S. Salvatori, L. B. Kircho and M. Vidale, A Topographic and Stratigraphic Map of Altyn-depe. New...

SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY 1999

Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Conference

of the European Association of South Asian Archaeologists,

held at the Universiteit Leiden,

5-9 July, 1999

edited by

Ellen M. Raven

EGBERT FORSTEN • GRONINGEN

2008

Contents

Editorial, xi

Obituary: Herbert Härtel, xix

Obituary: Boris Marshak, xxi

List of Contributors, xxiii

List of South Asian Archaeology proceedings, xxvü

List of Abbreviations, xxix

l Some Reflections on the Formation of the Buddha ImageMAURIZIO TADDEI (t)

Appendix: KosagatavastiguhyatäFRANCESCO SFERRA

9

2 A Topographie and Stratigraphic Map of Altyn-depeNew Evidence on Craft Activities from Surface Analysis

LUBOV B. KIRCHO, SANDRO SALV ATORI & MASSIMO VIDALE15

3 Tracking the Prehistory of Southeastern BalochistanNew Evidence from Las Bela

UTE FRANKE- VOGT & SALEEM UL-HAQ31

Appendix: New 14C datings from Niai Buthi, Balochistan, PakistanJOCHEN GÖRSDORF

45

4 New Light on the Kulli CultureA Reconsideration of the Painted Pottery Uncovered by Sir Aurel Stein

at Kulli and Mehi in Southern Baluchistan

GONZAGUE QuiVRON

47

5 The Indus Valley and the Indo-Iranian Borderlandsat the End of the 3rd Millennium and the Beginning of the 2"d Millennium BC

JEAN-FRANCOIS JARRIGE & GONZAGUE QUIVRON61

vi Contents

6 Harappa Excavations 1998-1999New Evidence for the Development and Manifestation

of the Harappan Phenomenon

RICHARD H. MEADOW & J. MARK KENOYER85

l The Indus Talc-Faience ComplexTypes of Materials, Clues to ProductionHEATHER MARGARET-LOUISE MILLER

111

8 New Radiocarbon Determinations from Loteshwarand Their Implications for Understanding Holocene Settlement and Subsistence

in North Gujarat and Adjoining AreasAJITA K. PATEL

123

9 Emergence and Growth of Village Life in Mewar, Rajasthan, IndiaThe Recent Evidence

VASANT SHINDE

135

10 Domestication, Diffusion and the Developmentof Agricultural Villages

A Study of the South Indian NeolithicDORIAN Q. FÜLLER

143

11 Caulking Technologies of 'Black Boats of Magan'Some New Thoughts on Bronze Age Water Transport in Oman

and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra's al-JunayzGlLBERTO RlNALDI & MAURIZIO TOSI

159

12 Charioteer-Warriors on their Way from East Europe to IndiaELENA E. KUZMINA

167

13 'Hypogaeum' Type Burials in the Gonur NecropolisVICTOR SARIANIDI

181

14 Special Deposits of Miniature Pots from Chalcolithic Pit-Structures in Swat(Early / Mid 2"d Millennium BC)

GIORGIO STACUL197

15 The Archaeological Visibility of TranshumanceTested Using Faunal Material from NWFP, PakistanRUTH YOUNG, ROBIN CONINGHAM, IHSAN ALI & TAJ ALI

203

Contents vu

16 Further Research on the Later Prehistory of the Bannu BasinThe 1998 Excavations at Akra

FARID KHAN, ROBERT KNOX, PETER MAGEE,KEN THOMAS & CAMERON PETRIE

211

17 South Asian Archaeological Finds from Berenike,a Hellenistic-Roman Port on the Red Sea Coast of Egypt

The BackgroundSTEVEN E. SIDEBOTHAM

223

18 Early Indian Cotton Textiles from BerenikeJOHN PETER WILD & FELICITY WILD

229

19 The Symbol of an Indian Punch-Marked Coin in Judea?GUSTAV ROTH

235

20 Barabar ReconsideredHARRY FALK

245

21 Further Excavations at Gotihawa (1998-1999)GIOVANNI VERARDI & STEFANO COCCIA

253

22 Excavations within the Citadel of Tissamaharama (Sri Lanka)HANS-JOACHIM WEISSHAAR & W. WIJEYAPALA

265

23 Excavations at Godavayaand a Recently Unearthed, Hitherto Unknown,

2nd Century Inscription of King Gajabähu IOLIVER KESSLER

271

24 Lost Indo-Greek Remains in Gujarat, Sindh and the PunjabKLAUS KARTTUNEN

283

25 The Gods of the Rabatak InscriptionMARTHA L. CARTER

289

26 Jätakas Represented in Gandhära ArtNAKAO ODANI

297

vni Contents

27 An Unidentified Gandhära BodhisattvaANNA MARIA QUAGLIOTTI

305

28 The Gandhäran Wreath-Bearing BodhisattvaFurther Typological Studies

CAROLYN WOODFORD SCHMIDT317

29 A Hellenic Pillar in an Eastern Indian Cave PaintingSUCHANDRA ÜHOSH

337

30 Sätavähana-Ksaharäta Chronology and Art HistoryAJAY MITRA SHASTRI (t)

341

31 South India and Southeast AsiaEarly Trade and Contacts

K.P. RAO

353

32 Early Terracottas from KanaujChessmen?

RENATE SYED363

33 The Sabaras, the Vile Hunters in Heavenly SpheresThe Inhabitants of the Jungle in Indian Art, Especially in the Ajanta Paintings

