S Volume 30 July 1981

THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations

WMO was created: - to facilitate international co-operation in the establishment of networks of stations and centres to

provide meteorological and hydrological services and observations, - to promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteoro­

logical and related information, - to promote standardization of meteorological and related observations and ensure the uniform

publication of observations and statistics, - to further the application of meteorology to aviation , shipping, water problems, agricu lture and

other human activities, - to promote activities in operational hydrology and to further close co-operation between

Meteorological and Hydrological Services, - to encourage research and training in meteorology and, as appropriate, in related fields.

The World Meteorological Congress

is the supreme body of the Organization. It brings together the delegates of all Members once every four years to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization.

The Executive Committee

is composed of 29 directors of national Meteorological or Hydrometeorological Services serving in an individual capacity; it meets at least once a year to supervise the programmes approved by Congress.

Six Regional Associations

are each composed of Members whose task is to co-ordinate meteorological and related activities within their respective regions.

Eight Technical Commissions

composed of experts designated by Members, are responsible for studying meteorological and hydro­logica l operational systems, applications and research.

EXECUTIVE COMMimE President: R. L. KINTANAR (Philippines)

First Vice-President: C. A. ABAYOMI (Nigeria) Second Vice-President: Ju. A. lzRAEL (USSR)

Third Vice-President: J. E. ECHEVESTE (Argentina)

Regional Association presidents

Africa (I): S. B. MPATA (Malawi) (acting)

Asia (11): A. G. J. AL-SULTAN (Iraq)

South America (Ill ): F. ROLL FUENZALIDA (Ch ile) (acting)

North and Central America (IV): S. AGUILAR ANGUIANO (Mexico) (acting)

South-West Pacific (V): Ho TONG YUEN (Malaysia)

Europe (VI): A. W. KABAKIBO (Syrian Arab Republic) (acting)

Elected members

C. H. ARIAS (Colombia) G. S. BENTON (USA) P. K. DAS (India) J. DJIGBENOU (Ivory Coast) (acting) N. A. GBECKOR-KOVE (Ghana) K. LANGLO (Norway) E. LINGELBACH (Fed. Rep. of Germany) SIR JOHN MASON (United Kingdom) J. MASUZAWA (Japan) (acting)

R. MITTNER (France) J. K. MURITHI (Kenya) C. PADILHA (Brazil) M. RAHMATULLAH (Pakistan) M. SECK (Senegal) M. F. TAHA (Egypt) Wu XUEYI (China) J. W. ZILLMAN (Australia) (Two seats ••acant)

TECHNICAL COMMISSION PRESIDENTS

Aeronautical Meteorology: R. R. Dooos Agricultural Meteorology: N. GERBIER Atmospheric Sciences: A. VILLEVIEILLE Basic Systems: J. R. NEILON Climatology and Applications of Meteorology:

M. K. THOMAS

Hydrology: R. H. CLARK Instruments and Methods of Observation:

H. TREUSSART Marine Meteorology: K. P. VASIL'EV

The Secretariat of the Organization is located at 41 Avenue Giuseppe-Motta, Geneva, Switzerland

W 0 R L D METEOROLOG I CAL ORGANIZATION

SECRETARY -GENERAL : JULY 1981 A. C. WIIN-NIELSEN

VOL. 30 NO. 3 DEPUTY SECRETARY-GENERAL : R. SCHNEIDER

In this issue

Significant meteorological events in 1980 - Part I

The Bulletin interviews Professor R. C Sutcliffe

Hail suppression - Research and operations in Bul ­garia

WMOjiCSU Joint Scientific Committee - Second ses­sion . Laxenburg (Austria ). March 1981

Course on maintenance of a wind-f1nding rada r - Nai­robi . 28 October-25 November 1980

The scientific and techn ical structure of WMO - Ses­sion of the Executive Committee·s panel of experts . Geneva. February 1981

World Weather Watch

Meteorology and ocean affa irs

Research and development

Meteorological applications and the environment

Global Atmospheric Research Programme

World Cl1mate Programme

Techn1cal co-operation

Education and training

In the Regions

News and notes

Calendar of coming events

News from the Secretariat

Obituary

Reviews

Members of the World Meteorological Organization

Selected list of WMO publications

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It was at its nineteenth session in 1967 that the WMO Executive Committee decided that Members should be requested to send to the Secretariat descriptive reports on unusual weather during the year, and that these reports should be carefully edited and published in the WMO Bulletin. From the very beginning, one of the main problems in compi ling a comprehensive report of this sort was that the sources of information were geographicall y patchy. It has to be said that even a ll owing for differing interpretations of the criteria for exceptional meteorological events, the response of Members to the request for reports has been disappointing. We are extremely grateful to the Atmospheri c Environment Service of Canada for providing the services of Mr. David Phillips to write the report for the year 1980, of which the first part starts o n page 163. The article wi ll be concluded in the next issue.

To most meteorological forecasters in the late 1940s and 1950s, as well as to the aircrews they briefed, the name Sutcliffe was almost a household word. The reason wi ll be clear from the interview we publish on page 169. Professor Sutcliffe served with the United Kingdom Meteorological Office from 1927 until 1965, and then as head of the Department of Meteorology at Reading University until 1970. Throughout much of hi s career he devoted his efforts, with ad mirab le success, to advancing the science of meteorology in its most useful aspect, that of practical forecasting. ·

Hai l suppression is the other principal topic of this number. On page 182 wi ll be found a description of the research and experimentation site set up for this purpose in Bulgaria. Many scientific questions remain unanswered, and Professor Stantchev looks forward to welcoming scientists from other countries in a united endeavour to make further progress in hail-suppression technology. On page 195 there is a report on a meeting of international experts on this subject.

Corrigendum: Mr. A. Dreze has asked us to make it clear that he is not in charge of the entire co-operative project between Belgium, C l LSS and WMO as is inferred in the footno te- to his article (WMO Bulletin 30 ( I) p. 9). In fact he heads the Sahelian climato­logical data bank component. We regret this inexactitude.

Cover picture: Cumulonimbus over the foothi lls of the Bernese Oberland Alps seen from the Jura mountains. Some severe hailstorms were reported on this occasion. The photograph is by courtesy of Mr. Ala in Jean neret of the Geneva-Cointrin centre of the Swiss Meteorological Institute.

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Introduction

SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL EVENTS IN 1980 - PART I

This is the fourteenth annual review of meteorological highlights published in the WMO Bulletin. As in previous years, it is based on reports received from national Meteorologial Services throughout the world . It relates to exceptiona l meteoro logical events that led to significant losses in li ves and property or that resulted in substantial economic andfor social disruption, or events that were rare or particularly interesting from the scientific point of view. Forty-six countries responded, of which eight said there was nothing to report. Reference has also been made to Climate Monitor, published quarterly by the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia (United Kingdom), and to the weekly report Environmental Resource Assessment and Information issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA).

Part I of this review begins with a summary of the general circulation of the atmosphere in the northern hemisphere based on material provided by the Washington WMC and on comments sent by several countries, particularly Spain and Japan. For the southern hemisphere the information was supplied by Austra lia. Regional meteoro­logical and hydrological highlights follow for Africa and Europe. Part II , to appear in the next issue, will include reports from Asia, the South-West Pacific, and the Americas.

General characteristics of the circulation patterns in 1980

Northern hemisphere

The mean circulation at the 700-hPa level during winter (December 1979-February 1980) featured pronounced north-south waves and strong westerlies that were displaced well south of their usual position. The most noteworthy feature was a large area of cyclonic activity over the northern Pacific. The absence of a strong ridge extending from Canada towards Siberia and the persistence of the zonal circulation were the main factors which produced the generally mild winter across North America. Precipitation was less than normal over most of the USA except for the west and south­west. The heaviest precipitation here was associated with several late winter storms that crossed the Pacific in the strong westerlies at low latitudes. A strong flow from the Atlantic also brought mild weather, storminess and above-average rainfall to parts of western Europe, but the widespread blocking across northern Eurasia increased radiative cooling of air masses from Scandinavia eastwards and southwards. The westerlies were stronger than usual south of the Himalayas.

An extremely fast westerly flow persisted over the Pacific throughout the spring months (March-May), but at higher latitudes than in winter. An unusually strong and persistent ridge was centred over the Rocky Mountains. This swift westerly flow split, with one stream moving northwards and another southwards, passing through a broad trough across the southern USA. In the vicinity of the blocking zone over portions of the USA and Canadian Great Plains, the dearth of storm systems meant dry weather and severe drought. Both April and May were among the driest months on record for parts of this region, while average spring temperatures were well above normal near and just to the west of the blocking ridge. The mid-latitude wave pattern fro·m the

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Atlantic to eastern Asia was accentuated. Deep troughs over southern Europe, western USSR and eastern Asia were associated with cold and sometimes wet conditions.

A long-wave circulation pattern across the northern hemisphere during the summer (June-August) meant spells of either warm and dry or cold and wet weather. The North American circulation was dominated by two persistent features: an anticyclone over the southern half of the continent, and a deep Arctic low. Precipi­tation totals were only between 25 and 50 P.er cent of normal over a large area of the American and Canadian plains, with temperatures averaging 2-4 deg C above normal.

· A notable break in the drought occurred on 9/10 August when Alien, one of the most intense Atlantic hurricanes on record, was steered westwards across the Atlantic and Caribbean into the Gulf of Mexico, south of the persistent and unusually strong subtropical high-pressure ridges that affected those areas most of the summer. The well-defined zone of negative height anomalies covering western Europe in June and July was reflected at the surface by low temperatures and excessive rainfall. However, by August the area of negative height anomalies covered eastern Europe and European USSR, while the weather in western Europe improved considerably. The summer was relatively warm and dry in Scandinavia under the effect of a small blocking situation, but it was cool and wet in European USSR. In July a significant area of positive anomalies formed over eastern Siberia and intensified in August. A deep trough west of Japan produced north-easterly winds across the Sea of Japan, making it one of the wettest and coolest summers on record.

The 700-hPa westerlies again became stronger than normal at mid latitudes over the Pacific during autumn (September-November), while a deep main trough developed south of the Aleutians, the subtropical ridge remaining stronger than normal to the south. Similar conditions existed over the Atlantic and Europe. Accentuated ridges associated with warmer than normal air were located over central Asia and western North America, and blocking waves frequently retrograded from the North Atlantic across Greenland and northern Canada to the Beaufort Sea. Rather colder than normal temperatures prevailed over Alaska, eastern North America, and northern Europe, especially in November when anomalies of -12 deg C occurred over the eastern Arctic Ocean. A rather mobile and highly variable pattern of large amplitude troughs and ridges prevailed during the last month of 1980, with corresponding variations in the weather.

Southern hemisphere

The year began with positive anomalies of the 500-hPa geopotential height field extending in a broad band from South America across the South Atlantic and into the Indian Ocean to southern and western Australia. This general circulation feature was also evident during January over Antarctica where it remained as a permanent feature for the first months of 1980. The negative height anomalies and increased cyclonicity which had characterized the southern Pacific Ocean through most of 1979 continued well into 1980. There was also a persistent area of negative anomalies south of the Great Australian Bight during the first part of the year. Its position farther south than normal in March helped to explain the severe drought that most of the southern half of Australia suffered. New Zealand experienced a number of storms in January and March, but in February the weather was much drier than it had been since June 1979.

The large area of negative geopotential anomalies over the South Pacific was maintained throughout the southern hemisphere autumn. A series of weak broad troughs developed off the coast of southern Africa around soos II5°E, whereas Antarctica was covered by an area of higher than normal geopotential. A blocking

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pattern became evident in the Tasman Sea in association with a positive anomaly at 45°S. Consequently, April and May were generally warm, dry and calm over New Zealand and southern and eastern parts of Australia.

The positive anomaly pattern that became established over large areas of Antarctica at the beginning of the year weakened considerably in June. This was reflected once again by lower than normal surface temperatures. Above-normal geopotential was re-established in July and persisted until the end of the year. In August, dramatic temperature anomalies occurred, ranging from + 6 deg C over the eastern half of Antarctica to -4 deg C over the western peninsula. A belt of positive height anomalies covered the eastern half of the southern hemisphere with centres over the south-east Atlantic and the central Indian Ocean. Troughs were much weaker in June than in earlier months, the only exception being a broad trough over the central Pacific at 40°S 140°W. A clearly defined three-wave pattern was established in July and continued into August and September. Troughs were positioned over the South Atlantic, the central Indian Ocean and the central Pacific, the latter being particularly strong. Ridging was also strong over the Australian continent. However, a belt of negative anomalies extending from the central Indian Ocean to the central Pacific gave rise to enhanced zonal flow across southern Australia. Above-normal ridging occurred over South America during August and September.

During the last four months of 1980, the ridge over the Australian continent moved out over the Tasman Sea. There were pronounced positive temperature anomalies during September and November over southern Australia and rainfall was below average. During November a weak trough developed to the east of New Zealand producing weather that was wet (about 130 per cent of normal rainfall) and cool (1.9 deg C below normal). By December, a blocking pattern developed south of Tasmania and New Zealand. The strong ridge that had been evident south of southern Africa between July and September retrogressed to the South Atlantic. A series of troughs was apparent, located over the western Indian Ocean, the Great Australian Bight, the central Pacific and the central Atlantic.

Regional meteorological conditions

AFRICA

Temperature and sunshine: There were few reports of unusual conditions from the continent. In northern Africa, spring temperatures in ALGERIA and T UN ISIA were persistently cool (between 2 and 3 deg C below normal). On the other hand, positive temperature anomalies of more than 4 deg C were reported over the Sahel region. Higher than normal temperatures continued into the summer across central Africa, accompanied by a severe drought. At Kayes in MALl , the July mean was 3.1 °C, about 2.3 deg C above normal. -·

Precipitation, floods and droughts: For most of the winter, northern Africa was under the influence of the Azores high-pressure system which brought dry weather. Only one­third of the normal winter rainfall was registered in central and southern parts of TUN ISIA. A series of cold fronts in mid-February produced a total of between 25 and 30 mm of rain across northern Africa, improving prospects for pasture and grain. Late in the year heavy December rains brought between I 00 and 200 mm in a five-day period to ALGERIA and TUNISIA. There was severe local flooding in the north .

In central Africa, scanty rainfall for the second year in succession contributed to widespread food shortages from SENEGAL to SOMALIA. Erratic summer rains in the western Sahel were only 25 to 30 per cent of normal. Some rain did finally arrive in

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August, but by late September dry weather returned and prectpttation amounts continued to be less than 25 per cent of normal until the end of the year. The year-long drought was especially severe in eastern Africa, extending from the SUDAN and ETHIOPIA in the north to the UNITED REPUBLIC OF TA NZAN IA, MOZAMBIQUE and ZAMBIA in the south.

In sharp contrast to the drought of 1979, rainfall was generally abundant over southern Africa and off the south-eastern coast. Monthly rainfall totals during the winter and spring seasons were in excess of 200 mm at some places in ANGOLA, CoNGO, MOZAMBIQUE, ZAIRE and ZIMBABWE. Many rivers and lakes were at near record levels.

In southern districts of BOTSWA NA, locally heavy rain during September produced some record monthly totals, exceeding 80 mm fairly widely, and I 00 mm at a few stations, the highest amount being Ill. I mm at Moeding College. Normal September rainfall totals in this area vary between 9 and 16 mm.

Storms and tropical cyclones: Reports of blinding dust storms were frequent in Africa during the year. In January, cyclone Hyacinthe battered MADAGASCA R, MAURITI US and REUN ION for nine consecutive days producing record rainfalls in excess of I 000 mm (see WMO Bulletin 29 (4) pp. 255-259). Cyclone Jacinthe passed close to Mauritius in February and Laure on 13 March. Laure was especially intense, with winds reaching 55 m s- 1 and heavy rain. There was some loss of life. Tropical cyclone Kolia with wind gusts exceeding 50 m s- 1 crossed the southern tip of Madagascar also on 13 March. The excessive rain and strong winds were mainly responsible for reducing the 1980 sugar crop by approximately one fourth .

EUROPE

General: The weather across Europe during 1980 was cool , wet and dull. It was especially chilly in the spring and early summer. Cool wet weather during May and June d,elayed crop sowing and growth by at least two weeks in parts of eastern Europe and in western USSR. In wine-producing areas, flowering of the vines was late and many vineyards experienced millerandage, or dwarfing of the grapes. Persistent showers and cool weather in European USSR interfered with harvesting and planting during August and September. However, across most of western Europe these two months proved to be the most favourable. Cold snowy weather during November hampered transportation in several countries and created extreme hardships for survivors of the Italian earthquake.

Temperature and sunshine: Apart from Scandinavia, most countries experienced small amounts of sunshine and cooler conditions than normal for between eight and ten months of the year. At Yalentia Observatory in IRELA ND, the annual sunshine duration totalled only 78 per cent of normal, even less than 1979's dismal record (see WMO Bulletin 29 (3) p. 163) and thus the lowest since records began in 1880.

At the beginning of the year temperatures were generally below normal. Negative anomalies in European USSR were 2-3 deg C in January and 3-4 deg C in March. A mid January invasion of cold north-easterly air across the Iberian Peninsula brought temperatures in northern SPAI N down to less than -20°C in places, causing intense ice fog that resulted in numerous accidents. Temperatures below -30°C were reported near Ankara in TURKEY. During February the weather across Europe was generally pleasant -the mildest and sunniest February in many years.

Spring and early summer were rather cool over much of Europe. May was especially cold in POLA ND and CzECHOSLOVAKIA with anomalies of -2 to -4 deg C; Warsaw had the coldest May this century. In H uNGARY, around Budapest it was the

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shortest growing season (from April to September) since 1913. Chilling conditions during spring and early summer retarded crops by between three and four weeks. Even more damaging were late season frosts such as those in the Ukrainian region of the USSR in May, the first for 35 years. As a result of severe night frosts during May in southern and central FI NLAND, the yield of forest berries was 40 per cent less than normal , corresponding to a commercial loss of about US $5 million. At the same time sharp frosts occurred in the northern NETHERLANDS and in the Ebro basin of SPAI N where fruit was damaged. Flowering of subtropical fruit trees in ISRAEL was also delayed by a few weeks in April and May because of Sharav conditions. Summer sunshine totals in the FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY, HUNGARY, IRELAND and SWITZERLAND were well below 75 per cent of normal. During the 30-day period from 22 June to 21 July, De Bilt in the NETHERLANDS recorded only 80 hours of sunshine, more than 20 hours fewer than any previous 30-day summer period during the past I 00 years.

On the positive side, record monthly totals of sunshine occurred in April and May at several places in the UNITED KI NG DOM, particularly in southern Scotland and around the Irish Sea. On the Isle of Man 307.2 hours of sunshine were recorded at Douglas, the highest there in any May since records began towards the end of the last century. In contrast the period from June to September was unusually dull. For example, at Paisley (near Glasgow), the 412 hours of sunshine was the lowest there for that four-month period since records began in 1885. Scandinavian countries enjoyed pleasant summer weather. In FINLAND June temperatures exceeded the normal by 4 deg C, which happens only about once in 50 years. Northern NoRWAY enjoyed its third consecutive summer with exceptionally sunny weather; at Tromso a record number of sunshine hours (911) was measured for the period June, July and August. The exceptionally dry sunny weather during August and September in the Mediterranean basin saved agriculture from a potentially disastrous year.

November was a month of remarkable temperature contrasts throughout most of Europe. Mean temperatures ranged from 6 deg C below normal in the first week to 6 deg C above normal during the third week of the month. The cold wave caused considerable losses in citrus crops, olives and carob beans in northern SPAI N. The frost on 3 November at Uccle, BELGIUM, was the earliest thi s century. In the NETHERLA NDS the first ten days of November were the coldest in the past I 00 years. Several vegetable crops suffered from the early frosts. Ice on inland lakes interfered with shipping between 7 and 11 November, an event rarely experienced so early in the season. Equally exceptional was the mild period from 15 to 24 November when the mean temperature at De Bilt was above 11 °C-a record for that time of year.

Precipitation , droughts and floods: Strong westerlies at low latitudes led to considerable precipitation in western and central Europe during the winter. However, across SPAI N and eastern Europe it was generally dry until May with monthly total precipitation averaging about 75 per cent of normal, although in the European part of the USSR the whole year was exceedingly wet. In the NETHERLANDS, twice the normal amount of precipitation was recorded between mid-December 1979 and mid-February 1980. On 6 February the Rhine and Waal Rivers flooded , but fortunately the high river level s coincided with calm weather and normal tides a long the North Sea coast, so that little damage occurred. Winter was also wet in the Middle East, JORDAN recording 19 days with precipitation in February.

A large spring blocking high over the UNITED KI NG DOM brought exceedingly dry weather to north-western Europe in April and May. Over England and Wales it was the driest early spring since 1896 while over Scotland it was the driest since 1869.

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Rarely seen duststorms occurred in the NETHERLA NDS. However, excessive quantities of precipitation-three to four times the normal-continued unabated in western districts of the USSR. In T URKEY, heavy rain combined with snowmelt due to a sudden thaw resulted in the Seyhan River overflowing its banks between 27 March and 6 April. Five people lost their lives and 471 km2 of agricultural land was submerged.

For most of June and July the Azores anticyclone was centred farther south than normal, while a low-pressure area persisted over the North Sea. Except for Scandinavia, where it was exceptionally dry throughout most of the year, almost the entire continent had the wettest summer on record . Northern Scandinavia was excep­tionally dry in July and August. At Myken in NoRWAY the August precipitation totalled only I 0 mm, making it the driest August since 1910. Precipitation totals were generally between 20 and 50 per cent of normal which meant an appreciable loss in production of hydropower.

In marked contrast to the dryness of spring, the U NITED KI NGDOM had its wettest June since 1879. Several stations in the Benelux countries received over 200 mm of precipitation ; some one-day totals exceeded 70 mm. Shipping was interrupted on the Ri ver Meuse which , as the Maas in the NETHERLANDS, reached a peak of 2200 m3 s - 1 in July, a rate of flow never before recorded during summer. Farther east, flood s in CZECHOSLOVAKIA, H UNGA RY and POLAND caused considerable damage to the agricultural economy.

Autumn was wet in northern Europe. FINLAND had its wettest autumn on record. Valentia Observatory in IRELA ND had a seasonal precipitation total which was· 164 per cent of normal, also making it the wettest autumn ever. DENMARK had its second wettest autumn on record .. Along the Baltic coast and in Byelorussia and western Ukraine in the USSR, precipitation amounts in October in some places were double the normal.

The invasion of cold air from the east across Europe in early November produced a snow cover in central regions which lasted for several days before disappearing. Further north, this early snow cover was permanent, being 40 days earlier than normal in inland parts of FI NLA ND. A snow cover so early in southern pa rts of European USSR occurs only once every 15-20 years.

Storms and blizzards: The year was not without its usual number of devastating storms. At the beginning of January two severe blizzards 24 hours apart struck southern ITALY, with bitter cold, abundant snow, and strong gusty winds up to 42 m s - 1

• Sicily was particularly hard hit. Hundreds of villages were isolated and more than one thousand families were left homeless. Scores of boats were smashed by strong winds and high waves a long the Sicilian coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

In mid April an intense depression moving from Greenland to the Baltic Sea produced northerly gales of over 25 m s - 1 and surges which caused damage to many coastal towns around the North Sea. The ferry service between SwEDEN and DENMARK was disrupted. Soil from newly-sown fields was removed, carrying away seed and fertilizer valued at several million US dollars, and beaches and recreational facilities on exposed coasts of the NETHERLANDS were extensively damaged.

On several occasions during the summer, local storms with severe squalls and intense rainfall occurred in eastern Europe. On 14 June and again on 3 August a tornado-like whirlwind did substantial damage in the GERMAN DEMOCRATIC R EPUBLIC. Cold fronts with gale-force winds raced across CzECHOSLOVAKIA on 9 July and again on 9 August. Lodging of up to 75 per cent of the cereal crops was the most serious consequence, although gusty winds and driving ra in (20 mm in 10 minutes) caused

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extensive damage. In the USSR, squalls with winds of up to 25 m s - 1 occurred in the Ukraine at the end of July and in Byelorussia on 21 August. A period of strong winds occurred in POLAND between 22 and 25 August where trees were uprooted, electric power lines brought down and buildings and roads damaged. Extensive crop losses due to hailstorms also occurred during this period in AusTRIA and the FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMA NY.

In the UNITED KI NGDOM many new short-duration rainfall records were set during the summer. On 25 June, 116 mm of rain fell in I% hours at Sevenoaks in Kent, the second highest amount on record for such a period, and 97 mm of rain fell in 45 minutes at Orra Beg in Northern Ireland during a thunderstorm on I August, the heaviest fall for such a duration ever recorded in the United Kingdom. This storm created fissures three metres deep in the peat surface and washed away a 60 m section of road. The south coast resort of Worthing experienced rainfall amounts exceeding I 00 mm on 20 September and again on I 0 October; for two such events to occur so close to each other is extremely unusual.

As already mentioned, an unusual autumn snowstorm struck northern Europe from 3 to 7 November. Up to five consecutive days of snow cover were reported in AUSTRIA and the FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF G ERMANY and even London in the UNITED KI NG DOM had four days with snow. In Vienna, the depth of the snow exceeded 21 cm and Alpine passes were closed to traffic. Around Modena in ITALY many vineyards were devastated, while the River Arno threatened to flood the centre of Florence. Again, in late November heavy rain and snow occurred throughout Italy, which added to the suffering of thousands who had just been rendered homeless by a severe earthquake in the south of the peninsula. In December excessive rain in the Cantabrian mountains of SPAIN occurred in conjunction with mild temperatures that caused rapid snowmelt and extensive flooding. Transportation links and water mains were severed and thousands of people had to be evacuated. Five deaths and numerous casualties were reported. From 27 to 29 December a severe wind storm affected the whole of the country. Near Madrid gusts reaching over 36 m s- 1 caused extensive damage.

D. W. PHILLIPS

THE BULLETIN INTERVIEWS: Professor R. C. Sutcliffe

To make this interview, the Editor of the WMO Bulletin had to fl y to London and then travel on to Bletchley, almost an hour by train. At Bletchley station, Professor Sutcliffe was waiting. He looked much younger than his 77 years and wore a peaked cap. He was full of life and humour and he drove rather fast. A visitor newly arrived from the continent may perhaps be excused his initial consternation at being driven on the wrong side of the road until he realizes that in England everyone is doing it. The Sutcliffes' cottage is a charming period house well over two hundred years old. Upon entering, even moderately tall people need to bend their heads since the entrance and the ceiling are rather low. Yet the house has been beautifully renovated and furni shed with good taste. Here then, in these beautiful and peaceful surroundings, Reggie and Eve Sutcliffe have chosen to live. Perhaps one reason for their remarkable fitness is that they frequently have to chase out the neighbouring farmer's livestock which are browsing in their garden.

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Reginal Cockcroft Sutcliffe was born in Wales in 1904, but soon after this his family returned to their native Yorkshire. His early education was at Whitcliffe Mount School at Cleckheaton; he went on to the University of Leeds to study mathematics and obtained his doctorate from the University College of North Wales at Bangor. He was soon employed at the United Kingdom Meteorological Office and served at home and in Malta. There he worked for a time with Professor Tor Bergeron, the well-known Swedish meteorologist of the Bergen school. Sutcliffe's book Meteorology fo r Aviators* , which first appeared in 1939, brought him renown. It was a delight both to pilots and meteorologists, and quickl y became a best-seller, being translated into several la nguages. In 1938 and 1939 Sutcliffe published a few papers dealing with divergence in the atmosphere and tackling the general problems of development on a systematic three-dimensional basis. This was a novel line of inquiry; although purely dynamical in nature, there were practical possibilities for forecasting. In a ll his early works, Sutcliffe rea lized the vital need for upper-ai r information . His use of vector analysis techniques was soon taken up, subsequently giving way to the use of tensors for some aspects of atmospheric dynamics.

