Routledge Handbook of Resilient Thermal Comfort

This book brings together some of the fnest academics in the feld to address important questions around the way in which people experience their physical environments, including temperature, light, air-quality, acoustics and so forth. It is of importance not only to the comfort people feel indoors, but also the success of any building as an environment for its stated purpose. The way in which comfort is produced and perceived has a profound efect on the energy use of a building and its resilience to the increasing dangers posed by extreme weather events, and power outages caused by climate change. Research on thermal comfort is particularly important not only for the health and well-being of occupants but because energy used for temperature control is responsible for a large part of the total energy budget of the built environment.

In recent years there has been an increasing focus on the vulnerabilities of the thermal comfort system; how and why are buildings failing to provide safe and agreeable thermal environments at an afordable price? Achieving comfort in buildings is a complex subject that involves physics, behaviour, physiology, energy conservation, climate change, and of course architecture and urban design. Bringing together the related disciplines in one volume lays strong, multi-disciplinary foundations for new research and design directions for resilient 21st century architecture. This book heralds workable solutions and emerging directions for key felds in building the resilience of households, organisations and populations in a heating world.

Fergus Nicol is an award winning leader in the feld of adaptive thermal comfort, having started as a physicist at the Building Research Establishment in the 1960s. He moved on to work with the UK Medical Research Council, and into teaching, before leaving both to start the radical book shop Bookmarks. Returning to research in 1992, he is now an Emeritus Professor in a number of universities, and a top cited scholar across his many publications. He led infuential pan-European and Pakistan studies on comfort and he leads the NCEUB, Network for Comfort and Energy use in Buildings. He co-founded and ran the Windsor Conferences on comfort and is internationally respected for his support of fellow researchers and students.

Hom Bahadur Rijal is an award winning researcher, author and Professor at Tokyo City University, Japan, specialising in adaptive thermal comfort and occupant behaviour within buildings having published over 80 journal papers, 12 book chapters and co-edited books. Growing up in a remote village in Nepal where he remains a valued social activist, he studied higher education in Japan and worked in England. He is currently embarked on a Japan-wide project to establish the adaptive thermal comfort limits for major cities across Japan. In 2005 he received the Encouragement Prize for a distinguished article from the Architectural Institute of Japan.

Susan Roaf is Emeritus Professor of Architectural Engineering at Heriot Watt Univer-sity. Raised in Malaysia and the Australian bush, and educated in Britain, she has lived and worked as an architect, anthropologist and archaeologist in Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, California and Antarctica, experiences that colour her unique understanding of buildings and comfort in diferent climates and cultures and inspired her work on adapting buildings and cities to a heating world. She pioneered UK building integrated solar technologies and eco-design, and with Nicol and Humphreys has promoted adaptive thermal comfort globally. Her expertise in ancient technologies informed some of her 23 books and other publications, all aimed at understanding building performance in the past, present and future.

ii

“This is a very rich and engaging monograph on resilient comfort, which integrates the research achievement of researchers from many countries over a long period of time and is what makes it so valuable. I would highly recommend this book to Chinese researchers and students studying adaptive thermal comfort.”

—Yingxin Zhu, Professor Tsinghua University, China

“In an age of climate change, we need to re-examine how we build. This book will add immeasurably to our understanding of how to design for safe conditions in buildings during temperature extremes and power outages.”

—Alex Wilson, Resilient Design Institute, New York, USA

“The COVID-19 pandemic has forced us to consider the airborne transmission of viruses as never before. Ventilation of enclosed spaces must be revolutionised – dragged kicking and screaming into the 21st century. Just when most needed, this book highlights the nuances of indoor ventilation, balanced against thermal comfort, energy costs and building resilience.”

—Stephanie Dancer, Consultant Microbiologist, Lanarkshire, Scotland

“I am confdent that this book will provide a vital contribution to the development of a carbon neutral society, and provide new thinking about healthier building design after the COVID-19 crisis. The philosophy of this book is that ‘Human Adaptive Behaviour’ will help to solve these problems.”

—Shin-Ichi Tanabe, President of the Architectural Institute of Japan

“There is a wealth of knowledge in these pages! More vast than a single conference pro-ceeding, this is an impressive compilation of global voices sharing their collective research wisdom spanning yurts to high-tech ofces, passive to active systems, and ofering valuable lessons learned for more resilient building design and policy.”

—Gail Brager, University of California, Berkeley, USA

“In a research domain crowded with countless engineering and architecture meetings each year, the Windsor Comfort Conferences were unique in their positioning of the occupant at the very centre of the built environment. Unfortunately, the grand fnale of that celebrated series was abruptly cancelled when the UK Prime Minister ofcially declared the COVID-19 pandemic, literally just days before the opening speeches were scheduled in Windsor in April 2020. This volume contains a distillation of the latest occupant-centric comfort research from around the world. With established thought leaders and young research innovators alike, the volume’s list of contributors represents a veritable who’s who of thermal comfort researchers at a point in history when the subject of their enquiries is more signifcant and consequential than ever before.”

—Richard de Dear, University of Sydney, Australia

“The great Samuel Johnson once said, ‘To be happy at home is the ultimate result of all am-bition, the end to which every enterprise and labour tends.’ In my experience that requires being neither too hot nor too cold, and this book is full of thoughts on how to accomplish that while simultaneously keeping the planet from overheating. It’s of great value!”

—Bill McKibben, Founder of the Climate Campaign Group 350.org

iv

Routledge Handbook of Resilient Thermal Comfort

Edited by Fergus Nicol, Hom Bahadur Rijal and Susan Roaf

Cover image credits:

Left side: General Information Report GIR 48, Passive refurbishment at the Open University: Achieving staf comfort through improved natural ventilation, Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (Crown Copyright, October 1998); Tuvan Yurt taken by Dolaana Kholvag; Murray Milne, Malibu taken by Susan Roaf.

Right side: P.A. Photos; Susan Roaf; TimeLapse Middle East, Dubai; iStock: pinstock.

First published 2022 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Fergus Nicol, Hom Bahadur Rijal and Susan Roaf; individual chapters, the contributors

The right of Fergus Nicol, Hom Bahadur Rijal and Susan Roaf to be identifed as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Nicol, Fergus, 1940- editor. | Rijal, Hom Bahadur, editor. | Roaf, Susan, editor. Title: Routledge handbook of resilient thermal comfort / edited by Fergus Nicol, Hom Bahadur Rijal and Susan Roaf. Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifers: LCCN 2021047806 (print) | LCCN 2021047807 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032155975 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032156057 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003244929 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Buildings—Environmental engineering. | Buildings—Thermal properties. | Architecture—Human factors. | Sustainable buildings. | Human comfort. | Resilience (Ecology) Classifcation: LCC TH6025 .R68 2022 (print) | LCC TH6025 (ebook) | DDC 697—dc23/eng/20211115 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021047806 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021047807

ISBN: 978-1-032-15597-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-15605-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-24492-9 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003244929

Typeset in Bembo by codeMantra

We would like to dedicate this book to all our friends and colleagues who have joined us over the years at Cumberland Lodge to share academic thoughts, ideas, speculations, results and so many other interesting and

enjoyable conversations, games and dancing

The 2018 Windsor Conference attendees beside the croquet lawn at Cumberland Lodge (Photo: Ashak Nathwani)

http://taylorandfrancis.com

Contents

Preface List of contributors Acknowledgements

xiv xviii xxii

PART I New approaches to comfort, occupants and resilience 1

1 The shapes of thermal comfort and resilience Fergus Nicol

3

2 Rethinking resilient thermal comfort within the context of human-building resilience Marcel Schweiker

23

3 Why occupants need a role in building operation: a framework for resilient design Lisa Heschong and Julia K. Day

39

PART II Climate change and comfort 53

4 The impact of future UK heat wave to the thermal resilience in ofce and residential buildings – a comparison Asif Din and Hala El Khorazaty

55

5 Resilient design in extreme climates: 5-step overheating assessment method for naturally ventilated buildings Daniel Zepeda-Rivas, Jorge Rodríguez-Álvarez and José Roberto García-Chávez

71

ix

Contents

PART III Sleep and comfort for the old and the young 89

6 Summertime indoor temperatures and thermal comfort in nursing care homes in London Rajat Gupta and Alastair Howard

91

7 Assessing human resilience: a study of thermal comfort, well-being and health of older people Terence Williamson, Veronica Soebarto, Helen Bennetts, Larissa Arakawa Martins, Dino Pisaniello, Alana Hansen, Renuka Visvanathan, Andrew Carre and Joost van Hoof

108

8 Do children feel warmer than adults? Overheating prevention in schools in the face of climate change Marije te Kulve, Runa T. Hellwig, Froukje van Dijken and Atze Boerstra

128

9 Causes and efects of partial cooling during sleep Noriko Umemiya and Yuhan Chen

141

PART IV Resilient design for buildings and cities 157

10 Overheating and passive cooling strategies in low-income residential buildings in Abuja, Nigeria Michael U. Adaji, Timothy O. Adekunle and Richard Watkins