MONIKA ZIN375

34 Three Copper Plates of the Sixth Century ADGlimpses of Socio-Econoraic and Cultural Life in Western India

RANABIR CHAKRAVARTI395

35 The Darel Valley on the Indus & T'o-li and Faxian1998 and 1999 Field Research in the Northern Areas of Pakistan

HARUKO TSUCHIYA401

36 Temple Restoration and TransformationMICHAEL W. MEISTER

415

37 Jaina Temple ArchitectureA Progression from Images to Shrines and Temple Cities

JULIA A.B. HEGEWALD427

Contents ix

38 Planetary Deities on Jaina Images in StoneGERD J.R. MEVISSEN

439

39 Some New Light on the Käficl YogimsJAMES C. HARLE (t)

453

40 The Enlightened Buddha and the Preaching SivaMore Light on the daksinämürti Icon

ADALBERT J. GAIL457

41 Royal Portrait Sculptures of the Simhachalam Temple (AP)M. KRISHNA KUMARI

463

42 A Rare Bronze Object from BangladeshGOURISWAR BHATTACHARYA

469

43 The Los Angeles Manuscript CoversIconography and Style

CLAUDINE BAUTZE-PICRON481

44 The Depiction of Hindu and Pan-Indian Deitiesin the Lo tsa ba IHa khang at Nako

CHRISTIAN LUCZANITS493

45 An Early Temple in Southern Tibetwith Wall Paintings Corresponding to Grwa thanand their Common Link to the Avatamsakasütra

HELMUT F. NEUMANN507

46 An Unpublished Early Tibetan Thang kaDepicting Avalokitesvara Sadaksarl, in a Private American Collection

EVA ALLINGER519

47 Some Remarks on a Silk WrapperLAURE FEUGERE

527

48 A Collection of Indian Miniaturesin the National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden

NANDANA CHUTIWONGS535

Contents

49 The Sirohi Rasamanjari PaintingsJOACHIM K. BAUTZE

547

50 The Regional Landscapes of the Imperial City of VijayanagaraReport on the Vijayanagara Metropolitan Survey Project

CARLA M. SINOPOLI & KATHLEEN D. MORRISON561

51 The Nälukettü House and its MetrologyFour Examples of Historical, Keralan, Four-wing Houses

in the Light of the Manusyälayacandrikä,a Mediaeval Sanskrit Treatise on Housing

HENRI SCHILDT575

52 St Mary's Syrian-Orthodox Church in Thiruvithancode (Tamil Nadu)FALK REITZ

595

Index607

A Topographie and Stratigraphic Map

of Altyn-depe

New Evidence on Craft Activities from Surface Analysis

Lubov B. Kircho, St. Petersburg, Sandro Salvatori, Treviso and Massimo Vidale, Roma

Following the remarkable results attained by the 'Archaeological Map of theMurghab Delta' project (Gubaev, Koshelenko and Tosi 1998) äs well äs byM. Tosi's work on the origins of social complexity in the Turan region, a new re-search project was established to further understand the proto-urban and proto-state societies formation processes in the piedmont belt of southern Turkmeni-stan. This new research is aimed at understanding the process of how the politicaland administrative integration of the cultural and technical sectors led to veryhigh levels of structural complexity with different rates of development.

The piedmont belt of southern Turkmenistan, the area chosen for the new re-search, is, in fact, a suitable laboratory to monitor the development of the mostsignificant traits of social complexity from the Neolithic to the Middle BronzeAge. Understanding this long sequence in the piedmont will then allow the teamto link up with adjacent regions, such äs Margiana and Bactria.

The project aims to analyse population dynamics, settlement patterns, thedegree of administrative control of micro-geographic regions, the developmentof craft activities and specialization (such äs pottery production, metallurgy andmetalworking, lithic and textile production) through the chronological periodsalready noted. The specific topics we will investigate ränge from the study ofbuilding techniques, settlement organization, including urban spaces, defensivestructures and hypothetical 'cult buildings'. Others specific research topics in-clude burial practices and material culture traits sensitive to ideo-religious andadministrative changes, such äs human figurines and wall paintings, seals and sealimpressions. Finally, primary production will be investigated through reliable in-dicators for complexity in the palaeobotanical and archaeozoological record. Onthe whole, social complexity can be studied across such a long chronological spec-trum because proto-urban processes, successful or abortive, represent the effortto integrale on a basically political frame Segments of the ideological, technolo-gical and production spheres which had independently reached levels of signifi-cant structural complexity in previous socio-economic contexts.

The significant impact that social and political de-cisions had on proto-urban and proto-state forma-tion processes seems to have been confirmed by theanalysis of the data collected over the past few years,above all that from the Murghab delta. This regionexperienced an environmental crisis during the firsthalf of the 2nd millennium BC. Desert sands enteredthe deltaic area and progressively occupied its centraland northern sectors (Cremaschi 1998). This causeda general shift to the South of the settlement andagricultural activities. Interestingly enough, the envi-ronmental crisis was accompanied by a demographiccollapse only from the very end of the Late Bronze

Age to the Final Bronze Age. On the contrary, thedemographic trend was consistently positive throughtime (fig. 2.1). Variation in settlement patterns fromthe Middle Bronze Age to the Partho-Sasanianperiod is accompanied by shifting changes in the sizeof major settlements of the System; sites that can beinterpreted äs centres of political-directional-admin-istrative power (fig. 2.2). Figures 2.1 and 2.2 supportthe notion that the road to the stability of the proto-urban and proto-state organizations was paved withrecurrent political-administrative crises.The pattern that is emerging is one with evidence forrecurrent attempts to reach higher levels of institu-

16 Lubov B. Kircho, Sandra Salvatori & Massimo Vidale

Margiana SurveySettled area in ha. for each cultural period

800

MBA LBA YAZI YAZII YAZIII YAZIII L HELL PART SAS

Fig. 2.1 Murghab delta:

settied area in ha for each

cultural period according

to the Murghab Archae-

ological Map project

tional Integration, followed by collapses which areevidenced by the disappearance of the very centralplaces where all the paraphernalia of political powerwere recognizable. In Margiana during the MiddleBronze Age we can observe a hierarchical organiza-tion of the settlement pattern and, äs a consequence,of the political and administrative control which wascentred on Gonur North. This site was encircled bya massive city wall and was dominated by an impos-ing palace. The graveyard of the Middle BronzeAge town contained thousands of very rieh graves,most of them plundered at the beginning of the LateBronze Age. The main centres are surrounded bysecond level centres heading clusters of minor settle-ments located at regulär distances. With the collapseof Gonur North, at the beginning of the Late BronzeAge, a settlement pattern emerges that is character-ized by several centres, all of almost the same size,surrounded by hamlets and farms. Changing pat-terns of this sort can be taken to be the consequenceof political crisis that leads to reshape the settlementpattern to a lower degree of integration. These sorts

of events affected not only the material culture of theregion, but, above all, the capability of the area tomaintain its involvement in the international tradewhich was a distinctive trait of the Middle BronzeAge Margiana and Bactria civilization.

