授業作りをするのは難しいのではないのか」、「独自

で知能特性の分類表を作成したらどうか」等、考慮しなければいけない点も多々あるが、

これらの問題点などを少しずつ確認しながら進めていきたい。また、信頼性と妥当性が

確認された質問紙、日本人学習者向けの質問紙が必要となる。そして MI 理論・適正・

個人差・学習スタイル・英語学習動機の関係を検証したい。知能特性に応じて、学習者

に「好みの活動」に取り組ませることで、学習動機を維持発展させることを狙いとしな

がら授業実践を進めていく必要がある。

VI. まとめ

各学生特有の知能の差異が、否定されたり無視されることなく考慮に入れられた授

業・学習環境を通して、学生はよりよく学習できる。MI 理論を応用した学習法が学生

に適合した時に今まで以上の成果が表れ、彼らの動機付けの維持発展に繋がればと思っ

ている。大学全入時代を迎えて、多様性への対応が迫られている日本の英語教育に、微

力ながら何らかの貢献が可能であると考える。

参考文献

Christison, M. A. (2005). Multiple intelligences and language learning: A guidebook of theory,

activities, inventories, and resources. San Francisco, CA: Alta Book Center Publishers.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York:

Basic Books.

本田恵子(2006) 『脳科学を活かした授業をつくる子どもが生き生きと学ぶために』神奈川：

みくに出版


70

ESP 研究会（関東支部）2013年度活動報告

副代表村上嘉代子

JACET SIG ESP研究会・関東は、2013年度は4月から12月にかけて計4回の研究会を実施し

た。年度末の3月にさらにもう1回研究会を行う予定である。2013年度は研究会のホームペ

ージ（http://jacet-esp-kanto.org/）を新たに立ち上げた。これまではMailing List (ML)により各

例会の情報などを提供していたが、ホームページを立ち上げたことによって、より多くの

ESPに興味のある方々に研究会の活動を公開することが可能となった。本研究会をより充実

したものとするため、5月には会員への研究会の内容や例会の回数などについての満足度や

参加意向を確認するウェブ調査を行い、結果をHP上で公開している。また、これまでのESP

Annual Report Vol. 1-14をPDF版でダウンロードできる。例会においては、JACET-EBP Survey

and Research CommitteeとIIBC（一般財団法人国際ビジネスコミュニケーション協会）との

共同発表や、今年度からの試みとして”Show & Tell”といった授業でのactivityや教授法を共

有するというワークショップタイプの例会を行い、各会とも盛況であった。

2013年1月時点での会員数は59名である。研究会への参加は毎回8～15名が平均で決して

多くはないが、地道にESP領域の研究発表や学習を行っている。今後も発表や学習の場を提

供し、ESPの研究および普及に貢献するとともに、会員同士の交流を促進したいと考えてい

る。各例会については以下の内容で実施した。なお、Annual Report Volume 14 にて記載で

きなかった2012年度実施の例会1件（2013年3月）も含め報告する。

○ 3月9日（2012年度）東海大学高輪キャンパス 15：00-17：00

ビジネスミーティング

sharing your ESP interest and research,

sharing ideas for potential research and our group activities

mapping out 2013 schedule

sharing ideas for our new website

○ 5月11日（2013年度）芝浦工業大学豊洲キャンパス 15：00-17：00

発表: ESP Material Design: from a Teaching and Publishing Perspective

発表者: Alastair Graham-Marr

Presentation Abstract: What are the parameters that guide decision making when devising an ESP

curriculum? Of course, classes need to be engaging and need to match the needs of our Japanese

students. However, we are also responsible for making sure that classroom activities maximize our

students’ learning opportunities and do so according to accepted theories of second language

acquisition. Classes and classroom materials need to be accessible for language learning to take

place. The choice of when to use authentic material and when to use sheltered materials needs to be

based on student abilities. A useful framework to consult before making such choices is the

European Common Framework (CEFR). Even, if not employed as an assessment device, the CEFR


71

remains a useful frame of reference when designing courses and making curriculum choices.