159

11 The devolution of thermal resilience in residential houses in Khartoum Huda Z.T. Elsherif, Marialena Nikolopoulou and Henrik Schoenefeldt

175

12 Design of adaptive opportunities for people in buildings Runa T. Hellwig, Despoina Teli, Marcel Schweiker, Joon-Ho Choi, M.C. Jefrey Lee, Rodrigo Mora, Rajan Rawal, Zhaojun Wang and Farah Al-Atrash

193

13 Resiliency lessons of traditional living in nomadic yurts Dolaana Khovalyg

210

14 Passive cooling strategies for low carbon architecture Pablo La Roche

223

15 Passive design for extreme heat: the Austrian Pavilion at EXPO 2020 in Dubai Georgios Gourlis and Peter Holzer

241

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Contents

16 Studying outdoor thermal comfort and resilience in an urban design perspective: a case study in IPOH Old Town and New Town, Malaysia Mei-Yee Teoh, Michihiko Shinozaki, Kei Saito and Ismail Said

259

PART V Resilience and comfort in offces 277

17 Adaptive approaches to enhancing resilient thermal comfort in Japanese ofces Hom B. Rijal, Michael A. Humphreys and J. Fergus Nicol

279

18 Thermal comfort and occupant disposition in mixed-mode ofces in a Brazilian subtropical climate Ricardo Forgiarini Rupp, Jørn Toftum and Enedir Ghisi

300

19 Tools and rules for behavioural agency in buildings: minimizing energy use while maintaining comfort Julia K. Day

315

20 Mixed mode is better than air-conditioned ofces for resilient comfort: adaptive behaviour and Visual Thermal Landscaping Sally Shahzad and Hom B. Rijal

329

21 Efects of light and ambient temperature on visual and thermal appraisals Maaike Kompier, Karin Smolders and Yvonne de Kort

347

22 Reaching thermal comfort zone limits for resilient building operation: a winter case study for ofces Dolaana Khovalyg, Verena M. Barthelmes and Arnab Chatterjee

363

PART VI Indoor environmental quality, energy and life cycle analysis 379

23 Methodology of IEQ assessment in energy-efcient buildings Karel Kabele, Zuzana Veverková, Miroslav Urban

381

24 Flexible future comfort Sanober Hassan Khattak, Andrew Wright and Sukumar Natarajan

398

25 Sight beyond reach: dynamic life cycle assessment to support resilient retroft decision-making in a changing climate Vanessa Gomes, Marcella R. M. Saade, Leticia O. Neves, Iris Loche, Lizzie M. Pulgrossi and Maristela G. Silva

417

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Contents

26 Indoor environmental quality, energy efciency and thermal comfort in the retroftting of housing: a literature review Marco Ortiz and Philomena M. Bluyssen

433

PART VII The role of ventilation and radiation in cooling and heating 447

27 Double skin buildings and resilience for commercial buildings Eusébio Conceição, João Gomes, Mª Inês Conceição, Mª Manuela Lúcio and Hazim Awbi

449

28 Cooling with thermally activated, radiative surfaces: resilient answers to upcoming cooling needs, extending the application range of adaptive comfort Peter Holzer and David Stuckey

465

29 Rethinking radiant comfort Eric Teitelbaum and Forrest Meggers

479

PART VIII National databases and comfort education 495

30 Towards resilient cooling possibilities for Brazilians’ hot and humid climates: exploring the national thermal comfort database Carolina Buonocore, Renata De Vecchi, Greici Ramos, Maira Andre, Christhina Candido and Roberto Lamberts

497

31 Teaching comfort: critical approaches, digital interventions and contemporary choices Ola Uduku, BK Satish, Gillian Treacy and Yiqianq Zhao

513

PART IX COVID-19: transmission and trust 529

32 How airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 confrmed the need for new ways of proper ventilation Philomena M. Bluyssen

531

33 COVID-19: trust, windows and the psychology of resilience Susan Roaf

551

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Contents

PART X The past and future of comfort standards 583

34 Resilient comfort standards 585 Susan Roaf and Fergus Nicol

Index 625

xiii

Preface

Our world often appears alarming, with its buildings and cities impacted by complex forces like population growth, increasing pollution and ever more extreme climate trends and weather events. Add to these man-made phenomena such as the fossil fuel crisis, global economic turmoil and catastrophic events like nuclear disasters, global pandemics and social and political upheavals. No wonder many of us worry about whether we can simply survive safely in the midst of so much change in the buildings and cities we live and work in. In the face of the emerging environmental challenges of recent decades, the world sought frst to reduce the impacts of buildings on the global climate with protocols, targets and pro-grammes to make the built environment ever more ‘energy efcient’, to do more with less, to moderate the worst efects of climate change. That international efort did not go so well as global carbon emissions have continued their upward trajectory with increasingly obvious consequences.

Past emissions have already pushed the climate beyond important tipping points, and the reassuring Business-As-Usual solutions for the built environment of previous decades are clearly no longer enough to keep many of us safe in our buildings. But how can we adapt them to at least, protect ourselves, societies and systems in a changing climate? What are the best ways to make us all less vulnerable to the weather hazards that we are all increasingly facing, however rich or poor we are? In the last century, new energy systems and building technologies ofered technologies that seemed to have all the answers of pat, with innovative heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems to ever more efciently service the needs of increasingly afuent populations. Much of the early scientifc work on defning comfort in buildings was done in laboratory experiments exploring amongst other things, the phys-iology and physics of comfort, and resulting in the development of steady state methods to calculate an easy to use, narrow band of comfort temperatures, written into standards, with which to set thermostats in the burgeoning range of comfort producing machines. Technol-ogy could solve all. A hotter climate? Easy, you just need more HVAC. Wrong answer.

A counter movement came at the comfort challenge from another angle, attempting to understand what temperatures real people occupied in the buildings they actually live and work in. This work, from the 1930s onwards in the UK, resulted in the adaptive thermal comfort model that reported on, and explained, the much wider range of indoor thermal conditions experienced and recorded in diferent climates. The model was frst published for-mally in the 1970s by Humphreys (1978), and later took on an added importance in the 1990s when the issue of climate change rose up political agendas (Oseland and Humphreys, 1994). Among others, the Windsor conferences picked up the baton of exploring a very wide range of emerging experiences and approaches to understanding thermal comfort in buildings.

xiv

Preface

This book has evolved from the papers in the published proceedings of the 11th Windsor Conference, the last of the series of conferences begun by the Thermal Comfort Group at Oxford Brookes University in 1994. The Windsor Conferences were held in the luxurious surroundings of a once royal residence at Cumberland Lodge in Windsor Great Park outside London (Nicol et al., 1995). What started as a small conference to bring together leading researchers and their students from diferent countries, climates, cultures and disciplines gradually became the leading international forum for discussing, sharing and interrogating future-facing approaches to the provision of comfort. Larger political and environmental challenges were tackled, including comfort standards, energy and climate impacts, and diver-sity and afordability issues around the provision and experience of comfort. Contributions come from psychologists, physiologists, epidemiologists, physicists, engineers and even in-dustrial designers. The one group that was all but missing were architects, who increasingly appear to consider issues of buildings performance as belonging to the realms of the engineer, to the detriment of much of the modern built environment today.

Much has changed since that frst conference in 1994. New, fundamentally important questions have arisen that need answers, like how do we meaningfully defne and validate what comfort is today, and will be in the future? Should the word comfort now be understood as a simple proxy for ‘personally or culturally acceptable conditions’? One thing that has become ever clearer over the years is that there is no such thing as a single ‘comfort tem-perature’. No two people, or groups of people, will fnd the same conditions comfortable at any particular time of day or year. People adapt to those conditions they normally occupy, whether they are able to modify them, or not.

Comfort standards lie at the heart of a major, current comfort dilemma. The original inclusion of the adaptive model in the US ASHRAE (2017) (de Dear and Brager, 1998) and European CEN (2019) comfort standards was a major advance for the creation of adaptable buildings. It liberated designers from the narrow comfort zones imposed by steady state stan-dards, to simply open the windows to naturally ventilate buildings again (Rijal et al., 2018), while still remaining within temperature limits ‘allowed’ by the old standards. It enabled a growing current of opinion to gradually nudge the standards towards the inevitable adoption of mixed mode buildings within them, ones that are only heated and cooled when necessary, and naturally ventilated for the rest of the year (Parkinson et al., 2020). Those standards will continue to evolve, not least because of COVID and our growing understanding of the dan-gers of cross-infection in fxed window buildings. Also, the growing urgency of being able to run buildings on local natural energy for as long as possible over the year to dramatically reduce energy use in them. Standards have been central to creating the modern buildings of today, and are therefore key to moving forward to safer buildings in the future.