It was within this context that the team makingthis report carried out two brief field campaigns (inOctober 1998 and April 1999) at the deeply stratifiedsites of Altyn-depe and Ilgynly-depe. We were thereto recover specific classes of data, especially indica-tors of craft activity. We have found that such activi-ties can directly testify about regional and / or inter-national trade patterns, organizational processes atthe infra- and intra-site level, äs well äs mechanismsthat the elites used to integrate themselves intoemerging social complexity and higher level politicalconfigurations.

The present paper is intended to illustrate ourfirst stage of work by presenting a new map of Al-tyn-depe and an analytical approach to the site's sur-faces. We begin with a detailed account of the his-tory of archaeological research at the site along with

Margiana SurveySite size distribution

SIZE PERIODS

MBA Fig. 2.2 Murghab delta:

site size distribution

A Topographie and Stratigraphic Map ofAltyn-depe 17

a new chrono-stratigraphic table that correlates theprincipal archaeological trenches that were excava-ted at this large Chalcolithic and Bronze Age site. Thenew map results from our intensive and comprehen-sive study of activity areas across the entire surface ofthe site, äs well äs larger scale mapping of individualcraft areas. We conclude our report with some ratherpreliminary comments on the results of our analysisof the materials collected at Altyn-depe.

History of the study

The archaeological investigation of the Neolithicand Chalcolithic settlement of Altyn-depe in south-ern Turkmenistan (fig. 2.3) began a half Century ago.The site was discovered by A.A. Semenov in 1929.It was visited by A.A. Marushchenko in 1935 and byM.E. Masson in 1949 (Ganyalin 1959:30). In 1951S.A. Ershov excavated the first test pit at the site. In1953 A.F. Ganyalin opened two 3 x 2 m trenches to adepth of 3.5 m in the central and southeastern partsof the site. The lower layers were l m thick in both ofthese trenches and were dated to the Early BronzeAge (Namazga IV) on the basis of the ceramics theycontained. The upper layers, 2.5 m thick, were date

i Military ftenches l Atchaeological trenches

Fig. 2.3 Map of Altyn-depe with excavation trenches


to the Middle Bronze Age (Namazga V; Ganyalin1959:30-37, 44, Table 7).

From 1959 to 1961 A.A. Marushchenko andA.F. Ganyalin conducted further investigationsat Altyn-depe, excavating numerous lest trenchesalong the perimeter of the settlement. The remainsof three surrounding walls were uncovered to thelength of 70 m on the eastern outer slope of the'Wall Mound' in the northeastern part of the site.1These walls dated to different periods, from Earlyto Middle Bronze Age. Outside the surroundingwalls they found several burials in pits and two burialchambers. On the northern slope of the Wall Mounda complex of six complete burial chambers were dis-covered along with one on the western slope that washalf-destroyed (Ganyalin 1967:209-211).

In the excavation area of the 'Tower' (Trench 11),situated on the highest part of the mound, remainsof buildings dated to the Namazga V period wereexplored (Ganyalin 1967:213-219, figs 3-7). Potterykilns were uncovered in the eastern part of the set-tlement.

In 1960 V.l. Sarianidi investigated the early layersof Altyn-depe in the gully near the northeastern slopeof the 'Mound of the Burial Chambers' (Shift 11).His trench was excavated to a depth of 2.5 m, cuttingthrough mostly Late Chalcolithic layers (Sarianidi1965:8, 27). In the trench dug to the South of Altyn-depe (Trench 14) trash layers dating to the Geoksyurperiod were found.

From 1965 to 1995 the Kara Kum Expedition ofthe Leningrad Branch of the Institute of Archae-ology, A.S. of the U.S.S.R. (now IIMK RAS) headedby V.M. Massen conducted interdisciplinary invest-igations at Altyn-depe. This expedition developed aseries of problems that needed to be investigated us-ing different methods in different areas of the site.Thus, the stratigraphy of the site was investigatedin Trenches l, 2, 5 and 16, äs well äs in explora-tory pits 2 and 3 and in a pit in Trench 11. Buildingsand burial chambers dating to the end of the EarlyBronze Age and the beginning of the Middle BronzeAge were investigated in Trenches 3, 4 and 6. In theextensive Trenches 5, 8, 9, 10, 12 and 13 artisan-household complexes of the Namazga V period werestudied. The remains of numerous pottery kilns werediscovered in Trenches 10 and 12. A monumentalcult complex was uncovered in Trench 7. Late Chal-colithic dwellings and burial chambers were studiedin Trench 15. Most of this material was published ina monograph by Masson (1981a).2

The topography and structure of the site

The first plan of Altyn-depe was made in the late1950s (Masson 1967:fig. 1). A second one was drawn

by A.A. Lyapin in 1977 (Masson 1988:fig. 1). Topo-graphie surveying, the collection of surface mater-ials and observations of the relief and other featuresof the mound enabled V.M. Masson to venture anumber of hypotheses concerning the structure, in-terior lay-out, fortification System and stratigraphyof the ancient settlement.

The separate mounds and flats or plateaus ofAltyn-depe generally were given their names accord-ing to the peculiarities of the relief or the prevailingcategories of finds made there.

The most elevated eastern area was called the'Tower Mound'. Here, in Trench 9 and in the exca-vation of the 'Tower' (Trench 11), several householdcomplexes including remains of the elite quarterswere investigated (Masson 1988:45-54, figs 15-16).