During the Second World War he served with the Royal Air Force, in France from 1939 to 1940, then as senior meteorologica l officer of No. 3 Group Bomber Command from 1941 to 1944, and finall y as chief meteorological officer for the RAF in Germany from 1944 to 1946 with the rank of Group Captain. It is interesting to note that two of his collaborators during his tour of duty in France were D. A Davies, who certainly needs no introduction to readers of the WMO Bulletin, and P. J . Meade, a lso known to many meteorologists around the world. Already Sutcliffe was a very inspiring person, full of ideas and enthusiasm, greatly respected for his views on synopti c analysis and famed for looking ahead and foreseeing meteorological events. Those who served under his leadership still remember that rewarding experience. One of the people who worked with him was Professor 0. Godart of Belgium, then an Air Force officer. In his paper of 1947 A contribution to the problem of development** , Sutcliffe acknowledged that one of hi s results- the new equation of continuity - was due to Godart. One of the most important features of the 1947 paper was the use of pressure (p) as the vertical co-ordinate instead of height (z). This approach, no w widely adopted, was indeed a departure from conventional methods, and there was some sceptism as to its va lidity, si nce pressure varies not only in the z direction but also in the x and y directions. Sutcliffe was unshaken by such criticism, and hi s presentation of the paper to the Royal Meteorological Society was an important mil estone.

Next Sutcliffe set about building up a forecasting research team. He became the Meteorological Office's first director of research in 1957, and had the onerous task of creating what was virtually an institute of meteorology within the framework of a governmental estab lishment. He was elected Fellow of the Roya l Society and served as president of the Royal Meteorological Society. By no w, Sutcliffe's name was also familiar beyond the shores of his nati ve country. He was president of WMO's former Commission for Aerology from 1957 to 1961. The WMO Executive Committee chose him as a member of its Advisory Committee, a prestigious body composed of 12 eminent scientists and experts. Sutcliffe made invaluable contributions to the WMO Education and Training Programme. The WMO Guidelines for the education and training of personnel in meteorology and operational hydrology contains many important inputs from him. ·

* Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London ( 1939)

** Quarter(y Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 73 pp. 370-383

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When Sutcliffe became Professor of Meteorology at the University of Reading, he had to build up the University's new department of meteorology, a challenging task not without its difficulties. Nevertheless, he managed to launch an excellent research and training programme, one which has brought notable help to students from developing countries.

Although Sutcliffe is mostly known for his studies in synoptic and dynamic meteorology, he has also done valuable work in other fields such as atmospheric ozone, hydrology and tropical meteorology. He is an able mathematician. His published works run into three figures.

In his own country, Sutcliffe received the Buchan Prize from the Royal Meteoro­logical Society in 1950, and its highest award , the Symons Gold Medal, in 1955. The same year, the Physical Society awarded him the Charles Chree Medal. On the interna­tional scene, Sutcliffe received the IMO Prize in 1963 and honorary membership of the American Meteorological Society in 1975.

Sutcliffe is a man of excellent humour, and if occasionally his lively wit is somewhat abrasive, any victims of his remarks quickly recover and retain their goodwill. He has proved to be exceptionally capable as a conference chairman.

The interview took place on Wednesday 25 February 1981 . We are most grateful to Professor Sutcliffe for having agreed to collaborate in this series. The Editor greatly appreciated the warm hospitality extended to him, and also wishes to record his gratitude to Mr. P. J . Meade for his valuable assistance in preparing for the interview.

Professor R. C. Sutcliffe

H. T - Professor Sutcliffe, at what stage in your formative years did you become interested in meteorology? Who were your professors?

R. C. S. - That is an interesting question because it allows me to explain that in Britain at that time there was no formal training in meteorology, either in a university or in the Meteorological Office. The Met. Office recruited university graduates with degrees in physics or mathematics and then placed them in one of its branches, such as climatology, instruments or weather forecasting, and left them to pick up the subject as they went along, through experience and reading. There was no formal training in meteorology in Britain before the Second World War. At the outbreak of war, a training school had to be created to form recruits to meet the rapidly expanding wartime demand for meteorological services. The first department of meteorology was

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probably that of Imperial College in London, where there had been one part-time professor before David Brunt was appointed full-time professor in 1934. However, even here there was no formal training, only postgraduate work. So I had no professors of meteorology.

H. T - When did you join the United Kingdom Meteorological Office? What positions did you hold, especially before the Second World War?

R. C. S. - When I had obtained my doctorate in 1927 I had to find a job. It happened to be the time of the great depression in Britain and elsewhere. Therefore, it was not easy for a graduate in mathematics to find employment apart from schoolteaching. However, I applied for a vacancy in the Meteorological Office and was interviewed by Brunt. I was taken on and assigned to the headquarters division in London. There my duties during the first year consisted in some climatological work in connexion with future air routes and some elementary work in the forecasting division. Then I was posted to Malta-this must have been in 1928-and remained there for the next four years. I was extremely fortunate because Professor Tor Bergeron was there under contract from the British authorities to study the meteorology of the Mediterranean in the light of the new theories of fronts and air masses. Thus I soon came under his influence, and learned much about synoptic meteorology, including many new ideas and theories. This has stood me in good stead all my life, infusing in me the sense of being one step ahead of others in the Met. Office. In 1929 I married a Welsh girl that I had met in Bangor (North Wales). After four years in Malta I was posted back to England and took charge of the meteorological centre at Felixstowe which was at that time a flying boat base. We provided a forecasting service for the flying boat operations. After that I went back to the Air Ministry Met. Office headquarters in London for a couple of years, and then moved down to the south coast to serve as instructor at a Royal Air Force school. I remained there until the outbreak of war.

H. T - So you had no formal meteorological training at all before or after joining the Meteorological Office. What were the facilities for research at that time?

R. C. S. - There were no research facilities in the Met. Office. Any research that was done was carried out as a voluntary part-time (or spare-time) activity. This was indeed the policy of the Director at that time, Sir George Simpson, who, although himself a famous man in research, considered that research was not the Met. Office's business. This was most unfortunate because, apart from a few special lines such as Dobson 's pioneer work on ozone at Oxford University, there was no research going on in any of the British universities either. Thus systematic meteorological research in the United Kingdom was practically non-existent until after the war. Nevertheless, because of my personal interest I wrote one or two papers whilst in Malta which were followed by a few more which I wrote during my stay in Felixstowe. If, during this pre-war period, I gained some recognition as a research worker, it was purely on the basis of voluntary work and not part of my official function. In London, my duties consisted mainly in examining air pilots and navigators in meteorology. A major problem was that there were no textbooks available for these people.

H. T - In your early years as a practising forecaster in the Meteorological Office, you had much to do with aviation. This was not as well organized as it is today, simply because elaborate air traffic control communications and other facilities were not available. As a consequence, the relationship between pilots and forecasters was very close, as was evident from the care taken over pre-flight forecasting and post-flight debriefing. Did this special relationship help you towards a greater understanding of atmospheric processes or suggest lines for fundamental research?

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R. C. S. - As a matter of fact , whilst I was in Malta we did not have much contact with aviation. We were forecasting mainly for the British naval fleet operating in the Mediterranean, and here everything was done by telephone; there was no real briefing or debriefing. I gained experience of weather conditions in the Mediterranean basin, and the peculiar ways in which depressions develop in that area. But when I later came in touch with aviation, yes, talking to the crews certainly did make me aware of problems which I had not previously thought of. One thing which struck me as parti­cularly important was for the pilots and navigators to have a sound understanding of meteorology. Of course, this was widely accepted, and even in those days every pilot and civil navigator had to pass an examination in meteorology before he could get a certificate. But, as I have already said, there was little suitable literature to help them.

H. T - So this led you to compile your book Meteorology for Aviators which became the standard work for pilots and navigators. Young graduates also found the book invaluable for its clear presentation of the basic aspects of synoptic meteorology. As its author, you became well known in meteorological and aviation circles, both in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Would you like to say something about this book, its origin and history?

R. C. S. - Thank you very much. It is always a pleasure to hear that one's work has been successful. As to its origin , I told Sir George Simpson about the lack of reading material to help aircrew candidates prepare for their examination in meteorology, and his reaction was to give me six months to write a book. He added that there was no office space available for me, so that I should have to do the job at home. This suited me excellently, and I soon established a work programme which consisted of working in the morning and evening and relaxing in the house and garden in the afternoon. I thoroughly enjoyed that six months, and the manuscript was ready on time.

H. T - In the period 1939-1945 you were involved in the war effort. Would you like to tell us something about what you were doing during those eventful years.

R. C. S. - Shortly before the war broke out, I was given a commission in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve as a Squadron Leader in the expanding meteorological section. Soon after the beginning of the wa r, I was sent to France with a more senior officer, Group Captain F. Entwistle, who later became well known in international meteorology and joined the ICAO. At the meteorological headquarters to which I was posted in France, one of the flight lieutenants was D. A. Davies, now Sir Arthur, Secretary-General of WMO from 1955 to 1979. We were there throughout the period of the so-called 'phoney war', and were not then much involved in military activities. We were evacuated shortly before the famous retreat from Dunkerque. Then I and another group of meteorologists flew out again to the still-surviving headquarters west of Paris, and were sent from there to another headquarters at Salon (near Marseilles) which had been set up to control bombing raids over northern Italy. The collapse of France put an end to this, and again we were evacuated, this time through Marseilles and Gibraltar. My wife was very relieved when I eventually turned up, our ship having had to zig-zag its way from Gibraltar to Liverpool to avoid the attention of U-boats. That was the end of the first phase of the war. I was then posted to No. 3 Group, Bomber Command, in East Anglia. For nearly four years I was engaged intensively in preparing weather forecasts for all bombing operations over Germany, mostly night­time raids. It was very concentrated work because I was on duty virtually all the time, and anyway I liked to be there during the night when the group was operating. As Bomber Command operations grew and ramified, it became necessary to ensure centralized control on a Command basis. A meteorological unit was therefore set up at Bomber Command headquarters which became a co-ordinating centre for the forecast

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offices at the various group bases. Although the forecast offices continued to work more or less independently, a telephone conference link-up was established, perhaps the first time that different meteorological forecast offices had been able to discuss the forecast and arrive at a consensus. This was indeed essential, since we had to give consistent advice for operational purposes. Incidentally, this telephone link-up idea was copied later for the D-day landings in 1944 to co-ordinate information given to the British and American airborne and naval forces. Yes, the Bomber Command telephone conferences became a recognized part of our work. I took part practically every day in those years. Eventually, the forecasting of the upper winds (which were, of course, one of the most crucial elements) was co-ordinated and centralized in Bomber Command headquarters where a large comprehensive upper-air forecasting section grew up.

H. T - In one of your papers published in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteoro­logical Society in 1938 or 1939, you indicated that you were taking a three-dimensional view of atmospheric processes, even though the available data then consisted almost exclu­sively of surface observations. In this paper you discussed the dynamical implications of wind changes in the vertical-that is, the thermal wind-and you propounded a number of tentative guidelines. Would you like to look back on this paper and discuss any lasting effects it may have had on your thinking?

R. C. S. - I suppose it was whilst I was in Felixstowe and during the next two or three years that I began thinking about the central meteorological problems-the devel­opment of depressions and anticyclones, vertical motion, divergence, and such things. At that time there were few, if any, studies of dynamical meteorology which were of use in practical forecasting. The Norwegian frontal and air-mass theories were almost completely non-dynamical; the concepts of air masses, their modification, and their weather features were essentially physical. The description of fronts was also essentially non-dynamical, and nowhere in the early theories could one find an explanation as to why a depression developed as a wave on a front, or why the warm air rose up the frontal surface. So the principles of frontal and air-mass analysis, as I had learned them, had very little, if any, dynamical content. This was a significant weakness. Napier Shaw's books on meteorology* which were being published at this time contained practically no relevant dynamics to explain the development of depressions. Brunt's justly famous book on dynamical meteorology** which first came out in 1934 also lacked dynamics on the synoptic scale. It did develop the geostrophic wind equation and the general equation of motion, but there was practically no dynamics relevant to the synoptic problem. Meteorologists were, in fact, discussing the problems from the wrong angle. Much thought was given to the question of why pressure fell and where the air went. When the problem was properly analysed, the hydrostatic fall of pressure at the Earth's surface could be seen to be a secondary effect. The vertical integral of divergence (which, of course, was known to produce the change of surface pressure) was, to a first approximation, zero. This was a most important step in the explanation. But even in a deep depression, the fall of pressure is only about five per cent so that this was the wrong question. The real question to ask was: Why did you have convergence and divergence in the systems and why did you have vertical motion, bearing in mind that the vertical integral of divergence equals zero as first approxi­mation ? Bjerknes's tendency equation was perhaps one of the most famous equations in meteorology, yet it was also a misleading one. It did harm, because it conveyed a

*Manual of Meteorology. By Napier Shaw. Cambridge University Press (1926 er seq.)

**Physical and Dynamical Meteorology. By David Brunt. The Macmillan Co. (New York) and Cambridge University Press (1934).

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wrong impression. According to Bjerknes's equation pressure tendency was divided into two parts; one was due to the temperature advection and the other to divergence. But variations in the pressure at the Earth's surface are not physically divisible in this way. A change of temperature in a column of air do~s not affect the pressure at the Earth's surface. You can heat the whole column but its weight remains the same. So this is irrelevant. The division of the mathematical expression (the divergence of momentum) into a divergence and a density effect is physically misleading. So when one came to think about a model, the clue was already there in the work of certain previous workers, for instance W. H. Dines, who realized that, to explain what was known about the structures of depressions with a low tropopause, a low central pressure and a warm stratosphere, there was a need for a three-dimensional model with divergence in the middle and convergence at the bottom which were roughly in balance. Starting from there, one then had to think about why you should have divergence in the upper troposphere, and the clue to that was in realizing that the geostrophic wind (apart from the so-called ~-effect) is non-divergent, so that divergence is a question of the ageostrophic wind, which is directly proportional to the acceleration turned through a right angle. Indeed, the geostrophic equation written as the ageostrophic wind equal to the acceleration turned through a right angle is perhaps the most illuminating dynamical equation of synoptic meteorology. Divergence is thus linked directly with acceleration, so it is the field of acceleration that you have to study. It can be divided into the local and the advective form of acceleration , and it was by looking at it in that way that I developed my ideas.

H. T - Military requirements in wartime laid very heavy responsibilities on national Meteorological Services, and they were given much help in expanding their facilities so that the best possible meteorological advice could be provided to military and civil defence forces. Of course, there were large areas from which no data were available, but on the other hand networks of surface and upper-air stations did provide a wealth of data in certain regions, and for the first time synoptic meteorology became three-dimensional in operational use. This must have given considerable impetus to the science of meteorology. Would you like to comment on that?

R. C. S. - At the outbreak of war we had no synoptic upper-air information from Britain, except for one aircraft ascent in England. The radiosonde was just starting to be developed in some countries, but we mostly relied on measurements by aircraft in the early days. Upper-air information was vital for a proper understanding of the atmosphere. Remember that the basic dynamical equations had been developed and actually used by Richardson way back in the 1920s, but they were subsequently largely ignored by practising meteorologists for the very good reason that they did not have the necessary data. It was only when upper-air information became available that attempts could be made to apply three-dimensional dynamical methods. By the end of the war, forecasting based on three-dimensional analysis had become possible over much of Europe and the Atlantic and a few other operational zones, but not elsewhere.

H. T - When you took charge of forecasting research in the Meteorological Office, you had to build these activities up from practically nothing. How did you set about this formidable task?

R. C. S. - It had been Sir Nelson Johnson's policy as Director to develop research activities in the Met. Office before the war, but the war came too soon for this to be put into effect. After the war I was very lucky to be chosen to take charge of weather forecasting research. It was the first time that provision had been made for such functions in the national Meteorological Service of the United Kingdom, or even in

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North Amertca. I was given a staff of between six and eight scientifically qualified people and a new building close to the Central Forecasting Office in Dunstable and I was told to get on with it. One of my senior staff, who was to become my successor, was Mr. J. S. Sawyer, also well known in WMO circles. We started on two lines of research, short-range and extended-range forecasting. For extended-range forecast studies we began to draw weather maps for the whole northern hemisphere, and this subsequently became routine. As for short-range forecast investigations, we had to tackle numerous problems, applying my own dynamical ideas and studying the distribution of rainfall associated with depressions. I took a special interest in research into extended-range forecasting. Of course, this was before the days of computers. We developed a prediction technique using the surface pressure pattern, the 500-hPa contour pattern and the 1000/500-hPa thickness pattern, treating the thickness (or thermal) pattern as being modified by advection. In a sense, we were doing what the computer now does very efficiently-pushing the thickness pattern on a little way, modifying the surface pattern, and going on step by step.

Dr. Sutcliffe describes features of the synoptic chart to His Royal Highness Prince Phi lip, Duke of Edinburgh, who was paying a visit to the Central Forecasting Office in June 1962 rCro1rn copyriglu)

H. T -You were able to give research efforts a considerable boost by the publication in 1947 of your famous paper A contribution to the problem of development. I have often wondered whether this was largely a theoretical exercise or an attempt (a very successful one) to provide theoretical support for forecasting techniques that had evolved from practical experience. Can you recall the circumstances in which you prepared the paper?

R. C. S.- Much to my delight, the theory came up for discussion on ly last week at the Royal Meteorological Society. The basic concepts in that 1947 paper are really much the same as those in my 1939 paper-the idea of the field of divergence. In some ways the earlier paper was more satisfactory because there I was dealing with the field of acceleration directly. In the 1947 paper I tried to put it in terms of vorticity, which turned out to be rather disappointing because certain parts of the divergence field cannot be treated in this way. Anyhow, the whole idea had been ticking over in my mind all through the war, in fact during the war I had been able to write some papers which had been published internally, and parts of these were incorporated in the 1947 paper. For a short time during the war one of my collaborators was the Belgian, 0 . Godart, who was a very able mathematician. He worked hard at the dynamical

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equations, and had we been able to continue he might well have become renowned as a dynamical meteorologist. However, the course of the war brought our association to an end. My intention was that these ideas should be used in practical forecasting, and I think they were of practical use. You could study the fields of motion, you could recognize where upper-level divergence and convergence were taking place largely from inspection of the upper field, and you could thereby have a good idea of where development was likely to occur. To a large extent this is still valid today.

H. T - In the days before computers, much of the research work was done by an individual. If teams were involved, they were relatively small. How were ideas exchanged and di~ussed in those days? Did you fly kites and see how other colleagues reacted?

R. C. S. -Quite early on we began having weekly colloquia in the department where we would discuss the work that each member of the staff was doing. There were also daily map discussions on forecasting problems. These gatherings were quite lively occasions. I consider it to be of vital importance for sound progress in research that a person has to justify every step he has taken against the criticism of his well-informed colleagues.

H. T - With the arrival of computers on the scene, you must have been responsible for initiating the development of numerical weather prediction in the United Kingdom. How did you tackle this problem, in which there were so many possible approaches?

R. C. S. - When the computer first started to be used for meteorology in the USA shortly after the war, thanks to rapid communications everyone knew about it. Thus as soon as computers became available in Britain there were people here who wanted to do likewise. In my group, it was Fred Bushby who was the most anxious to apply them to weather prediction. We first tried the barotropic model and then developed a baroclinic model of our own. This became known as the Sawyer-Bushby model. Of course I was greatly interested in it, and did make some modest contributions.

H. T - In 1953 you became responsible for all fields of research in the Meteorological Office. Would you comment on the national activities at that time, both in the Met. Office and in universities, and the Royal Meteorological Society?

R. C. S. -After the war, meteorological research in Britain and many other countries developed at a tremendous rate. In the Met. Office, under the Director-General there were now two directors, one for services and the other for research. The Research Directorate had branches covering fields such as forecasting research, physical research, boundary-layer research, turbulence and upper-air research, high-atmosphere research, and so on. Indeed, we were able to develop a research programme over pretty well the whole spectrum of atmospheric physics. The Roya l Meteorological Society had continued its activities in a somewhat restricted way during the war, and soon after the war I was asked to take on the editing of the Quarterly Journal, which I did for a number of years. I was elected president of the Society in 1955. The Society was a great part of my life and it was generally accepted as being a very acti ve organization. I was also much involved with work on national committees for IUGG and IAMAP.

H. T - What were your contacts with WMO?

R. C. S. - I suppose my first contact was when I attended the first post-war session of the !MO Aerological Commission in Toronto in 1947. In fact my main link with WMO was through the Commission for Aerology. In due course, I became secretary, and later president of this Commission.

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H. T- You were also a member of the WMO Advisory Committee which was set up by Congress in 1963.

R. C. S. - Yes, that was a good committee. It is a pity that it lasted so few years because it had good representative scientists on it. I firmly believe that WMO needs to have as close a contact as possible with the academic world, and such a board consisting mostly of academics could only be of value.

H. T - What were some of the highlights of research activities during the dozen or so years that you were Director of Research?

R. C. S. - I had about 50 scientists in my organization, all very busy. My respon­sibility was mainly to approve general lines of activity and obtain the necessary facilities for the work. The development of numerical forecasting was very important, and this was mostly left in the capable hands of people like Sawyer and Bushby. Most of the work on the physics of the atmosphere was associated with other branches of the Office. The leading worker in that field was G. D. Robinson who is now in the USA. Amongst his responsibilities was high-atmosphere research and the development of sensors for sounding the atmosphere from satellites. We put in a great deal of effort, and it was very profitable that we kept in touch with these latest developments in meteorology.

H. T - Remarkable progress has been achieved during the past 25-35 years in almost every specialized field of meteorology. For example, atmospheric ozone, formerly so neglected, has now assumed considerable importance in the context of climate changes and its indispensability as a shield from ultraviolet radiation. What are your comments on this diversified progress?

R. C. S. - Without in any way belittling the efforts and ingenuity of early workers, who had not the benefit of the prodigious tools of modern technology, I believe that it would not be too much to say that meteorology is a post-war subject. Since the war, research efforts have increased not by one, but by at least two orders of magnitude. Advances have been made in pretty well every branch, which has quite altered the complexion of the subject. The development of the computer had a tremendous effect. Nowadays things can be done which were totally impossible before the war. I derive particular personal satisfaction at the interest at last being taken in general atmospheric circulation theories applied to problems of climate and the possible time-range limits of weather forecasting. These always seemed to me to be the central problems of meteorology, if you define this as being the science of the Earth 's atmosphere. Early in my career as chief of research, I proposed to the Director, then Sir Nelson Johnson, that we should include climatology as a subject for the Meteorological Research Committee. Sir Nelson said 'Are you sure that climatology is a scientific subject?' I replied that perhaps a lot of climatology was not very scientific at the present time, but that it should be, because the study of the climate of the Earth is really the basic subject of meteorology. Statistics on the distribution of temperature and rainfall values set a problem which ultimately meteorologists have to solve. The separation between clima­tology and meteorology was a very bad thing. I am pleased to think that after 50 years they are coming together, that meteorologists realize that the climate of the Earth is their problem, and that the general circulation of the atmosphere is the same thing as a theory of climate.

H. T - In 1965 you became Professor of Meteorology in a new department at Reading University. What led to this department being established? What problems had to be overcome in starting from scratch, drawing up teaching and research programmes?

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R. C. S. -The establishment of the meteorological department at Reading University in 1965 was essentially an initiative taken by the University itself. At that time (so different from today) universities in England were being encouraged to expand. Funds were not too. difficult to obtain, and Reading University realized that one interesting discipline to foster was meteorology, taking account of the fact that the Meteorological Office had moved its headquarters to Bracknell, only a few miles away. Moreover, Sir Graham Sutton, who was then the Director-General of the Meteorological Office, was also keen on developing meteorology in British universities. Thus it was that Reading University eventually decided to set up a department and create a chair in meteorology. It happened that I was coming up to the age of 60 and could, if I wished, retire from the Met. Office. Therefore I decided to apply for the post and was accepted. I had no difficulty in convincing the senate of the university that the new department

Presidents of WMO technical commissions in May 1961. Leji to right: Dr. P. M. A. Bourke (agricultural meteorology) ; Mr. M. A. Kohler (hydrological meteorology); Mr. J. A. van Duijnen Montijn (maritime meteorology) ; Mr. C. C. Boughner (climatology); Mr. P. H. Kutschenreuter (synoptic meteorology); Dr. R. C. Sutcliffe (aerology); Dr. K. Langlo (chief of the Technical

Division in the WMO Secretariat) ; Mr. A. Perlat (instruments and methods of observation) ( WMOjFreddr Bertrand)

should have six or more permanent teaching staff and offer a first degree in meteorology. This was the first time in the United Kingdom that a bachelor's degree had been offered with meteorology as one of its principal subjects. I had already had some experience in preparing syllabuses in the field of meteorology, and so could fairly readily put one together for the degree course. It provided for students to spend half their time on physics and half on meteorology, and to take a special examination in these two subjects. By the time I left the department five years later, there were five or six staff members, a synoptic meteorology laboratory with teleprinters so that we could have our own weather maps, and a physics laboratory where we could do all the basic experiments in atmospheric physics and thermodynamics. Today there is a good comprehensive department for teaching meteorology and a postgraduate research school.

H. T - The department at Reading has given special attention to the field of tropical meteorology, and I know that this was one of the aims to which you accorded high priority. Would you like to explain this and comment on the progress you achieved?

R. C. S. - I am not sure that I achieved much progress, although I had it very much at heart, and did put up a scheme at one time to develop an institute of tropical research in Reading University. I thought it was very appropriate that we should do that, because we were drawing students from many parts of the world, including the tropics. After I left it was thanks to Professor R. Pearce that tropical meteorology has got a more definite place in the work of the department.

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H. T - You are known to hold strong views on education and training in meteorology. Would you care to expand briefly on this?

R. C. S. - This has always been a problem of some importance, especially in Meteoro­logical Services. Having come into the Service at a timi when there was no training in meteorology, and having had to pick up the subject myself, I realize that I went through the whole of my career with many gaps in my knowledge which ought to have been filled when I was a student. Also, I fear that many of my colleagues who came into meteorology as I did remained basically ignorant about meteorology as a science, even though they could analyse a synoptic chart and make some sort of forecast. I am convinced that meteorologists must be thoroughly educated in the subject, which is a scientific profession by definition. The Meteorological Services in many countries considered it more expedient to train their personnel themselves rather than entrust this to the university system. Whilst this might have been all right for those engaged on the various technical ancillary jobs, it must be remembered that the fundamental work is scientific, and teaching should be in the hands of expert scientists. I do not agree that advanced instruction in meteorology should be in the hands of Meteorological Services. I think this is wrong, not because the Meteorological Services are inefficient or incompetent, but because they become specialized in a form of education not integrated with the educational system of the couritry or the world as a whole. Conse­quently, the science becomes isolated and the people do not have the status which is only obtainable through a university. I would like to develop this thesis at length, but I cannot do that in a few minutes. I regard education as basic to civilization. I regard the universities as an absolutely essential part of the educational system, and I regard it as fundamental that the scientific and intellectual professions look upon the universities as the source of their basic training, and as centres of research and of scholarship in their disciplines. It is not good enough to take graduates in physics and mathematics and put them into the schools of the Meteorological Services to train them as meteoro­logists. In that way they do not look back upon their university as an independent source of basic knowledge but look inwards upon themselves, and lose that essential inspiration which I believe comes from a wider intellectual background. It is my conviction that the basic work of teaching in meteorology, as in other subjects, should be within the university system. If this presents difficulties, then those difficulties should be overcome.

H. T -You played a leading part in co-ordinating hydrology with meteorology in the United Kingdom. The arrangements you laid on aroused interest in other countries. Would you like to comment on this?

R. C. S. - I developed a special interest in hydrology because it seemed to me that many of the problems of hydrology were essentially meteorological. Not just the obvious problems of precipitation and rainfall , but also evaporation- from the Earth 's surface and evapotranspiration were just as much meteorology as they were hydrology. The water balance problem, although basically hydrology, is equally basic to meteorology. This conviction that the two subjects are so closely interlinked led me to suggest to the Hydrological Committee certain ways in which we might collaborate more closely. Between the Hydrological Service and the Meteorological Office, I managed to achieve a very close co-operation which still exists today. One of my minor achievements was to get hydrology formally included among those disciplines from which the Royal Society would consider electing its Fellows.