Two absolutely key questions in our rapidly heating world are: What is resilient comfort? What are resilient buildings? The issue of resilience was the focus of the 2020 Windsor Conference that eventually only

happened as the published proceedings (Roaf et al., 2020). Many of the chapters in this book were developed from those proceedings and a number were also contributed from a Wind-sor spin-of conference held in Dubai in 2019 called ‘Comfort at the Extremes’ (Roaf and Finlayson., 2019). They were further enhanced by invited chapters from leading researchers dealing with emerging concerns around the COVID-19 pandemic, new thinking on be-havioural science and lessons learned from recent related research, and building projects.

This book comes at a time when we urgently need to move on from viewing buildings as urban sculptures, or sealed boxes peopled by avatars in a theoretical laboratory study, simulation

xv

Preface

model or rating scheme. Now we must throw open the windows to see the world around us as it really is, in the throes of a war against the impending climate catastrophe. We hope, and expect, that this book will change minds, and improve the common understanding of the related chal-lenges ahead, not least for policy makers. It certainly highlights that it is a war we are fghting, against time and the climate, one that must be fought battle by battle, as emphasised by the very diferent solutions and insights profered in each of the chapters. There are no magic solutions for building resilience, but every part of our built environment must be painstakingly rethought in preparation for the thermal onslaught ahead. If you think that the situation today is bad enough with heat domes, drought, fres and ice storms, wait till 2050.

Interestingly solutions ofered here are seldom about technologies, but more often about better building design, city planning, behavioural attitudes, ethics and economic, social and political adjustments and how best to exploit the small and large adaptive opportunities we have to hand. What is also clear is that the necessary changes outlined are not impossible to achieve, but the nagging question reoccurs: is it probable that they will happen in time to protect most of us from the worst impacts of climate change? Who knows?

What this book demonstrates is the power of Fellowship in working together to develop new understandings and action plans to help humanity evolve and adapt to the unprece-dented rate of change we face. No one person or organisation can make this happen. Ninety-one authors from twenty countries have contributed to this book – perhaps, together we can make a diference.

The book is divided into the following ten sections:

1 New approaches to comfort, occupants and resilience – looking at new ways to understand resilience and comfort

2 Climate change and comfort – In a warming world how to keep building occupants from sufer-ing from overheating

3 Sleep and comfort for the old and the young – the old and the young are the most likely to lack the ability or the experience to keep safe in extreme weather or social breakdown without overuse of energy resources

4 Resilient design for buildings and cities – how to design and build resilience and adaptive opportunities into the fabric of the built environment

5 Resilience and comfort in ofces – the ofce environment can afect productivity as well as comfort, and at the present time is under substantial pressure and scope for rethink and redesign

6 Indoor environmental quality, energy and lifecycle analysis – how to cope with the full complexity of the indoor environment from the ongoing environmental quality to dealing with unexpected crises

7 The role of ventilation and radiation in cooling and heating – are we measuring these vari-ables correctly and what efect does this have?

8 National databases and comfort education – overcoming some of the problems experienced in teaching comfort subjects

9 COVID-19: transmission and trust  – the realisation that the major vector in the spread of COVID is in aerosols has made the case for natural ventilation even more important

10 The past and future of comfort standards – taking a long view of the evolution of comfort thinking and exploring directions forwards to shaping more resilient comfort for buildings and their occupants

Fergus Nicol Hom B. Rijal

Susan Roaf

xvi

Preface

REFERENCES

ASHRAE Standard 55. 2017. Thermal Environment Conditions for Human Occupancy. Atlanta, GA: Amer-ican Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers.

Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN). 2019. EN 16798-1: Energy performance of buildings. Ventilation for buildings. Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics: Brussels.

de Dear, R., & Brager, G. 1998. Developing an adaptive model of thermal comfort and preference. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1), 145–167.

Humphreys, M.A. 1978. Outdoor temperatures and comfort indoors. Building Research and Practice ( J. CIB), 6(2), 92–105.

Nicol, F., Humphreys M., Sykes, O., & Roaf S. (Eds). 1995. Standards for Thermal Comfort. E & F N Spon (Chapman & Hall).

Oseland, N.A., & Humphreys, M.A. (Eds). 1994. Thermal Comfort: Past, Present and Future. Building Research Establishment Report, Watford, UK.

Parkinson, T., de Dear, R., & Brager, G. 2020. Nudging the adaptive thermal comfort model. Energy and Buildings, 206, 109559.

Rijal, H.B., Humphreys, M.A., & Nicol, J.F. 2018. Development of a window opening algorithm based on adaptive thermal comfort to predict occupant behavior in Japanese dwellings. Japan Archi-tectural Review, 1(3), 310–321.

Roaf, S., Nicol, F., & Finlayson, W. (Eds). 2020. Windsor Conference 2020: Resilient Comfort Proceedings, ISBN is 978-1-9161876-3-4, Available at https://windsorconference.com/proceedings/

Roaf, S. & Finlayson, W. (Eds). 2019. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Comfort at the Extremes 2019, ISBN: 978-1-9161876-1-0, Available at https://comfortattheextremes.com/

xvii

Contributors

Adaji Michael U. South Essex College, UK.

Adekunle Timothy O. University of Hartford, USA.

Al-Atrash Farah German Jordanian University, Jordan.

Andre Maira Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Awbi Hazim University of Reading, UK.

Barthelmes Verena M. École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.

Bennetts Helen The University of Adelaide, Australia.

Bluyssen Philomena M. Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.

Boerstra Atze Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.

Buonocore Carolina Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Candido Christhina The University of Melbourne, Australia.

Carre Andrew RMIT University, Australia.

Chatterjee Arnab École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.

Chen Yuhan Osaka City University, Japan.

Choi Joon-Ho University of Southern California, USA.

Conceição Eusébio Universidade do Algarve, Portugal.

Conceição Mª Inês Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal.

Day Julia K. Washington State University, USA.

xviii

Contributors

de Kort Yvonne Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands.

De Vecchi Renata Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Din Asif London Metropolitan University, UK.

Elsherif Huda Z.T. University of Kent, UK.

García-Chávez José Roberto Metropolitan Autonomous University, Mexico.

Ghisi Enedir Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Gomes João Universidade do Algarve, Portugal.

Gomes Vanessa University of Campinas, Brazil.

Gourlis Georgios IPJ Ingenieurbüro P. Jung, Austria.

Gupta Rajat Oxford Brookes University, UK.

Hansen Alana The University of Adelaide, Australia.

Hellwig Runa T. Aalborg University, Denmark.

Heschong Lisa Illuminating Engineering Society, USA.

Holzer Peter Institute of Building Research & Innovation, Austria.

Howard Alastair Oxford Brookes University, UK.

Humphreys Michael A. University of Oxford, UK.

Kabele Karel Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic.

Khattak Sanober Hassan De Montfort University, UK.

Khorazaty Hala El Human Experience Lab, Perkins & Will, UK.

Khovalyg Dolaana École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.

Kompier Maaike Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands.

Larissa Arakawa Martins The University of Adelaide, Australia.

La Roche Pablo California State Polytechnic University, USA.

Lamberts Roberto Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

xix

Contributors

Loche Iris University of Campinas, Brazil.

Lúcio Mª Manuela Universidade do Algarve, Portugal.

Meggers Forrest Princeton University, USA.

M.C. Jeffrey Lee National Taichung University of Science and Technology, ROC.

Mora Rodrigo British Columbia Institute of Technology, Canada.

Natarajan Sukumar University of Bath, UK.

Neves Leticia O. University of Campinas, Brazil.

Nicol Fergus Oxford Brookes University, UK.

Nikolopoulou Marialena University of Kent, UK.

Ortiz Marco Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.

Pisaniello Dino The University of Adelaide, Australia.

Pulgrossi Lizzie M. University of Campinas, Brazil.

Ramos Greici Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Rawal Rajan CEPT University, India.

Rijal Hom B. Tokyo City University, Japan.

Roaf Susan Heriot Watt University, UK.

Rodríguez-Álvarez Jorge Universidade A Coruña, Spain.

Rupp Ricardo Forgiarini Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Saade Marcella R. M. Technical University of Graz, Austria.

Said Ismail Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.

Saito Kei Tokyo City University, Japan.

Satish BK University of Plymouth, UK.

Schoenefeldt Henrik University of Kent, UK.

Schweiker Marcel RWTH Aachen University, Germany.

Shahzad Sally University of Shefeld, UK.

xx

Contributors

Shinozaki Michihiko Shibaura Institute of Technology, Japan.

Silva Maristela G. Federal University of Espirito Santo, Brazil.

Smolders Karin Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands.

Soebarto Veronica The University of Adelaide, Australia.

Stuckey David IPJ Ingenieurbüro P. Jung, Austria.

te Kulve Marije bba indoor environmental consultancy, The Netherlands.

Teitelbaum Eric Princeton University, USA.

Teli Despoina Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden.

Teoh Mei-Yee Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.

Toftum Jørn Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.

Treacy Gillian The University of Edinburgh, UK.

Uduku Ola Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.

Umemiya Noriko Osaka City University, Japan.

Urban Miroslav Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic.

van Dijken Froukje bba indoor environmental consultancy, The Netherlands.

van Hoof Joost The Hague University of Applied Science, The Netherlands.

Veverková Zuzana Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic.