Two Hat depressions in the northeastern andcentral parts of the site are called the 'Small Square'and the 'Central Square'. No structures of the Mid-dle Bronze Age were found in the 'Small Square'.In Trench 13, near the 'Central Square', householdcomplexes dating to the early stage of the MiddleBronze Age were investigated (Masson 1988:41-43).

The narrow gullies leading to the squares fromthe Northeast and the Southwest were the main en-trances to the settlement in antiquity. The northeast-ern entryway is situated between steep slopes, whereit was found that the structures were badly disturbed.The southwestern passage (Trench 8) is flanked bymonumental pylons and the entrance itself is dividedinto a number of passages and a thoroughfare bymeans of low walls. This entrance has the remainsof paving made of ceramics and stones (Masson1988:27, 29, fig. 11).

On the eastern edge of Altyn-depe there was asmall compact mound separated from the TowerMound by two shallow gullies. The surface of thisarea was littered with mud-brick fragments, but fewpottery sherds have been found. Masson's Trench 7was placed here and excavations revealed the remainsof a monumental stepped platform surmounted by acult structure (Masson 1988:55-74, figs 17-23).

The mound located to the North of the TowerMound, between the northeastern entryway and theSmall Square, was named the 'Wall Mound'. The re-mains of monumental surrounding walls were hereunearthed and in Trench 5 the plan and stratigraphyof household complexes of the Late Chalco-lithicand Middle Bronze Age were investigated.3

In the northern part of the settlement there areextensive 'Craftsmen's Quarters' (Trenches l, 6, 10and 12). Here, directly on the surface was evidence

1 Masson 1967:170. fig. 4; Masson 1981a:22-24. figs 7-8.2 An English translation of the 1981 monograph appearcd äs Masson

(1988).3 Masson 1967:169-170; Masson 1981a:26-24,39-43, fig. 9b, 13; Kircho

1985; 1988; 1994.


for the remains of more than 60 pottery kilns andthe industrial waste that accompanies pottery mak-ing, including slag and fragments of over-fired ves-sels. Artisan-household potters' complexes of theNamazga V period were studied in Trenches 10 and12 (Masimov 1976:11-37, figs l, 3; Masson 1988:33-36,fig.l2).

The northwestern part of Altyn-depe is occupiedby the gently sloping mass of the 'Living Quarters'.In some parts of this area there are traces of the pot-ter's craft.

An abundance of large stone tools was found inthe southwestern part of the site on the surface of twomounds which accordingly were named the 'Moundof Grain Grinders' and the 'Mound of Mortars'.

The Mound of Mortars is separated by the south-

western entryway from the 'Copper Mound'. Thesurface of this area has the highest concentrationof copper objects and slag evidenced at Altyn-depe.Buildings of the Middle Bronze Age were invest-igated in this area äs a part of the work in Trench 8(Masson 1988:36-37).

The 'Mound of the Burial Chambers' is locatedto the North of the Copper Mound (Trench 4). In1965-1966 V.l. Sarianidi investigated several Earlyand Middle Bronze Age pit graves located in thearea of a large Late Chalcolithic house which pro-duced a geometric style wall painting (Sarianidi1966; 1967). The Mound of the Burial Chambers isseparated from the Tower Mound by a narrow gullythat presumably served äs one more entrance to thesettlement. This gully is bordered on the North by a

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Fig. 2.4 Stratigraphic cor-relation of the main excava-tion trenches at Altyn-depe


small area, on the surface of which traces of a monu-mental mud-brick structure were noticed. Trench 11investigated this feature and revealed the remains ofBronze Age monumental walls and turrets flankingthe southeastern gate (Masson 1988:27). Based on astudy of the relief of the locality it is thought that thisentrance thoroughfare led to a small street whichwas investigated in Trench 13.

At least three entrances have been identifiedat Altyn-depe. The main streets led from these en-trances to the central area of the settlement whichwas apparently free of buildings. The industrial pot-ters' quarters were located in the northern and, pos-sibly, in the western parts of Altyn-depe. The easternpart of the settlement was occupied by the cult centreand living quarters, including those of the elite.

The stratigraphy (flg. 2.4)

The stratigraphic studies at Altyn-depe proved thatthe area was first settled in the 5th millennium BC,possibly earlier. This is based on the presence of astratum of Namazga I material - more than 4.5 mthick - which was found in the transect of Trench 11near the southern foot of the Tower Mound. Mid-dle Chalcolithic layers with a thickness of 3-3.5 m,containing materials of the Yalangach Type, wererevealed in the transect of Trench 11 and in a pit inTrench l near the foot of the Craftsmen's Quarters.This informs us that in the middle of the 4th millen-nium BC the settlement was in what is now the north-eastern and northern parts of Altyn-depe. However,materials of the Geoksyur and post-Geoksyur Type(dating to late Namazga II and Namazga III, endof the 4* - early 3rd millennium BC) including somearchitectural remains, are represented through-out the whole area of Altyn-depe. The thicknessof these layers (six building horizons) is more than4 m. Moreover, in the southern and southwesternparts of the site (Trench 8, the entryway, Pits 2 and3, Trench 14) the Geoksyur layers lie directly on thebedrock (Masson 1988:10-14, figs 2-4). It was duringthe Late Chalcolithic that the area of the settlementreached its maximum size of more than 26 ha.

The subsequent development of the settlementseems to be connected mostly with the building of in-terior structures. Trench 5 has shown that the court-yards were gradually built over from Late Chalco-lithic times (Horizon 9) to the end of the Early BronzeAge (Horizon 4) and the number of independenthousehold complexes had practically doubled.

The layers dating to the Early Bronze Age (thesecond and third quarters of the 3rd millennium BC)are approximately 4 m thick. They have structural re-mains of five or six building horizons, and throughoutthe whole area of Altyn-depe they lie directly below

the Middle Bronze Age strata (Namazga V, the lastquarter of the 3rd millennium BC).