H. T - Could you say a word about some of the other outstanding figures in meteorology with whom you have come into contact?

R. C. S. - I have already mentioned my early association with Tor Bergeron. I met Jacob Bjerknes from time to time, although he did not take much part in international

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affairs. Carl-Gustav Rossby had a tremendous effect on me. For a few years I knew him intimately because he was the president of IAMAP at the time I was secretary. Sadly he died whilst he was still president. I consider him to have been the most stimu­lating personality of his generation to have entered meteorology. Jacques van Meighem, the leader in Belgium, was an excellent formulizer of mathematical meteorology and a very effective leader of any group. I met van Meighem for the first time at Brussels in 1944 when our headquarters moved ther.e. Then I met Wouter Bleeker in Holland in 1945 when we finally crossed the Rhine. I remember he stood two metres tall and looked like a tailor's dummy, with his clothes hanging on him. He had gone through the winter of 1944/45 in a state of semi-starvation, and I was very happy to be able to take various articles of food to his house in Utrecht at that time. We became very good friends. He had a special attitude towards meteorology; he believed in the thermodynamics of the atmosphere and refused to be overwhelmed by ideas of purely dynamical processes. After the war Sir Nelson Johnson was no longer an active scientist, although he was the first President of WMO. His successor, Graham Sutton, was an inspiration in the sense that he was very enthusiastic about developing research in the Office, and succeeded in obtaining electronic computers for our use. But I must admit that at that time in Britain there were no inspiring scientists in synoptic or dynamical meteorology to compare with personalities like Bergeron, Bjerknes, Rossby, Charney or Eliassen. We had a farseeing dynamical meteorologist in England at that time in Eric Eady who produced some beautiful theoretical work on what we now know as Eady waves, but unfortunately he died young. Also I had a very fruitful collaboration with the late Professor P. A. Sheppard, who took over the Imperial College Chair of Meteorology from Sir David Brunt. We worked closely together for many years, he representing the university and the academic world and I the Meteoro­logical Office.

H. T. - I know you have received several awards in your life. How did you feel when you received the IMO Prize?

R. C. S. - I was delighted, as one always is. I don't know why I was selected, but winners of prizes always owe something to chance, do they not? The awards which gave me greatest pleasure were my first and nearly my last. It was during the war that, to my utter astonishment, I learnt that as a Squadron Leader I had been awarded the OBE (Military) for my work in forecasting for the bombing raids. The more recent award, that of honorary fellowship of the American Meteorological Society, was again a total surprise and no less a delight.

H. T. - My final question is: 'What advice would you give to a young meteorologist of today?'

R. C. S. - That is a hard one. The advice I like to give to anyone is to remember that you're only here once, and to take every opportunity in these earlier years to increase your knowledge and develop your skills. Remember that the work you put in during these early years is probably going to be the most rewarding of any work you will ever do, and you will never be able to repair the omissions which you make now. I don 't believe I have any particular advice to give to a meteorologist. I think it is a good profession and a happy profession - I always had the feeling that meteorologists as a group were a happy lot of people, and perhaps there is some truth in that. The subject is intrinsically attractive·, it is related to nature and the environment, it has no unpleasant overtones and is entirely beneficial to the human race. I also think it will have a growing importance in the future, since we are creatures of the environment, and we must know m.ore about our environment if we are going to be as successful as a species on this Earth as we have been in the past.

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HAIL SUPPRESSION - RESEARCH AND OPERATIONS IN BULGARIA

By K. STANTCHEY and P. SIMEONOY *

Background

Bulgaria lies in the middle latitudes and hailstorms are the bane of the country's intensive agriculture. Statistics show that in a given year hail damage affects between 7 and 22 per cent of the cultivated land, with losses to individual crops ranging from 15 to 40 per cent. In terms of cash, the estimated average annual loss through hail damage is at least US $150 millions; other considerations (such as where damage has an effect on crop-yields in subsequent years) would result in a higher figure. Therefore Bulgarian meteorologists have been studying the phenomenon of hail for many years. Back in the 1940s, the late Academician Krastanov ( WMO Bulletin 27 (I) p. 67) and his disciples obtained important results from their theoretical studies of the phase trans­itions of water ·which were used to explain cloud microphysical processes and the formation of rain.

Later, studies of the ·dynamics of convective clouds and the conditions propitious for the formation of hail in Bulgaria were carried out, which led in 1965 to a method of predicting hail from synoptic and upper-air information. This method is still in use today. Theoretical studies of atmospheric thermal dynamics and cloud formation followed.

It was in 1969 that the first site was established for hail-suppression activities, designed to protect an area of about 3000 km2 in the south of the country. To start with, methods developed in the USSR (by the Georgian Geophysical Institute and the Central Aerological Observatory) were employed. Lead iodide (Pbl 2) was dispersed by rockets in cumulonimbus clouds. Meteorological data (including radar data) were collected and processed so as to document hailstorm development under the conditions which prevail in Bulgaria. A nucleus of young specialists in theoretical and applied research on the physics of convective clouds and hail suppression was constituted in the Institute for Hydrology and Meteorology at Sofia, and a pool of technical specialists in weather modification has grown up.

Current experimentation in hail suppression

At present a cultivated area of more than 9000 km2 is covered by the hail­suppression network. There are nine hail-suppression centres throughout the country, and one of these has been specially designed and equipped for research and experi­mentation. This is the centre at Gelemenovo, near the town of Pazardzhik, about I 00 km SE. of Sofia. The Gelemenovo hail-suppression district ( 1500 km2) covers both banks of the River Maritsa, and has an average elevation of about 300 m above sea­level but is surrounded to the north, west and south by mountains reaching 2000 m. About 40 types of crops are cultivated in the district, the most widespread being vines, orchards, vegetables, tobacco, wheat, barley and maize.

During the summer season, the occurrence of hail in this district is most often associated with cold fronts or occlusions approaching from between NW. and SW. The

* Dr. Stantchev is Director of the Hydrometeorological Service and Permanent Represen­tative of Bulgaria with WMO. Mr. Simeonov is a scientist at the Service's Institute of Hydrology and Meteorology in Sofia.

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ratio of frontal to local airmass hailstorms is 7: 3. Data for the 15 yea rs before hail­suppression acti vities started indicate that there was an average of 19 days each year when crops were damaged by hail. The most extensive storms could damage up to ten per cent of the total cultivated area, equivalent to 80 km 2. The duration of hail fall at a given point could be as long as 90 minutes. Hail -producing clouds might be multicell or supercell in nature.

A three-story building at Gelemenovo (Figure 1) provides accommodation for operational and scientific staff. There is a separate building for technical work and mobile shelters and trailers for field work during summer.

Figure I - The hail suppression research centre at Gelemenovo, Bulgaria

The Hydrometeorological Service has a special section on hail research. Since 1970, workers in this section, together with scientists from the Geophysical Institute of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and from the University, have made extensive use of the Gelemenovo experimental site. The research has concentrated mainly on the six theoretical and applied fields outlined in the following paragraphs.

Physics and dynamics of convective clouds- A method of predicting hail conditions on the basis of upper-air soundings and synoptic information has been developed which verification studies have shown to be about 90 per cent successful. Quantitative relationships have been derived between convective instability and maximum precipi­tation intensity. The movement of convective clouds has been examined in relation to topography. In-depth analyses have been made of some of the most severe hailstorms. On the basis of a jet convection model and a physical-statistical approach, a quanti­tative correlation classification has been determined to relate the dynamic and micro­physical properties of a convective cloud with the type and intensity of precipitation, and the influence artificially-induced crystallization will have on convection is estimated. A three-dimensional numerical model of a convective cloud has been developed, model studies are also carried out on the changes in atmospheric stratifi­cation due to convection, and on comparisons of actual occasions of very strong convection.

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Phase transitions of water in the atmosphere - The temperature threshold for ice­formation of single water drops has been studied in the laboratory, as well as the effects of various aerosol reagents (Pbl 2, Agl and CuS).

Radar studies - Using X-band radar, certain differences have been noted in the characteristics of potentially hail-producing cumulonimbus clouds between those in Bulgaria and in Georgia (USSR). Thus, a physical-statistical method of identifying potential hail using X-band and S-band radars has been developed which is applicable to Bulgaria (Figure 2) and a critical reflectivity factor has been determined for indicating the seeding zone within the cloud.

A= A!Hm + A2t.Hzm + A31l.h + A4 log Zm

t.h, t.Hzm Hm Maximum values (km) (km) observed g

I

logZm '" 61 :t 12 .(0

4f.. 8

6

.zt- :t it .2

OL 0

Figure 2 - Cloud radar echo criteria to indicate probability of hail. The terms are explained as follows: Hm Height of maximum

reflectivity log Zm Logarithm of maximum

reflectivity Llh Thickness of the echo layer

above the ooc isotherm LlHzm Thickness of the echo layer

above Hm

Hail suppression techniques- On the basis of laboratory studies and local experience, it has been possible to modify seeding methods developed in Georgia so as to be of maximum effectiveness under the conditions prevailing in Bulgaria. It has been found that the most suitable cloud layer for introducing the reagent is between the isotherms -5 and - 10°C. However, in particularly severe storms the reagent is introduced at more than one level, and in this case the upper limit is extended to the - l5°C isotherm. The aim is to place the reagent in the leading portion of the developing storm.

Hail climatology- These studies include the space-time distribution of hail days, their distribution within a unit area, ratio of hail to thunderstorm days, direction of arrival of hailstorms, duration of hailfall, damage caused by hail, hailstone characteristics and other factors.

Assessing the efficiency of hail suppression - A physical-statistical method based on monthly regression relationships between predictors (instability indices) and predictands (areas damaged by hail and value of crop losses) is used. Data for many years prior to the introduction of hail suppression activities are used for comparison. On this basis, results at Gelemenovo show that intervention during the period 1972-1978 coincided with a reduction of crop losses due to hail amounting to 50-60 per cent each year, or a cost-benefit ratio of I: 3. The average annual number of hail

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days during the eight years of seeding operations is around 11, compared with 19 during the preceding I 5 years. Again, a total of 715 potentially hail-producing cloud zones were identified according to the radar criteria and seeded during the eight years of operations. Of these, only 138 caused any hai l damage. Incidentally, there has been relatively little success in seeding the severe supercell storms which occur on average about once every four years.

Operational hail-suppression procedures at Ge/emenovo

The meteorological forecast office at Plovdiv, about 40 km away, provides hail forecasts every two hours based on synoptic meteorological data, including the routine upper-air ascents at Sofia and Kurdzhali and the special radiosonde ascents - about three daily- made at Gelemenovo. This year sees the introduction of a new MRL-5 radar in addition to stationary X -band and mobile S-band radars; these are used to detect cumulonimbus and identify potential hai l-formation zo nes.

The meteo rol ogist on duty at Gelemenovo is responsible for deciding, on the basis of the radar criteria (Figure 2), whether to initiate seeding operations. He is in two-way radio contact with the 18 rocket-launching sites scattered over the Gelemenovo hail­suppression district, and can give the necessary launching instructions on the basis of the experimental and theoretical assumptions referred to in the previous paragraphs. There is a pluviograph at each site, and 17 other stations within the district provide precipitation data (five of these stations also make regular· observations of temperature, humidity and wind).

The operational hail-suppression season lasts from April through September. More than 100 people are employed in the Gelemenovo district, including meteoro­logists, technici ans and rocket-launching staff. In the eight years 1972-1979 seeding was effected on a total of 219 days. Officers from the Gelemenovo headquarters accompany representatives of the State Insurance Institute and agricultural experts on tours to inspect hail damage.

Conclusions

Eighth Congress adopted a resolution * urging Members engaged in hail ­suppression research to exchange information and collaborate at the international level in resolving the many scientific questions still unanswered.

The success of hail-suppression measures in Bulgaria ensures the maintenance and further development of these activities. A sound infrastructure exists for research on the various unsolved problems, such as testing new methods of dealing with supercell storms, developing better statistical methods for assessing the physical and economic effects of hail suppression, studying ice nuclei distribution under various atmospheric conditions and the mechanism of hail formation and growth in different varieties of cumulonimbus clouds.

In the spirit of the resolution adopted by Eighth Congress, a number of scientists have already visited Bulgaria to discuss scientific questions related to understanding hailstorms.

* Resolution 26 (Cg- V I I I).

[A report on a meeting of experts on hail suppression will be found on page 195 of this issue.]

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WMOJICSU JOINT SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

SECOND SESSION, LAXENBURG (AUSTRIA), MARCH 1 981

The second session of the Joint Scientific Committee (responsible for overseeing the planning and implementation of the WCRP as well as for guiding the final phases of GARP) took place in Schloss Laxenburg, the headquarters of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) near Vienna, from 17 to 25 March 1981. (For a report on the first session of the JSC and its membership, see WMO Bulletin 29 (3) p. 198.) IIASA not only provided an elegant setting for the meeting, the Institute is currently conducting studies on scenarios of the threat to world society which future climatic changes may pose, and this served to emphasize the importance of the JSC's work.

The Secretaries-General of the parent organizations, Professor A C. Wiin-Nielsen of WMO and Professor J. C. I. Dooge of ICSU, were both present for part of the meeting.

World Climate Research Programme

At the first session of the JSC it had been · decided to concentrate on specific aspects of the WCRP at subsequent sessions, and accordingly much of the time at Laxenburg was devoted to studying proposals relating to the oceanographic components. A number of invited oceanographers addressed the JSC, which was also able to review recommendations of a meeting which had been convened jointly with the SCOR/IOC Committee for Climate Changes and the Ocean (CCCO). The subject of that meeting had been the co-ordination of plans for future satellite observing systems and ocean experiments organized within the WCRP.

Among the new observing tools planned by various space agencies for operation by the late 1980s are scatterometers (to measure the surface wind over the ocean), radar al timeters (to measure the height of the ocean surface to within a few centimetres so as to allow the ocean geostrophic currents to be calculated), and microwave radiometers (to measure the sea-surface temperature).

The two principal oceanographic experiments proposed are Cage, an experiment aimed at performing a detailed heat budget study over an ocean (such as the North Atlantic), and the World Ocean Circulation Experiment, aimed at improving models of the circulation of heat, water and chemicals throughout the world's oceans. Both of these experiments would last for about five years. In addition, the committee discussed proposals for a Pilot Ocean Monitoring Study, aimed at preparing the way for a routine observing system for the ocean. It is hoped that such undertakings as these may lead eventually tci an ability to predict changes in the ocean circulation and associated climatic changes.

The JSC reaffirmed its interest in the proposed ocean experiments, and urged that the CCCO set up a group of experts to consider the options for the World Ocean Ci rculation Experiment.

The committee was then presented with a set of recommendations arising from the Study Conference on Land Surface Processes in Atmospheric General Circulation Models (see page 204). The committee accepted these recommendations, requesting its Working Group on Hydro logy and Land Surface Processes to develop a plan for an

186

international programme to carry out the research and data-collection efforts called for.

The report of a group of experts on aerosols and climate led the JSC to recommend the development of an aerosol climatology, and to encourage research into how to include aerosols in climate models. As regards the report of the meeting at Yillach (Austria) on the assessment of the role of C02 on climatic variations and their impact, reported in the last issue ( WMO Bulletin 30 (2) p . 126), in addition to the effects of an increased concentration of C02 in the atmosphere which, it was estimated, could raise the mean global surface temperature by one degree Celsius by early next century, it was noted that the possible 'greenhouse effect' change associated with other radiatively important gases was potentially of the same order of magnitude.

The establishment of a reliable cloud climatology on which to base future studies of the interaction between clouds, radiation and the atmospheric motion field is an important goal of the WCRP. The JSC welcomed the recommendations of a meeting held jointly by the IAMAP Radiation Commission and COSPAR concerning the implementation of an international satellite cloud-climatology project, and noted with appreciation that Dr. R. A. Schiff er (USA) had been seconded to act as manager of the project.

GARP Global Weather Experiment

The production of data sets from the Global Weather Experiment is proceeding satisfactorily. When they are available, the most active part of the research and evaluation phase will begin. Preliminary results indicate that using the FGGE data has allowed the predictability gap between the northern and southern hemispheres to be substantially reduced, and they are already leading to a revision of our understanding of the general circulation of the tropics and southern hemisphere.

ALP EX

The committee was informed by Dr. J. P. Kuettner about the status of planning for the Alpine Experiment (ALPEX) (see WMO Bulletin 30 (2) p . 85). Due to a shortfall in commitments, it had been necessary to curtail the plans for the experiment to a two-month build-up period and a two-month Special Observing Period in the late winter and early spring of 1982.

The JSC affirmed that even the curtailed experiment would be a valuable and worthwhile undertaking, and urged that it be supported.

Election of officers

The terms of office of Professor K. Gambo, Academician A. M. Oboukhov and Professor J. Smagorinsky (the outgoing chairman) came to an end at the closing of this session. Professor Wiin-Nielsen and Professor Malone (on behalf of WMO and ICSU respectively) both paid tribute to the outgoing members for their contributions to the work of the JSC and its predecessor, the JOC.

The new committee members are Professor T. Asai, Professor G. S. Golitsyn and Dr. S. Manabe. Professor J. T. Houghton and Professor H.-J . Bolle were unanimousl y elected chairman and vice-chairman respectively, and Professor C. "Lorius and Professor M. A. Petrossiants as officers.

G. A C. J. R. B.

187

COURSE ON MAINTENANCE OF A WIND-FINDING RADAR

NAIROBI. 28 OCTOBER - 25 NOVEMBER 1980

During the Eighth World Meteorological Congress in 1979, many participants from Africa expressed interest in the possibility of a course to train technicians in the maintenance of the widely-used Plessey WF3 wind-finding radar. This radar enables a meteorological balloon to be tracked during its ascent, and measurements of its range and azimuth permit the wind at different levels to be calculated. The importance of upper-wind observations within the framework of the Global Observing System cannot be overstressed, and each unserviceable radar is a broken link in the GOS. Thus it is essential that every WF3 radar is maintained in working order.

Following Eighth Congress, a Conference of Commonwealth Meteorologists was held at Reading (United Kingdom). During discussions on the Voluntary Co-operation Programme, Sir John Mason, Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom with WMO, sa id that he hoped that it might be feasible for his country to mount a technica l

For the purposes of the course on maintenance, a complete WF3 radar unit was fl own from the United Kingdom to Nairobi . Here is shown the antenna assembly

training course for about eight ' students drawn from English-speaking countries in Africa which operate WF3 radars. That hope has now been fulfilled. The course itself was considered to have been very successful, although for various reasons the attendance was disappointing.

Quite soon after the Conference of Commonwealth Meteorologists, the Director of the Kenya Meteorological Department, Mr. J. K. Murithi, confirmed that his Government would be willing to host the course during the latter part of 1980, and he offered the facilities of the Institute for Meteorological Training and Research for this purpose. These included a suitable site for launching balloons, classroom facilities and office accommodation for the instructors. Accommodation and full board for foreign students attending the course was offered in the Institute's hostel.

188

The Executive Committee agreed that WMO should offer up to seven fellowships to suitable applicants for the course, provided that their travel costs were borne by their respective governments.

Letters of invitation were sent to ten countries, namely C¥prus, Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A radar unit with its spare parts was prepared and sent by air from London to Nairobi shortly before the course. Every assistance was given by the host country in connexion with its arrival and setting up.

The two instructors were Mr. P. J. Collins and Mr. G . D. Frost from the Opera­tional Instrumentation Branch of the Meteorological Office at Bracknell. They arrived in Kenya a week before the course started in order to see to the setting up of the radar and other arrangements.

The opening ceremony took place on Tuesday 28 October 1980 before a large audience which included representatives of the press and television . Mr. Murithi welcomed the participants and thanked the British Government and WMO for organizing and sponsoring the course. He then invited Mr. D. L. Breton, on behalf of the British High Commissioner in Nairobi, to formally open the course. Mr. Breton referred to the role played by WMO and donor countries to the VCP (of which the United Kingdom is one) in helping countries in Africa to develop and maintain a reliable observing system in the Region . He thanked the host Government and also Mr. Murithi and the staff of the Kenya Meteorological Department for their valuable collaboration, and wished the participants every success.

There were si x participants, who came from Kenya, Mauritius, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia. The course consisted of a well-blended mix of theoretical and practical work. There were several revision sessions and the students were given two test papers, one early in the programme and the other at the end of the course. Certificates were presented on behalf of Sir John Mason by the Deputy Director of the Kenya Meteorological Department, Mr. A. L. Alusa.

Considering the enthusiasm evinced at Eighth Congress and at the Conference of Commonwealth Meteorologists for such a course, the response to the invitation was somewhat disappointing. Invitations had been sent to ten countries but only four took advantage; WMO had offered fellowships, but there were fewer applicants than fellowships available. However, the interest and assistance given by the Kenya Meteorological Department ensured the smooth running of the course. Those attending found it very useful, a lthough its success will only become fully apparent in the greater number of upper-wind reports from these four countries, thanks to improved serviceability of the WF3 radars.

M. W. STUBBS

THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STRUCTURE OF WMO

SESSION OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITIEE'S PANEL OF EXPERTS, GENEVA, FEBRUARY 1981

Arising from decisions of Eighth Congress, the Executive Committee at its thirty­first session ( 1979) set up a Panel of Experts on the Scientific and Technical Structure of WMO, under the chairmanship of Dr. K. Langlo (Norway). The most important

189

and pressing task assigned to the panel was to study mechanisms for more effective long-term planning. It should examine the roles of the regional associations, technical commissions and other scientific and technical bodies in developing and carrying out the Organization's programmes, with a view to adjusting the structure of the Organ­ization as necessary to facilitate the implementation of the programmes. The role and structure of the Secretariat in executing the work of the Organization should also be studied.

As reported in an earlier issue ( WMO Bulletin 29 (4) p. 260), the first action taken by the panel was to seek the opinion of Members on these matters by means of a questionnaire, and the chairman's analysis of the replies served as a basis for discussions at the panel's second session, most of which was open to experts from all Member countries. The session was held in the WMO headquarters from 16 to 19 February 1981. Forty-four participants (including the panel members) from 29 Member-countries attended.

A working document entitled 'Analysis of the structure and function of the technical organization of WMO, and proposed options for change'· had been prepared for the session. The document outlined the rationale, objectives and characteristics of the present structure of various organs of WMO, analysed strengths and weaknesses, and suggested possible improvements in procedures (regardless of structure). There was also an analysis of possible options for the replacement or improvement of specific parts of the present structure. All Members had had an opportunity to comment on this document prior to the open session.

Professor A. C. Wiin-Nielsen, Secretary-General, welcomed the participants. He said that in recent years the responsibilities of the Organization and of Members, especially in new interdisciplinary fields, had greatly increased. It was highly questionable whether the structure of the Organization had evolved to anything like the extent required to respond to these new responsibilities. In his view, any new structure should provide for a significant input by Members to the Organization's scientific and technical programmes- as well as for proper feed -back mechanisms - in such a way that Members would benefit from these programmes. There should also be sufficient flexibility in the structure to enable WMO to react to and absorb new developments. He also referred to the need for adequate resources to implement any new structure which Congress might decide upon. He concluded by saying that the panel had a very difficult task and would have to venture into some controversial fields. He hoped that a spirit of co-operation and understanding would prevail, resulting in constructive proposals.

Differing views were expressed on the choice between four-yearly and two-yearly sessions of Congress. Participants whQ favoured two-yearly intervals were of the view that developments in the fields of concern to the Organization were so rapid that the supreme body should meet more frequently; with, perhaps, a less comprehensive agenda. There was, however, a consensus in favour of maintaining four-yearly sessions of Congress which, if possible, should not last as long as at present.

A lively debate on the present working methods of the Executive Committee identified areas where improvements of current procedures were needed, and resulted in proposals that the Committee should have more responsibility for the preparation of the quadrennial programme and budget and should be involved in the formulation of a WMO long-term plan.

There was animated discussion on suggestions to adjust regional association boundaries on climatic or other grounds, but in the end there was general agreement that the present system of WMO regional associations should be maintained, although

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improvements in working procedures and arrangements to cope with problems which transcended the boundary of a Region appeared to be necessary. It was also suggested that the regional associations should not deal with technical problems of a global nature which were within the competence of technical commissions.

The technical commissions, and possible alternatives, were discussed at great length. Opinions were fundamentally divided and there appeared to be no consensus on any single proposal. Approximately one-half of the participants felt that no change should be made to the present technical commissions, on the understanding that their terms of reference should be adjusted as necessary and their working procedures improved. The other half was of the opinion that their number could be reduced by regrouping them according to certain principles; a number of options consisting of four, five or six commissions were suggested. As the panel saw it, there was a fairly widespread reluctance to alter a structure which had proved broadly satisfactory, in favour of one that might not correspond to individual Members' preferences for change.

Turning to the structure of the Secretariat, participants were of the opinion that this should, as far as possible, be aligned to the main programmes and various technical bodies of the Organization, and that there should be effective co-ordination within the Secretariat.

Some basic suggestions were put forward for improving present working procedures, regardless of structure. The discussion also ranged over other associated topics, including the possibility of a rotation of seats on the Executive Committee and the election of presidents of technical commissions for the duration of the commission session only, but no consensus was reached. There was, however, general agreement on the need for longer-term planning to provide guidance to constituent bodies in the elaboration of their programmes.

Following the 'open' part of the session, the panel held a one-day private meeting on 20 February 1981 to prepare its preliminary conclusions and recommendations on the basis of views expressed at the open meeting and other comments received from Members. This document was submitted by the chairman of the panel to the thirty­third session of the Executive Committee. Any final decisions on matters raised will be taken by Ninth Congress in 1983.

J. S.

World Weather Watch Monitoring the operation of the WWW

Non-real-time internationally co-ordinated monitoring carried out in December 1980 indicated certain deficiencies in the operation of the GOS and GTS in some parts of Regions I and Ill. To locate where the problems lay, further specific monitoring activities were carried out, in co-operation with Members concerned, in the zones of responsibility of RTHs Brasilia, Brazzaville, Buenos Aires, Kano, Maracay and Nairobi.

An analysis of the monitoring results was communicated to the Members concerned so that they could take urgent action to remedy the shortcomings in the operation of the GOS and GTS.

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Global Data-processing System

New code for swface observations

As reported in an earlier issue ( WMO Bulletin 19 (3) p. 190), the new codes FM 12-VII SY NOP and FM 13-vll SH IP will be introduced on I January 1982. To assist Members in preparing for the introduction of the common code, the Executive Committee agreed to the organizing of regional roving seminars. Fifty-three Members have expressed the wish to take advantage of this scheme. Regional coding procedures have now been adopted by the regional associations, and it was decided to convene a workshop of experts to prepare background material for the roving seminars.

The workshop took place in March 1981 at the WMO headquarters in Geneva. An explanatory guide on the new code was drawn up, posters were designed for observers at different types of station, and examples prepared of the message format for the transmission of surface observations. The seminars were already under way in April.

The old and the new codes for surface observations

Apart from some relatively minor. adjustments, the basic form of the current code for surface observations (FM 11 SY NOP and FM 21 SHIP) has been in use for more than 30 years and will be familiar to a large number of readers. It may be of interest, therefore, to compare messages in the old and the new codes.

On the opposite page will be found the code forms written in terms of symbolic letters, indicating how the positions and presentation of the various elements will change on I January 1982. It is not possible to enter into details of the symbolic letters here ;·in most cases they remain as given in the 1974 edition of the Manual on codes. The key to new symbols will be promulgated through the usual channels.

The four examples of coded messages of hypothetical observations may help to clarify some features of the changeover.

Global Telecommunication System

Implementation of the GTS

Information received at the Secretariat concerning the implementation of the GTS indicates that regular two-way facsimile transmissions via satellite commenced on 10 February 1981 between WMC Moscow and RTH New Delhi. This is in addition to the existing 1200 bitjs H F circuit used for data transmission.

North and Central America ·

At the kind invitation of the Government of the Dominican Republic, the fourth session of the Working Group on Meteorological Telecommunications of Regional Association IV (North and Central America) was held in Santo Domingo from 30 March to 4 April 1981. Thirty-seven experts from 17 countries and a representative of the ICAO participated in the session, which was held under the chairmanship of Eng. D. Barrios Sanchez (Mexico).