Visvanathan Renuka The University of Adelaide, Australia.

Wang Zhaojun Harbin Institute of Technology, China.

Watkins Richard University of Kent, UK.

Williamson Terence The University of Adelaide, Australia.

Wright Andrew De Montfort University, UK,

Zepeda-Rivas Daniel Universidade A Coruña, Spain.

Zhao Yiqianq Looper Tech Ltd, UK.

xxi

Acknowledgements

To Michael Humphreys for his support and encouragement to so many in the feld of adap-tive thermal comfort,

To Oliver Ball for his diligent formatting of the chapters, To Luisa Brotas and Will Finlayson for their help with the templates and references, To Ecohouse Initiative Ltd. for providing copyright for Windsor Conference proceedings. For believing in the book and helping to make it happen Fran Ford and Trudy Varcianna

from Taylor & Francis (Routledge), and Assunta Petrone from codeMantra. For help with the fgures, Jim Eveson, To each and every author of the following chapters, we ofer special thanks for all the

eforts you have put into helping create this hopefully useful and infuential book.

xxii

Part I

New approaches to comfort, occupants and resilience

http://taylorandfrancis.com

1

The shapes of thermal comfort and resilience

Fergus Nicol

Introduction: comfort is complex

The interaction between people and their physical environment is a complex one. Many attempts to understand the subject have been conducted by scientists in laboratories who assumed that the interactions largely involve understandable sub-systems such as heat fows and temperatures combined with physiology. This approach, still often used, concentrates on comfort as a physical phenomenon. One aim of such scientists has been to form a ‘comfort index’, built from an understanding of how the physical characteristics of the environment act on the personal state of the occupants. The resulting index is assumed to predict the sub-jective feelings of the subjects in relation to their created physical environment. Probably the best-known of such indices is the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) developed by Fanger (1970) which aims to predict the mean subjective response (measured on the ASHRAE seven-point scale; see Table 1.1) of a group of people from a knowledge of four thermal variables (air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity and air velocity) and two ‘personal’ variables: the insulation of their clothing and their metabolic rate.

Fanger (1970 preface) expressed the purpose of comfort research this way:

Creating thermal comfort for man is a primary purpose of the heating and air condition-ing industry, and this has had a radical infuence... on the whole building industry … thermal comfort is the ‘product’ which is produced and sold to the customer…

But if comfort is indeed the ‘product’ of the heating and air-conditioning industry, then this product needs to be carefully coupled with a means of testing its compliance with stan-dards, to validate its credibility. The PMV has often been used to fulfl this objective. The science underpinning the PMV method was based on extensive surveys, of short duration, in closely monitored ‘climate chamber’ laboratories in countries where the local popula-tions used in the survey were typically adapted to the locally acceptable temperature range in buildings. The use of the PMV metric by the expanding Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) industry over the last half-century to set indoor temperatures in very diferent climates around the world has often resulted in indoor temperatures which are

DOI: 10.4324/9781003244929-2 3

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Table 1.1 The meaning of subjective votes on the ASHRAE and Bedford scales

ASHRAE descriptor Number equivalent Bedford descriptor Number equivalent

Hot 3 Much too warm 7 Warm 2 Too warm 6 Slightly warm 1 Comfortably warm 5 Neutral 0 Comfortable 4 Slightly cool −1 Comfortably cool 3 Cool −2 Too cool 2 Cold −3 Much too cool 1

locally inappropriate, and very narrowly defned even though people have historically found ways to be comfortable in their own local climates.

The relationship between people and their surroundings is much more complex than is assumed by such an index. People do not interact with their thermal environment in a passive way. They respond dynamically to their surroundings: if they fnd themselves uncomfort-able, or in a thermally dangerous situation, they naturally react in such a way as to make themselves more comfortable and safer. At the very least, they act in the hope of avoiding excessive thermal stress and their responses to the thermal conditions are not random, but are directed to this essential goal. In some cases, changing conditions to avoid discomfort can be sensually rewarding and thermally delightful (Heschong, 1979; de Dear, 2011). In an exploratory paper, Humphreys and Nicol (1998) listed over 30 actions which are commonly used to avoid discomfort, and yet are beyond the scope of the purely ‘scientifc’ approach to predicting comfort. Whilst the importance of each of these actions can in theory be es-timated or calculated, there are two main problems in assuming that it is possible to apply the calculated responses of these actions to real situations: frst, which response is possible, or appropriate, and under what circumstances and second, how might other simultaneous actions, or local events, impact on the output response? In a warm room, a fan being turned on may result in cooling, but what happens if clothing is also shed and a window opened too? Comfort becomes complex.

Consequences of inappropriate comfort standards

The use of inappropriate standards for indoor temperature can waste huge amounts of en-ergy, as building owners strive to meet the narrow temperature limits called for in index-related standards and regulations. The heating and cooling of buildings account for around 40% of all energy used globally, and results in huge greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions. In terms of building resilience, the key issue is in to stop wasting so much energy to meet fawed in-door comfort standards when the resulting ghg emissions add to, and accelerate, the vicious cycle of global heating. This drives up the temperatures and extreme weather events around the world that are increasingly causing infrastructures and buildings to fail, and people to die. We see it happening already in Ice Storms in Texas and Heat Domes in the Northwest of the USA or state-wide fres in Australia. How much of the ghg emissions driving such phenom-ena are due to inappropriate comfort standards? An aggravating factor is that mandated stan-dards and regulations typically use calculation methods which can appear numerically very precise and can end up alienating many architects by their confounding precision. Architects are responsible for designing many passive performance features (materials and thickness

Thermal comfort and resilience

of walls, size of windows, etc.) but are all too often tempted to pass responsibility for the thermal performance of buildings to engineers who may have a vested fnancial interest in how much equipment is installed to keep them mechanically conditioned (Roaf et al., 2022).

The adaptive approach to thermal comfort

Humphreys asked: ‘How then can we ensure that people are satisfed or comfortable in their overall environment? Adaptation can come to our rescue. People adapt not only to their thermal environment, but also to other aspects of their environment’ (Humphreys et al., 2016; see Chapters 23–25 and 32).

Comfort indices that use a range of diferent attributes to provide a single comfort tem-perature inevitably leave out other relevant and powerful feedback systems and cannot fully describe the efect of the total environment on a person. But there is another way of assessing comfort beyond the simple index, and of getting to grips with the real shape of people’s ther-mal experiences in buildings and understanding the complex interactions between people and their physical environment. That is the adaptive approach.

This approach is based on simply asking real people, in real buildings, how they feel (Nicol et al., 2012). It involves researchers conducting comfort surveys in occupied buildings, asking occupants for their subjective thermal response to local conditions using descriptors like those in Table 1.1. Alongside the subjective responses, physical measurements are taken of the thermal environment and, where possible, records of the actions people have taken to adjust their thermal environment to their needs. Such surveys collect information from sub-jects in familiar surroundings, rather than a laboratory. The researcher uses a set of measuring instruments to log, or take spot measurements of, the environment. People are asked about their subjective responses, and a record made the physical characteristics of the buildings the subjects inhabit, and what use is being made of windows, heaters, coolers, fans and so on. The data collected to answer these questions can be extensive, particularly when it may not be entirely clear which environmental or behavioural measurements will be unnecessary and which will best inform the survey analysis.

Thus, a survey produces data on the measurements of the environment, the subjective responses and the adaptive responses of the subjects. It is also worth remembering that the re-sults from surveys, either within a laboratory or in the feld, will always contain some scatter. Any situation where a personal human response is involved will contain some scatter because humans are intrinsically varied: in physiology – size, metabolic rate, shape, etc., and also, in their psychological approach to those they work with, to the research(ers), and a whole array of other social attitudes.

The construction and meaning of data clouds

To map how the indoor temperature in a group of buildings varies with the outdoor tem-perature, the place to start is with a scatter graph like that shown in Figure 1.1. The relation-ship between the two can be pictured as a two-dimensional ‘cloud’ showing how the indoor temperature varies with that outdoors. The cloud approach to visualising survey results is useful because, for each occasion on which the researcher collects a set of measurements, a ‘dataset’ is produced consisting of subjective, behavioural, physical and environmental data. A narrow statistical approach can lead to a good deal of the information collected being jet-tisoned as part of the process of obtaining specifc answers.

The plot shown in Figure 1.1 is formed of the points generated by a survey of the tem-peratures in buildings in Pakistan, plotted against the concurrent outdoor temperature

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Figure 1.1 The variation of indoor temperature in Pakistani offces with daily mean outdoor indicating the city in which each survey was made. Each city effectively has its own temperature cloud

throughout the year. This can be called a ‘temperature cloud’. A third dimension has been added by identifying the city where the readings were taken using the shape of the data point. It is possible to concentrate on such a ‘temperature space’ by drawing a line around the tem-peratures measured during the survey. In place of the cities, other factors can be included in the space by associating an action with the data points, such as whether a fan, heater or air-conditioning is running, or a window was open at the time of the measurement.