The Middle Bronze Age strata vary in their thick-ness. In the northern and eastern parts of the site(Trenches l, 5, 7 and 9) there are mostly structuralremains of three horizons (Altyn3-l). Excavationhas shown that these have a thickness of up to 2.5 m.In the centre of Altyn-depe, in Trench 13 near theCentral Square, layers of the Namazga V period arerepresented by remains of one to two building ho-rizons about 1.3 m thick. In the western part of thesite, in Trenches 2 and 16, layers of four building ho-rizons up to 3.2 m thick were identified. During theearly stage of the Middle Bronze Age the settlementoccupied the entire area of the artificial mound, ad-mitting the possibility that the size we see today hasbeen slightly diminished due to natural erosion ofthe mound's edge. In the middle stage of the MiddleBronze Age a gradual desertion of the settlement be-gan, but in Trench 13 a cenotaph dating to the mid-dle stage was found. During the latest stage of theperiod, occupation was principally in the westernpart, while separate areas (Trenches 5 and 9) in theeastern part of Altyn-depe remained occupied.

The surrounding walls

The earliest walls encircling Altyn-depe, or ratherits separate areas, were found in Trench 8 in thesouthern part of the site. Remains of three success-ive surrounding walls dating from the Geoksyurperiod (the end of the 4th millennium BC) to theEarly Namazga V period were found there. The wallswere constructed up the ancient slope of the hill, oneabove the other and successively wider every time.The 'fortification' walls were traced to the length ofbetween 8 and 13 m and had a thickness of 1-1.7 m.They were preserved to a height of between 0.7 and1.4 m. Their orientation was Northwest by Southeastand they were reinforced in several places with but-tresses. Immediately to the West was a flat surfacewith ceramic, stone and mud-brick paving, suggest-ing that there was an entryway to the settlementnearby (Kircho 1995:14-15).

Surrounding walls dating to the Late Chalcolithic(Namazga III period) were found along the western(Trench 14) and eastern (Trench 5) edges of thesettlement. All of them were similar in their dimen-sions. In Trench 14, near the foot of the mound-likefeature, the excavators found the remains of two suc-cessive walls built stepwise up the slope. They wereoriented along a North-South axis. A passage aboutl m wide was found at the southern end of the earli-est wall (Kircho 1995:15). In Trench 5 the surround-ing wall of the twelfth building horizon (Namazga IIperiod) was in the final stage of its existence. During


the following period (Early Namazga III) this wallhad been reinforced with a massive fill in a way thatcreated a slightly sloping ramp, inclined at 26-28°.This ramp was traced to a length of at least 4 m downthe slope (Kircho 1994:369, fig. 31.1).

In the Early Bronze Age thick encircling walls withprojecting towers Banking the gate were built at thesouthern entrance of Altyn-depe. At the same timean enclosing wall reinforced from the inside by regu-larly spaced buttresses was built in the northeasternpart of the settlement. Trench l, in the northern partof Altyn-depe, produced evidence that the exteriorwall of a house had been thickened to protect theouter edge of the settlement (Masson 1988:fig. 9A).

The fortification wall of the Middle Bronze Ageis poorly preserved at Altyn-depe. Thick brickworkwas revealed at the southern entrance but its archi-tectural form has not been determined. The monu-mental wall with projecting towers protecting thesoutheastern entrance from the North was filled inwith bricks and it could be traced only during sur-face cleaning. In the southeastern part of Trench 9remains of a supplementary wall running along theedge of the mound-like area, parallel to the so-calledImdugud Street, were uncovered (Masson 1988:27and fig. 15). The steep slope of the hill was faced withmud-bricks, and this facing evidently protected theedge of the settlement from erosion, but in the end,it appears that the ancient boundary of the MiddleBronze Age settlement was largely erased by naturaldeflation on most of Altyn-depe.

The substantial walls surrounding Altyn-depehave often been referred to äs 'fortifications'. Thisis a sort of convention, since there are good reasonsto believe that they were not put in place äs featuresto defend the site from armed attackers. For ex-ample, it is clear that later walls were built up theslope of the settlement, behind the earlier wallswhich formed step-like terraces. And, there weremany open entrances and passages unprotected byouter gates and supporting structures. These gate-ways actually must have been built to facilitate ac-cess to the settlement rather than of making it moredifficult. The Cult Centre was also quite open to theoutside. Thus, it seems that the encircling walls of Al-tyn-depe served äs support to reinforce the edge ofthe settlement, which was extremely important dur-ing periods of winter and spring high water.

V.M. Masson, in his consideration of the monu-mental enclosing structures at Altyn-depe, came toessentially the same conclusion äs we have reached.That is, notwithstanding the high degree of specializa-tion evident in these features and their construction,äs well äs the establishment of a certain fortificationcode, the defensive Utility of these walls was poorlyexpressed during the Early and Middle Bronze Age(Masson 1988:31). This fact can be taken to reflect a

relatively peaceful environment in this remote partof the ancient East during the times under considera-tion here.

Localization of Industries

As noted above, the northern part of Altyn-depe hasan area that was used for pottery making. This fea-ture was identified and investigated by I.S. Masimov(1976). Remains of kilns, ceramic slag, Supports formanufacturing large vessels and rejected pottery ofthe latest occupation of Altyn-depe (Middle BronzeAge or Namazga V period) were found in the west-ern part of the settlement. More kilns were found inTrench 9.

Pottery kilns dating to the Late Chalcolithic andEarly Bronze Age were discovered in Trenches 5, land 15. In layers of the tenth horizon (Late Chalco-lithic) in Trench 5 a two-chambered, single-'fieredkiln was found. Near this kiln a pit containing frag-mentary unfired pottery was excavated. It is thoughtthat this 'green wäre' had cracked during the dryingprior to firing.

Two small single-tiered pottery kilns were alsofound in the fifth building horizon (Early BronzeAge) in Trench 5.