Whereas the regional meteorological telecommunication network has been imple­mented to a high degree, some segments use Aeronautica l Fixed Telecommunication

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.... (Q w

OLDCODE 1 ~Ffi-U~~[' 7~ I ll NEW CODE: Iliii iRixhVV Nddff 1snTTT 2snTdTdTd 4PPPP 5appp 6RRRtR 7wwW,Wz 8NhCLCMCH

EXAMPLES Example I Land station

Suiface wind 320° 4 knots; visibility 35 km; MSL pressure IOI8.0 hPa, rising 0.8 hPa; temperature 28.8°C. dew point I8.9°C; I okta cirrus at I5 000 m.

Old code: lliii 13204 81020 18029 00901 19208 = New code: lliii 42981 13204 10288 20 189 40180 52008 80001 =

Example 2 Land station

Suiface wind 075° 32 knots; visibility I 50 m; continuous moderate snow, snowing for past 2~ hours; MSL pressure 983.7 hPa. falling II.6 hPa; temperature -4.3°C, dew point -6.4°C; sky obscured; precipitation amount during previous six hours (water equivalent) 2. 7 mm.

Old code: lliii 90732 01737 83754 9//// 56599 99116 70352 = New code: lliii 11/01 90732 11043 21064 49837 55116 60031 77372 =

Example 3 Land station

Suiface wind calm; visibility I5 km; thunderstorm during past hour; MSL pressure I004.I hPa, rising I.O hPa; temperature 22.5°C, dew point I9.3°C; 2 oktas fractostratus at I20 m, I okta cumulonimbus at I500 m, 3 oktas altocumulus at 3000 m. 3 oktas cirrus at I2 000 m; precipitation amount during previous I8 hours I8.4 mm.

Old code: lliii 60000 65298 04123 29263 19310 71827 = New code: lliii 11265 60000 10225 20193 40041 53010 60183 72981 82963 904// =

Example 4 Ship moving west at 10 knots, located at 62.3°N 29.2°W at 1800 TU on 22nd of the month

Suiface wind 290° 25 knots; visibility 4 km; light snow shower; MSL pressure 998.4 hPa. rising I.4 hPa ; temperature I.4°C, dew point -2.2"C. sea temperature 4.3°C; 7 oktas cumulonimbus at 360 m ; waves 3.5 m, period 9 s .

Old code : DDDD 99623 70292 22184 72925 96858 98401 794// 62314 00652 30907 New code: DDDD 22184 99623 70292 41496 72925 10014 21022 49984 53014 78581 879// 22262 00043 20907 =

Network (AFfN) circuits, which means that transmission of meteorological data may be delayed due to certain operational procedures or the transmission of aeronautical messages. Furthermore, taking into account requirements formulated by the regional Hurricane Committee, the experts feared that the existing network could not fully meet the data needs of Members.

In view of this the working group agreed upon action needed to improve the operation of the Antilles Meteorological Telecommunication Network (ANMET) and the Central American Meteorological Telecommunication Network (CEMET). As regards the former, a planning project should be carried out based on the principles of the Integrated WWW System Study, with a view to designing a cost-effective system. it was felt that a tentative date for this to come into operation might be the end of 1982.

_ N REUNION GRUPO DE TRABAJO DE l~~) THECOMUNICACIONES 0£ LA AR-IY i'" • ... , 'i.h .. J 30 MARZ0-4 ABRIL1981 ' .... r' -- STD OGO. REP OOM

Sanro Domingo. April 198 1 - Participants in the fourth session of the Working Group on Meteorological Telecommunications of Regional Association IV (North and Central America)

As regards the latter, al l that was needed was to upgrade the capacity and efficiency of the network, since, if fully implemented, it cou ld meet a ll the data requirements of CH·IET countries, including telecommunication facilities for the hurricane warning services. To this end, a project proposal will be prepared for consideration by the eighth session of Regional Association IV. Countries which do not belong to either of the above-mentioned networks were invited to improve and upgrade their respective low-speed telegraphic circuits to multi-channel operation as appropriate.

The opportunity was taken to update the regional meteorological telecommuni­cation · plan which appears in the Manual on the Global Telecommunication System.

Finally, there was a discussion on the future telecommunication system in the Region and on guidelines for the further planning of the GTS which might comprise new features or the expansion of current activities at certain centres.

Meteorology and ocean affairs Technical conference

In conjunction with the eighth session of the Commission for Marine Meteorology, a technical conference is being arranged in Hamburg (Federal Republic of Germany) on the subject of the automation of marine observations and data collection. It will take place during the week preceding the session, from 7 to 11 September 1981.

194

Professor H. 0. Mertins will act as the director of the conference. A tentative programme has been drawn up by the organizing committee, which will include the presentation of 35 papers on the following seven topics: present and future marine observing and data-collection systems, surface meteorological observations, subsurface observations, moored buoys and fixed observation platforms, drifting buoys, upper-air observations, and data-collection systems (including the use of satellites).

Sea wave data

The international exchange of instrumentally-measured marine data has become of considerable importance because of the increasing use being made of them for engineering purposes. In this connexion, the CMM is involved in studies aimed at drawing up standard definitions of wave characteristics.

A significant step forward in this direction was the publication of a Catalogue of wave data by the United Kingdom's Marine Information and Advisory Service (MIAS). In 1977 the IOC designated MIAS to function as Responsible National Oceanographic Data Centre (RNODC) in respect of instrumentally-measured wave data on a world-wide basis. The centre is run by the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences and is located at Bidston, near Liverpool. It maintains a regularly updated world-wide inventory of wave measurements, and the catalogue comprises abbreviated details for each si te and data series. The first edition, which appeared in March 1980, contains 550 entries.

MIAS also provides a data service. The wave data bank currently consists of processed data for the waters of the north-eastern Atlantic and the shelf around the British Isles. On request, these data can be made available on magnetic tape, as tabular listings, or in a variety of graphical outputs.

Further information on MIAS activities and the Catalogue of wave data may be obtained from Dr. M. T. Jones, Head of the MIAS Data Banking Service, Institute of Oceanographic Sciences, Bidston Observatory, Birkenhead, Merseyside L43 7RA, England.

Research and development

Weather modification programme

Hail suppression

In line with decisions taken by Congress and the Executive Committee, a meeting of experts was convened in Geneva from 2 to 6 February 1981 to discuss key problems related to hailstorms- their growth and possible suppression by artificial means. The chairman was Dr. B. Foote (USA), and the other experts were Dr. M. Abshaev (USSR), Dr. B. Federer (Switzerland), Dr. M. Moncrieff (United Kingdom), Dr. S. Nelson (USA), Dr. J. Renick (Canada), Professor K. Stantchev (Bulgaria) and Mr. J. Testud (France).

The experts first took stock of those aspects of hailstorm research and suppression technology in which there sti ll existed substantial areas of uncertainty. They noted that scientific proof of the effectiveness of human interventions to control hai l processes was the subject of some controversy, but that results appeared to be sufficiently encour­aging to justify continued and even expanded hail-suppression experiments. They

195

pointed to the fact that the technological ability to identify potential or actual hail cells, and to deliver appropriate reagents, in correct doses, when and where desired, had advanced more rapidly than our understanding of the hailstorms themselves.

Important progress does seem to have been made in understandin.g those storms which behave according to a regular and typical pattern . This was shown by the high degree of agreement among the experts in their respective views on hailstorm dynamics. According to their lifetime and dynamical properties, such hailstorms can be classified as single-cell , multicell or supercell. But unfortunately there are other storms which do not fit any of these categories. From theoretical studies, the flo w of air through a hailstorm (relative to the storm itself) provides the most useful classification criterion . The identification of fine structural detail in radar patterns of storms gives grounds for hoping that close examination of these patterns will result in important new insights.

Hail-growth processes remain speculati ve, although there is general agreement that hail embryos form in areas of weak updraughts and need to enter areas of strong updraughts in order to grow into hailstones. The hail-growth regions in supercell storms is among the least known facets. Several different possible mechanisms were discussed.

There was considerable agreement among the experts as to the most effective approach to hail suppression. In the light of current knowledge they concluded that the most promising was to seed so as to increase competition among hail embryos for available condensate and thus limit their growth. Another hypothesis which was felt to merit serious study is that by accelerating the formation of precipitation in the region of hail embryos, the condensate there would be depleted. The experts held little hope of success for such ideas as the glaciation of the entire cloud or influencing the trajectory of embryos to cause them to enter cloud regions less favourable for growth. Seeding for dynamical effects was considered to have interesting possibilities, but there had been too little study to yield a useful working hypothesis.

The experts observed that storms with different dynamical properties would require different seeding strategies. Geogrqphical differences of climate and topography were likely to result in differences in hailstorm properties. This factor demonstrated the value of storm classification for operational as well as for scientific purposes, and more work was needed on systematic classification. Another important factor is whether the clouds develop large drops or not (the former case is the most favourable from the hail-suppression point of view). This points to the need to know the dominant precipitation-forming process in the clouds, whether ice-phase or coalescence. Unfortunately, the most damaging storms with supercell characteristics are the most difficult to seed effectively. It was considered futile to introduce a reagent in the strong updraughts; the most promising part of the cloud to seed was believed to be regions of new growth. ·

The forecasting of hailstorms and methods of dispersing the reagent, two matters of importance for actual field operations, was also discussed. Mesoscale forecasts were now becoming sufficiently accurate for field work, and there was encouraging progress in the use of forecasts to assist in the statistical evaluation of experiments. Contin ued efforts were called for to improve skill in the quantitative forecasting of hail (to aid in analysis) and in reagent dispersal techniques (to help in operations).

In conclusion, the experts showed some optimism but also a certain pessimism. Although there had been major advances in understanding hailstorm dynamics, much still remained to be learnt. International efforts guided by WMO were felt to be highly desirable.

196

The report of the meeting is being issued in the series of Weather Modification Programme reports.

Instruments and methods of observation

CIMO Advisory Working Group

The Advisory Working Group of the Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation met in Geneva from 12 to 16 January 1981 under the chairmanship of the president of the Commission, Mr. H. Treussart (France). The purpose was to discuss preparations for the eighth session of CIMO which will take place in Mexico City from 19 to 30 October 1981 .

As regards the future work plan of CIMO, the Advisory Working Group gave highest priority to studying technological aspects of combining various observing techniques, so as to be able to help in formulating regulations and guidance for the implementation of optimized instrument systems. High priority was also given to arranging suitable training seminars for the principal technicians in charge of instrument maintenance and repair in developing countries. These supervisors should be given the background necessary to organize and operate an effective field structure and to oversee the instruction and formation of a competent staff.

A work plan was developed reflecting the major priorities of CIMO, namely fostering the development of new instrument systems and observing methods, preparing regulations and guidance for their implementation and ensuring compat­ibility and comparability among them, and assisting Members to develop their observing programme capabilities.

Upper-air data compatibility

The CIMO Working Group on Upper-air Data Compatibility met in Geneva from 26 to 30 January 1981 under its chairman, Mr. F. G. Finger (USA). The report provides very useful information on sounding equipment and techniques employed in most Member-countries, and summary statements on the compatibility between data from various types of radiosonde and from other upper-air sounding devices. In addition, the group agreed on a workable method to ensure that users have up-to-date information on the radiosonde equipment being used by each Member, so that appropriate operational adjustments can be made at analysis centres. The Secretariat will provide a catalogue of basic information on the radiosondes and procedures used, which can speedily be updated using a special METNO code.

Meteorological applications and the environment Agricultural meteorology and desertification

Under the programme of short-term missions to advise on applications of meteorology to agriculture, WMO and FAO experts recently visited Ethiopia and the Sudan. In both cases particular attention was given to the early warning system in respect of food and agriculture.

An information report by the rapporteur, Dr. M. H. Omar, entitled Water requirements of agricultural crops under arid and semi-arid conditions was distributed to members of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM).

197

The CAgM Working Group on the Impact of Climatic Variability on Agriculture and of Agricultural Activities on Climate met in Geneva from 30 March to 3 April 1981 under its chairman, Dr. Ju . Hvalenskij (USSR). The group was of the opinion that work on the impact of climatic variability (and, to some extent, of climatic change) on human activities and wellbeing must go hand in hand with work on climate appli­cations, and indeed also with applied climatic research. Therefore it suggested to the president of the Commission that he bring this point of view to the attention of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee, and request authorization to take appropriate remedial measures in respect of the group's terms of reference.

The group then examined and approved its final report for submission to the eighth session of CAgM. In order to produce a systematic analysis of the impact of climatic variability on agriculture, the group felt that it was necessary to devise a multidimensional framework which takes account of the geographical area, the type of agriculture, the type of climatic effect, the severity of the climatic impact, and the frequency of occurrence of extreme events.

Among the group's recommendations was one to establish a new working group to study the effect of climatic variability on agriculture, and on the application of thi s knowledge to mitigate agriculture's vu lnerability.

Geneva. April / 98/- Participants in the session of the CAgM Working Group on the Impact of Climatic Variability on Agriculture and of Agricultural Activities on Clim ate

Climatology and applications of meteorology

Applications of meteorology to energy problems

As reported in the WMO Bulletin 30 (I) p. 46, a meeting of experts to review the WMO plan of action in the field of energy problems was held in Geneva from 24 to 28 November 1980. Solar and wind energy technologists attended the meeting together with meteorologists specializing in energy-related applications. There were 23 participants, including representatives from five international organizations.

After reviewing past and ongoing activities, the experts came to the conclusion that during the coming years emphasis should be placed on improving and intensifying certain basic activities. In this context they cited the acquisition of meteorological data (including the planning of networks, establishment and maintenance of stations, instru-

198

mentation, station inspection and data quality control), the provision of data in the desired form to energy specialists, informing potential users of the various ways meteorology can contribute to solving energy problems, and providing specialist training in which particular attention is given to problems of harnessing solar and wind energy.

On the basis of the experts' proposals, a revised WMO plan of action was drafted by the Secretariat and submitted to the thirty-third session of the Executive Committee.

World maps of relative global radiation

At the request of WMO, world maps of relative global radiation have recently been prepared by Mr. Gy. Major and his collaborators in the Meteorological Service of the Hungarian People's Republic. The maps are on a scale I : 50 million , and show mean monthly and annua l surface global radiation expressed as a percentage of the astronomically possible. They are intended to provide an overall picture of potential solar energy at the Earth's surface.

Because the network of radiation stations is not dense enough for world-wide mapping, use had to be made of satellite measurements. Satellite radiation data (in the form of mean relative brightness values, their standard deviations, maximum and minimum values), derived from measurements made during the period 1967 to 1970, were converted into the relative global radiation at the surface with the help of the surface radiation data published jointly by the Main Geophysical Observatory in Leningrad and WMO.

The maps, together with explanatory notes (in English, French, Russian and Spanish) have been published as an annex to Technical Note No. 172 (WMO­No. 557) Meteorological aspects of the utilization of solar radiation as an energy source.

This technical note, plus a similar one dealing with meteorological aspects of the utilization of wind as an energy source, constitute WMO's contribution to the United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy (Nairobi, I 0-21 August 1981 ).

Technical Conference on Meteorology and Energy

This WMO conference, to take place in Mexico City from 3 to 7 November 198 1, is intended to promote the application of meteorological information and know-how in energy problems, especially as regards solar and wind energy. Meteorologists will discuss with planners, engineers and decision-makers the best ways of applying meteorology in this respect. They will focus on solar and wind energy conversion systems (singly and combined), and also exchange views on the consumption, conser­vation and transport of energy. Data aspects, as well as education and training, will receive due attention.

The salient conclusions reached during the conference will be conveyed to the Commission for Climatology and Applications of Meteorology.

Environmental pollution

Interchange of pollutants between atmosphere and sea

The inter-Agency Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) maintains a working group to review the health of the oceans. This group

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held its third meeting in Rome in February 1981, when a draft report was prepared for presentation at a United Nations conference to review global environmental problems, scheduled for mid 1982. The report by the Working Group on the Interchange of Pollutants between the Atmosphere and Oceans (see WMO Bulle1in 30 (2) p. 130) forms the overall framework for this first report on the health of the oceans, with special reference to air-sea interface processes. At the meeting in Rome, emphasis was placed on the need to know more about the input of sulphur compounds to the oceans from the atmosphere, the C02 uptake by the oceans, and the microbiological phenomena involved in air-sea exchange.

The BAPMoN stations

According to the latest annual Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network survey, more than 110 stations are now carrying out at least part of their monitoring programme. Many Members are making special efforts to report data, and the accom­panying table has been prepared based on information available at the Secretariat. The BAPMo N parameters reported are designated by letters ; a capital letter indicates that the data are actually reported, a lower-case letter means that they will be available in the near future.

P or p

T or t

S or s

C or c

precipitation chemistry

turbidity

suspended particulate matter (aerosols)

atmospheric carbon dioxide

Data are usually reported on special forms provided by the WMO Secretariat, but in some cases on magnetic tape. They are sent to the collaborating centre on background air pollution data located at Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (USA). Data summaries are published annually, and exist for the period 1972-1978.

Swtiom

Australia Cape Grim

Barbados Caribbean Met. Service

Bahrein Bahrein

Bulgaria Rojen

Canada Sable Island Alert Ocean Ship P Kelowna Fort Simpson Mould Bay Edson Wynyard Pickle Lake Mount Forest Hay Ri ver Maniwaki

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BAPMoN stations submitting data

Data S tations

Congo p t Saturnus Ring

Czechoslovakia T s Svratouch

Chopok p Denmark

Edje p T s Godhav n

Pri ns Christians Sund Tange

p T c Egypt c

c Siwa p T El Salvador p T Cerro Verde p T p T Ethiopia p T Bahar Dar p T p T Finland p Sodankylii p T Jokioinen

Data

p t

p s p

p t p p t p

p t

p T

T p

p t p t

Sw tions Data Stations Data

France Peru New Amsterdam p c s Cosmos p Abbevi lle p

Poland Phalsbourg p

Suwalki p C hiiteau-Chinon p Rostrenen p T Portugal Carpe ntras p T Lis boa p Gourdon p T Coimbra p

German Democratic Republic Braga nca p

Neuglobsov p T Faro p

Germany. Federal Republic of Romania

La nge nbrugge p T c Fundata p s Deuselbach p T c Ra rau p s Brotjacklriegel p T c Semenic p s Schauinsland p T c Paring p s

Turia p s Greece Stina de Va le p s

Met hon i p I Sweden Hungary Bredkii len p

Kamlosi-Telep p T s c Sjoiingen p

Iceland Switzerland lrafoss p Payerne p

India Jungfra ujoch p

Srinagar p T Thailand Mohanba ri p T Ba ngkok T Jod hpu r p T Tunisia Allahabad p T

Tha i a p T s Pune p T Nag pur p T U.S.S.R. Visa khapatnam p T Novopjatigorsk p T Port Blai r p T Turuchansk p T Kodaika nal p T Syktyvkar p T Minicoy p T I rkutsk p T

Indonesia Kaunas p

Punca k p I United Kingdom Jakarta p T s Eskdalemuir Observato ry p Tabi ng Padang t s U.S.A . Manado s

Ireland Point Ba rrow p T s c• Mauna Loa p T c• s

Valentia Obse rvato ry p T Samoa p T c• s

Italy South Pole T c• s

Monte Cimone p T c Caribou p T

Viterbo p T Pendleton p T

Santa M a ria de Leuca p T Huro n p T

T rapa ni Birgi p T Atlantic C ity p T

Verona p T Sale m p T Alamosa p T

Japan Ra leigh p T Ryo ri p Bishop p T

Jordan Meridia n p T

Shoubak T Victoria p T

Malaysia Yugoslavia

Puntijarka p Tanah Rata p

Lazaropole p Netherlands Zambia

Wineveen p s Luangwa p T s New Zealand

Lauder p Baring Head c • Flask sa mple data. Ra roto nga p

Nonvay Kise p As p Birkenes p

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Global Atmospheric Research Programme

Conference on early results of the FGGE

A little more than a year after the conclusion of the operational phase of the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE), the WMO/ICSU Joint Scientific Committee and the USA National GARP Committee jointly organized an International Conference on Early Results of the FGGE and Large-scale Aspects of its Monsoon Experiments. It took place on the premises of the Florida State University in Tallahassee (USA) from 12 to 17 January 1981. Professor J. A. Young (USA) was the conference chairman, and 120 scientists participated.

There were more than 100 invited and contributed papers. Three sessions were devoted to results from the Global Weather Experiment itself, one was on WAMEX, two on Winter MONEX, and the remaining seven covered the separate phases of the Summer MONEX (Saudi Arabia, Bombay and the Bay of Bengal). One of these dealt with oceanographic research over the Arabian Sea. In addition, there was an evening discussion on the status of current research and ideas on lines for future research, touching on fields such as planetary- and regional-scale circulation aspects, radiative heat sources and sinks, the onset and characteristics of the monsoon, and oceanography.

Although the final validation and processing of all data had not been completed at the time of the conference, it was judged that an excellent start had been made on FGG E research . Already research analyses showed several new findings, and numerical model results looked very promising. When fully completed, the data sets will give the most comprehensive three-dimensional coverage ever obtained of the atmospheric circu lation and weather on planetary, regional and local scales. In the time domain, the data base will probably provide the best description of a complete annual cycle.

The conference demonstrated that the experiments had generated a wealth of unprecedented data from a mix of conventional and specialized observing systems. Further, it substantiated the vital role played by field experiments in focusing interna­tional scientific interest in a co-operative effort to solve identified problems.

The conference proceedings, containing extended abstracts, summaries by session chairmen and a report on the discussions on future research, are being published by WMO.

World Climate Programme

World Climate Programme (Water)

The fie ld of hydrology and water resources, whether as a source or as a user of climatological information, is involved in all four components of the World Climate Programme. The WCRP, WCAP, WCIP and WCDP each comprise activities which relate to water.

202

For instance, at the study conference at Greenbelt (USA) reported below, one primordial question was the manner in which processes controlling the availability and movement of water at and near land surfaces could be introduced into atmospheric general circulation models. Here is one aspect of the WCRP interface with hydrology.

Water-resource projects cannot be designed and managed rationally without taking account of climatological and related hydrological data. Economic and social development entails a wide variety of such projects, for example:

For food production (agricultural water supply, irrigation, inland fisheries);

For drinking water (urban and rural water supplies) ;

For health and security (flood forecasting and regulation, prediction and control of water quality) ;

For industry and commerce (industrial water supply, hydropower, inland navigation).

The use of climatological data for such projects is not a new concept, but their appli­cation in the past has been very restricted, and one of the objectives of the WCAP is to enhance the effectiveness of these data when put to practical use.

It .is self-evident that any significant change in the vo lume and variability of the water resources of a given region will have very important economic and social conse­quences. The WCIP must therefore be concerned with identifying such impacts and studying their possible effects.

Clearly, the activities referred to above will all require a data input ; data for use in developing and testing techniques, data for applying these techniques in practice, and so on. Therefore the WCDP will include matters relating to the storage and retrieval of hydrological data.

The ensemble of WCP activities in the field of hydrology and water resources wi ll be closely co-ordinated and grouped together under the generic title World Climate Programme (Water) or WCP/ WATER. An informal meeting was arranged in collabo­ration with Unesco to plan the development of WCP/WATER. The meeting took place in Geneva from 2 to 6 February 1981.

The experts' main proposal s were that :

- The overall goal of WCP/WATER should be to meet more effectively socio­economic needs which depend upon water-resource systems, through an improved application of climatological data and information.

In support of this goal, appropriate measures are needed:

(a) To enhance our understanding of the relationship which exists between climate and water resources due to hydrological processes ;

(b) To make effective use of climatological information in water-resource management ;

(c) To enhance our understanding of the impact of climatic variability and change on water resources;

(d) To improve the availability of data required to achieve the above objectives.

The experts then went on to develop a series of specific projects within this conceptual framework, and these proposals will serve as the basis for formulating an implementation plan for WCPjWATER.

203

World Climate Research Programme

Land surface processes

It has long been realized that properties of the land surfaces which underlie the atmosphere must be taken into consideration in further refining atmospheric general circulation models. In an attempt to reach a consensus on how best to do this, the Joint Scientific Committee organized a study conference in Greenbelt, Maryland (USA) from 5 to I 0 January 1981. There were about 70 participants, made up of global circu­lation modellers, atmospheric and soil physicists and hydrologists. This area of research into more realistic physical modelling of significant processes is in addition to other ongoing efforts in modelling ocean-atmosphere interactions and mountain effects.

The conference concentrated on three principal themes, namely (a) the sensitivity of atmospheric general circulation models to land surface processes, (b) the physics of land surface processes and their parameterization, and (c) the acquisition and processing of land surface data. Following the presentation of 15 review papers each dealing with one of these themes, the participants were assigned to discussion groups for in-depth consideration of the problem areas and to produce written texts for use in preparing the proceedings.

The main conclusions were that general circulation models are highly sensitive to land surface albedo and soil moisture concentration. The physical properties and processes of primary importance are the state and area! extent of snow cover, the type and density of vegetation, the rates of increase of soil moisture by infiltration and of its depletion by evapotranspiration and percolation.

The relationship between moisture fluxes and soil moisture concentration is non­linear, and precipitation rates and soil moisture properties have large spatial variations at the sub-grid scale. Therefore the computation of undistorted grid ~scale averages of moisture fluxes was agreed to be a major research problem. Numerical experiments are also needed to assess the sensitivity of the soil moisture concentration and other aspects of general circul ation models to hydrological parameterization, and joint atmospheric­hydrological field studies over grid-sized catchments to verify parameterizations. Global maps of grid-averaged land surface parameters must be prepared and global radiation data sets compiled using both ground-based and satellite data .

The conference proceedings are being published in the WCRP Publications Series.

Technical co-operation

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Country programmes

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, two large-scale and one small-scale projects are being imple­mented.

The first project has as its objective the strengthening and the development of activities related to applied meteorology. Modern equipment for the collection and

204

processing of data is now fully operational, and new programmes are being developed by local specialists under the supervision of Mr. J. E. Calooy (Philippines), expert in climatology.

The Meteorological Department also has at its disposal a laboratory for the repair and maintenance of conventional equipment and for the calibration of meteorological instruments. This laboratory is manned by local staff under the supervision of Mr. A I. Gubernatorov (USSR). In an electronics laboratory designed for the maintenance and repair of telecommunication equipment, wind-finding radars and similar facilities, local engineers and technicians are working under the supervision of Mr. G. N. Rao (India).

New activities have begun in the field of agrometeorology with the recent recruitment of Mrs. E. Vergara (Philippines), and in the study and prediction of storm surges under a subcontract with the Institute of Ocean Sciences of British Columbia (Canada). A 10-cm radar supplied several years ago by the United Kingdom has been restored and is now in operation at Khepupara, on the Bay of Bengal half-way between the radars at Calcutta and Cox's Bazaar.

The second large-scale project is aimed at developing the potential of the national flood forecasting centre in Dacca. Bangladesh is flat and interlaced by rivers and canals, and flood forecasting is an extremely complex problem requiring the acqui­sition of data over a large geographical area. Efforts are being made to improve real­time data collection throughout the region. Mr. A Sniadowsky (Poland), expert in hydrometeorological installations, has just joined the project which is directed by Dr. R. Karim (Canada). Experts in telecommunications and sub-station management and consultants in various other fields will be recruited soon.

Because Bangladesh is divided by so many watercourses, aircraft offer the best means of rapid transportation. Thus the development of aeronautical meteorology is considered very important. The third project is aimed at reinforcing meteorological observation facilities at nine domestic airports as well as at the new international airport of Dacca (Kurmitaly). ICAO is associated with WMO in the execution of this project.

Guinea

The project to strengthen the national Meteorological Service (see WMO Bulletin 29 (I) p. 64) has been extended for a further ten months, and provision made for additional expert services, fellowships and equipment. Mr. H. Palamoudian (Canada), expert in telecommunications, accomplished his mission after assisting in the instal­lation of newly-acquired telecommunications equipment and in the repair of existing equipment. He left the project in late February 1981. Mr. S. Chacowry (Mauritius) will continue his work as general adviser and instructor in meteorological forecasting until the end of October 1981.