In this chapter, the information from three large comfort surveys is used to explore the idea of using ‘clouds’ to collect information, and understanding, from survey data. The data derives from surveys organised, and, with others, conducted by the Comfort Unit at Oxford Brookes University: one in Pakistan (Nicol et al., 1999); one in the UK (McCartney et al., 1998; Raja et al., 1998) and one more widely in Europe (Stoops, 2001; McCartney and Nicol, 2002). All three surveys used the ‘repeated transverse surveys’ architecture in which a group of subjects is visited repeatedly, at roughly monthly intervals, over a period of a year. This design allows for the full daily and seasonal changes of indoor and outdoor temperatures for a whole year to be explored in its efect on a known group of subjects. More details of the conduct of the diferent surveys can be found in the book Adaptive Thermal Comfort: Founda-tions and Analysis by Michael Humphreys, Fergus Nicol and Susan Roaf (2016), Chapters 11, 13 and 16.

Survey in Pakistan

Pakistan is situated in South Asia between Afghanistan and India. To the North, it includes the part of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush, and to the South is the Indian Ocean. At the time of this survey, the population was about 120 million. The country includes areas of warm humid (Karachi), hot dry (Multan), cool dry (Quetta), composite (Islamabad) and mountain (Saidu Sharif ) climates. A representative city has been chosen in each climatic region.

Figure 1.1 shows the indoor operative (globe) temperature measured in buildings in the fve cities mentioned, chosen by locally based researchers. The surveys took place for one year at monthly intervals between April 1995 and July 1996. The outdoor temperatures were

 

Thermal comfort and resilience

not measured at the time of the surveys but were the average for the day of a comfort survey, taken from local meteorological records. This accounts for the vertical-striped appearance of the outdoor temperatures in the graph one mean outdoor temperature given for each day of the survey. Each point on the space represents an indoor operative temperature at a partic-ular survey site. In addition to the temperature, measurements were made of air movement and humidity. The use of windows, fans, etc., was noted and subjects were asked about their clothing, activity shortly before and during the survey, their subjective warmth and other subjective measures (see Nicol et al., 1999; Humphreys et al., 2016, Chapter 11).

The survey buildings were ofces, or other static workplaces such as shops. Of the 65 buildings included in the survey, only one was fully air-conditioned and nine others had modest cooler units – either chillers or evaporators – which were used at the hottest time of the year. The use of air-conditioning was unusual in Pakistan at the time of these surveys, though practically all buildings had ceiling or desk fans in every room. Most buildings were free-running (neither heated nor cooled mechanically). The overall temperature cloud is characteristic of free-running buildings (Nicol and Raja, 1997; Nicol, 2017). The indoor temperature is in efect shadowing the outdoor temperature through the flter of the form and materials of the building, tempered using passive controls. In winter, the indoor tem-perature is usually higher than the outdoor temperature, especially in the colder cities of Quetta and Saidu where heating was sometimes used in the coldest months. Heaters were hardly used in Karachi, Islamabad and Multan, and even in Saidu, half the buildings did not have them.

The temperature cloud for each city can be traced. Except for Karachi, where the prox-imity of the Indian Ocean tends to dampen the annual temperature swing, the shape of the individual city clouds, and their slopes, is characteristic of free-running temperature clouds. These are similar, but the limits of the clouds change with the climatic limits of each city. The highest outdoor temperatures can be found in the cloud for the desert city of Multan and the lowest for the mountain city of Quetta with an elevation of 1,680 m.

Comfort, discomfort and temperature

The scale used for the comfort vote was the seven-point Bedford (Table 1.1). The graphs in Figure 1.2b (Nicol et al., 1999) use data from the feld survey giving a similar story but in a diferent form. The proportion of subjects who were comfortable in surveys at diferent outdoor temperatures is shown. Note that if 20% of subjects being comfortable is considered acceptable, as is assumed, for example, in ASHRAE standard 55 (ASHRAE, 2013), then the subjects in Saidu (S) can fnd temperatures as low as 15°C acceptable, whilst those in Multan (M) can fnd temperatures up to almost 35°C acceptable. The curve in Figure 1.2b suggests that an acceptable range of indoor temperatures in all parts of Pakistan is 19–32°C.

The clouds reveal that there are a range of areas of interest that have been under-explored in the adaptive model to date, and about the usefulness of the adaptive opportunities to hand in diferent climates, such as the use of fans, windows or clothes. Windows can encourage an increase in air movement and a change in temperature and may be used to improve air quality. The diference between indoor and outdoor temperatures is a concern at the high temperatures frequently found outdoors in Pakistan. Opening windows may be counter-productive if the outdoor air is hotter than that indoors, although the air movement cre-ated by open windows can help cooling. The temperature clouds suggest that the call for fans and windows generally becomes important when the indoor temperature exceeds about 28–30°C. Windows can be opened at any temperature, but more often in the hotter times

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Figure 1.2 Data from Pakistan (a) indoor operative temperature vs outdoor air temperature showing where discomfort occurs (flled circles). (b) Proportion of subjects un-comfortable. Indoor temperature points are means from the monthly surveys; the curve shows the proportion predicted to be comfortable using probit regression (Nicol et al., 1999)

of day and year. In really high temperature climates, windows may be left closed during the day when the outdoor temperature is particularly high to allow the indoor temperature to be moderated by the coolth stored at night in the thermal mass of the building if the windows are left open.

Relationships beyond temperature

So far, the clouds have been referred to as ‘temperature’ clouds being two-dimensional clouds plotted between indoor and outdoor temperatures. Other two-dimensional spaces can be considered. Four examples are shown in Figure 1.3a, clothing insulation against water vapour pressure, Figure 1.3b, clothing insulation vs indoor globe temperature, Figure 1.3c, water vapour pressure vs globe temperature and Figure 1.3d, air velocity vs globe tempera-ture. In each case, the perceived skin moisture (Table 1.2) is indicated by the darkness of the markers; the darker the marker, the more extreme the skin moisture. This skin moisture scale was used by Webb (1964) among others. Skin moisture can be a scale of interest in gauging the overall comfort of the environment. It is not a purely subjective scale but shows the sub-jective awareness of the subjects of their physiological response to the environment, which also has a strong subjective relation to comfort.

The analysis of the results from a feld survey often pinpoints a set of indoor conditions which can be defned as most likely to be comfortable for the local surveyed population. Diferent two-dimensional clouds can also help to answering other specifc questions, for example:

• How does the subjects’ clothing vary with temperature or humidity? • Does humidity play a part in how people feel in hot climates? • What is the interaction between temperature and air movement? • How does the subjects’ skin moisture vary with temperature and humidity?

The clouds in Figure 1.3 help to clarify answers to these questions. The graphs shown in Figure 1.3 illustrate the complexity of the interrelationships between

the physical and the subjective scales in the surveys in Pakistan. Except for Figure 1.3b, these graphs are not linear in form. An analysis making a simple linear assumption between the

Thermal comfort and resilience

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Table 1.2 Defnition of skin moisture scale

Description Numerical equivalent

None 1 Slight 2 Moderate 3 Profuse 4

Table 1.3 Table of correlation between variable in graphs in Figure 1.3

Globe Water vapour temperature Air velocity pressure Clothing insulation

Skin moisture 0.486 0.379 0.435 −0.314 Globe temperature – 0.472 0.644 −0.764 Air velocity 0.472 – 0.378 −.323 Water vapour pressure 0.644 0.378 – −0.539 Clothing insulation −.764 −.323 −0.539 –

variables is therefore unlikely to present a reliable mathematical relationship between them. Table 1.3 shows the linear correlation between the diferent measures.

Look frst at Figure 1.3a, between clothing insulation and water vapour pressure. The clothing insulation tends to fall as the humidity rises and the skin moisture is highest when the clothing insulation is low. A difcult interaction to interpret, but probably related through temperature. Figures  1.3c and 1.3d show clearly that moderate or profuse skin moisture rarely occurs at temperatures below 30°C and that the temperature has a clear correlation with both clothing insulation and water vapour pressure. A third signifcant correlation is that between indoor temperature and air velocity, particularly when the tem-perature is above 30°C, suggesting that air movement from fans counteracts moderate or profuse sweating.

Clothing is an important adaptive opportunity. In many situations, an appropriate change of clothing can help restore comfort. Figure 1.3b shows the changes in clothing with tem-perature and Table 1.3 shows an exceptionally high correlation between the two. Clothing is characterised by the number of garments the subjects wear, and as their combined thermal insulation. There are problems with merely counting the garments without assessing their individual, or combined clothing insulation slowing body heat loss. Whilst each approach has its advantages, it is important to remember that clothing plays a social as well as a thermal function.