The craft-related materials recovered from theEarly and Middle Bronze Age occupations at Altyn-depe inform us that the ancient people who livedand worked there had a high level of technologicalsophistication for their principal crafts: architecture,pottery making, metallurgy and metalworking, work-ing of stones. This level of sophistication seems tohave been intimately involved with the introductionof rotary tools, the appearance of two-stage potterykilns, bronze alloys and casting.4 These inventions ordevelopments are significant advancements over thefirst level of technology in this region and can there-fore be thought of äs 'a high level of craft specializa-tion'.

During the investigation of artisan-householdcomplexes of the Bronze Age at Altyn-depe, anumber of rooms produced high concentrations ofstone tools that had been used for metalworking andthe processing of ore and dyes. Stone blanks andrejects connected with manufacturing of beads andstone vessels were also found. It was also observedthat materials for these kinds of industrial activitieswere also encountered in ordinary houses.

Special excavations were carried out on the Cop-per Mound (Trench 8), the area of concentration ofmetal and slag finds. These investigations did notproduce any rejected artefacts, or tools of metal-cast-ing, leading us to believe that much of the dangerous

4 Saiko and Terekhova 1981:118-120; Terekhova 1981:321-322.

22 Lubov B. Kircho, Sandro Salvatori & Massimo Vidale

\e slog Single or multiple pottery furnoces ranCalcite working aiea Semiprecious stone working area

Fig. 2.5 Map of Altyn-depe with the location of main activity areas

pyrotechnological work was conducted outside thesettlement area.

These data have produced what we believe to bea major insight into craft activity during the BronzeAge at Altyn-depe. It seems that the main industries(with the exception of pottery making) were decen-tralized and were located within the artisan-house-hold complexes.

Surface analysis and activity areas at Altyn-depe(flg. 2.5)

The systematic collection and the study of surfacecraft indicators on archaeological sites is a proven,non-destructive means of investigation that has ledto important progress in the reconstruction of pro-tohistoric production Systems. Since the early 1970sthere has been a great deal of this sort of research onthe craft activities of protohistoric peoples of SouthAsia, especially the peoples of the Indus civilization.This research has involved the investigation of boththe general stratigraphic development of proto-


cities äs well äs the local forms of organization forcraft production.5 These studies in South Asia pro-vide us with both a comparative resource for under-standing Altyn-depe and the Central Asian BronzeAge and a model for conducting the research itself.Many of the papers on this topic dealt with the rela-tively simple stratigraphic-topographic assessments,or with the large-scale, two-dimension distributionpatterns of craft activity indicators, under the influ-ence of site-formation processes. Other papers takeon the more complex topic of Stratigraphic processesin the light of urban organization, post-depositionaltransformation and, more generally, three-dimen-sional dynamic spatial patterns.6 This is basicallythe approach that was followed by Soviel archaeolo-gists working on the archaeological sites of southernTurkmenia. They found what we have found: duringthe 3rci millennium BC there was a clear-cut differen-tiation of functional spaces.

About twenty years ago the 'pioneers' of NewArchaeology observed that the most widely repre-sented classes of artefacts found in field archaeologyare those which, quite presumably, were tied to themost relevant economic processes. Thus, a system-atic and scientific investigation of these economicprocesses demands that the same indicators requirelabour-intensive recording processes. When one ofthe present writers (MV) recorded the surface of theMoneer site of Mohenjo-daro, between 1982 and1985, it took no less than two persons for 150 daysto precisely record the coordinates of ca. 7300 smallobjects scattered across a sloping area of 60 x 45 m.

One of the effects of the revolution brought aboutby personal Computers, new recording tools and rela-tively cheap Software in archaeology is the capabil-ity of recording and storing large amounts of data.In 1998 these advances allowed the present teamto construct the topographic map of Altyn-depe,and the detailed maps of the first five activity areas,with four people working for only six days. Giventhe intrinsically destructive nature of archaeologyand archaeometry, these improvements represent amajor step forward, provided that archaeologists areable to bring useful theories and coherent testing tosuch large, ever-growing bodies of information. Inthe case of the activity areas at Altyn-depe, is such atheory currently available?

The answer to this question is probably 'no'. Inspite of substantial effort, no one would accept theidea that the surface recording and analysis at theSouth Asian archaeological sites represents an es-tablished, coherent field of investigation. This fieldis, in fact, manifold and many aspects of it are dis-continuous, including the ancient patterns of beha-viour that led to the loss of objects, the organizationof urban trash and its disposal, the reconstruction ofsecondary and tertiary removal processes of urban

Sediments, äs well äs the study of erosion and theredeposition of surface Sediments and assemblages.Additional inputs come from ethnoarchaeologicalobservations of living traditional manufactures inIndia.7

There are many theoretical and practical con-siderations when dealing with materials from thesurface of complex, deeply stratified archaeologicalsites. For example, the actual chronological place-ment of surface remains is also often problematic.While ceramics found on the surface may provideuseful chronological information, inferences on thisaspect, in the absence of excavation, may be quiteunreliable. Large-scale patterns of distribution forsurface remains have been reconstructed.8 But whenthese are archaeologically tested by excavation,subsurface prospection and / or the examination pfStratigraphic sections, it has been found that thesepatterns can be affected by recent, ongoing disturb-ances, such äs those caused by trampling and the dis-posal of excavation earth. A second critical point: wehave documented that in general, surface scatters ofsome types of craft indicators are generated by erod-ed dumps, and are significantly transformed by localgeomorphologic factors which may have little to dowith labour organization. Given these problems it isnot surprising that our attempts to reconstruct theinner spatial structure of surface scatters have gener-ally been highly qualified and not fully rewarding. AtMohenjo-daro, for example, the spatial relationshipsbetween the principal surface scatters, the slopes andthe eroded, outcropped architecture were found tobe significant, while both space-trend and nearest-neighbour quantitative analyses gave negative re-sults. This means that the artefact scatters were notinternally clustered according to functional criteria.