The large-scale project to strengthen the national Hydrological Service and to develop plans for hydrological basins in central Guinea is nearing completion. The project manager, Mr. A. Musy (Switzerland), finished his mission in January 1981. During the past 18 months, counterpart personnel have been trained in hydrology, hydrometry, associated technical functions, and in management planning concerning the development of hydrological basins. In addition, hydrological data are fed into a Government computer and published annually.

205

Liberia

Following a visit by the sectoral adviser on hydrology in 1979, a joint WMO/ UNDP project 'Water resources policy, management and legislation' was initiated. Under this project, Mr. G. Shak (USA) carried out a six-week mission in January 1981 to advise on a suitable meteorological programme, at the same time assessing the effec­tiveness of existing metoorological facilities. Recommendations were then made on ways to improve services and on technical assistance required. A six-month consultancy has been proposed in climatology and meteorological instrument maintenance, together with the provision of certain instruments.

In addition, a small project for implementation in the period 1982-1986 has been submitted to the Government and the UNDP for consideration. The main objective would be to assist the Liberian Government to design and organize a unified Meteoro­logical Service to meet requirements for information and advice in all fields of applied meteorology.

Rwanda

Activities continue under the extension of the project (see WMO Bulletin 28 (3) p. 225), assisted by the Swiss Government and the UNDP. Twelve students are following a course for Class IV meteorological personnel, two technicians have received practical training in meteorological instruments and two other students are following a course for Class II meteorological personnel at the Hydrometeorological Training and Research Institute in Oran (Algeria). In addition, meteorological , agrometeorological and telecommunications equipment have been provided, as well as a workshop. Mr. M. Berruex (Switzerland) completed his mission as expert in meteoro­logical training and organization in March 1981.

Upper Volta

Implementation of the AGRHYMET programme in Upper Yolta started in October 1975 with the arrival of Mr. Ch. Baldy (France), expert in agrometeorology. Since then , good and steady progress has been made, thanks to the constant support of the directors of the Meteorological and Hydrological Services. Mr. Baldy left in December 1977, and implementation of the agrometeorological component of the project was then carried on directly by the Meteorological Service. The hydrological component received expert assistance from Mr. J. P. Triboulet (Canada), an expert in operational hydrology, who joined the project in September 1979. Both the agrometeorological and hydrological station networks have been completed, and inspection of the stations is carried out in a systematic and efficient way. Telecommunication facilities are being installed to collect their data.

The Government of Upper Yolta has constructed a new building to house the expanding Meteorological Service, and facilities will be available for the installation of a minicomputer. In parallel with these activities, staff training was conducted according to a well-planned programme. Both the Meteorological and Hydrological Services maintain close co-operation, and are preparing for the operational phase of the AGRH YMET programme due to start in 1982.

Inter-country programmes

Advanced training in meteorology in the English-speaking Caribbean

A new phase in the project for the development of the Caribbean Meteorological Institute has been designed (see WMO Bulletin 29 (3) p. 210). The hydrological

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VACANCIES IN WMO TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION PROGRAMMES (As on 13 May 198 1)

Country Title of post Date of Duration Language commencement needed

Country projects

Bangladesh- (Flood forecasting and warning system ) Electronics and Janua ry 1982 I yeart English telecom munications engineer Telecommunications January 1982 2 years* English and radar engineer Expert in meteoro- As soon as I yeart English logical instruments possible Hydrological sub- October 1981 6 months English station management consultant

Burundi Expert in hydrology January 1982 3 years t French Expert in synoptic October 198 1 I yeart French meteorology and train ing Expert in July 1982 18 monthst French agrometeorology

Ethiopia Consultant in As soon as 3 months English synoptic meteorology possible

Kenya Expert in As soon as 2 years English agrometeorology possible

Nepal Chief technical As soon as 3 yea rs*t English adviser (hydrology) possible Operational As soon as 18 months* t English hydrologist poss ible

Pakistan Agrometeorologist April 1982 2 yea rs* t English

Saudi Arabia Expert in meteoro- September 198 1 I year English logical training or more

Yemen Project manager January 1982 3 years*t English (senior meteorologist) Agrometeorologistj January 1982 3 years*t Engl ish climatologist Expert in meteoro- January 1982 2Y> years*t English logical education and trai ning Expert in aeronautical January 1982 3 years*t English forecasting Telecommunications/ As soon as 4 yea rs* English electronic engineer possible

Inter-country project Centre for Training and Applications in Agrometeorologyj Operational Hydrology-AGR HYMET

Senior instructor As soon as 2 years* French in hydrology possible Itinerant instructor January 1982 I yea r French in hydrology Instructor in October 1981 I yea r French telecommunications

t Subject to UNDP andjor government approval * Initial contract of one year

Further information may be obtained from the Secretary-General. WMO, Geneva.

207

operations and training aspect of the programme will be almost entirely executed by the Government of the Netherlands, which recently approved a project costing one million US dollars, to be implemented over a five-year period. The European Economic Commission has indicated its intention to contribute an amount of about US $900 000, and the UNDP proposes to allocate about US $100 000 per year.

As already reported ( WMO Bulletin 30 (I) p. 52), the UNDP provided funds for Dr. J. Lee to continue as lecturer on meteorology in Barbados to ensure a smooth transition to the new phase. The UNDP has also provided for a consultant to survey existing operational hydrological facilities and for purchase of hydrological instruments to a value of approximately US $23 000.

Hydrometeorologica/ project in the Central American Isthmus

The Regional Committee for Water Resources (CRRH) of the Central American Isthmus decided that the UNDP's allocation for 1981 should be used entirely to support the second course for Class Ill meteorological personnel (2 March - 31 July 1981) organized by the Government of Guatemala. Training aids and material (including a 16 mm film projector) have been purchased, and Mr. G. Guzman (El Salvador), Mr. E. Zarate (Costa Rica) and Mr. H. Neira (Colombia) will lecture respec­tively on agrometeorology, synoptic meteorology and hydrometry. Thirty students are attending the course, 15 from Guatemala and 15 from the other five participating countries. Nine students receive financial assistance from project funds.

Agrometeorological and Hydrological Services of the Sahelian countries

A new Agreement concluded between WMO and the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (known as CILSS, the abbreviated term in French) was signed at the WMO headquarters on 16 March 1981. His Excellency Mr. Joao Pereira, Minister for Rural Development of Cape Verde, in his capacity as the Minister Co-ordinator, signed on behalf of CILSS, and the Secretary-General signed on behalf of WMO.

The Agreement describes the operational structure of the programme for streng­thening agrometeorological and hydrological services in the Sahelian countries, the AGRHYMET programme. An important feature is the Centre for Training and Appli­cations in Agrometeorology and Hydrology, located in Niamey (Niger) (see WMO Bulletin 29 (2)). The programme is financed by the CILSS Member-States (Cape Verde, Chad, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta), by the UNDP, the United Nations Sahelian Office and a number of donor countries. Under the new Agreement, WMO continues to act as Executing Agency on behalf of CILSS and in association with FAO.

At the signing ceremony, the Secretary-General said that he greatly appreciated the co-operation of CILSS, both throughout the early phases of the programme, and more recently during the negotiations leading to the new Agreement. He added that WMO looked forward to continued co-operation with C ILSS within the framework of the Agreement.

His Excellency Mr. Joao Pereira said that the AGRHYMET programme was a very important and successful activity of C l LSS, and that its long-term results would be beneficial not only to the C ILSS countries, but probably to other African countries as well. He assured WMO of the full collaboration of C ILSS in executing the programme.

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VOLUNTARY CO-OPERATION PROGRAMME

An informal planning meeting of major YCP donor Members was held at the WMO headquarters in February 1981. It was agreed that the YCP must continue to support the long-term implementation of the WWW, co-ordinated assistance activities being matched with the needs and objectives of the WWW.

To assist the donor Members in this respect, there is a need to identify deficiencies in the complete WWW system (in particu lar the non-availability of certain observa­tional data) in order to enable remedial action to be carried out progressively to eliminate these deficiencies. The high-priority elements of the WWW should also be identified.

The meeting called for the preparation of a list of projects to improve station networks and telecommunication facilities which would best enhance the whole system. The list should include not only the conventional surface and upper-air networks but also projects to obtain upper-air observations from mobile ships and surface data from marine buoys. Following the further development, testing and certifi­cation of the Aircraft-Satellite Data Relay system (AS OAR) and other data-collecting platforms, the development of a plan for implementation and support through YCP will be considered.

There was general agreement on the need to ensure the maintenance and efficient operation of essential WWW services. To this end, an effective and responsive programme should be organized to assist in the repair of equipment, on-the-job training of maintenance and operating personnel, training of network inspectors and the long-term training of electronic, telecommunication and meteorological technicians. In this connexion, the meeting was attracted to the idea of teams of experts travelling to several different countries; this would combine maintenance with evaluation and training.

The major donor Members indicated that, in general, their contributions were expected to be of the same order of magnitude as in the past.

Education and training

Training aids

Compendium of lecture notes on numerical weather prediction in low latitudes

The need for a training publication on numerical weather prediction in low latitudes destined for Class I meteorological personnel has been cited on various occasions. Professor T. N. Krishnamurti of Florida State University (USA) has kindly agreed to prepare such a textbook . It will cover a wide range of topics, from simple computation methods for vorticity, divergence, rainfall rates and budgets of heat, moisture and vorticity to more complex topics like actual forecast experiments and how to do them. The publication will include some results from, and information about, current numerical prediction models. The manuscript is expected to be ready by the end of 1981.

Visual aids in agrometeorology

The Executive Committee's Panel of Experts on Education and Training has recommended that collections of slides relating to various specialized fields of

209

meteorology should be acquired and made available in WMO's training library for teaching purposes. Although some sets already exist in certain fields, few are available in the field of agricultural meteorology.

Mr. J. Lomas (Israel) has kindly agreed to prepare a set of 70 to 80 slides dealing with the main scientific applications of agrometeorology, giving a fair geographical coverage, and suitable for training Class I and Class 11 meteorological personnel. In addition, a catalogue containing the subject matter and a brief commentary on each slide will also be prepared. The set is expected to be available by the end of 1981.

New training films received

In addition to some 70 training films already avai lable from the WMO training library under the loan service scheme, 15 new ones have been received since the last list was distributed. A revised list will be available shortly.

Among the titles of new films will be found : Tropical meteorology, Meteorology and pollution, Weather forecasting, The atmosphere in motion, Urban development and urban climate, Storms : the restless atmosphere.

Forthcoming courses

Postgraduate course on the scientific basis of the protection of the air

This course will now take place at the Universite Paris Vll from 14 September to 18 December 1981. It is being jointly organized by the French Meteorological Service and the French National School of Meteorology, together with WHO, WMO and UNEP.

Like the earlier ones held in Lausanne (Switzerland), this course is designed for postgraduate personnel of various disciplines. It deals with both theoretical and practical aspects, and will prepare participants to attack the many problems confronting their countries on the protection of the atmospheric environment. The course will be in French, and the topics covered will include meteorology, the clima­tology and physical chemistry of atmospheric pollution, methods of assessing pollutants, effects of atmospheric pollution on the environment and human health, and socio-economic aspects.

Background air pollution monitoring

The fifth in the series of courses on background air pollution monitoring will again take place in Budapest and will be from 21 September to 10 October 198 1. It is organized by the Central Institute for Atmospheric Physics of the Meteorological Service of the Hungarian People's Republic, in collaboration with UNEP and WMO.

This year the course will be conducted in English, and, as previously, is designed for meteorological personnel primarily, but not exclusively, at the Class Ill level. The study programme will include the operation and maintenance of monitoring instruments, and techniques of sampling and chemical analysis of some atmospheric constituents.

Data processing

Two courses are being organized to train operational staff in techniques and practices relating to climatological data processing, quality control, archiving, retrieval

210

and data applications. They are intended primarily for Class I and Class 11 meteoro­logical personnel and will have a predominance of practical work. The first, arranged jointly by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and WMO, will be in English and will take place at Asheville, North Carolina, from 20 July to 7 August 1981. The second, in French, is organized by the French Meteorological Service and WMO, and will be held in Paris from 5 to 16 October 1981.

Applications of satellite remote sensing to rural disasters

The fourth course on this subject will be held at the FAO headquarters in Rome from 12 to 23 October 1981 , and will be conducted in French. UNDRO has joined FAO, WMO and ESA in the collaborative arrangement of these courses.

Designed for graduates working in agriculture, meteorology or an appropriate branch of environmental science, the course gives training in the applications and use of aerial and satellite data to disaster preparedness and the assessment of rural disasters. The types of event covered include tropical storms, floods, droughts, earth-

. quakes, volcanic eruptions. and insect infestations.

In the Regions

Africa

Management of Meteorological Services

Following up a recommendation by Regional Association I (Africa), a technical conference was arranged by WMO, in co-operation with the Kenya Meteorological Department, on the subject of the management of Meteorological Services in Africa. It took place in Nairobi from 23 to 28 February 1981.

The purpose of the conference was to offer an opportunity to exchange views and experience on the management of Meteorological Services. Formal lectures were followed by round-table discussions on questions related to the organizational structure and planned objectives of Meteorological Services in the Region, as well as other issues relevant to the efficient functioning of a Meteorological Service.

There were 59 participants, representing 39 countries and three international organizations. Of the 12 lecturers, eight came from the Region itself. The conference was opened on behalf of the Minister by the Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Transport and Communications.

The First Vice-President of WMO, Mr. C. A Abayomi, the acting president of Regional Association I, Mr. S. B. Mpata, and the Secretary-General each addressed the participants during the opening ceremony.

The main conclusions reached during the conference were as follows: There is a need to organize an African Meteorological Society and to launch a Journal of Meteorology for Africa ; countries should support technical co-operation among developing countries (TCDC) (for instance by waiving fees at Regional Meteorological Training Centres for students from the Region); a regional project should be imple­mented to develop numerical weather prediction models applicable to low latitudes ; scientists from the Region should participate in the planning and development of WMO scientific programmes; other similar conferences should be organized in the future, possibly in conjunction with sessions of Regional Association I.

211

As the conference closed, many speakers said how much they had benefited from it. All had a special word of thanks for WMO, the Kenyan Government, and especially for Mr. J. K. Murithi, Director of the Kenya Meteorological Department, and his staff for the excellent facilities and hospitality extended to the participants. The conference was pronounced highly successful.

Graduation ceremony

From time to time, the WMO regional meteorological training centres organize graduation ceremonies for graduands in their various courses. It is rare for these events to coincide with other important meteorological activities taking place simultaneously in the same town and country.

Na irobi. Februwy /98/- The Deputy Secretary-General ha nds the graduation certificate to the top student in the course for Class I meteorologists, Mr. Zinedime Minia (Ghana). Also present are Mr. J. K. Murithi (left) and Mr. N. A. Gbeckor-Kove, Permanent Representatives of Kenya

and Ghana respectively

However, during the Technical Conference on Management of Meteorological Services in Africa, the afternoon of Friday 27 February 1981 was taken off to enable participants to attend the graduation ceremony of students enrolled in the operational training course at the Institute for Meteorological Training and Research in Nairobi . On this occasion, the Deputy Secretary-General, Mr. R. Schneider, was the guest of honour when 19 Class I meteorologists from Ghana, Kenya and Uganda received their certificates. The 20-week course, intended mainly for Class I meteorology graduates, had been tailored to complement the theoretical training, so that the graduands might become independent forecasters at major forecasting centres in the shortest possible time.

Asia and the South-West Pacific

MONEX

The Monsoon Experiment (MONEX) has now entered the research and evaluation phase. The greatest value of MONEX lies in the expectation that research using the unprecedented data collected would reveal those features of the monsoon

212

which need to be monitored every year in order to predict more accurately its behaviour. The International MONEX Management Centres at Kuala Lumpur and New Delhi were responsible for planning, organizing and supervising the winter and summer components of the experiment respectively, and a comprehensive analysis of operations carried out during each component is included in field phase reports prepared by the two centres. A first assessment has shown that in both components the data acquired will meet the scientific objectives of the experiment. Special observing systems which included satellites, research aircraft, ships, radars, rocket-sondes and boundary-layer instrumentation were deployed for the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea. phases of MONEX. Special efforts were also made by Members in the Region to augment their national networks of observing stations and the frequency of observations. Of particular interest were the data on the radiation balance of the Earth-atmosphere system collected through flights by research aircraft. Vertical soundings over the data-sparse oceanic areas (from dropwindsondes) and the reflectivity of the soil were some of the other important data collected by the aircraft. A 'Quick-look' data set was distributed to interested parties within six months of the completion of the observational phase, and steps have been taken to make the final Level I I -b data sets available by the end of 1981. Some early research results were presented at the international conference held at Tallahassee (USA) in January 1981 (see page 202). Further scientific results will be discussed at a conference to be held in Indonesia in October 1981.

Tropical cyclone warning

Another important development in the Region has been the improvement of the cyclone warning systems in countries around the Bay of Bengal. A new radar is about to be installed at Masulipatnam on the east coast of India and another at Trincomalee (Sri Lanka). With the recommissioning of the radar at Khepupara (Bangladesh), there will be a comprehensive cyclone-warning radar coverage of the most vulnerable parts of the Bay of Bengal. Substantial progress in introducing or improving flood­forecasting systems has been reported by Burma, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand. India has published a revised atlas showing the tracks of storms and depressions in the Bay of Bengal from 1877 to 1970, which helped in the compilation of vulnerability analyses in coastal areas of the Region affected by tropical cyclones.

Europe

Following the retirement of Professor A. Vuorela (Finland), formerly vice­president of Regional Association VI (Europe), Mr. A. W. Kabakibo (Syrian Arab Republic) was elected vice-president of the Association by correspondence. Subse­quently, Mr. Kabakibo assumed the duties of acting president when Professor R. Czelnai relinquished the office of president of the Regional Association on 31 January 1981 upon his appointment as a WMO staff member.

News and notes

Membership changes

The Government of Zimbabwe deposited an Instrument of Accession to the WMO Convention on 12 January 1981, and the Government of Saint Lucia did

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likewise on 2 March 1981. Zimbabwe and Saint Lucia therefore became Member States of WMO on 11 February and I April 1981 respectively.

The Membership of WMO now comprises 149 States and 5 Territories.

Token of gratitude to NAOS vessel

Whilst delivering a single-engined aircraft from the United States of America to the United Kingdom on 22 December 1979, the pilot, Mr. Peter Goldstern, was forced to ditch in the North Atlantic on account of engine failure. He had time to send out a distress signal and to get into his survival gear before the aircraft sank, and after more than three hours in the water (the temperature of which was no more than 5°C) a Canadian aircraft managed to drop a life-raft to him. Mr. Goldstern was rescued some ten hours after ditching by the USSR ship Georgi Ushakov which was manning NAOS station C at 52°45' N 35°30'W.

Mr. Goldstern, a New Zealander, wished to offer a tangible token of his gratitude to the crew of the Georgi Ushakov, and arranged to come to the WMO headquarters in Geneva to present a painting depicting his rescue. This was received on behalf of the crew of the Soviet vessel by Mr. H. Fontijn, NAOS Officer, and Dr. Ju . I. Beliaev, Chief of the Ocean Activities Office in the WMO Secretariat, in the presence of the Consul General of New Zealand in Geneva, Mr. Rhys Richards. The picture has been sent on to the USSR.

Mr. Goldstern had already presented a painting to the crew of the Canadian aircraft which dropped him the life-raft.

New meteorological journal from New Zealand

The Meteorological Society of New Zealand (Inc.) was inaugurated in October 1979, and the first number of the Society's journal Weather and Climate was issued in February 1981. It will appear twice a year, and the current annual subscription rate for non-members is NZ $30.- . Further information may be obtained from the Editor, Dr. W. J. Maunder, cjo Meteorological Service, Box 722, Wellington, New Zealand.

New monthly bulletin on weather and climate events around the world

Westwind Services of Reading (England) has launched a new journal under the title Jet Stream. It is aimed at providing an up-to-date description of weather over the world each month, with explanations in terms of atmospheric circulation patterns. There will be tables or charts of monthly mean temperature, pressure, precipitation and sea-surface temperature data. There will be articles on particularly interesting events and reviews (in non-technical language) of recent research. The publication is designed for a broad spectrum of the public interested in weather and climate.

To start with, Jet Stream is being produced very modestly; the first issues will be bi-monthly, consisting of approximately 30 pages, format 16.5 x 24 cm. Its future will depend upon the number of subscribers it attracts. Personal subscription rates range from £13.20 to £16.00, according to the cost of postage to the subscriber's address. Further information may be obtained by writing to Westwind Services, 60 Talfourd Avenue, Reading RG6 2BP, England.

Photographic competition

With the object of promoting knowledge among the public at large about our atmospheric environment, and the clouds in particular, the Natural History Museum of

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CALENDAR OF COMING EVENTS

(Sessions will be held in Geneva, Switzerland, unless otherwise stated)

1981

9- 15 August

18- 27 August

7 - 11 September

14- 18 September

14- 21 September

14-25 September

12- 16 October

19 - 28 October

19 - 30 October

26 - 30 October

3-7 November*

I 0- 16 November

17- 19 November

23 November-3 December

7 - 11 December

1981

17 - 28 August

23 September­I October

28 September-3 October

12- 14 October

World Meteorological Organization

Symposium on Variations in the Global Water Budget; Oxford, England

International Conference on Hydrology and Scientific Bases for the Rational Management of Water Resources ; (UnescojWMO) Paris, France

Technical Conference on the Automation of Marine Observations and Data Collection; Hamburg, Fed. Rep. of Germany

Scientific Conference on Analysis and Interpretation of Atmo­spheric C02 Data (WMOjUNEP/ICSU); Berne, Switzerland

Regional Association I Tropical Cyclone Committee for the South­West Indian Ocean, 5th session ; M a he, Seychelles

Commission for Marine Meteorology, 8th session; Hamburg, Fed. Rep. of Germany

2nd Technical Conference on Instruments and Methods of Observa­tion ; Mexico, D.F., Mexico

Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP), 12th session

Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation, 8th ses­sion; Mexico, D.F., Mexico

Conference on the Scientific Results of the Monsoon Experiments; Denpasar (Bali), Indonesia

Technical Conference on Meteorology and Energy Topics; Mexico, D.F., Mexico

Typhoon Committee, 14th session; Manila, Philippines

TOPEX Management Board, 4th session; Manila, Philippines

Regional Association IV (North and Central America), 8th session; Havana, Cuba

Symposium on Meteorological Aspects of Tropical Droughts ; New Delhi, India

Other international organizations

3rd IAMAP Scientific Assembly; Hamburg, Fed. Rep. of Germany

9th International Congress of Biometeorology (Deutsche Meteoro/o­gische GesellschaftjWMO); Osnabriick and Stuttgart-Hohenheim, Fed. Rep. of Germany

4th International Symposium on Tracer Techniques in Hydrology (Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences); Berne, Switzerland

International Symposium on Advances in the Theory of C limate. ( Academia das Ciencias de Lisboa) ; Lisbon, Portugal

* Note changed dates

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Fribourg (Switzerland) is collaborating with the Swiss Meteorological Institute in launching a photographic competition on the theme of clouds.

The Swiss Meteorological Institute celebrates its centenary in 1981, and the best among the photographs submitted will be on show at an exhibition which will also depict the diverse activities of the Institute.

The organizers of the competition wish to stimulate photographers and to convey to the public the functions of clouds, the mechanism governing their formation , and their meteorological signification (for predicting the weather). Photographs portraying atmospheric pollution will also be welcomed so as to foster a greater public awareness of the dangers of a degenerating air quality. Finally, of course, pictures of clouds may be submitted purely on the grounds of their pictorial or poetic merit.

Further information concerning the competition may be obtained by writing to the Director, Musee d' Histoire Naturelle, CH-1700 Fribourg/Perolles, Switzerland. The date limit for inscriptions is 30 November 1981.

Early radiosonde experiments in France

We are indebted to the Permanent Representative of France, Mr. R. Mittner, for providing certai n information to complement the article by Dr. G. P. Trifonov published last year (WMO Bulletin 29 (3) pp. 177-180).

At Trappes Observatory near Paris, on 3, 7 and 8 March 1927, twin balloons carried aloft a 4-watt transmitter and antenna assembly weighing 2.7 kg at an average rate of slightly more than 200 m per minute. When one of the balloons burst, the second balloon acted as a brake during the descent. On 8 March an altitude of between 13 and 14 km was reached. Numerous listening posts followed the transmissions (on a wavelength of about 42 m) during the ascent and descent, which must have been the first occasion that a radio transmission had been received from the stratosphere.

Robert Bureau ( 1892-1965)

Following up this initial success, Robert Bureau proceeded to devise a system of temperature and pressure sensors acting upon needles which moved up and down the surface of a uniformly revolving cylinder. The surface of the cylinder was divided helically into two equal parts, one half being conducting material and the other non­conducting. The principle was that when the needle was in contact with the conducting surface a radio signal was emitted. From the duration of signal emission per revolution of the cylinder, it was possible to deduce the position of the needle, and hence values

216

for the parameters. The total weight of this ensemble was 3.2 kg, and in addition a lightweight meteorograph (recording temperature and pressure autographically) was carried to verify the data obtained from transmissions. The first ascent took place on 17 January 1929, and there were several others during the following months. Bureau estimated that, within a temperature range + 20 to - 60°C, his temperature soundings had an error of less than 0.7 deg. C.

News from the Secretariat

Secretary-General's visits

United States of America - The Secretary-General, Professor A. C. Wiin-Nielsen, arrived in Washington, D. C. on 5 January 1981 to attend part of the Study Conference on Land Surface Processes in Atmospheric General Circulation Models (see page 204). He gave a talk to the participants on some historical aspects of climate theory.

Mexico - The Secretary-General then proceeded to Mexico City. He was present when Mr. C. P. Mario Highland G6mez, Under-Secretary for Planning in the Ministry for Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources, formally opened a postgraduate course in agrometeorology at Chapingo College on 7 January 1981. The Secretary-General took the opportunity of this visit to have discussions with Mr. S. Aguilar Anguiano, Permanent Representative of Mexico with WMO.

Philippines - From Mexico, the Secretary-General travelled to Manila, where he arrived on 11 January to attend a meeting of the WMO Bureau from 14 to 16 January. The meeting was attended by the President and the three Vice-Presidents of WMO as well as by Dr. J. W. Zillman who had been invited as representative of the WMC

Puerro Azul (Philippines). Januaty 1981 - A group photograph taken on the occasion of the meeting of the WMO Bureau. Left to right: Mr. E. Aragon; Comodoro J. E. Echevesti; Mr. L. M. Miridonov; Professor Ju. A. Izrael ; Dr. J. W. Zillman ; Mr. R. Schneider; Mrs. Zillman ; Professor

A. C. Wiin-Nielsen; Mrs. Wiin-Nielsen ; Dr. R. L. Kintanar; Mr. C. A. Abayomi

217

Melbourne. Dr. G. S. Benton had been invited as representative of the WMC Washington but was unable to attend. The Secretary-General was assisted at the meeting by the Deputy Secretary-General, Mr. R. Schneider. The main purpose of this meeting of the Bureau was to prepare for the thirty-third session of the Executive Committee.

Australia - The Secretary-General then flew on to Melbourne on 19 January for a five-day visit. He saw the activities of the Bureau of Meteorology and had discussions with its Director, Dr. J. W. Zillman, and some of his senior staff. He visited the Australian Numerical Meteorology Research Centre in Melbourne and the CSIRO Divisions of Atmospheric Physics (in Aspendale) and Cloud Physics (in Sydney). He also called on the Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Acting Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology and other senior officials in Canberra. He gave a press conference and twice addressed the staff of the Bureau of Meteorology. Some sightseeing tours were arranged for him by his Australian hosts.