Surveys in Aberdeen and Oxford, UK

Surveys were conducted in six ofces in Aberdeen in North East Scotland, and in ten ofces in Oxford in Central Southern England. The surveys were conducted at monthly intervals between March 1996 and September 1997 in a mixture of air-conditioned and naturally ven-tilated ofces (see McCartney et al., 1998; Humphreys et al., 2016, Chapter 13). The results from the two cities are remarkably similar in shape. For the year of the surveys, Aberdeen was

 

Thermal comfort and resilience

Figure 1.4 Temperature cloud for all survey temperature data from Aberdeen and Oxford flled markers indicating discomfort (triangular point for heat and flled circles for cold)

on average slightly warmer than Oxford both inside the ofces and outside attesting maybe to the unpredictability of UK weather. Of the buildings surveyed, fve were light-, seven were medium- and three were heavy-weight.

Figure 1.4 shows the efect of the thermal environment on the comfort of the inhabitants of all the buildings. The triangular markers indicate inhabitants who are uncomfortably warm. They can be seen at all indoor temperatures but remain at less than 10% of total votes until the temperature exceeds about 24°C but more markedly in the summer when it is hot outside as well as inside. In these British climates, in strong contrast to those in Pakistan, temperatures above about 25°C are increasingly found too hot, particularly when outdoor temperatures are also high. The opening of a window becomes less efective as the incoming air becomes warmer (and there may be other heating efects such as those from sunshine).

Figure 1.5a shows the indoor temperature in the fve air-conditioned buildings (three in Aberdeen and two in Oxford). The internal temperatures are largely limited to the range 20–25°C. Figure 1.5b shows a temperature cloud for the ten naturally ventilated buildings (three in Aberdeen and seven in Oxford). These show a similar range of internal temperatures at lower outdoor temperatures, when indoor temperatures are controlled by the heating system. Indoor temperatures start to increase with outdoor temperatures above about 15°C when the buildings are free-running. Figure 1.5b shows when the powerful adaptive opportunity of the heating systems is used by building occupants, the use of heat-ing diminishes as the outdoor temperature exceeds 10°C and is almost unknown above 15°C. What is also clear is that when the building is free-running, the indoor temperature rises to between 25°C and 30°C by the time the outdoor temperature has reached 25°C.

The use of other adaptive controls is shown in Figures 1.5c and 1.5d. Figure 1.5c in-dicates the building occupants’ use of fans to reduce overheating, mainly in temperatures above 25°C, a similar limit to that in Pakistan (Figure 1.3d); though here, fans are less often available. Figure 1.5d shows the same range of temperatures and the building inhabitants’ use of the windows available. As the outdoor temperature increases above 10–15°C, there is an increasing use of open windows to lower the indoor temperature admitting cooler outdoor air as well as increasing air movement.

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Thermal comfort and resilience

Using the UK data to demonstrate the shape of a cloud

Can the edges of the temperature cloud be defned? A ‘cloud’ should have a defnite shape, but it will change with time and its outline is often indefnite, and hard to defne accurately. One approach can be explained by a look at the overall UK cloud in Figure 1.4. The cloud outline is in places rather vague with ‘outcrops’ such as those which occur above the main body of the cloud at outdoor temperatures of about 15°C. When the outdoor temperatures in the UK surveys are divided into 20 bins of roughly equal steps of temperature and numbers of points, as shown in Figure 1.6, each bin has about 230 records. For each mean outdoor temperature, the mean, maximum and minimum of the indoor temperature can be found.

Figure 1.6 shows these data points separately for AC buildings (Figure 1.6a) and for NV buildings (Figure 1.6b) for data from both Oxford and Aberdeen. In each graph, the mean indoor temperature for each bin forms a continuous line rising slightly to 24°C for the AC buildings and to almost 26°C for NV buildings as the outdoor temperature reaches almost

Figure 1.6 The outline of the temperature cloud from the complete UK data. Above data from air-conditioned buildings and below for naturally ventilated buildings

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24°C. The mean diference between the maximum and the minimum in this dataset is 3.95K for the AC buildings and 7.95K for the NV buildings. This temperature range is about 4.8 times the standard deviation of the indoor temperature for AC buildings and 6.1 times for the NV. The range of acceptable temperatures is roughly what would be expected from a normal distribution.

European temperature clouds

The SCATs (Smart Controls and Thermal comfort) comfort surveys were conducted be-tween June 1998 and September 1999 at roughly monthly intervals in fve countries of Europe using the experimental method given in Humphreys et al. (2016, chapter 16) and Nicol and McCartney (2001). The results from these surveys were used to develop the tem-perature limits for free-running buildings in European Standard BS EN 15251 (2007) (Nicol and Humphreys 2010). The European subjects were 850 ofce workers from fve countries (France (fve buildings in Lyon), Greece (fve buildings in Athens), Portugal (four buildings in Porto and one in Lisbon), Sweden (three buildings in Gothenburg and one each in Malmö and Halmstad) and England (fve buildings in SW London). Physical measurements were made at monthly intervals near the subject. 4655 datasets were collected; globe temperature, air temperature, relative humidity and air speed were measured. A separate analysis of the data is given by Stoops (2001).

The overall temperature cloud for the whole of the data is shown (with its Loess regres-sion line) in Figure 1.7. Note the upward trend of the indoor temperatures for outdoor air temperatures above 12°C. The markers show the comfort vote of the subjects. The black triangles (hot discomfort) are more common near the top of the cloud, and the black circles (cold discomfort) near its bottom but the actual indoor temperatures causing the response are

Figure 1.7 Temperature cloud for all survey temperature data from the SCATs project: flled markers indicating discomfort (triangular point for heat and flled circles for cold)

 

Thermal comfort and resilience

Figure 1.8 Temperature clouds for surveys conducted in (a) France (Lyon), (b) Portugal (Porto and Lisbon), (c) Sweden (Gothenburg and Malmo) and (d) UK (London). The fg-ure shows the ventilation strategy at the time the data were collected: NV = nat-urally ventilated, AC = air-conditioned, MM = mixed more, MV = mechanically ventilated (but without cooling or heating); PP – part AC, part other

quite widely dispersed suggesting that the response to the indoor environment can change with outdoor conditions.

Figure 1.8 shows the separate year-round graphs for four of the fve countries included in the multinational survey (Greek data did not include winter readings and so have not been included). Buildings in a free-running mode show a typical tilted cigar format. Buildings which are in a heated or cooled mode (air-conditioned) produce horizontal clouds (shown for the UK in Figure 1.5a). The cloud forms produced are thus character-istic not just of the nationality of the subjects, or of the building type, but of the ventila-tion strategy adopted in the particular buildings at the time of the survey set against the climate.

National characteristics

The clouds shown in Figure 1.8 illustrate the variation which can occur in the temperature clouds from ofces in each country.

a The French cloud is characteristic of buildings which have diferent modes of operation in cold and warm weather. In warm weather, the indoor temperature increases in con-cert with the outdoor temperature, suggesting that they are in a free-running mode. At outdoor temperatures below about 10°C, the mean indoor air temperature remains almost constant.

b The cloud from Portugal shows the shape which can be associated with buildings which are efectively free-running. The ‘sloping cigar’ shape is like that for buildings in

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c

Pakistan and in the UK in summer. Work by Nicol (2020) has suggested that for free-running buildings, there is continuity between the clouds for diferent climates (see below). The cloud for Sweden is a classic formation for buildings which are closely air-conditioned at all times of year. The spread of the cloud which has a small (0.05) slope follows the recommendations of European Standard EN 15251 [BSI, 2007] which calls for indoor temperatures in mechanically conditioned ofces of 20–25°C in winter and 23–26°C in summer.

d The cloud for the UK has a less defned shape than those from other countries. The shape is a combination of the AC shape of the Swedish buildings (Figure 1.8c) and that for the largely free-running buildings of Portugal (Figure 1.8b). The two shapes are efectively superimposed on one another.

Comparison of free-running buildings in Portugal and Pakistan

Figure 1.9 compares the temperature cloud for the Portuguese subjects in the European survey with the cloud outline from Pakistan. Although the slopes of the two lines are difer-ent, the space taken by the Portuguese data fts well into the outline of the Pakistani cloud. This supports the fnding of Nicol et al. (2020) that clouds from free-running buildings are roughly congruent despite climatic diferences at the survey sites. The range of the indoor temperatures in the Pakistan cloud is much wider (~15K) than in the Portuguese one (~8– 10K). Partly, this will be a result of the Pakistan data being from fve diferent towns with big climatic diferences, but they also refect diferences in culture and adaptive opportunities.

Resilience and temperature clouds

Resilience in buildings is no longer merely about energy efciency, or more efcient ma-chines. It is about helping populations to survive in a heating world; it is about protecting

Figure 1.9 Comparison between the cloud for Pakistan (outlined by the thick lines) and the cloud for Portugal with (solid) regression line

 

Thermal comfort and resilience

people in the buildings where they live and work, against rising and unpredictable energy costs, ever more extreme weather events and infrastructural failures. Roaf et al. (2005) in a section on resilient buildings pointed out that one aspect of building resilience should be to ensure that people are comfortable and can survive in them even in extreme weather. The recent examples of extreme weather in the USA, Europe and elsewhere serve to emphasise the im-portance of the building as an essential part of the shield we build between people and the natural world. In this chapter, we introduce clouds as a method of capturing and relaying insights into the architecture of comfort, health and thermal stress in buildings. What clouds make clear is that comfortable temperatures in buildings are not precise, but can be quite diverse allowing us to think of buildings in more rounded and multi-dimensional ways. New thermal landscapes can be explored and developed, which designers have hitherto found blocked by requirements for over-precision of the specifcation of comfortable environments which are backed only by poor evidence.