Activity areas of protohistoric times are conspicu-ous features on the surface of sites in southeasternTurkmenistan. They need to be recorded, sampledand interpreted, possibly by carefully combining ob-servations on the surface distribution with buriedstratigraphy. In many cases, surface assemblagesrepresent the only residual evidence of the finalphases of occupation at major sites and there is noexcuse for the destruction of the surface of entireBronze Age monumental complexes by means of

5 Tosi 1976; 1984; Salvatori and Vidale 1982; Vidale 1984; 1987; 1989;Bondioli, Tosi and Vidale 1984; Bhan and Kenoyer 1980-1981;1984-1985; Sher and Vidale 1985; Pracchia, Tosi and Vidale 1985;Pracchia 1987; Dyson and Howard 1989; Kenoyer 1989; 1992; 1997;Cavagnaro, Vanoni and Cucarzi 1990; Miller 1994; 1995.

6 See Schiffer 1987; Hoffmann 1974; Henrickson 1982; Balista andLeonard! 1987; Bondioli and Vidale 1986; Tosi 1985; Miller Rosen1986; Leonardi 1988; Tosi and Vidale 1990; Vidale 1990; Vidale andBalista 1988; Pracchia and Vidale 1990; Dales and Kenoyer 1991;1992; Bondioli, Vidaie and Pacelli 1995; Vidale and Lechevallier1994; Foglini 1998; Vidale 2000.

7 Vidale, Kenoyer and Bhan 1993; Kenoyer, Vidale and Bhan 1994.8 As in Tosi 1976; Salvatori and Vidale 1982; Pracchia, Tosi and Vi-

dale 1985.


heavy equipment like bulldozers and mechanicalearth movers, äs has happened in recent years inMargiana (Sarianidi 1998). The deflated flatlandsof the region have entire ancient oases and clustersof sites that are available for a large-scale programof 'surface archaeology'. For this purpose one mightstudy things like:

1. The presence or absence and the inter-site distri-bution of the principal types of craft activity areasfrom the Neolithic onward;

2. The relationship of sites, and activity areas, to thesource areas for the materials from which arte-facts are made;

3. The intra-site distribution of craft activity areas;

4. The relative size of craft activity areas, in rela-tionship both with the settlements' size and thelocal size hierarchy for the various periods;

5. The inner structure of craft activity areas, interms of both two-dimensional clusters and bur-ied stratigraphic features in three dimensions;

6. The functional nature of the main craft activityareas, through comparative and archaeometricresearch.

When we deal with the surface of Altyn-depe, andother excavated sites of the region, we have to takeinto account the probability that the surface has beenthe subject of intensive trampling by humans and an-imals, äs well äs disturbances by motorized vehiclesand haphazard artefact collecting. The cumulativeeffect of these factors modifies the contexts and as-sociations of surface artefacts. The preliminary mapsprepared in 1998 for the surfaces of Altyn-depeshow the type of data that are currently gatheredand processed, äs well äs some of the problems to befaced. The maps of Altyn-depe presented in figs 2.3and 2.5 are improvement over those originally pre-pared after the work of our Soviel colleagues (forexample, see Masson 1981a and Tosi 1984). Thereis more information on the new maps. For example,to the northern pottery-making area investigatedby I.S. Masimov (1976), we can now add a secondcluster of pottery-firing indicators on the southwest-ern slope of the mound. This evidence includes anoutcrop of vitrified kilns, slag, over-fired potsherdsand bricks. This evidence, taken together, Supports

Altyn-depe Area 3

O Chert flake + Stone N.D.

* Calcite flake D Und. stone bead

• Quartzite flake

+ ̂

Fig. 2.6 Altyn-depe: dis-tribution of semi-preciousstones in Area 3


Altyn-depe Area 4# Calcite flake l Calcite object © Chert flake < Chert hammerstone

+ Quartzite flake A Lapis flake • Chert core > Turquoise flake

+ Stone N.D. -f Stone stamp seal O Agate flake T Fünf arrowhead

• Stone bead A Stone drill head O Jasper flake

-

•

- -

-

- -Fig. 2.7 Altyn-depe: dis-tribution of semi-preciousstones in Area 4

the case for the manufacturing of large vessels in thisarea during the final phases of occupation.

An undisturbed sample area West of Trench 10was recorded by means of systematic surface collec-tion. The precise location of each object was deter-mined with the aid of a total Station (laser theodo-lite) for the purpose of comparing the density anddistribution of ceramics around a buried kiln withthat from non-specialized areas. Other pottery-making kilns had been uncovered in Trench 9. Kilnsdating to the Late Chalcolithic and Early BronzeAge appeared in TrenchesS, l and 15, and an iso-lated kiln is visible near the highest central elevationof the mound, thus suggesting that the distribution intime of pottery making might have been more com-plex than expected.

Our initial surveys also brought to light concentra-tions of semi-precious stone flakes in two elongatedparallel sloping areas (ASS, AS4) äs seen in figs 2.6and 2.7. These are South and North of Trench 11,facing one of the principal, monumental accesses tothe city. Similar assemblages were collected on theperipheral slopes immediately to the South. Themost common indicators are flakes of calcite, quartz-

ite, chert, black jasper. Agate and flint of high qual-ity are relatively rare. Lapis lazuli and turquoise areextremely rare. A few broken rough-outs suggest themanufacture of stone beads in these areas. Thereare a few chert / flint drills, but almost no parallel-sided blades. All of these indicators are associatedwith Namazga V wares, and appear to have resultedfrom the erosion and wash-out of ancient dumpsused by craftsmen working in sight of the city's en-trance. This pattern might suggest the temporaryhosting of foreign craftsmen, on the base of ad hocagreements, in special spaces at the very edge of thesettlement. In contrast, the only relevant cluster ofcalcite-working indicators, AS6 (fig. 2.8), was foundon the edge of the uppermost plateau, in a centralPosition. Here we mapped a scatter of flakes with afew rough-outs that may indicate the manufacture ofsmall vessels and beads. This isolated occurrence re-calls L.B. Kircho's find in Trench 10 of a small groupof vessel rough-outs in selenite (pinkish-orange gyp-sum). These were in a domestic context dating to theLate Chalcolithic - Early Bronze Age