India- At the invitation of the Government, the Secretary-General then went to New Delhi on 25 January for a six-day visit. He had meetings with the Prime Minister and with the Minister and Secretary of the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation. He saw the activities of the Meteorological Department and had discussions with Dr. P. K. Das, the Director-General, anp some of his senior staff. He gave a press conference, a television interview and two lectures, one for the staff of the Meteoro­logical Department and the other at the Indian National Science Academy. Sightseeing tours, including a visit to the Taj Mahal at Agra, were also arranged.

Burundi - The Secretary-General arrived in Bujumbura on 18 February 1981 to participate in the inaugural ceremony of the WMO Regional Office for Africa (see WMO Bulletin 30 (I) pp. 55-56). The Office was formall y opened on 19 February 1981 by the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Breeding, in the presence of senior officials and members of the diplomatic corps. The Secretary-General was received by the President of the Republic, the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Breeding. He also had discussions with Mr. E. Kayengeyenge, Director of the Institute of Geography.

Kenya - The Secretary-General travelled on to Nairobi on 21 February for a four-day visit to attend part of the WMO Technical Conference on Management of Meteoro­logical Services in Africa and the first session of UNEP's Scientific Advisory Committee for the World Climate Impact Studies Programme. At the Technical Conference he spoke to participants on the impact of scientific developments on national weather services. He also had discussions with Dr. M. K. Tolba, Executive Director of UNEP, and with Mr. J. K. Murithi, Permanent Representative of Kenya with WMO.

Canada - During a visit to Toronto from 9 to 13 March 1981, the Secretary-General delivered the Andrew Thomson Memorial Lecture which is sponsored by the Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society, the Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) and the University of Toronto. The subject of his lecture was 'Prediction and the predictability of weather and climate'. He also had discussions with several members of the teaching staff of the University. He visited the headquarters of the AES, where he had discussions with Dr. J. P. Bruce, Assistant Deputy Minister in the Department of Environment and Permanent Representative of Canada with WMO. He also gave a talk to the staff of the AES on the behaviour of some non-linear systems as applied to climate models.

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Austria -The Secretary-General paid a visit to Laxenburg (near Vienna) on 24 and 25 March to attend the final discussions of the WMOjiCSU Joint Scientific Committee (see page 186). He also took the opportunity to confer with Professor H. Reuter, Permanent Representative of Austria with WMO.

Visits by the President and the Secretary-General

Philippines- The Secretary-General arrived in Manila on 30 March 1981 on a two-day visit for consultations with Dr. R. L. Kintanar, President of WMO, whom he then accompanied on official visits to Japan and China for high-level discussions on matters related to TOPEX.

Japan - The President and the Secretary-General together visited Tokyo from I to 3 April. They met the Director-General of the United Nations Bureau in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, senior officials of the Ministry of Construction and of the Science and Technology Agency, as well as the Director-General of the Japan Meteorological Agency and his senior staff.

China - The President and the Secretary-General arrived in Beijing on 4 April on a three-day visit. They met Mr. Huang Hua, Vice-Premier, and the Director-General of the Central Meteorological Bureau and his senior staff.

Long service certificates

Mrs. Michele Caloz, Documents Assistant in the Documents Production Branch, completed 30 years of service in the WMO Secretariat on 4 April 1981. Mr. Peter Rogers, Special Projects Officer in the WWW Department, completed 25 years' service on I May, and certificates of 20 years' service were awarded to Mrs. Renee Ancel, assistant printing operator in the Documents Production Branch, on I April, and to Dr. Gottfried Weiss, Director of the WWW Department, on 9 April.

Mrs. Michele Caloz

Staff changes

Departure

Mr. Peter Rogers Mrs. Renee Ancel Dr. Gottfried Weiss

On 31 March 1981, Dr. Gueorgui A. Zouev retired from his post as Chief of the Telecommunications Branch in the World Weather Watch Department and returned home to the USSR. Before he took up this post in July 1977, Dr. Zouev had served on various occasions as a WMO consultant.

Appointments

On I February 1981 , Dr. Rudolf Czelnai was appointed to the newly-established post of Director of Scientific and Technical Programmes. He had been Permanent

219

Representative of Hungary with WMO since the beginning of 1974. He holds a doctor's degree from Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest and an academic degree from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. A WMO expert in 1967-1968 for the Hydrometeorological Survey of the catchments of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Mobutu­Sese-Seko, Dr. Czelnai has been associated with many activities of the Organization. He was a representative of Hungary in CIMO, chairman of the CBS Working Group on the Global Observing System, and vice-president, then president .of Regional Association VI.

Two scientific officers have been appointed in the WMOjiCSU Joint Planning Staff for the World Climate Research Programme. Dr. Manakkampad Unninayar, who took up his post on I 0 February 1981 , was born in Colombo (Sri Lanka). He holds a Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Hawaii (USA) and worked for five years as a research associate in that university in connexion with GARP. In 1978, he became assistant to the director of NCAR in Boulder (USA) with responsibilities relating to the GARP monsoon sub-programme. Dr. Valentin P. Meleshko assumed his duties on 7 March 1981. He is an engineer of the High Marine Engineering School in Leningrad and has a doctorate grade in physics and mathematics. He worked as Chief of the Department of Numerical Methods in the Main Geophysical Observatory at Leningrad until 1969 when he came to WMO as a member of the Joint Planning Staff for GARP. In 1974, he returned to Leningrad to become head of laboratories in the Main Geophysical Observatory.

On 18 February 1981, Mr. Istvan Tolgyesi was appointed scientific officer in the Research and Applications Programmes Department. Mr. Tolgyesi has a degree in meteorology from Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest. He had worked in the WMO Secretariat between 1964 and 197 5 as a technical officer, and during the intervening five years he was adviser to the President of the Hungarian Meteorological Service.

On 2 March 1981 , Dr. John R. Bates was appointed scientific officer in the World Climate Programme Office. Dr. Bates has a B.Sc. (Hons.) from the University College · of Dublin and a Ph. D. in meteorology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA). From 1963 he worked in the Irish Meteorological Service, being Chief of the Research Division for the past two years. He also undertook various teaching and research activities in the United States of America and in Egypt.

On the same date, Dr. John B. Miller was appointed scientific officer (Senior Hydrologist) in the HOMS Office of the Hydrology and Water Resources Department. Holder of a Ph.D. in civil engineering from the University of Auckland (New Zealand), he has been a lecturer in civil engineering at the University of Manchester (United Kingdom) and was employed for eleven years by the Institute of Hydrology at Wallingford where his most recent post had been Co-ordinator of the Overseas Devel­opment Administration.

On 2 April 1981 , Mr. Harouna M. Diallo was appointed Chief of the Africa Division in the Technical Co-operation Department. Mr. Diallo has an M.Sc. in meteorology from the Florida State University (USA). He was first head of ASECNA's meteorological service in Niamey (Niger) and from 1973 Director of the Meteoro­logical Service and Permanent Representati ve of Niger with WMO.

Transfers

On I February 1981, Mr. Albert Kohler was appointed Chief of the Environment and Instruments Programmes Division in the Research and Applications Programmes Department. Holder of an M.Sc. degree from the University of Mainz (Federal

220

Republic of Germany), Mr. Kohler had previously been C hief of the Environmental Pollution Branch in the Meteorological Applications Department.

On I April 1981, several changes occurred in the Technical Co-operation Department. Mr. Dick Nijhoff, formerly Chief of the Africa Division, took over the post of Chief of the Asia, South-West Pacific and Europe Division, replacing Mr. Ham ish McCombie who became Chief of the Program me Planning and Co-ordination Division. Mr. Tallat M. Azab, scientific officer, was transferred from the Africa Division to the Asia, South-West Pacific and Europe Division.

Recent WMO publications

Typhoon Operational Experiment - A general description. TOPEX Report No. 3. WMO-No. S73. 1981. 62 pages; figures and tables. In English. Price: Sw.fr. 7.- .

TOPEX is a major undertaking of the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee (see WMO Bulletin 30 (I) p. 36). This publication presents a review of the background and of the problems which led to the conception of TOPEX, a listing of its scientifi c and technological objectives, a discussion of its expected benefits, and the early stages in planning its various components.

Compendium of meteorology for use by Class I and Class If meteorological personnel. Volume 11, Part 4 - Tropical Meteorology. Prepared by T. N. KRISH NAM URTI. WMO-No. 364. 1979. xvii + 428 pages; numerous figures and tables. In English. Price: Sw. fr. 30.-.

The author prepared the text of this publication from his notes for the course of lectures he gives on tropical meteorology at the Florida State University in the USA. The scope is comprehensive, as will be seen from the titles of the 21 chapters: The zonally averaged tropical circulation; Zonally asymmetric features of the tropics; A survey of tropical disturbances; Radiative processes in the tropics; The tropical boundary layer ; Tropical cumulus convection; Sea breeze and diurnal changes in the tropics; Atlantic disturbances; Pacific disturbances ; Indian Ocean disturbances during the northern winter season; Hurricanes ; The trade-wind in version; Weather systems over Asia; African weather systems; South American near-equatorial rain belts and dry zones; Tropical cloud cover, rainfa ll and satellite meteorology; Tropical upper-tropo­spheric phenomena ; The tropical lower stratosphere; Miscellaneous phenomena and problems in the tropics; Field experiments over the tropics and future tropical observing systems; Numerical weather prediction over the tropics. Appendices and references cover a further 32 pages.

Lecture notes for training Class 11 and Class 11 I agricultural meteorological personnel. Prepared by R. W. GLOYNE and J. LOMAS. WMO-No. SS I. 1980. xiv + 260 pages; numerous figures and tables. In English. Price: Sw. fr. 18.- .

Dr. Gloyne (United Kingdom) prepared the final text on the basis of an earlier manuscript by Mr. J. Lomas (Israel). The publication is aimed at meeting the needs of Class 11 meteorological personnel, but some parts are also suitable for Class 11 I. At the end of each of the ten chapters there are a number of questions, some based simply on the preceding text and others being rather more difficult and involving wider consider­ations. The titles of the chapters are: Agricultural meteorology-its scope and aims; Physical climatology-some aspects of particular importance to agricu lture ; Heat balance of the soil-soil temperature; Water and the hydrological cycle in agriculture ;

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Influence of topography, surface and soil characteristics upon the properties of the lowest layers of the atmosphere-topoclimate (or mesoclimate}-microclimate ; Influence of management practices and treatments upon microclimate and conse­quential effects upon agricultural production ; Weather hazards adversely affecting agricultural output ; Snow and snow cover-ice and frozen ground; Operational agrometeorology-some case studies; Agrometeorological observations and instruments.

Obituary

Fritz Muller

Professor Fritz Miiller was in the prime of a rich life of teaching and scientific investigation when he died suddenly from heart failure on 26 July 1980 during a field excursion on the Rhone Glacier in Switzerland, where he and his students had recently started a new field programme of glaciological and hydrological studies. All through his life he had shown great enthusiasm for research in Earth sciences.

Fritz Miiller was born in 1926 near Zurich (Switzerland). His academic career began in 1954 when he graduated in geography and geology at the University of Zurich and took part in Dr. Lauge Koch 's Danish East Greenland Expeditions. He was a scientific member of the Swiss Mount Everest expedition in 1956, and this led him to concentrate his scientific life on research in the hydrology of cold regions. More than I 00 published works provide proof of his restless endeavours to observe and analyse and to bring his findings to the attention of the scientific world.

In 1959 he was appointed scientific leader of the Jacobsen-McGi ll University expedition to Axe! Heiberg Island in the Canadian Arctic. In 1961 he became an Associate Professor of Glaciology at McGill University (Montreal), and directed the Axe! Heiberg Research Programme which focused on snow and ice, the determinative hydrological factors in polar regions. It covered all the relevant topics, such as heat balance, accumulation, ablation, water flow through the glacier and the water balance.

In 1970, when he returned to Zurich as Professor of Geography and Glaciology, he was appointed chief of the Institute of Geography at the Federal Institute of Technology. He was still able to continue his arctic research activities, and was engaged in another very interesting long-term project, the glacio-climatological investigation of the North Water Polynya in northern Baffin Bay. In 1976 the glacier inventory of the Swiss Alps was completed and published under his supervision. At the same time, Fritz M tiller took over the Temporary Technical Secretariat for the World Glacier Inventory of the International Commission on Snow and Ice. In addition, he was appointed director of the International Permanent Service on the Fluctuations of Glaciers sponsored by ICSU bodies. Notwithstanding all these international activities, Professor Muller energetically organized his Institute and taught his students, imbueing in them and in his colleagues his boundless enthusiasm.

Professor Fritz Muller's passing is a great loss to the international hydrological community. His name is perpetuated in the Muller Ice Cap on Axe! Heiberg Island, and is also doubtless inscribed in the hearts of his fellow workers.

H. LANG"

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Reviews

Atmospheric Planetary Boundary Layer Physics. A. LONGHETTO (Editor). Amsterdam, Oxford, New York (Eisevier Scientific Publishing Co.) 1980. xv + 424 pages; diagrams and tables. Price: US $70.75 or Dtl. 145.-.

In recent years the planetary boundary layer of the atmosphere has become a subject of increasing interest, not least because of its relevance to studies of environmental problems or of the transformation of renewable energy sources.

This publication is the proceedings of a course on the planetary boundary layer arranged by the .International School of Atmospheric Physics and held at the .Ettore Majorana Centre for Scientific Culture, Erice-Trapani, Sicily (I taly) in February 1978. The course was designed for students specializing in this field , and the theory of turbulence and certain applications thereof are at rather an advanced level. However, several chapters on applications will be understood by meteorologists without much difficulty.

The mathematical principles of turbulent diffusion are discussed, and the conclusion is drawn that emissions of urban air pollution are so numerous and complex that they cannot be described in rigorous mathematical terms. Again, models can scarcely take account of each and every element which affects turbulence, including surface roughness, wind strength, vertical sheer, incoming and outgoing radiation, albedo, soil heat capacity, humidity of the soil and air, vertical lapse rate and the nature of the pollution emission. Groups of buildings and topographical features have such complicated geometry that the only way their interaction with the atmosphere can be studied is by using a wind tunnel.

So far it has not been possible to determine an optimum model program because of insuf­ficient data, a lthough a large number of different models and different parameterizations have been put forward, some tailored for specific sites. Generally the models are quite successful in the case of flow over a uniform surface, and it has been shown that simple models often give the same results as more complicated and expensive ones. It is stressed that further development of models depends upon obtaining adequate observational data sets which will be cost ly to organize and collect.

A few chapters deal with remote-sensing techniques-airborne infra-red radiometry and the so-called mask correlation spectrometry-but the use of these, and other, techniques might have been treated in a little more detail.

Some specific problems a re mentioned, including the wet and dry removal of airborne particles and transformation processes of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere. Problems relating to cooling towers and cooling ponds are discussed, including certain economic and legal aspects.

The book is a very complete presentation of the current state of knowledge concerning the planetary boundary layer. It goes beyond a simple description of theories, giving much time to their application in practical modelling and in assessing the different elements. This has been done with much common sense. There are many interesting figures and tables showing observa­tional data in raw or analysed form . In short, the book contains valuable practical information for meteorologists who wish to specialize in the field of the planetary boundary layer, and possibly to serve as advisers to local authoriti es or industrial concerns.

A. NYBERG

Dynamics of the Upper Atmosphere. By Susumo KATO. Developments in Earth and Planetary Sciences I. Dordrecht, Boston, London (D. Reidel Publishing Co.) 1980. xiii + 233 pages ; numerous figures; tables. Price: Dtl. 57.- or US $29.95 .

This monograph, by a distinguished worker in the field , is the first in a series by Japanese scientists on developments in Earth and planetary sciences. An auspicious start has been made with this volume. Kato's book covers an area in which there have been rapid developments in the last decade. The non-specialist will welcome it as a convenient introduction to two important areas where there is a gap in the secondary literature.

Following a brief introductory chapter, the material is divided into four chapters covering acoustic gravity waves, atmospheric tides, electrodynamics of the upper atmosphere and the tidal dynamo.

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Most of these topics are seldom encountered by those, like the reviewer, whose main concerns lie below the stratosphere. The complexity of the ionospheric behaviour, as revealed by measurements from incoherent scatter radar, is fascinating. The progress being made in under­standing the dai ly variations revealed by these instruments is one of the main topics of the book. The material is well presented and up to date. The subject matte r was quite new to me and I enjoyed the author's presentation of these chapters.

It is necessarily rather mathem atica l. If the book is intended for students, then there may be times when they will be confused. Many concepts are used long before they are clearly defined. For example, the concept of Sq is used repeatedly before it is defined on page 165, and I had to dig out Chapman and Bartels * to get a clear definition of Kp, also referred to several times. I wi ll not know the meaning of am bipolar diffusion until I can catch an aeronomer.

The chapter on atmospheric tides invites comparison with Chapman and Lindzen's monograph ** published some years ago. The earlier presentation is, to my mind, more lucid, but the author's aim of mathematical rigour and completeness probably dictated the inclusion of this chapter. However, it does seem unnecessary to include the long tables of expansion coefficients for the diurnal and semi-diurnal Hough functions. Chapman and Lindzen have done it already, and they sensibly used six-figure accuracy and they worked with normalized associated Legendre polynomi als. I find it odd that having taken his double precision calculations so far, the author does not comment on the differences in the third place between his eigenvalues and those of earl ier authors. Moreover, the author is apparen tly unaware of the work of Holl on the completeness of the· Hough functions.

In the first chapters there are some surprising passages. For example, the discussion of radiative convective equilibrium in the troposphere ignores the role of latent heat, yet assigns an important role to the density effect of water vapour. The discussion of group velocity is very unclear, and reference could have been made to some excellent texts (such as those by Lighthill or Whitham) which have appeared in recent years. Some basic climatological informati on on wind and temperature above 120 km would have been useful.

The editors and publishers could have done a better job. There are numerous typographical errors. Section sub-headings could have been included in the list of contents, and the index is not totally reliable (for instance Sq is referred to on page 100 but not indexed). There are numerous examples where a sympathetic sub-editor might have eliminated idiosyncracies such as ' lossy medium' for a dissipative medium. Finally, the use of heavy upper-case letters fo r a vector and its components is definitely non-standard.

However, these are all fairly minor criticisms of a work which introduced me to a wide range of fascinati ng new ideas wi thout too great an expenditure of effort.

A. HOLUNGSWORTH

Thunderstorms. By C. MAGONO. Developments in Atmospheric Science 12. Amsterdam (Eisevier Scientific Publishing Company) 1980. x + 261 pages; 105 figures, 14 tables. Price: on. 130.- or us $63.50.

In this book, Professor Magono has brought together types of information seldom treated in a si ngle volume. His sources incl ude cloud physicists and cloud modellers, along with such legendary lightning observers as Schonland of South Afri ca and Wilson of Great Britain, whose works are perhaps better known to electrica l engineers than to synoptic meteorologists. Few authors could tap these sources as succes~full y as he has done.

The original manuscript was organized in five chapters, each covering one main field and subsidiary topics. Investigations in each field are reported in approximate chronological order. The instrumentation used by the various research groups is described, as well as their results. Chapter 6 was written after the others had been finished , and summarizes thunderstorm research findings from about 1977 to 1979.

The book opens wi th a review of thunderstorm structure, which covers their microphysical and electrical structure as well as their morphology. Chapter 2 reviews studies in the field of preci­pitation electricity from their beginnings around 1860. Some of the topics covered (for example electric charges on drifting snow) do not relate direct ly to thunderstorms, but have a bearing on the thunderstorm charging mechanisms discussed in later chapters.

• Geomagnetism. By S. Chapman and J. Bartels. Clarendon Press. OxFord ( 1940).

•• Atmospheric Tides. By S. C hapma n and R. Lindzen. D. Reidel Publishing Company. Dordrecht ( 1970).

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Chapter 3, on charge generation in thunderstorms, presents theories of charge separation which depend on the presence of precipitation. The various theories are well explained in terms of basic physical concepts. This chapter is thorough, and includes theories which are now mainly of historic interest, such as Simpson's drop breakup theory of 1909. The author points out that there are probably several charging mechanisms at work in any given thunderstorm. While theories based upon coexistence of ice and supercooled water are most popular at the present time, experi­mental evidence is still insufficient to determine the relative importance of the various charging mechanisms. Chapter 4 covers a miscellany of interesting topics, including the feedback effects of atmospheric electricity and lightning upon precipitation formation, non-precipitating thunderstorms, the convection theory of charge separation, and warm-cloud thunderstorms.

Chapter 5, on the lightning discharge, is short, but summarizes very well the complicated structure of lightning flashes and the effects they produce. It is remarkable for one thing: studies of thunder are given as much space as studies of spherics. The chapter concludes with a section on protection against lightning.

This brings us to the final updating chapter, which also serves as a recapitulation of the entire book. Here the reader encounters new and fascinating subjects, such as the inadvertent triggering of lightning by rocket launches, and the possibility of monitoring the Earth 's lightning activity from space. The introduction of numerical models of convective clouds, including one which incorporates atmospheric electricity effects, is perhaps the most sign ificant feature of the chapter.

The book concludes with two appendices, one on units and the other on lightning protection.

Possible shortcomings of Professor Magono's book, as perceived by this reviewer, are as follows:

- The organization is occasionally confusing, and the addition of Chapter 6 to an already completed manuscript contributes to this . As a result, several topics are treated more than once, for example, protection against lightning is discussed in Section 5. 5, Section 6. 6, and Appendix 11.

- This reviewer would have appreciated more guidance regarding the relative merits of the many charge separation theories mentioned. The author comes to grips with the problem on pp. 128 ei seq. where he points to the mechanisms involving riming of graupel as meeting the principal requirements for a satisfactory theory. However, his conclusion is weakened by the subsequent introduction of other charge-separation mechanisms, notably the convection mechanism.

- The role of thunderstorms as part of the atmospheric heat engine is not emphasized. The reader is not informed, for example, that nearly all thunderstorms occur in the tropics, and that some dynamic meteorologists see them as a driving force of the general circu­lation. Little indication of future research trends is given. The observation of thunderstorms from satellites is not emphasized. The impending joining of new observationa l tools with numerical mesoscale and local-scale models, which some meteorologists hope will bring about the next major advance in our understanding of thunderstorms, is not mentioned.

In summary, the book presents a great amount of information on the history of thunderstorm research, on thunderstorm structure, and on current theories of charge separation and lightning discharge mechanisms. The English text is very good. The figures are well chosen to illustrate the subject matter and are well rendered. The book should be useful to research workers in a variety of fields, including meteorology, aircraft safety, radio communications, and aerospace research.

A. S. DENN IS

Lighlning and ifs Spec/rum - an alias of phoiographs. By Leon E. SALA NAVE. Tucson (University of Arizona Press) 1980. xv ii + 136 pages ; numerous photographs. Price: US $25.-.

This beautiful book will be enjoyed by almost everyone - layman, scientist, and lightning specialist. The photographs were taken by the author and by colleagues from various parts of the world . Some have been published before, but readers of the original articles will be gratefu l to Salanave for combining them among his reproductions of unprecedented beauty and fidelity. In preparing this elegant atlas, Salanave has done for lightning what Bentley and Nakaya did for snow crystals and what Scorer did for clouds.

225

It is much more than just a pretty picture book. An excellent text is provided, giving infor­mation on the details of each picture, the peculiarities of the flash, how it was formed. Often, interesting data are given on camera, lens, exposure, film and fi lters. The author states in the preface that he tried to avoid matters in the realm of speculation and theory. Happily he has succeeded in doing so, with the possible exception of when he explains the branching of lightning beneath the cloud as being · . .. a result of charge being drained from pockets of electrification in the air surrounding the main ch-annel'. Whether or not this speculation ultimately proves to be true, Salanave will certainly achieve his object in writing a book which will remain for many years a useful and accurate presentation of optical phenomena associated with lightning.

In addition to the photographs taken with ordinary still cameras, there are fascinating time­resolved pictures taken with cine cameras, moving-film and swinging cameras that spread the lightning image out in time to reveal the detailed history of its development.

The pictures of lightning spectra (one reproduced in beautiful colour) reveal much about the physics of the lightning channel, such as its pressure and temperature. An interesting comparison is provided between the spectrum of a natura l lightning flash and that of a laborato ry spa rk 4.5 m long. The spectra show that significant differences exist between these two closely-related phenomena.

By presenting these pictures, by explaining how the pictures were taken, and by stimul ating his readers' interest in lightning, Salanave will undoubtedly encourage laymen and scienti sts to go out and take pictures of their own. Since throughout the world there are about as many lightning flashes in one second as appear in this book, we may be confident that future photographs will reveal new aspects of atmospheric electrical discharges. Some years hence we may hope that Salanave will have the opportunity of preparing a second volume revea ling phenomena that ·have so far escaped the camera 's eye, such as the strong lightning in tornadoes, horizontal discharges many hundreds of kilometres long, flashes from the top of the cloud into the stratosphere, and th e recently discovered lightning on Venus and Jupiter.

B. YO:\:\EGL'T

Rainbow. Halos and Glories. By Robert GREENLER. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press) 1981. x + 195 pages ; numerous plates and diagrams. Price : £ 15.-.

Many meteorologists were doubtless first attracted to their profession in their youth by marvelling at a spectacular rainbow, a ha lo display or some other brilliant atmospheric optical phenomenon, of which they then sought to find an explanation. With the passage of the years they may have lost something of this early sense of wonder, and may have become completely involved in statistical analysis, computer programming-or simply in handling files of corre­spondence. To anybody in such a predicament there is now a ready cure-get hold of a copy of Robert Greenler's book'

The readability and lucidity of the author's style become apparent from the preface in which he nobly suggests an additional couplet for a poem by Keats about a rainbow. This appropriately leads up to the first chapter which discusses the historical development of theories of the rainbow. The next two chapters, which together constitute almost half of the text, give a detailed account of the effects of refraction and reflection by ice crystals. For the more general reader there is probably too much detail , especially on computer simulations of these effects ; in appealing for indulgence, the author explains that this is the area to which he and his colleagues have devoted much attention. The fourth chapter describes some of the best-known accounts of complex optical displ.1ys and shows that even these can be closely simulated by computer experiments. The final three chapters deal in turn with scattering (why is the sky blue ?), diffraction (corona, Bracken spectre, etc.) and atmospheric refraction (mirage, green nash, etc.). The va rious phenomena are illustrated by numerous black-and-white figures and by 32 pages of beautiful colour photographs, many taken by the author himself in places as far apart as Wisconsin (where he is professor of physics), Alaska, England, France, New Zealand and Antarctica. The book would be worth having for the illustrations alone' They include a few photographic puzzles, which the reader is invited to solve in the light of what he has learnt from the book ; the author gives his own expla­nations in an appendix. There is also a comprehensive index.

The book should appeal to a wide audience-lay, scientific, young and o ld. Some readers will be happy that the author avoids mathematics (there is not a single equation in the book), others will admire the clarity of his explanations, many will respond to the author's evident enthusiasm for his subject, and everybody will enjoy the coloured photographs.

0 . M. A SHFORD

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Biome/eorology- 71Je lmpacl oflhe Wealher and Climale on Humans and !heir Environmenl. By S. W. TROMP. London, Philadelphia, Rheine (Heyden & Son Ltd.) 1980. xiv + 346 pages: figures and tables. Price: £8.60, US $19.50 or DM 40.50.

It would be hard to find a topic more difficult to summarize in one volume than biomete­orology-or bioclimatology as it has commonly been called in the past. Part of the rather pedantic definition of the scope of that discipline, according to the International Society of Biometeorology, is ' ... the study of the direct and indirect effects ... of the physical, chemical and physico-chemical micro- and macro-environments, of both the Earth 's atmosphere and of similar extraterrestrial environments, on physico-chemical systems in general and on living organisms . . . in particular' . This could be interpreted as including most of biology and geophysics as well!

The author is . the director of . the Biometeorological Research _ Centre at Leiden (Netherlands), and he appears to be in a unique position to encompass this extraordinarily broad field. He compiled a textbook (with 26 other contributors) in 1963, edited (with F. Sargent 11) WMO Technical Note No. 65 A survey of human biomeleorology in 1964, and until 1977 edited Divisions A-C of Progress in Biome/eoro/ogy* The subject has attracted an enormous amount of attention in recent years, as the author points out, and in a few respects this excellent review may already have been overtaken by new research findings.