Included in the CEFR is the concept of language domain, which is connected to linguistic

complexity. Concrete, immediate to self topics are generally suited for lower level learners while

abstract, far from self topics are better suited for upper levels. It is these latter topic areas that are

better suited for ESP.

Profile of the Presenter: Alastair Graham-Marr is an Associate Professor at the Tokyo University of

Science. He has been teaching in Japan for 24 years. He has an M.A. in Applied Linguistics from

Macquarie University. His research areas include the effect of output on SLA and the effect of

explicit instruction on SLA. In addition to this, Alastair Graham-Marr has worked as an editor and

materials designer for Abax Ltd., a small independent ELT publisher. An active conference

participant, this work has given him the opportunity to meet and talk with thousands of teachers

from all over the world.

○ 6月29日東海大学高輪キャンパス 15：00-17：00

Joint Presentation

発表: Business demands on English in today’s Japan: Investigating difficulties encountered at

business meetings

発表者: JACET-EBP Survey and Research Committee, with IIBC (Institute for International

Business Communication)

Presentation Abstract: With the rapid expansion of the global economy, many corporate HR

managers in Japanese companies are pressed to develop globally competitive human resources.

According to a survey conducted by IIBC in January 2013 of Japanese publicly-listed companies,

75% of respondents said that their companies use English in business, and some of them use English

as an official language. In fact, English is used in various business situations, and attending business

meetings held in English is one of the challenges for many Japanese business people. Research has

shown that a number of Japanese businesspersons feel that they are not good at refuting or

persuading others at English business meetings and express the desire to gain the confidence to

participate in flexible decision making. In this two-part presentation sessions, firstly, current

business demands on English in Japan will be illustrated. Then, in the second half of the session, we

will describe the results of a questionnaire given to businesspersons working for large public

companies in Japan. The participants are asked about English business meetings to elicit difficult

situations and problems caused by inadequate English skills. The survey items included English

proficiency levels required for meetings based on the CEFR (The Common European Framework of

Reference for Languages) scale, meeting frequency, the number of and language background of

attendees, meeting style (face-to-face or using e-communication), and difficulties that attendees

encountered in meetings. The following aspects of English business meetings were examined: 1)

meeting purpose (forward-, backward- or present-oriented); 2) the attendees of a meeting (inter- or

intra-organizational); 3) the business cycle of a meeting (planning, task-oriented, reporting,

problem-solving, and others); 4) English proficiency (speaking, listening, vocabulary,


72

comprehension, and others); 5) other factors including mental and psychological factors, and

emotional intelligence. This presentation will describe the purpose and background of the

questionnaire including Japan’s educational and business demands on English. The questionnaire

design and results will be discussed.

Profile of the Presenters:

<JACET-EBP Survey and Research Committee Members>

Dr. Hajime Terauchi: Professor of English Language in the Department of Commerce, Faculty of

Commerce, Takachiho University, Tokyo. He has a BA in Civil Law (Keio University, Japan), MA

in English Language Teaching (University of Warwick, UK) and PhD in English Language

Teaching (University of Warwick, UK).

Tamao Araki: Assistant Professor at Miyazaki Prefectural Nursing University. He earned his M.A.

in Linguistics before beginning to teach English at university level and currently focuses his research

on second language learning processes in the context of his own teaching practices. Additional

interests include Network-Based Language Learning/Teaching, Complexity Theory, and English for

Specific Purposes.

Hisashi Naito: Professor of English in the Faculty of Business Administration, Hokkai-Gakuen

University. He is the president of the ESP Hokkaido chapter. His research interests include business

communication, genre analysis and computer-assisted language learning. He has publications in the

area of ESP and EMP.

Masako Terui: Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Science and Engineering at Kinki University.

She is the president of the ESP Kansai chapter. Her research interests include English for

engineers/engineering students, genre-based approach to research paper articles and

computer-assisted language learning.

Reiko Fujita: Associate Professor in the Foreign Language Center at Tokai University. Her research

interest is in the field of ESP, particularly English for tourism. She is an English Program

coordinator for the Faculty of Tourism. She served as the chair of the ESP Kanto chapter during the

years 2010-12.