Resilience can be explored with temperature clouds, in terms of both the overall range of temperatures found in occupied buildings and those found acceptable within a particu-lar building. Nicol (2019) demonstrated that globally, acceptable and occupied indoor tem-peratures range globally from 10°C to 35°C, suggesting that this is the range that can be confdently used as the ‘acceptable thermal limits’ for indoor temperatures so long as the population is acclimatised to the local indoor and outdoor climates, and is provided with familiar and appropriate adaptive opportunities. The edges of clouds provide an insight into the vulnerable edges of a population’s responses. The discussion of Figure  1.3 suggested that moderate or profuse skin moisture only occurs at temperatures over 30°C. Figure 1.2b shows that over 80% of all Pakistani subjects voted ‘comfortable’ at temperatures between 19 and 32°C. Those from Saidu are used to cold and so are less afected by it just as those from Multan are used to the heat. Indoor temperatures as low as 10°C are recorded in Quetta and Saidu with their mountain climates when outdoors it can be −5°C. In Multan, it can be up to 40°C indoors when outdoor daily mean temperatures are up to 36°C. Figure 1.1 shows these temperatures and suggests that a daily temperature range in any one locality can be up to 10–15K between indoor climates in local buildings.

Clouds can become health (or maybe ill-health) indicators. They can highlight the homes in which people are hotter or colder than the local norm and could provide the basis for policy-driven investment. The people at the edges of temperature clouds are often the ones most likely to sufer from heat or cold stress. The health and resilience of most people in populations depend on the buildings they occupy being suitable for that climate. They must have adequate adaptive opportunities and a knowledge of how to use them to stay thermally safe, even at extreme temperatures. The 20th-century standards comfort paradigm using an index and focussing on air-conditioning was all about setting a thermostat to a temperature that people can survive ‘comfortably’ in. What is becoming increasingly clear is that (a) grids can fail and mechanical solutions with them, and (b) fewer and fewer people can aford to buy, and/or run expensive, energy profigate, cooling and heating systems. So the buildings themselves must work better for people. Clouds can provide a tool for searching out and fnding which buildings work best in which places and seasons.

Temperatures in different buildings

Figure 1.10 shows rough indoor clouds for two UK ofce buildings, one (U6) heavyweight built in about 1900 of masonry and with single-glazed openable windows the other (U3) built in 1965 with a lightweight concrete frame and double-glazed openable windows.

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Figure 1.10 Difference between temperature clouds for lightweight building U3 (black-dashed outline, empty points) and a heavyweight building U6 (grey-dashed out-line, flled points) both free-running in the UK (outdoor temperature limited to 10°C) (Data from SCATs project)

Indoor temperatures are shown for conditions where the outdoor temperature is over 10°C and the building will be acting in a free-running mode.

In outdoor temperatures of 27°C, mean indoor temperatures in U6 average about 27°C, whilst those in U3 are around 29°C. The spread of indoor temperatures for a given outdoor temperature is in the region of 5K some people may be cool indoors, others hot at the same mean outdoor temperatures, but they will try to make themselves comfortable, but increas-ingly those at the edges of the cloud will experience some thermal stress. Figure 1.10 shows that some buildings are less resilient than others and suggests that as they difer from the temperature near the centre of the cloud, occupants will increasingly need to adapt. Hope-fully, they will be able to do so by using low-energy, passive means such as windows, fans or changes of clothing or if they can aford it, buy-in more expensive air-conditioning.

Resilience in stressful conditions

Thapa (2018), among others, found important reductions in the thermal sensitivity of some subjects in stressful circumstances. In extreme circumstances, the range of acceptable tem-peratures may be further extended by necessity, but there comes a time when the body simply can no longer cope, and the hundreds who died in their own homes on the June 2021 Heat Dome event in and around Vancouver shows that perhaps the use of temperature clouds, combined with heat-related death mapping might provide an extremely useful tool for the development of investment-related policies to protect the most vulnerable in populations against thermal stress and related deaths.

Effects of adaptation on discomfort and mean indoor temperatures

Table 1.4 shows the powerful efects adaptive actions can have in overcoming discomfort. The data from the UK (see Figure 1.4) has the lowest mean temperature and the smallest temperature variation (SD) and yet has the highest percentage of heat discomfort (18.8%). Perhaps against expectation, the Pakistan survey (Figure 1.2) has a mean temperature 3.2 K

Thermal comfort and resilience

Table 1.4 Mean temperatures and comfort data from the Pakistani (Figure 1.2a), UK (Figure 1.4) and European (SCATs) (Figure 1.7) surveys

Survey Pakistan Abox UK Scats EU

Cold discomfort (%) 9.6 5.4 5.1 Comfort (%) 78.3 75.9 84.7 Heat discomfort (%) 12.0 18.8 10.2 Mean (Tg oC) 26.6 23.2 24.2 Std Dev (Tg oK) 6.38 1.42 2.01

higher than UK and an SD some 4.5 times greater but a smaller percentage of heat discomfort (12.0%) and the larger proportion of cold discomfort (9.6%). The Europeans have a slightly higher mean temperature than the UK but the lowest heat discomfort (10.2%). These fgures suggest that Pakistani (and to a lesser extent European) subjects are more skilful at adapting the heat and keeping comfortable than are the British.

Discussion: comfort and resilience

The basic aim of most feld surveys of the thermal environment has traditionally been to answer a precise question like what is the temperature at which the largest proportion of people are comfortable in a particular type of building, or climate, or when particularly occupied, at home, or in an ofce, factory or other type of work. Once a decision on what is the key aim of a survey has been taken, the range of measurements to be made, or questions asked to address that aim is decided by conducting a survey of comfort in the appropriate place, and then estimating the optimal questions to be asked to arrive at a useful answer, using statistics or by applying an appropriate comfort index to the data collected.

Such an analysis may well provide an answer as required, but the form into which it is re-duced is often over-precise or provided in a form which a non-scientist may fnd hard to un-derstand or use. Comfort science has been largely funded by, or on behalf of, industries who wish to inform the setting of indoor temperature limits. The form of advice is designed to be useful for setting mechanical heating or cooling system thermostats or Building Management Systems. But their ultimate aim is to mandate the ways in which comfort is provided. The assumed methodological outputs mean that they are inevitably given averaged responses for whole populations and do not refect the actual comfort experience of an individual within that population. For ease of use by ordinary engineers, comfort settings are usually limited within a tight range, and are often set to change little during the year, resulting in an increas-ingly unsustainable cost to the environment, as building ghg emissions are a key accelerant to climate change. Those promoting continuous mechanised conditioning of buildings as a means of dealing with the efects of climate change are out of touch with the reality of 21st-century comfort challenges.

Comfort is complex and multi-dimensional, so there is a natural tendency to collect information on a wider variety of factors than is strictly necessary. Why not also collect in-formation about noise and light, for instance? It may turn out to be important in answering questions like: are people diferently sensitive to heat in a noisy ofce? or, if there is a short-lived heatwave, should you dash in to collect some data about the response of occupants in these relatively extreme circumstances to design future buildings?

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Various uses of the cloud approach to adaptive comfort data analysis have been provided, suggesting how all the data can be interrogated multi-dimensionally before any is set aside, or excluded. The focus in this chapter is on temperature clouds relating the indoor to the outdoor temperature space; which of the two is predominant? Does the pattern of their in-terrelationships refect factors that may form a third dimension to the cloud, such as the role of windows, fans, doors and clothing on the overall thermal landscape? Clouds can also be used to demonstrate relationships beyond the purely thermal, as was demonstrated in the analysis of the dependence of skin moisture on water vapour pressure, as well as temperature, in Figure 1.3. The use of fans is shown to follow a diferent response pattern to the use of windows, or the use of clothing.

Another important measure of resilience is the extent to which a building can help to avoid difcult or dangerous situations caused by a breakdown in its normal functioning. Whether a breakdown of an air-conditioning system caused by a mechanical failure, a loss of power or simply a system which is inadequate, can cause a catastrophic or dangerous situation, or one where the resulting indoor climate is beyond the experience of the locally adapted building occupants, or will seriously reduce their comfort, productivity or willing-ness to remain in the building. Buildings with high thermal inertia, because of their design, and their use of thermal mass to store heat energy, may heat up or cool down more slowly and may remain habitable for longer. The discussion of Figure 1.10 suggests that clouds are a tool by which such concerns, and phenomena, can be tested.