In the preface Dr. Tromp says that he intended this book to be comprehensible to physical and social scientists and other professionals who are not specialists. In this he has succeeded to a large extent, although inevitably some medical and biological Latin terms do creep in here and there to confound the uninitiated reader. Indeed, the curious and alert non-specialist will be fascinated by some of the revelations of modern biometeorology. For example, there seems to be some scientific evidence to substantiate the ancient belief that the month of conception (or birth) of a baby influences its characteristics. The human conception rate falls off in summer in the USA, whereas in Europe and Australia there is a summer maximum. Pigs have to wallow in mud in hot weather because they cannot sweat. Undoubtedly there are many answers here to questions that we did not even know how to ask.

The equa ll y alert specialist will perhaps be irked by some rather obvious omissions or careless statements of fact, although in general these are by no means fatal. For example, I was surprised that there was no discussion of the biological consequences of whole-body gamma­radiation from radioactive fallout. Similarly, the biological effects of increased solar ultraviolet radiation (because of the possible reduction of stratospheric ozone) is only discussed in the most general terms. Again, the synergistic effects on health of particles and toxic trace gases in polluted air is apparently ignored. It does seem that these three biometeorological issues could have been treated further, considering the importance attached to them in both the public and scientific sectors.

I must hasten to add that no book of this nature could hope to satisfy everybody as regards its coverage, and on the whole the scope and choice of subjects seem appropriate. Furthermore, the reader who wants to delve more deeply into a topic may utilize the extensive list of references at the end of each chapter. It will undoubtedly serve as a valuable source book for both specia li sts and non-specialists interested in biometeorology.

Finally, it should be noted that Dr. Tromp gives credit in a number of places to the intergov­ernmental bodies which have been active in this area, notably WMO, FAO, Unesco and (occasionally) WHO. At one point, where he speaks of agricultural meteorology in developing countries (page 320), he adds that ' ... further advice can be obtained from the agricultural experts in the WMO in Geneva and the. FAO in Rome'. He might also have pointed out that WMO's World Climate Programme has a number of components designed to contribute to the solution of important biometeorological problems.

W. W. KELLOGG

S!alislical Climatology. Developments in Atmospheric Science 13. S. IKEDA (Editor-in-Chief). Amsterdam (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company) 1980. viii + 388 pages; figures and tables. Price: DO. 140.- or US $68.25.

This volume constitutes the proceedings of the First International Conference on Statistical Climatology, held near Tokyo from 29 November to l December 1979. The programme chairman

_ was Dr. R. Sneyers (Belgium).

• Published by Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse. Netherlands.

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MEMBERS OF THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION* STATES (149)

Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Australia Austria Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belgium Ben in Bolivia Botswana Brazil Bulgaria Burma Burundi Byelorussian S.S.R. Canada Cape Yerde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Czechoslovakia Democratic Kampuchea Democratic People's

Republic of Korea Democratic Yemen Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia Fiji Finland France Gabon Gambia, the German Democratic Rep.

British Caribbean Territories French Polynesia Hong Kong

Germany, Fed. Rep. of Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kenya Kuwait Lao People's Dem. Rep. Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Luxembourg Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan

TERRITORIES (5)

Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Republic of Korea Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Somalia South Africa t Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Republic Thailand To go Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukrainian S.S.R. Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics Un ited Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland

United Rep. of Cameroon United Rep. of Tanzania United States of America Upper Yolta Uruguay Venezuela Yiet Nam Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia

t Suspended by Resolution 38 (Cg-YII) from exercising its rights and enjoying its privi­leges as a Member of WMO.

* On I May 198 1.

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As summarized by M. M. Yoshimo in the final paper : 'more than fourteen papers were concerned with ... theoretica l distribution ; single va lues, extreme va lues, continuous or discrete variates, and Markov chains. The topics, .. . time series and assessment of randomness ... were mentioned by more than four papers, joint distributions ... by six papers. Statistical quality control , stochastic models of meteorologica l fields, discrimina nt analysis, stochastic and auto­regressive models, and circula r distributions . . . were taken up ... by two or three papers.'

This leads me to my general observations on the volume. The text is we ll organized. It has the normal number of editorial slips, but these do not detract from its readability or usefulness. Considering the fact that the meeting was being held in connexion with the 1979 session of the Internat ional Statistics Institute, I was disappointed to find so many expository presentations of techniques, and only passing mention of applications to climatology. In particular, one might have expected new materia l on Markov processes and discriminant analysis, o r at least the oppor­tunity to study data analyses where these powerfu l procedures have been successfully applied.

Judging by the calibre of the papers, it must have been an interesting conference. For those like myself who were unable to attend, reading the volume represents the next best thing to hav ing been present.

R. G. MILLER

Sea Ice Processes and Models. (Proceedings of the AIDJEX-ICSI (IAHS) Symposium at Seattle, September 1977). IA HS Publication No. 124. xiv + 474 pages; figures and tables. Papers in English. Obtainable from Office of the Treasurer, IAHS, 2000 Florida Avenue NW, Washington, D.C. 20009, USA. Price: $38.- .

A first perusal of these symposium proceedings shows that many of the papers discuss and review research carried out during the USA's Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment (A IDJ EX) programme, a programme with very well-defined objectives. These objectives (which are laid out in N. Untersteiner's review article) may be summarized as follows: to relate large-sca le ice defor­mation to the external stress fie ld ; to derive the external stress field from a few fundamental and easily measured parameters; to in vestigate mechanisms by which ice can be deformed ; to relate ice deformation and morphology to the heat ba lance. The diversity of these objectives has led to considerable advances in our understanding of the ice-atmosphere-ocean system in po lar regions, in our studies of sea ice as a materia l on a large scale, and in the development of numerica l simula tions which can be used to model ice-covered regions. The proceedings include several papers on each of these topics which sati sfy the original AI DJ EX objectives and also provide a review of AIDJEX-inspired sea-ice research.

However, it should not be assumed that all the papers a re concerned solely with AIDJEX. There a re several which cannot rea lly be said to fall within its objectives. The work discussed in these papers gives a very fair indication of sea-ice research outside the auspices of A IDJ EX.

In conclusion, th is book presents a valuab le collection of articles on current sea-ice research which I would recommend to any scienti st or engineer interested in the polar regions. The authors of the invited papers are to be highly commen ded for their excellent reviews on each aspect of AIDJ EX, and so is the Edi tor, Robert Pritchard, fo r presenting the conference proceedings in such a clear and lucid style.

V. A. SQUIRE

New books received ( n1ese titles are not necessarily arailahle from the WMO library.)

77Je Hurricane and its Impact. By Robert H. SIMPSON and Herbert RIEH L. Baton Rouge (Louisiana State University Press) 198 1. xxvi i + 391 pages ; 152 figures and 36 tables. Price: US $20.- .

Interactions of Energy and Climate. By W. BACH, J. PANKRATH and J. WILLIAMS (Editors). Proceedings of an international workshop held in Munster (Fed. Rep. of Germany) in March 1980. Dordrecht, Boston, London (D. Reidel Publishing Co.) 1980. xxxviii + 568 pages; figures and tables. Price: on 110.- or US $58.- (hard cover); on 50.- or US $26.50 (paperback).

World Survey of Climatology. Volume 3 - General Climatology 3. By H. E. LA NDSBERG (Editor). Amsterdam (Eisevier Scientific Publishing Company) 1980. xi + 408 pages ; 190 figures, Ill tables. Price: on 250.- or US $122.-

229

Monsoon Dynamics. By James LIGHTHILL & Robert PEARCE (Editors). Cambridge (Cambridge University Press) 1981. xx ii + 717 pages ; numerous figures and tab les. Price : £55.- .

Mathematical Modelling of Turbulent Diffusion in the Environment. By C. J. HARR IS (Editor) . London (Academic Press Ltd.) 1979. 500 pages; figures and tables. Price : £19.80 or us $48.- .

Atmospheric Pollution . its History. Origin and Prevention. By A. R. MEETHAM, D. W. BOTTOM, S. CAYTON, A. HENDERSON-SELLERS & D. C HAMBERS. Oxford (Pergamon Press) 1980. xi + 232 pages; 131 figures and 35 tables. Price: £6.75 or US $15.-.

Monitoring Toxic Gases in the Atmospherefor Hygiene and Pollution Control. By Willi am THAIN. Oxford (Pergamon Press) 1980. xv + 159 pages; figures and tables. Price: £10.50 or us $25.-.

SELECTED LIST OF WMO PUBLICATIONS

Atlases

Climatic atlas of Europe. Volume I : Maps of mean temperature and precipitation. Quadrilingual (E/F/ R/S)*

Climatic atlas of South America. Volume I : Maps of mean temperature and precipita­tio n. Quadrilingual (E/F/PortuguesejS).

Climatic atlas of North and Central America. Volume I : Maps of mean temperature a nd precipitation. Trilingua l (E/F/S). (Atlases published by WMOjUnescojCa rtographia.)

Manual on the observation of clouds and other meteors. International cloud atlas -Vol. I (revised editio n). E- F.

International cloud arias- abridged edition. E. lmernational cloud atlas - abridged edition (reprint 1976). F. International cloud album for observers in aircrafi. E - F. Marine cloud album (40 bare plates). Cloud sheet.

Technical Regulations

WMO No.

49 - Technical Regulations. E - F- R - S. Volume I - General. 1979 edition . Volume 11 - Meteorological service for international air navigation. 1976

editi on. Volume Ill - Hydrology. 1979 edition. Cover for the three vo lumes.

555 -Technical Regulations. (Hydrology and international hydrological codes). E.

Guides

168 - Guide to hydrological practices. 1974 edition. E -R. 305 - Guide on the Global Data-processing System. 1976 editio n

Volume I - Organization. practices and procedures of the Global Data­processing System. E.

Volume 11 - Preparation of synoptic weather charts and diagrams. E - F. 468 - Guide on the automation of meteorological telecommunication centres. E. 471 - Guide to marine meteorological services. E. 488 - Guide on the Global Observing System. E - F - R - S.

* E = English, F = French, R = Russian, S = Spanish.

Sw.fi'. ·

150.-

175.-

150.-

62.-36.-36.-

9.-5.-5.-

28.-

30.-12.-8.-

20.-

55.-

32.-12.-15.-27.-42.-

No te: £'(cept fo r publica tions indica ted as being multilingual. the differem language rersions are published separate~r and the pn·ce stared refers to 1lze rersion in 'lme language only.

230

WMONo.

Recent technical notes

473 - The use of sa1elli1e imagery in lropical cyclone analysis. No. 153. E. 478 - Scienlijic planning and organizalion of precipilalion enhancemenl experimenls.

wilh parlicular a//enlion -10 agriculluralneeds. No. 154. E. 482 - Forecasling lechniques of clear air /Urbulence including 1ha1 associmed wilh moun­

lain waves. No. 155. E. 486 - Effec/s of human aclivilies on global c/imale. No. 156. E. 487 - Techniques of fros/ prediclion and me/hods of .fi"osl and cold pro!eclion.

No. 157. E. 495 - Handbook of me/eorologicalforecaslingfor soaring.flighl. No. 158. E- F. 497 - Wealher and parasilic animal disease. No. 159. E. 498 - Soy a bean and wea1her. No. 160. E. 507 - Tl!e applicmion of a/mospheric eleclricily concepls and me/hods 10 olher parls of"

meleorology. No. 162. E. 526 - The economic value of agrome/eorological it1f"ormalion and advice. No. 164. E. 530 - TI1e plane/aly boundaty layer. No. 165. E. 531 - Quanlila!ive meleorological da!a.fi"om salelliles. No. 166. E. 532 - Me/eorologicalfac/Ors affec/ing !he epidemiology of !he col/on leaf" worm and !he

pink bol/worm. No. 167. E. 539 - Review of urban c/ima10logy 1973-1976. No. 169. E. 562 - Weal her and airborne organisms. No. 173. E.

Orders for WMO publications should be addressed directly to :

World Meteorological Organization, Publications Sales Unit, Case postale 5, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.

Residents in the United States of America should place their order with:

UNIPUB Inc. WMO Publications Center, P.O.Box 433, New York, NY 10016, USA.

Sw. ji·.

25.-

10.-

10.-10.-

35.-18.-30.-20.-

20.-10.-20.-20.-

10.-10.-11.-

Readers are reminded that if they have difficulty in purchasing WMO publications due to exchange control regulations, in many countries they may make use of Unesco Coupons for this purpose. The procedure is described in the WMO Bullelin 27 ( I) p. 64 (January 1978).

Scientific and technical publications (In English unless s1a1ed olhenvise}

420 -

421 -

443 -

444-

450 -

480 -

481 -510 -

511 -

527 -537 -

Aulommed meleorological syslems. WMO Technical Conference (TECAMS -Washington, February 1975). E or F. Proceedings of !he WMOj!AMAP Symposium on Long-lerm Climalic Ruc/u­ulions(Norwich, August 1975). Papers presen!ed a/ !he Second WMO Scienlijic Conference on Wealher Modifi­calion (Boulder, August 1976). Proceedings of !he WMO Symposium on Meleorology as Rela!ed 10 Urban and Regional Land-use Planning (Asheville, November 1975). Papers presen!ed a/ !he WMO Symposium on !he /11/erpre/alion of Broad-scale N WP Producls for Local Forecasling Purposes (Warsaw, October 1976). Papers presen!ed a/ !he WMO Technical Conference on lnslrumenls and Me!lwds of Observalion (Hamburg, July 1977). E. Agromeleorology of/he maize (corn) crop. WMO Symposium (Ames, July 1976). Papers presen!ed allhe WMO Symposium on Boundary Layer Physics applied 10 Specific Problems of Air Polllllion (Norrkoping, June 1978). Papers presented at the WMO Symposium on the Geophysical Aspects and Conse­quences of Changes in the Composilion of the Slratosphere (Toronto, June 1978). Proceedings of the Symposium on Forest Meteorology (Ottawa, August 1978). Proceedings of the World' Climate Conference (Geneva, February 1979).

58.-

42.-

50.-

22.50

30.-

40.-55.-

35.-

30.-10.-40.-

231

WMO No.

Weather reporting: stations, data processing and transmissions

9 - Weather reporting Volum e A - Observing stations. Bilingual (E/ F). (Ex planatory tex ts E/ F/ R/S). Revised edition issued twice yea rly: Annual subscription. Cover Volum e B- Data processing. Quadrilingual (E/ F/ R/S). Volume C - Transmissions. Bilingual (E/ F). (Regulatory material E/ F/ R/S). Volume D - Information for shipping. Bilingual (E/ F). (Regulatory material E/ F/ R/S). Coastal radio stations accepting ships ' weather reports. (Reprint fro m Volume D, Part B.) Bilingual (E/ F). Meteorological f acsimile broadcasts. (Reprint from Volume D, Part A; ;.) Bilingual (E/ F).

Note: Volumes B. C and D arc kept up to date by a supplemem service. l Subscriptions for this service are entered at the time of the origina l order and are renC\\'able annually. The rates indicated are for 198 1

306 - Manual on codes.

Vol. B Vol. C Vol. D Coastal radio stations Facsimi le broadcasts

Volume I - International meteorological codes. 1974 edition. E - F-R-S. } Volume 11 - Regional codes and national coding practices. 1972 edition. E - F.

386 - Manual on the Global Telecommunication S ystem Volume I - Global aspects. E - F- R - S.· Volume ll - Regional aspects. E- F- R -S.

Operational manuals

197 - Manual on meteorological observing in transport aircraf t. E. 237 - Manual fOI· depth-area-duration analysis of storm precipitation. E. 250 - !nternationalnoctilucent cloud observation manual. E. 414 - North Atlantic Ocean S tations vessel manual. E - F - R- S. 446 - Handbook on wave analysis andforecasting. E - F- S. 485 - Manual on the Global Data-processing System.

Volume l - Global aspects. E - F - R - S. Volume l l - Regional aspects. E - F- R- S.

49 1 - International operations handbook for measurement of background atmospheric pollution. E - S.

544 - Manual on the Global Observing System. E- F- R.

IMO Lectures

309 - Radiation processes in the atmosphere. By K . Ya. K ONDRATYEV. E. 523 - Atmospheric boundary layer. By R. W. STEW ART. E. 542 - Climatic changes and their effects on the biosphere. By B. Bou N. E.

S pecial Environmental Reports

440 - Determination of the atmospheric contribution of petroleum hydrocarbons to the oceans. No. 6. E.

448 - Weather. climate and human selflements. No. 7. E. 455 - The quantitative evaluation of the risk of disaster from tropical cyclones. No. 8.

E - F- S. 459 - An evaluation of climate and water resources for development of agriculture in the

Sudano-Sahe/ian zone of West Africa. No. 9. E - F. 460 - Air pollution measurement techniques. No. 10. E. 496 - Systems for evaluating and predicting the effects of weather and climate on wild­

landfires. No. 11. E. 504 - Implementation plan for the determination of the atmospheric contribution of pet­

roleum hydrocarbons to the oceans. No. 12. E. 5 17 - Meteorology and the human environment. No. 13. E. 549 - Papers presented at the WMO Technical Conference on regional and global obser­

vation of atmospheric pollution relative to climate. No. 14. E. 563 - Proceedings of the Symposium on the development of multi-media monitoring of

environmental pollution (Riga. 12-15 Decemberl 978). No. 15. E.

232

Sw.ji·.

90.-12.-60.-

125.-

150.-

4.-

15.-10.-80.-50.-

4.-8.-

70.-

110.-

4.-20.-

8.-30.-37.-

25.-7.-

30.-20.-

50.-20.-30.-

16.-12.-

50.-

40.-35.-

10.-

10.-6.-

31.-

45.-

WMONo.

Training manuals

240 - Compendium of meteorological training facilities. 1977 edition. E - F. 258 - Guidelines for the education and training of personnel in meteorology and oper­

ational hydrology. 1977 edition. E- F. 327 - Compendium of lecture notes in climatology for Class I V meteorological personnel.

E - S. 335 - Compendium of lecture notes in climatology for Class Ill meteorological

personnel. E - F- S. 364 - Compendium of meteorology for use by Class I and Class I/ meteorological

personnel. Volume I: Part I - Dynamic meteorology. E- S.

Part 2 - Physical meteorology. E - S. Part 3 - Synoptic meteorology. E.

Volume 11: Part I - General hydrology. E. Part 2 - Aeronautical meteorology. E. Part 3 - Marine meteorology. E. Part 4 - Tropical meteorology. E.

382 - Compendium of lecture notes for training personnel in the application of meteoro­logy to economic and social development. E - F - S.

432 - Proceedings of the WMOjlAMAP Symposium on Education and Training in Meteorology and Meteorological Aspects of Environmental Problems. E.

434 - Compendium of lecture notes in marine meteorology for Class Ill and Class I V personnel. E - S.

489 - Compendium of training facilities in environmental problems related to meteoro­logy and operational hydrology. E.

492 - Lectures on forecasting of tropical weather. including tropical cyclones with particu­lar relevance to Africa. E.

493 - Proceedings of the meeting on education and training in meteorological aspects of atmospheric pollution and related environmental problems. E.

551 - Lecture notes for training Class // and Class Ill agricultural meteorological per­sonnel. E.

Recent Operational Hydrology Reports (In English)

419 - Meteorological and hydrological data required in planning the development of water resources (planning and design level). No. 5.

425 - Hydrological forecasting practices. No. 6 429 - lntercomparison of conceptual models used in operational hydrological forecasting.

No. 7. 433 - Hydrological network design and information transfer. Proceedings of an inter­

national seminar. Newcastle upon Tyne. /9-23 August 1974. No. 8. 461 - Casebook of examples of organization and operation of hydrological services.

No. 9. 464 - Statistical information on activities in operational hydrology. No. 10. 476 - Hydrological application of atmospheric vapour-flux analyses. No. 11. 513 - Applications of remote sensing to hydrology. No. 12. 519 - Manual on stream gauging. No. 13. E.

Volume I - Fieldwork Volume I! - Computation of discharge both volumes

Recent Reports on Marine Science Affairs 346 - Means of acquisition and communication of ocean data. (Proceedings of WMO

Technical Conference, Tokyo, 1972. Volume I.) No. 6. Contributions in E or F. 350 - Means of acquisition and communication of ocean data. Proceedings of WMO

Technical Conference, Tokyo, 1972. Volume 11.) No. 7. Contributions in E, F orS.

352 - Application of meteorology to marine interests. (Lectures presented at CM M-VI, Tokyo, 1972.) No. 8. Contributions in E or R.

359 - Environmental factors in operations to combat oil spills. No. 9. E. 397 - 771e meteorological aspects of ice accretion on ships. No. 10. E. 472 - 771e in.fluence of ocean on climate. No. 11 . E. 499 - Meteorological aspects of the contributions presented at the Joint Oceanographic

Assemblv. No. 12. E- F. 500 - Present iechniques o.f tropical storm surge prediction. No. 13. E. 548 - Satellite data requirementsfo; marine meteorological services. No. 14. E.

Sw.fr.

25.-

20.-

20.-

20.-

35.-25.-32.-10.-14.-11.-30.-

25.-

50.-

25.-

22.-

42.-

40.-

18.-

10.-21.-

22.-

30.-

22.-22.-10.-10.-

52.-

40.-

80.-

12.-5.-

10.-10.-

10.-20.-17.-

233

WMONo. Sw.fr.

General reference publications

2 - Me!eorological Services of!he World. 1971 edition. Bilingual (E/ F). 5 - Composilion of the WMO. Bilingual (E/F).

No!(': This publ ication is issued four ti mes a year. Subscriptio n rates fo r I year: 50.- : for~ years : 90.- : and J years : 110.- .

11 7 - Climalological normals (CL! NO) for CL/MAT and CL/MAT S HIP stations for the period 193 /-1 960. Bilingual (E/F).

170 - Shon-period averages for 1951-1 960 and provisional a verages values for CL/MAT TEMP and CLIMATTEMPS HIP slations. Bilingual (E/F).

174 - Catalogue of meleorological dala for research (Part I) E. (Part 11 ) Bilingual (E/ F). (Part Ill ) E. (Part IV) E.

232 - lnstrumenl developmenl inquity. 2nd edi tion, 1976. E. 259 - WMO sea-ice nomenclature. Quadri lingual (E/F/R/S). 276 - Selec!ed bibliography on urban climate. Original titles with Engli sh translation.

Publications of general interest

313 - Meleorology and the human environment. E- F- S. 338 - Twemy years of WMO assislance. E - F. 345 - One hundred years ofinlernalional eo-opera/ion in meleorology. E - F- S.

The Global Atmospheric Research Programme. E - F. 390 - The Allamic tropical experiment- GATE. E- F. 410 - WMO - Th e achievemenl and !he challenge. E- F- S. 463 - Weather and wafer. E - F- S. 543 - Man and climatic variability. E - F- S. Th e Global Weather Experiment. 1978-1 979. E.

WMO Bulletin (The quarterly offi cia l journal on the work of WMO and recent devel­opments in international meteorology.) E - F- R - S. Annual subscription - I year: Sw. fr. 24.-; 2 years: Sw. fr. 36.- ; 3 years: Sw. fr. 48.- . Some back numbers of the Bullelin are available.

~@l=:J =- METEOROLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Automatic Weather Station TELEDAT 2000 TELEDAT 2000 is a fl exible and efficient microprocessor controlled system for collection, processing , recording and transmission of data in fields such as:

e Meteorology, Climatology • Ecology, Environment • Science, Industry

• I

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Some characteristics: * Basic configuration with subse­

quent modu lar extension possibi­lities up to a large number of sen­sor input channels .

* Modular conception allows also special applications

* Use as autonomous station or in networks.

* Very low power consumption . * Entry of visual observed data

through Keyboard/Display. * With lightning and radio frequency

protection system.

COMPAGNIE INDUSTRIELLE RADIOELECTRIQUE

Bundesgasse 16 CH -3001 Berne. Switzerland Telephone (031 ) 22 9111 Telex 32494

34.-15.-

30.-

36.-30.-20.-50.-17.-15.-50.-35.-

2.-10.-10.-2.-6.-6.-5.-3.-4.-

86 .

Mazingira The International Journal for

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

Editor: Asit K. Biswas Editorial Board:

Asit K. Biswas (Canada); W.K. Chagula (Tanzania); J .M. Gvishiani (USSR); Mohamed Kassas (Egypt); B.O. Nag Chaudhuri (India); Enrique Penalosa (Colombia); Ignacy Sachs (France);

Maurice F. Strong (Canada); Shigeto Tsuru (Japan) .

Mazingira provides original and authoritative information on the protection and

management of the environment at global, regional and national levels ;

publishes thought-provoking views and analyses, exploring the relationship between environment and development processes in both the industrial, and

the developing worlds;

facilitates communication between scientists, planners, policy- and decision-makers and concerned individuals who are interested or involved in environment and

development problems.

MAZINGIRA HAS ALREADY PUBLISHED ISSUES ON:

Vol. 1

Is the climate changing? Man the creator of deserts

The growth-environment dilemma Technology for whom?

Vol. 3

Vol. 2

The village: a last resort Basic needs

Science and technology The environment of the child

Environment and lifestyles Agriculture, development and environment

Habitat for the poor

SOME IMPORT ANT CURRENT TOPICS

(If~ e New international development strategy ~ ,, '

~ Energy ~

Subscription information:

Two year rate US $19 countries US $6

Single copies US $3 a y Mazingira, 76 Woodstock Close, Oxford OX2 8DD, England

""\. M"in'"' • publi•h<d qu•d<dy in Engli•h, F"n<h •nd Sp•n•h

• ·~~ ur~~····~·l copies available on request to : ~

~with the support of the United Nations Environment Programme 79

Hydrological sciences Bulletin des Sciences Hydrologiques

Edited by R. T. Clarke Institute of Hydrology, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxon OX10 888

The Bulletin is the official journal of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences and is designed to provide a forum for original papers and for the exchange of information, news and views on significant developments in hydrology.

The scope of the Bulletin includes hydrology as an aspect of the earth sciences and of water resources; ice and snow in all their physical and geographical aspects; erosion and sedimentation; physical and mathematical modelling of water systems; hydrological aspects of the use and management of water resources and their change under the influence of man's activities.

Hydrological Sciences Bulletin is published quarterly at £28.00 (U.K. and overseas), $60.00 (U.S .A. and Canada) per annum post free, including delivery by Accelerated Surface Post to subscribers in the U.S.A. and Canada.

Order Form Please tick the appropriate box

0 I would like to subscribe to Hydrological Sciences Bulletin and I enclose my remittance for the current volume

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This form should be sent to Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd, P .0. Box 88, Oxford, England

68

Blackwell scientific ·Publications

PERGAMON PUBLICATIONS FOR METEOROLOGISTS

GATE An Important two-volume set Volume 1 - OCEANOGRAPHY AND SURFACE LAYER

METEOROLOGY IN THE B/C SCALE Volume 2- EQUATORIAL AND A-SCALE OCEANOGRAPHY Editors: G SIEDLER & J D WOODS. lnstitut fur Meereskunde, Kiel and W DOING, (Deceased) University of Miami Containing the results from the GAR P Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) . Based on contributions to the GATE Symposium on Oceanography and Surface Layer Meteorology, Kiel. The basic objectives of GATE were (a) to provide a means of estimating the effects of smaller tropical weather systems on synoptic scale circulations and (b) to facilitate the development of numerical modelling and prediction methods . The experiment provided a unique opportunity for investigati11g the response of the tropical ocean to atmospheric forcing on various scales. CONTENTS (Partial): Vertical mass and energy transports by cumulus clouds in the tropics - E AUGSTEIN. Influence of synoptic scale disturbances on surface fluxes of latent and sensible heat - W R SEGUIN & K B KIDWELL. Variability of the upper ocean mass field in the eastern tropical Atlantic during GATE -R G WILLIAMS & RE DENNIS. Ocean circulation of the Tropical Atlantic, and its variability, during GATE- G PHILANDER & W DUING. Observation of long period sea surface temperature variability during GATE - 0 B BROWN. Equatorial waves in the upper central Atlantic - W DOING & Z HALLOCK.