<The Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC) >

Masuyo Ando: General Manager, IP (Institutional Program) Division, the Institute for International

Business Communication, joined the organization in 2010. She started her career in finance and

marketing, and she has 17 years’ experience in consulting for Japanese educational institutions in the

field of international education and school management. Currently she is in charge of the sales and

marketing of TOEIC programs for corporations, universities and individuals in Japan.

Kosuke Miki: Corporate Market Team, R&D Team, IP Planning & Operation Unit, IP Division,

The Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC).


ワークショップ

Workshop structure /topics:


73

Part I: Four presenters will share a teaching activity, which is related to ESP instruction, for

approximately 15 minutes per presenter. Presenters will use a Power Point presentation but will be

encouraged to speak informally. (60 minutes)

Part II: Each presenter will talk one-on-one (or to a few audience members) in an informal

“breakout session.” Audience members will be able to move freely into separate CALL classrooms

where each presenter will give a “hands-on” demonstration of their teaching activity. (30-40

minutes)

Presenter’s Name Title of Show & Tell Content

Masa Tsuneyasu

(Utsunomiya University)

Practical Lesson Plans

for Engineering Students

Engineering students are more likely to

enjoy individual activities. The

presenter will introduce activities which

stimulate students’ cognitive and spatial

knowledge.

Brett Milliner

(Tamagawa University)

Take an Oath to

Vocabulary Growth

This presentation will introduce the

vocabulary flashcard software, Quizlet.

This introduction will demonstrate how

students are able to interact with the

software on their smartphones and

personal computers. Teachers will also

learn how to oversee their students’

interactions with the system

Travis Cote

(Tamagawa University,

College of Tourism &

Hospitality)

Mobile Language

Learning: Apps for

Speaking & Listening

Practice

This brief presentation will introduce a

speaking activity/project I did with my

Tourism & Hospitality Management

students using an iPhone app.

Dave Rear

(Shibaura Institute of

Technology)

Making an ESP Reading

Course with Authentic

Materials

This presentation will introduce a

course using authentic materials on

technical and engineering topics. It will

provide ideas for constructing a lesson

plan that keeps students motivated and

interested.


発表: Key Factors for Designing EBP Courses

発表者: Kazushige Tsuji & Setsu Tsuji

Presentation Abstract: The presenters’ research aims at systematically establishing a connection

between university and industry to pragmatically develop courses in English for Business Purposes

(EBP) and corresponding materials. In the interest of examining the present status of international


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communication at global businesses in Japan, the presenters have conducted two primary phases of

data collection. First, on-line research was undertaken with 1,000 business people across Japan to

analyze the need for English at Japanese companies operating globally. Next, questionnaires were

distributed to 100 business people assigned to planning and organizing English education, to both

obtain data regarding English courses given to their employees and examine corporate language

policies. Respondents were also asked to list English courses considered important at university

based on their perspectives in relation to skills and contents. In this presentation, the results of data

analysis to date will be explained, highlighting a gap between the English courses in place and

English needs at these companies. The presenters will then outline a plan for their future research

regarding the designing and implementation of practical EBP courses, which will aid in the shaping

of tertiary education to better meet the needs of industry.

Profile of the Presenters:

Kazushige Tsuji is a professor in the Department of English at Mukogawa Women’s University.

His current interests include building bridges between university and industry to systematically

design and implement EBP courses.

Setsu Tsuji currently teaches English courses at Kansai University and Mukogawa Women’s

University. Her present research interests are English for Business Purposes (EBP), and international

communication management.

12月の例会後に品川のレストランにてYear-end party を開催した。メンバーとの親交を深め

るとともに1年の活動の締めくくりを行った。

（各プレゼンテーションのアブストラクト及びプロフィールは各発表者が作成したものを掲載させていただきました。）


*******************************************************************

2013 年 12 月 31 日第 1 版発行

編集・発行大学英語教育学会 ESP 研究会（関東支部）

印刷所 PROPRINT 翔羊株式会社

〒330-0845 埼玉県さいたま市大宮区仲町 3-17-2

TEL 0120-65-0707

FAX 0120-65-0705

URL http://www.proprint.co.jp/

*******************************************************************

Science Challenge - a novel language learning project at Kochi National College of Technology

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