AS2 and AS l (figs 2.9 and 2.10) are locatedrespectively West and Hast of the southernmost


Altyn-depe Area 6

•0 Calcite flake

# Calcite blocklet

* Quartzite flake

Calcite object

Terracotta figurine

Flint arrowhead

O Chert flake

© Agate flake

Ä Jasper flake

-<>•> %. Harnmerstone

Terracotta figurine* » » . °• *-

"

Fig. 2.8 Altyn-depe: dis-tribution of calcitc andother stones and artefactsin Area 6

promontory of Altyn-depe, on the Copper Mound(Trench 8). No other mounded part of the site re-vealed this sort of concentrations of copper prills,melted broken furnace linings, fragments of brokencopper objects (mainly pins and small bars). Therewere no fragments of ore, or large pieces of slagpiece or crucible fragments found here. Thus, webelieve that the Copper Mound was a place where

already smelted copper was recycled, melted and re-worked, rather than a place where primary smeltingwas done.

Our map also shows a significant subroundedcluster of copper-working indicators on the westernside of the site. This may correspond to the originallocation of a small dump or a buried furnace.

Area AS2 is located at the western edge of

Altyn-depe Area 2

+ Copper prill

• Copper slag

l Copper/bronze object

Fig. 2.9 Altyn-depe: dis-tribution of copper prills,slags and objects in Area 2

A Topographie and Stratigraphic Map of Altyn-depe 27

Altyn-depe Area l

T Polished sandstone tools& pebbles

l Copper/bronze objects

* Copper prills

Fig. 2.10 Altyn-depe: distribution of copper prills and objects, and polished sandstone tools in Area l

Trench 8. Here we found ca. 850 objects, includinga large number of river pebbles, the most commonobject on the surface of the whole site. While a fewof these pebbles might have been modified and usedäs hammer-stones or polishing / grinding tools, themajority of them come from the destruction andcollapse of domestic buildings and other structures.Interestingly, the pebble cluster is clearly separatedfrom that of copper prills and objects: in this casecopper residues and domestic features evidently oc-cupied different spaces.

By means of XRD (X-ray Diffraction) analysiswe are currently obtaining the elemental signaturesfor the principal varieties of semi-precious stoneswe have found (JasPer and agate, varieties of calciteand gypsum, a tremolitic amphibole belonging to thejade group, a chloritic schist). These signatures willbe of tremendous help in identifying the sources ofthese stones, and thereby infer the economic radius,or catchment area of the city's craft activities.

About 40 samples of copper-bronze and copper-related artefacts from the Copper Mound were ana-lysed by means of EDXRF (Energy Dispersive XRay Fluorescence) in order to determine their com-position. A more limited number of samples, with

a well-preserved metal core, underwent metallo-graphic inspection. A few other artefacts underwentSEM-microprobe analysis for a more precise charac-terization of the inner structure.

Finally, a lead-related 'ingot' fragment, a piece ofore and some corrosion patinas were identified bymeans of XRD. These analyses gave us a first glimpseon the copper and lead processing cycles performedat Altyn-depe. We learned, for example, that a pieceof slag, contrary to our expectations, has a compo-sition compatible with the primary smelting of cop-per-iron ores. A fragment of ore collected from theinterior of the buildings previously excavated wasidentified äs galena and laurionite. An ingot-like ob-ject collected at the northern edge of the site turnedout to be litharge, a smelting by-product or productof galena. This may ultimately give us insights intothe refining of lead or silver, or the making of the rawmaterials for pigments. A collection of furnace lin-ing fragments from the main cluster of AS2 showedthe presence of copper, iron and lead, sometimesassociated with tin and arsenic. This demonstratesthat not only copper and lead, but also tin and leadalloys could have been produced in this infrastruc-ture. The collection of alloying indicators includes


a group of prills, a piece of a small casting funnel,and a few pieces of small ingots of copper and lead.Two copper ingots have a very similar composition,being arsenical copper without tin. The prills have arecurrent composition, averaging 90-95 % copper,with variable Contents of lead (from faint traces to10-11 %) and arsenic (0-5 %). Only one prill has ahigh content of tin. Among the finished products, 4fragments of bars have a rather variable composi-tion; one has more than 30 % lead, 2 contain copperwith only few traces of lead, and the fourth is a binarycopper-tin bronze. Against this metallurgical diversi-ty for the fragmentary bars, we found that four frag-ments of chisels have a recurrent pattern, with leadranging from 1.4 to 3.7 %, arsenic from 1.1 to 6.2 %and only few traces of tin and antimony. The metal-lographic structure of these tools reflects the effectsof cycles of intensive hammering and / or annealing.Two vessel rims were made of almost pure copperand arsenical copper, while a compartmented stampseal was found to be 23 % lead, reflecting the needfor an exceptionally fluid alloy in order to cast theseal.

Our new investigations have produced resultsthat basically fit the pattern already established byprevious research at Altyn-depe,9 particularly forthe prevalence of arsenic-based alloys. However,the possibility of matching spatial distribution withchemical and mineralogical information opens upnew research paths.

9 See Masson 1988:99; Terekhova 1981:313-324; and others.

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IMustrations

2.1 Murghab delta: settled area in ha for each cul-tural period according to the Murghab Archae-ological Map project.

2.2 Murghab delta: site size distribution.2.3 Map of Altyn-depe with excavation trenches.2.4 Stratigraphic correlation of the main excavation

trenches at Altyn-depe.2.5 Map of Altyn-depe with the location of main act-

ivity areas.2.6 Altyn-depe: distribution of semi-precious stones

in Area 3.2.7 Altyn-depe: distribution of semi-precious stones

in Area 4.2.8 Altyn-depe: distribution of calcite and other

stones and artefacts in Area 6.Altyn-depe: distribution of copper prills, slagsand objects in Area 2.

2.10 Altyn-depe: distribution of copper prills and ob-jects, and polished sandstone tools in Area 1.

S. Salvatori, L. B. Kircho and M. Vidale, A Topographic and Stratigraphic Map of Altyn-depe. New...

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