Supplement to Deep Sea Research - Supplied to subscribers as part of their subscription. 660pp 355 illus 0 08 023983 8 Hardcover 1980

6351it refs US$115.00 £50.00

An invitation to contribute and subscribe to

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT Executive Editors: OR DJ MO ORE. UK OR J P LODGE, Jr, USA PROF W KLUG, FRG

DR M BENARIE, France PROF R B HUSAR, USA

This journal publishes research papers, progress reports and preliminary communications on all aspects of man's interactions with his atmospheric environment including the administrative, economic and political aspects of these interactions. it also covers air pollution research and its application, taking into account changes in the atmospheric flow patterns, temperature distributions and chemical constitution caused by the natural and artificial variations in the earth's surface.

Published monthly US$325.00 £147.72

Subscription information Annual subscription (1981) Two-year rate (1981 /82) US$617.50 £280.68~ Free specimen copy gladly sent on request . e?. Prices subject to change without notice. Sterling prices applicable to UK and Eire customers. CO -...

81~ PERGAMON PRESS Headington Hill Ha ll , Oxford O X3 OBW , England Fairview Park , Elm sford , Ne w Yo rk 105 23 , USA

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MicroCORA Automatic Upper-Air System

The MicroCORA is a new generation automatic upper-air observation system.

Modular and standardized interfaces provide flexibility and continuous system evolution. The same system can be used on land stations, in mobile research installations and onboard ships.

The MicroCORA provides for exten­sive data quality control and data analysis on the station. lt can be connected directly to a telecommuni­cation network. You may even write your own application programs by means of a user programming option.

The MicroCORA is cost-efficient. Simple installation, small size, low-cost ground equipment and consumables, re-

.. 60

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duced (even part-time) staff require­ments, exceptional reliability and a flexible system plan all contribute to the low overall cost of operation.

The MicroCORA is fully solid state, including processor program memory. Consequently it is able to operate in dusty, humid, hot or dry environments.

The MicroCORA is backed by our ex­tensive services - and by our world· wide expertise in successfully auto­mating upper-air observations.

Automatic data analysis and editing of TEMP and PILOT messages. Automatic format ion of clima­tological files. Reliable automatic tracking even in passages through the zenith and at elevation angles down to zero. Reliable windfinding even in heavy rain . Accuracy independent of sonde range or direction. Simple mechanical structures. High data density profiles. Single operator in all weather conditions. Advanced modularity .

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The station accepts data from sen­sors for atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature, rela ­tive humidity and precipitation. The basic system can be expanded to accept data from a large number of additional sensors.

The station can be interfaced to stan­dard telephone lines or VHF radio. Direct connection through a RS 232C serial interface is also possible.

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If a large network has to be imple­mented, a separate Polling Unit can be used to collect data from a group of stations. The Polling Unit accepts the SYNOP messages, stores them, and forwards the collected data to the user's central computer facility.

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Casella offers probably the widest range of meteorological instru­ments available to the world today. Airflow, pressure, tem ­perature/sunshine, humidity/ Because there is very little to touch

us in the field of meteorology the choice at least is simple - Casella .

dew point, and rainfall/evapora­tion are all accurately measured and recorded by a rugged and well proven

4ii*i't\ Qit.I{I·I·J:'

The Cup Counter Anemometer is made to a British Meteorological Office specification and indicates on a mechanical counter the total run of wind past the observation point. By observing the counter reading at the beginning and end of any period of interest. the average wind speed during the interval can be calculated.

CASELLA LONDON LTD Regent House, Britannia Walk, London N1 7ND. Tel: 01-253 8581 Telex: 261641.

JC 009 45

ADVANCED HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL SYSTEM

CONVENTIONAL METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

e We are in the field since 1925.

e Our products include a large number of instruments for hydrological and meteorological measurements.

e SlAP instruments are in use in more than 120 countries around the world.

e To invest in SlAP equipment is a reliable asset.

e Nuclear power plant environment control.

e Airport navigation aid data collection.

e Climatological networks, radio or wire linked.

e Low power CMOS remote stations with tape cartridge recording and/or transmission, solar energy powered.

Mechanica l station s 2000

Societa ltaliana Apparecchi Precisione S.p.A. VIA MASSARENTI 412/2 - 40100 BOLOGNA (IT ALIA) rp (051) 531168- TELEX 511197 CABLE : SlAP BOLOGNA

82

FORALLYOUR METEOROLOGICAL FACSIMILE

_ -, REQUIREMENTS

~ -

. .

Meteorology

Civil Aviation

Military

Research

Muirhead Weather Chart Transmitters and Recorders provide for meteorological data in the form of charts- for you, wherever you are! and

for wherever you are going .

MUIRHEAD SYSTEMS INCLUDE:

* ANALOGUE EQUIPMENT

* REMOTE RADAR WEATIIER READOUT

* SATELLITE RECEPTION

Contact Norman Peach for further information

Ill Muirhead Data Communications Limited 34 Croydon Road Beckenham Kent BR3 4BE England

Telephone 01-650 4888 Telex 262710 MUIRHEAD . 76

For wind measurements

Lambrecht Wind Recorder 1482 Woelfle Type

No. 1482

24

e wax paper recording

e without auxiliary energy, mechanical

e practically maintenance-free

e simple mounting

e easy to transport

utilizable within the range from 0.5 to 60 m./sec. and from - 35 to + 60°C.

Please contact us for further information.

Established win 1859

Wilh.lambre[hf 6mbH 6iittingen SPEZIALFABRIK FUR KLIMATOLOGISCHE MESS- UNO REGELTECHNIK

D-3400 Gottingen- P.O. Box 76- Tel. (551) 57721 -Telex 96 862

51

Turnkey Systems for TIROS-NJNOAA A-G,

For single or combined satellite data reception, processing, recording, and distribution we deliver ... D Ground stations for HRPT-Service containing realtime processing as

sensor calibration image enhancement generation of isothermal contours image enlargement geographic distortion correction automatic insertion of grid and coastlines.

D Computerized interactive image handling and processing systems with colour display for off-line processing of all sensor data.

D Ground stations for APT, WEFAX-Service, microprocessor controlled, completely preprogrammable, performing

- image enhancement - automatic overlay of grid in realtime.

METEOSAT, GOES, GMS

0 METEOSAT, GOES, GMS Data Collection Platforms for mobile and land-based applications with universal sensor interface

Programs. Products. Perspectives.

iiDORNIER For further information please write or phone:

Dornier-System GmbH,P.O.B. 1360. D-799 Friedrichshafen 1. Phone 0 75 45/8 33 47. Telex No. 073210/0. Department VRS.

51

~@)::::1 =- METEOROLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Receiving Ground Stations JUPITER

for

• Geostationary satellites METEOSAT, GOES, GMS.

• Polar orbiting satellites TIROS-N/NOAA.

Standard configurations for all existing picture transmission broadcasts :

* HRPT * WEFAX *APT

Single stations for the reception of one or combined stations for simultaneous or non-simultaneous reception of two or more image data broadcasts :

* SOUS, PDUS, DCP * MDUS * APT, AVHRR

or * any combined system

COMPAGNIE INDUSTRIELLE RADIOELECTRIQUE

Bundesgasse 16 CH -3001 Berne, Switzerland Telephone (031) 22 9111 Telex 32494

KAIJO DENKI SONIC ANEMOMETERS -THERMOMETERS

The right choice, whether you need

87

·e Reliable sensors for unattended weather stations, or

e Highly sensitive equipment for boundary-layer re­search.

Output - Mean wind speed and direction (vector average) :

- Wind vector and temperature fluctuations (20 samples per second)

Wide selection of accessories such as sigma and turbulent flux units. clino­meters. recorders . etc.

European distributors:

DR. JUSTUS ROSENHAGEN GMBH Kohfurth 19(W), D-2000 Norderstedt. Fed. Rep. of Germany

Telephone: (040) 52310 18 Telex: 2174 225 RHG D 84

37

For upper-air soundings throughout the world

THE Ol-GIP HYDROGEN GENERATOR Appreciated for its qualities: Simplicity - Safety - Economy

A self-contained, fully automatic electrolyser which produces from 250 to 1000 litres per hour of pure hydrogen at a minimum cost.

With the choice of storage containers offered in the various versions, from 3 to 24 m3 of usable hydrogen is available at a pressure which can be adjusted from 0 to 15 atmospheres.

For further information and quotations, write to :

OL - L'OXYGENE LIQUIDE GIP - Depart. GAZ INDUSTRIELS DE PROVINCE

Factory at SAINT-ETIENNE (42000) Rue Scheurer-Kestner (FRANCE)

Tel. : (77) 74 63 33 Telex: 330.636 F

AUTOMATIC WORLD-WIDE RECEPTION OF WEATHER SATELLITE FACSIMILE TRANSMISSIONS

with ALDEN Satellite Ground Receiving Systems

ALDEN APTS-38 Satellite Ground Receiving Station

The ALDEN APTS-3B Satellite Ground Receiving Station is designed for reception from:

- orbiting weather satellites - synchronous meteorological satellites - HF radio facsimile .

This station incorporates an omni-directional antenna which eliminates satellite tracking and permits unattended operation. The operator need only select the frequency for the desired satellite; when the signal is present, the ALDEN APTS Recorder and tape recorder automatically start and record the satellite data. The APTS-3B system is designed on the building block principle. Equipped with the ·wEFAX parabolic antenna option, it auto­matically receives WEFAX transmissions from the geostationary meteorological satellites. The HF Radio facsimile option features a fully synthesized HF receiver which permits reception of any HF radio facsimile broadcast. ALDEN recorders use Alfax electrosensitive recording paper which has unlimited storage life, unequalled performance under all environmental conditions, a broad range of tone shades, and provides rich , sepia-coloured pictures of archival quality.

ALDEN APTS-3C Orbiting Weather Satellite Ground Receiv~ng Station The ALDEN APTS-3B Satellite Ground Receiying Station is designed as a dedicated system for com­pletely automatic reception of all VHF transmissions from orbiting weather satellites th rough the use' of an omni-directional antenna. The signal inputs are digitally processed to an 11-inch wide format utilizing the ALDEN Universal Weather Satellite Recorder, Model 9511S. This recorder may also be used to receive HF radio facsimile weather chart broadcasts . The APTS-3C station is shown with the optional 18- inch recorder, Model 9500S.

ALDEN 11 00 WEF AX Ground Receiving System The ALDEN 1100 WEFAX Ground Receiving System is a dedicated system for the reception of WEFAX transmissions from GOES, METEOSAT and GMS

·(LR-FAX) geostationary meteorological satellites . Simple and reliable, the system permits unattended operation and provides continuous, clearly detailed IO Y,-inch square satellite pictures in the WEFAX mode.

ALDEN INTERNATIONAL, S. A. 117 NORTH MAIN STREET BROCKTON, MASSACHUSETTS 02403, U.S.A.

CABLE ADDRESS: ALDENSA TELEX: 92 - 4451

22

GOES-E An assembled VIS mosaic of four WEFAX sectors from the GOES-E satel­lite of t.he U.S.A. located above 75•w longitude . Size of the mosaic is approxi­mately 20 inches (50 .8 cm) square. The transmissions were received at Westboro , Massachusetts, through the ALDEN APTS-3B Ground Receiving System. The mosaic consists of GOES-E VIS WEFAX sectors NW, NE, SW and SE. Transmis­sion frequency was 1691.0 MHz. Areas shown are North, Central and South America with major portions of the Pa­cific and Atlantic Oceans. Cloud cover patterns appear over North and South America, with a storm off the eastern coast of the United States and Canada. Sun reflection in the central part of the mosaic highlights a coastline segment of Central America.

GMS

METEOSAT An assembled VIS mosaic of 24 WEFAX sectors from the METED­SAT satellite of the European Space Agency located above the Greenwich meridian. Size of the mosaic is approximately 50 inches (1.27 m) square. Transmissions were received a t Prague (Czechoslovakia) through the ALDEN APTS-3B Ground Re­ceiving System . The mosaic consists of METEOSAT VIS sectors 1- 14 from Channel I at 1691.0 MHz and sectors 15 - 24 from Channel 2 a t 1694.5 MHz. Land areas shown include Eu rope, continental Africa and Madagascar, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and Near East, Middle East and portions of North America and the Soviet Union. Cloud cover appears over central Europe and North America, equatorial Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans .

Composite LR-FAX (WEFAX) pictures from the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS) of the Japan Meteorological Agency received by an ALDEN APTS-3B Ground Receiving Station at Jakarta (Indonesia). The IR images show two typhoons and a tropical storm.

22

.......... . ~

73

The Sperry Autoprep System assists accurate weather forecasting by ensuring timely receipt at the weather centre of all observational data from outstations. The microprocessor based system ensures accurate message handling by automatic compilation into internally stored formats together with facilities for text editing. This system is one of the Scamp range of store and forward message systems and incorporates automatic data reception and automatic bulletin transmission to pre-determined schedules.

I I

J; The Sperry Scamp Autoprep system as supplied to the British Meteorological Office.

Consult Sperry on your message handling problems. We understand how important it is to listen. SPERRY GYROSCOPE, BRACKNELL, BERKSHIRE, ENGLAND RG121QL Telephone: Bracknell3222. Telex: 848129 .

.-JLSFE~Y -,r SPERRY GYROSCOPE IS A DIVISION OF SPERRY LIMITED

to Systems Meteorologg Is our onlg business

65

• Catalog available on request. • We appreciate the opportunity of

quoting on your requirements.

BELFORT INSTRUMENT CO. 1600 South Clinton Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21224, U.S.A. Telephone: (301) 342-2626 • Cable Address BELF

TWX #710-234-0383-Belfort Bal

{ SNOJ1V1S -' [JNflOH9 3111131\fS 1\f:JI9 010H0313W

44

Explore the Atmosphere with our Rawinsonde Tracking Systems ... to obtain an accurate, real time profile of upper atmos­pheric temperature, humidity , pressure, wind speed and wind direction.

The RD 65 Series of Rawi nsonde Tracking Systems features reliable com­po nents designed t o track, receive, reco rd and display 1680 MHz rad ioso nde data. We 've added a select ion of opti onal features to improve accuracy, automate data

reduction and simp lify op­eration. For exampl e, th e RD65A (ca talog no. 8 020) includes fully automatic antenna control , az imuth and elevation averaging , logic, digital printer assem­bly, and much more. In ad­dition, a 1 or 1 Y, m dish can be selected as well as a slip ring type antenna assem b ly. Computer inter­f ace for comp lete system automation is also ava i lable .

Our products are used wor ld-wide and are sup­ported by the highest stan­dard of engineering and rel iability.

Complete details of upper air systems, digital data acquisition devices, airport systems and many other products are available in our 180 page comprehensive catalog. Please contact us for more information.

WORLD-WIDE SALES & SERVICE :

G rT1eieai Electric Cc.

5-7, Ko ishikawa 2-chome, Bunkyo-ku Tokyo, 112 Japan

Phone : Tokyo 814-5111 Telex: 2722152

WEATHERtronics 2777 Del Monte Street

West Sacramenta, California 95691

Phone : (916) 371 -2660 Telex: 377-395

our data collection and processing systems make your job easier.

~Enertec equipment

{ Ja. is specially I' adapted

for the require­

ments of meteorological purposes i.e. observation, av iation meteoro­logy, climatology, hydrology, oceanology, etc ... A wide range of transducers,

.,-_ __,

1

including cloud base telemeters, visibility meters, barometers, limnimeters, sunshine duration sensors, and pyrheliometers, are used to collect the different parameters specific to the environmental sciences. Automatic weather data processing stations, airport meteorological stations, attended observation synoptical stations, environmental monitoring and site

1.: ENERTEC ~ 10"""·1§1·1§

ENERTEC DEPARTEMENT EOUIPEMENTS

survey stations offer a combination of extreme operational flexibility, and particularly powerful control and processing capac ity. Enertec has over thirty years specialist experience in the acqui ­sition and processing of meteorological data.

1, RUE NIEUPORT- B.P. 54- VELIZY-VILLACOUBLAY- FRANCE TEL. (3) 946.96.50- TELEX ENERVI L 698 201 F.

REPRESENTATIVES AUSTRIA. BELGIUM. DENMARK. FINLAND. FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY. GREECE. ITALY. NETHERLANDS. NORWAY. PORTUGAL. SPAI N. SWEDEN. SWITZERLAND. UNITED KINGDOM.

EVEN A 300M TOWER CAN BE TOO SHORT!

The AIR, Inc. Tethersonde TM System pro­vides precision tethered balloon sound­ings to 1 Km. Comparisons between the NOAA Boulder Atmospheric Observatory Tower measurements and Tethersonde'M measurements made 250m from the tower are shown in the following table:

1.0 •

These data summarize three Tether­sonde'M flights . There were 32 data values, each a 5 minute average observed at the level of ultra precise sensors on the tower. *

FEATURES • Portable (system mass

is 50Kg] • Microcomputer controlled

data system • Computer compatible

digital data • One person operation • Low Cost • Precision sensors - no

baseline required

• For NOAA Technical Report contact John Gaynor at NOAA. Boulder, Colorado. USA 80306

For details contact AI Morris at : Ambient Analysis, Inc. P.O. Box 4056 Boulder, CO. 80306 {303) 442-5305

ATMOSPHERIC INSTRUMENTATION RESEARCH, INC.

E "f ..... ::c

3.0

2.0

= 0 3 ::c

-, 1_1 11 1-1 11 ,-, I_/ 1_1 1_1 I_ I 1_1

Tt:ST OISI'UT

WIND DIRECTION WIND SPEED

r---------RANGE I I KNOTS M.P.H. Km/h m/~ POWER

'

Wind speeds and directions are averaged before being digitally displayed on this new equipment from R.W. Munro. Microprocessor control ensures for you high accuracy and resolution. You, the user, decide and set the averaging period, at 2 seconds, 2 minutes, or 10 minutes.

If you already have a Munro IM 146 U.K. Meteorological Office pattern combined sensor this digital display (Type Dl/1 A/614) will accept its outputs. If not, you can order the complete system.

Options available include b.c.d. output and a 4 to 20 mA analogue signal. In an environmental area where scientific instrument accuracy has to be allied to enduring ruggedness R. W. Munro have surpassed themselves.

62

Monitoring the World About Us

::>- -..< .. ·

~~~ttllilB® ..-'(. J._ L, 2'~ . ./" Limited ... .>..:_l,....A~/

CLINE ROAD, BOUNDS GREEN, LONDON, N11 2L Y Telephone: 01-368 4422 • Telex: 24130 . Telegrams & Cables: MUNRENGIC. LONDON N11 .

Control Data: Committed to Control Data people, systems and services are helping to bring about more accurate weather forecasting in the '80's.

Man's ability to more accurately predict the weather closely parallels the development of the super-scale com­puter. The numerical methods needed to forecast the weather were developed in 1946, but the first useful computer-aided forecasts were not processed until 1955. In 1960, the U.S. Navy began processing state-of-the-art numerical prediction models, using a CDC® 1604, Serial1-the f irst product of Control Data Corporation.

In twenty years we've become an acknowledged leader in supplying large­scale computers to major weather centers all over the world. Our recently announced CYBER 170 Series 700 systems continue this tradition by offering increased performance at re-4&

duced cost. And our CYBER 200 Series represents the latest in state-of-the-art computer design, by performing up to 100 million operations per second through vector stream processing and large-scale integrated (LSI) technology.

Control Data's commitment goes far beyond large-scale processors

We're also known for our weather data communications capabilities. Our widely accepted Message Switch System uses CDC CYBER 18 computer systems and is designed specifically for receiving and transmitting meteorological data. Properly configured, the Message Switch System provides plotting capabilities which can be used to produce upper air charts and soundings, surface weather,

the Environmental Industry

grid-to-isoline and other plotted information.

Through our AGSERV crop weather forecasting service, we help meet the critical need tor more accurate crop production predictions. The service is available through Control Data's world­wide data services networks or as soft­ware on our CYBER 170 computer systems. The AGSERV system uses a sophisticated agricultural data base, statistical programs and crop modeling techniques to produce daily large-area crop production potentials.

Through our Environmental Consulting Services, we provide the expertise to support our products and services as well as a whole range of capabilities from basic research to the application of state­of-the-art computer technology to specific environmental problems.

Global Weather Dynamics, Inc. (GWDI), a wholly owned subsidiary of Ocean Data Systems, Inc. (ODSI) of Rockville, Maryland, was established as part of a cooperative program between Control Data and ODSI. Using Control Data systems, software and CYBERNET® data processing services, GWDI provides specialized weather and oceanographic forecasting services tor airlines, trans­portation companies, construction firms, utilities and agriculture. Capabilities

range from climatic studies on a national or global scale to detailed short-range forecasts tor specific areas.

Control Data is a single source for solutions to your problems Control Data is more than a computer company. We provide our customers in the environmental industry with a wide range of support. We provide training in both the environmental and data processing fields to keep our customers in the forefront of the latest technology and practices. Our staff includes professional engineers, finan­cial consultants, systems analysts and meteorologists. They're helping our customers find solutions to their individual problems.

Systems. Seivices. Solutions. Measures of Control Data's commitment to the environmental industry.

For more information, contact: Control Data Corporation Environmental Industry Marketing HQW09A P.O. Box 0 Minneapolis, MN 55440

€:~ CONTI\.OL

DATA Addressing society's major unmet needs

46

~@):::1 =- METEOROLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Automatic Weather Station TELEDAT 2000

TELEDAT 2000 is a flexible and efficient microprocessor con trolled system for collection , processing , recording and transmission of data in fields such as:

Lysimeter

e Meteorology,

Climatology

• Ecology, Environment

e Science, Industry

The LYSIMETEA enables the scientific research of plant develop­ment in different ground conditions .

e Agriculture

e Agrometeorotogy

Weights measurement by highly reliable and precision electronic/ mechanical balances.

Absolute Radiometer PM0-6

e Measurement of solar irradiance

e With control electronics for manual and automatic operation

• Designed by IJ~ Oavos

Weather Satellite Receiving Ground Stations JUPITER

for

• Geostationary satellites METEOSAT, GOES, GMS

• Polar o rbiting satellites TIROS-N/ NOAA

Single or combined stations as:

* SDUS, PDUS, DCP

* MDUS

*APT, AVHRR

Automatic Laser Telephoto Recorder SATFAX TM 4036

e High definition laser picture recorder

e Produces pictures with good photographic quality from meteorological satellites or other data sources

Airport Meteorological Systems

• Automatic Weather Station. TELEDAT 2000.

e Display Panels .

• Wind measurement systems.

COMPAGNIE INDUSTRIELLE RADIOELECTRIQUE

Bundesgasse 16 CH-3001 Berne, Switzerland Telephone (031) 22 91 11 Telex 32494 85

MIDDLETON PRECISION The Middleton precision range: Pyranometers Net Pyrradiometers Soil Heat Flux Plates UV Pyranometers Strip Pyranometers Albedometers Pyrano-Aibedometers Pyrheliometers Integrators and Recorders Mounts and accessories

~M~ ~ ~

1-v-.J~ MIDDLETON INSTRUMENTS

If you are in : Meteorology, Climatology, Hydrology, Oceanography; Agriculture, Forestry, Botany ; Solar Energy Conversion, Radiant Heating; Building Research , Airconditioning; Heat-Flow Studies and your programme calls for accurate radiation measurement, under the most exacting conditions You need Middleton Instrumentation Middleton Sensors coupled with Middleton integrators and recorders form compact, rugged systems. These can be tailored to meet the widest range of requirements .

Let us know your need - our Consulting Service

is FREE.

A DIVISION OF MEDOS CO. PTY. LTD.

93 CITY ROAD, SOUTH MELBOURNE VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA 3205 TEL: (03) 62 3581 TELEX: 32486

Detailed information on the Middleton range of solar radiation instruments can be obtained on request.

80

Complete Solar Measurement

64

Ultraviolet Radiometers {Photometers)

Precision Spectral Pyranometers

Precision Infrared Radiometers

{Pyrgeometers}

Normal Incidence Pyrheliometers {shown with Eppley

H-F Cavity Radiometers

Solar Tracking Mount}

Electronic Integrators

Eppley makes a complete line of precision instruments to help you study, measure and record

accurate and reliable data on solar radiation.

It needs an Eppley Instrument. Find out If your solar measurement application needs the quallty of an Eppley Instrument.

CaD 401/847-1020. Or write

The Eppley Laboratory, Inc. 12 Sheffield Avenue

Newport, Rhode Island 02840, U.S.A.

Printed in Switzerland - lmprimerie La Concorde, Epal inges

SOME OF THE MANY OBTAINABLE SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS THANKS TO TECNAVIA'S MODULAR CONSTRUCTION DESIGN

SK VI N (PORTABLE BATTERY OPERATED)

SK VI L (ONLY GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES)

SK VII LFW

K VII REMOTE

2-3 FOOT PARABOLA

1> BAND CONY.

6FOOT PARABOLA

SBAND CONV.

VHF RECEIVER VIDEOPROCESSOR

FIXED VHF ANTENNA

VHF PREAMI'.

VHF RECEIVER

VIOEOPROC.

TAPE RECORDER

TELEPHONE LINES

VHF RECEIVER VIOEOPROCESSOR

LASERFAX (IMAGE RECORDER)

LASERFAX

67

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE WMO BULLETIN The second column gives the full title in English (though the abbreviation may derive from the

ALP EX BAP M oN CA eM CA gM CAS CBS CCAM CHy CILSS CIMO CMM COS PAR ECMWF ECOSOC ESA ESCAP FAO FGGE GARP GDPS GEMS GOS GTS HOMS IAEA IAHS IAMAP IAPSO lATA ICAO ICES ICID ICSU IFAD IGOSS IGU IHP IIASA IMCO IMO IOC ISO ITU IUGG JSC LEPOR MAP NAOS NMC OHP PEP RMC RTH SCAR SCOPE SCOR SCOSTEP TCP UN UNDP UNDRO UNEP Unesco VCP WCAP WCDP WCIP WCP WCRP WFC WHO WMC WMO www

French title) followed by the initials of the parent or sponsoring body (in brackets)

Alpine Experiment (WMO/ICSU) Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (WMO) Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology (WMO) Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (WMO) Commission for Atmospheric Sciences (WMO) Commission for Basic Systems (WMO) Commission for Climatology and Application of Meteorology (WMO) Commission for Hydrology (WMO) Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO) Commission for Marine Meteorology (WMO) Committee for Space Research (ICSU) European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts Economic and Social Council (UN) European Space Agency Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations First GARP Global Experiment (WMO/ICSU) Global Atmospheric Research Programme (WMO/ICSU) WWW Global Data-processing System (WMO) Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP) WWW Global Observing System (WMO) WWW Global Telecommunication System (WMO) Hydrological Operational Multipurpose Sub-programme (WMO) International Atomic Energy Agency International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IUGG) International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics (IUGG) International Association of Physical Sciences of the Ocean (IUGG) International Air Transport Association International Civil Aviation Organization International Council for the Exploration of the Sea International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage International Council of Scientific Unions International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN) Integrated Global Ocean Station System (WMO/IOC) International Geographical Union (ICSU) International Hydrological Programme (Unesco) International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization International Meteorological Organization (predecessor of WMO) Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (Unesco) International Organization for Standardization International Telecommunication Union International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (ICSU) Joint Scientific Committee (WMO/ICSU) Long-term and Expanded Programme of Oceanic Research Middle Atmosphere Programme (ICSU) North Atlantic Ocean Stations National Meteorological Centre (WMO) Operational Hydrology Programme (WMO) Precipitation Enhancement Project (WMO) Regional Meteorological Centre (WMO) Regional Telecommunication Hub (WMO) Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (ICSU) Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (ICSU) Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (ICSU) Specia l Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ICSU) Tropical Cyclone Programme (WMO) United Nations United Nations Development Programme Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Co-ordinator United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Voluntary Co-operation Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate Applications Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate Data Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate Impact Studies Programme (UNEP) World Climate Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate Research Programme (WMOfiCSU) World Food Council (UN) World Health Organization World Meteorological Centre (WMO) World Meteorological Organization World Weather Watch (WMO)