Lastly, the above analyses had clearly demonstrated that the thermal comfort experiences of citizens of one city in the same country or continent can be radically diferent from other cities with the same nationality, or culture in a diferent geographic or climatic zone, even when they are as close geographically as high desert Quetta and hot desert Multan. It may be convenient for sizing heating or cooling systems or simulating the thermal performance of buildings to have one simple number to feed into the calculations, but such a number may not refect the actual thermal experience and preferences of the majority in a region, with huge ghg emission consequences.

Why would one specify the same indoor optimal operating temperature in winter or summer, in Sweden or Portugal, or in Islamabad or Multan? Using static thermal settings can result not only in discomfort for some of the population but may also result in signifcant extra energy being used to force identical indoor temperatures across the climatic and social landscapes of a country (Pakistan?) or region (Europe?). Comfort is in any case a distribu-tion, not a point. Much better to identify the actual thermal preferences and acceptances for each major population grouping and then use them to inform really planet-friendly design and servicing solutions. Exploration of the clouds of diferent cities at diferent times of year will be a tool to inform optimal design solutions for safe and comfortable buildings in any climate. Perhaps best of all is to put the control of indoor temperatures into the hands of the people who inhabit the very diferent buildings in diferent places and regions. Let them strike their own balance between comfort and costs.

Conclusions

We all live in the same world, but each of us sees it diferently. This is true of the ways that diferent professionals view and analyse the world. The engineer or scientist tries to develop a precise way to look at each individual part of a system using theory and experiment. A complex system is then characterised by putting those parts together. The architect works in the other direction looking at the whole and using the parts (some developed by scientists) to

Thermal comfort and resilience

help explain the nature of the whole. The scientist tries to explain the world in terms of the characteristics of the parts and theories which link them together, using formulae or graphs. The architect starts with the whole building and then tries to explain its parts using drawings.

Every textbook (Nicol et al., 2012) urges the researcher using the feld survey approach to ‘look at the data before launching into statistical analysis’, but this paper suggests that the production of a temperature cloud should be more than just a preliminary, and become a cen-tral part of the data analysis. Comfort is not a single value but a distribution – a fact which is often seen as a problem but which is in fact an opportunity which a cloud approach can help to explore. It illustrates a possibility, rather than a complete new scientifc approach. Further work is needed that will help to develop clouds into a new and really useful way to use feld data in the design and categorisation of comfortable and resilient buildings.

Ways in which the clouds method may help develop solutions for more resilient design include by providing:

• Designers with an understanding of the landscapes of actual comfort temperatures in buildings, regions, cultures, nations and over time.

• Insights into how buildings can enhance resilient local comfort at the extremes. • Scientists with a tool to give comfort data new meanings and to inform answers to

emerging resilience questions. • Provide a whole new narrative and scientifc basis to replace the fawed, and already

discredited, 20th-century comfort standards for buildings. New inspirations for design-ers into what works well, and what does not, in terms of resilient and environmentally sustainable design.

The ultimate goal of creating low-carbon, resilient buildings must be to de-couple buildings from climate destroying fossil fuel energy consumption, and to design them so they can run for as much of a day or year as possible on the free, renewable natural energy created by sun, wind and good design (Roaf and Nicol, 2018). Comfort clouds can shed light on how that can be achieved for diferent populations and climates, and more importantly, in a rapidly heating, extreme weather world: how to design more resilient buildings.

Acknowledgements

My thanks to Prof Sue Roaf and Prof Hom Rijal among others for their support and useful comments and criticisms.

References

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BSI. 2007. BS EN 16798-1 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy perfor-mance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics, London: British Standards Institution

de Dear, R. J. 2011. Revisiting an old hypothesis of human thermal perception: Alliesthesia, Building Research & Information 39(2), 108–117.

Fanger, P.O. 1970. Thermal comfort, Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press. Heschong, L. 1979. Thermal delight in architecture, Cambridge MA: MIT Press Humphreys, M.A., and Nicol, J.F. 1998. Understanding the adaptive approach to thermal comfort,

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McCartney, K.J., Nicol, J.F., and Stevens, S. 1998. Comfort in ofce buildings: Results from feld studies and presentation of the revised adaptive control algorithm. Harnessing technology for sus-tainable development, Proc. CIBSE National Conference Bournemouth, London Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 189–200

McCartney, K.J., and Nicol, J.F. 2002. Developing an adaptive control algorithm for Europe: Results of the SCATs Project, Energy and Buildings 34(6), 623–635 (ISSN 0375 7788)

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Rijal, H.B., Humphreys, M.A., and Nicol, J.F. 2019. Adaptive model and the adaptive mechanisms for thermal comfort in Japanese dwellings, Energy & Buildings 202, 109371 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. enbuild.2019.109371)

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The shapes of thermal comfort and resilience ASHRAE . 2013. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55–2013: Thermal environmental conditions for humanoccupancy, American Society of Heating, Atlanta, Georgia, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers(ASHRAE) BSI . 2007. BS EN 16798-1 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energyperformance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics, London:British Standards Institution de Dear, R. J. 2011. Revisiting an old hypothesis of human thermal perception: Alliesthesia, BuildingResearch & Information 39(2), 108–117. Fanger, P.O. 1970. Thermal comfort, Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press. Heschong, L. 1979. Thermal delight in architecture, Cambridge MA: MIT Press Humphreys, M.A. , and Nicol, J.F. 1998. Understanding the adaptive approach to thermal comfort, ASHRAETransactions 104(1), 991–1004 (ISSN 0001 2505) Humphreys, M.A. , Nicol, J.F. , and Roaf, S.C. 2016. Adaptive thermal comfort, foundations and analysis,London: Earthscan/Routledge, January 2016 ISBN 978-6-4155-69161-1 McCartney, K.J. , Nicol, J.F. , and Stevens, S. 1998. Comfort in office buildings: Results from field studiesand presentation of the revised adaptive control algorithm. Harnessing technology for sustainabledevelopment, Proc. CIBSE National Conference Bournemouth, London Chartered Institution of BuildingServices Engineers, 189–200 McCartney, K.J. , and Nicol, J.F. 2002. Developing an adaptive control algorithm for Europe: Results of theSCATs Project, Energy and Buildings 34(6), 623–635 (ISSN 0375 7788) Nicol, F. 2019. The limits to accepted indoor temperatures, Proceedings of Comfort at the ExtremesConference 2019, 22–30 Nicol, F. , and McCartney, K. 2001. Final report (Public) Smart Controls and Thermal Comfort (SCATs) (alsosubsidiary reports to Tasks 2 and 3 and contributions to reports to Tasks 1, 6 and 7) Report to the EuropeanCommission of the Smart Controls and Thermal Comfort project (Contract JOE3-CT97-0066) OxfordBrookes University. Nicol, F. , Rijal H.B. , Imagawa, H. , and Thapa, R. 2020. The range and shape of thermal comfort andresilience, Energy and Buildings 224. Nicol, J.F. 2017. Temperature and adaptive comfort in heated, cooled, and free-running dwellings, BuildingResearch and Information 45(7); DOI:10.1080/09613218.2017.1283922 Nicol, J.F. , and Humphreys M.A. 2010. Derivation of the equations for comfort in free-running buildings inCEN Standard EN15251, Special Issue Section: International Symposium on the Interaction Human andBuilding Environment, Buildings and Environment 45(1), 11–17 Nicol, J.F. , Humphreys, M.A. , and Roaf, S.C. 2012. Adaptive thermal comfort: Principles and practice,London: Earthscan/Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-69159-8 Nicol, J.F. , and Raja, I.A. 1997. Indoor thermal comfort: The Pakistan study, Energy for SustainableDevelopment 3(5), 50–60 Nicol, J.F. , Raja, I.A. , Allaudin, A. , and Jamy, G.N. 1999. Climatic variations in comfort temperatures: ThePakistan projects, Energy and Buildings 30(3), 261–279 (ISSN 0378-7788) Raja, I.A. , Nicol, J.F. , and McCartney K.J. 1998. Natural ventilated buildings: Use of controls for changingindoor climate, Renewable Energy 15, 391–394 (ISSN 0960 1481) Rijal, H.B. , Humphreys, M.A. , and Nicol, J.F. 2019. Adaptive model and the adaptive mechanisms forthermal comfort in Japanese dwellings, Energy & Buildings 202, 109-371(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109371) Roaf, S.C. , Crichton, D. , and Nicol, F. 2005. Adapting buildings and cities for climate change, OxfordArchitectural Press Roaf, S.C. , and Nicol, J.F. 2018. Running buildings on natural energy, Architectural Science Review,Routledge Roaf, S.C. , Nicol, J.F. and Humphreys, M.A. 2022. Adaptive thermal comfort: Designing comfortablebuildings, London: Earthscan/Routledge (in Press) Stoops, J.L. 2001. The physical environment and occupant perceptions in office buildings: An evaluation ofsampled data from five European countries. PhD thesis Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden Thapa, R. , Rijal, H.B. and Shukuya, M. , 2018. Field study on acceptable indoor temperature in temporaryshelters built in, Nepal after massive earthquake 2015, Building and Environment 135, 335–343. Webb, C.G. 1964. Thermal discomfort in a tropical environment, Nature 202 (4938), 1193–1194

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