Quaternary geology, tectonics and distribution of palaeo-and present fluvio/glacio lacustrine...

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Geomorphology 65 (

Quaternary geology, tectonics and distribution of palaeo- and

present fluvio/glacio lacustrine deposits in Ladakh,

NW Indian Himalaya—a study based

on field observations

Binita Phartiyal*, Anupam Sharma, Rajeev Upadhyay,

Ram-Awatar, Anshu K. Sinha

Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 53-University Road, Lucknow-226007, UP, India

Received 28 August 2003; received in revised form 4 April 2004; accepted 20 September 2004

Available online 18 November 2004

Abstract

The Ladakh region of the northwestern Indian Himalaya is rich in Quaternary deposits but it has not received much

attention. Previous Quaternary research in the region has focused on the glacial sequences and only some scattered data of the

lacustrine deposits are available. This article addresses the reconstruction of the palaeo-lacustrine deposits and the present-day

lakes and their distribution in the Ladakh region. The region was under the influence of tectonic activity and cold climate

during the late Quaternary times. Tectonic activity at ~50,000 years BP, ~35,000 years BP and ~25,000 years BP has been

recorded.

We report the presence of three major lakes in the region in the late Quaternary. These formed due to the damming of the

Indus river and its tributaries by debris avalanches initiated mainly by tectonic activity along the Indus Suture, Shyok suture and

the Karakoram Fault. These are the Spituk–Leh palaeolake formed ~N50,000 years BP; the Lamayuru palaeolake dated to

35,000 years BP in the Indus valley and the Khalsar palaeolake N 60 km in length in the Shyok valley. Vast exposures of the

palaeolake deposits ranging from N25 to 150 m in thickness are reported—Spituk section (N25 m); Lamayuru section (~110 m)

and Khalsar (N150 m) and Hundri (~100 m) and which have a wide lateral extent. A glacial lake basin at Bhaktpur city, north of

Baralacha La, is now completely filled, the TsoKar lake has been subdivided into smaller units now and the water level is

lowering. Other lakes in the region (e.g., Pangong Tso, Tso Morari, the twin Kyun Tso lakes) are confined to the western side of

the study area. Limited chemical weathering, rapid erosion and cold climatic conditions in late Quaternary times are suggested

by the stable illite values in the Lamayuru section. Four levels of palaeoseismic structures (convolute structures, sand dykes,

intraformational folds, micro faulting) are present in the Khalsar section and at three levels in the Tirit section (at Shyok, Nubra

0169-555X/$ - s

doi:10.1016/j.ge

* Correspon

E-mail addr

2005) 241–256

ee front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

omorph.2004.09.004

ding author. Tel.: +91 522 22740001; fax: +91 522 2740485.

ess: [email protected] (B. Phartiyal).

B. Phartiyal et al. / Geomorphology 65 (2005) 241–256242

confluence). Palaeoseismic activity was also prevalent after 25,000 years BP as is evident from the three levels of palaeoseismic

structures in the younger sediments.

D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Himalaya; Quaternary; Lacustrine; Palaeolakes; Tectonics; Ladakh; Indus; Shyok

1. Introduction

Ever since the Indian plate subducted under the

Asian plate (~20 Ma ago), there has been horizontal

compression of the lithosphere and topographic uplift.

Since then weathering and erosional processes have

been very active in these mountains. The Quaternary

era has witnessed intense orogenic movements in the

Himalaya (Gee, 1989). Reactivation of thrusts/faults

took place producing enormous amounts of debris in

the form of debris avalanches resulting from slope

failures, thereby blocking ancient drainages and form-

ing tectonic lakes in the Ladakh Himalayas (Cronin,

1982, 1989; Burgisser et al., 1982; Shroder et al., 1986;

Owen, 1988; Fort et al., 1989; Shroder and Higgins,

1989; Sangode and Bagati, 1995; Bagati et al., 1996;

Kotlia et al., 1997a,b, 1998). A number of palaeolakes

were formed in Ladakh in the northern Himalayan crest

e.g., Skardu basin (Cronin, 1982, 1989), Jalipur on the

Indus river (Shroder et al., 1986), Khaltse along the

Gilgit river (Burgisser et al., 1982), in the upper Indus

valley (Owen, 1988) and at Lamayuru (Fort et al.,

1989; Sangode and Bagati, 1995; Bagati et al., 1996;

Kotlia et al., 1997a,b, 1998) resulted from a reactiva-

tion of this zone in the late Quaternary. Later, due to the

revival of tectonic activity, these lakes drained, leaving

behind their sedimentary record. In several parts, such

ancient lake profiles have preserved uninterrupted

sedimentary records.

The vast exposures of the Quaternary sediments in

the Ladakh region can be helpful in generating data on

palaeoclimate, climate modeling, tectonics and earth

surface processes. Due to the rugged topography, high

altitude (3000–6000 m) and strategic restrictions

(being the international boundary with Pakistan and

China), not much work has been done in this area.

Some research on the glacial and lacustrine Quater-

nary deposits of the Zanskar have been undertaken

(Burbank and Fort, 1985; Osmaston, 1994; Mitchell et

al., 1999), Ladakh (Fort et al., 1989; Sangode and

Bagati, 1995; Kotlia et al., 1997a, 1998) and

Karakoram (Owen, 1988; Shroder et al., 1993;

Upadhyay, 2001, 2003), but the data are scanty and

scattered. However, extensive Quaternary research

has been conducted in Pakistan (Poter, 1970; Derby-

shire et al., 1984; Owen, 1988; Zheng, 1989) and

Tibet (Derbyshire et al., 1991; Shi et al., 1992a,b;

Lehmkuhl and Lui, 1994; Lehmkuhl, 1998; Zheng

and Rutter, 1998). This zone in Ladakh Himalaya

represents one of the most spectacular tectonic zones

of the globe (Gansser, 1964, 1977; Frank et al., 1977;

Srikantia and Razdan, 1980; Thakur, 1981) and has

been considered as tectonically very active in the

Trans Himalaya during the Quaternary period (Kotlia

et al., 1997a,b).

2. Geomorphology and geology of the area

Ladakh has enormous Quaternary deposits of

glacial, lacustrine, palaeo-lacustrine, fluvial or aeolian

origin. The area has a rugged topography dominated

by barren mountains. Most of the region lies above the

tree line with little vegetation. The only vegetation

present is dwarfed, stunted, prickly, xerophytiic

shrubs (e.g., Artemisis, Caragana) on the hill slopes

and small trees (Alnus, Betula) on the valley floors.

The region remains covered with snow for nearly 6

months. Voluminous amount of talus, scree cones,

huge alluvial fans and sediments on both sides of the

river valleys, deep gorges and waterfalls are common

features in the region. The prevailing climate is cold,

semi-arid to arid, which accelerates the disintegration

of rocks through frost action, forming extensive talus

that blankets the slopes.

2.1. Geology and tectonic setting

The Ladakh Himalaya lies in the northern part of

India (Fig. 1A) and is bounded by the Karakoram

Fig. 1. (A) Location map; (B) Geological map of the study area (modified after Thakur, 1981).

B. Phartiyal et al. / Geomorphology 65 (2005) 241–256 243


fault towards the north and the Indus Suture Zone

(ISZ) towards the south (Fig. 2). These are both

active faults which trend in a NE–SW direction. The

entire region is divided into four tectonomorphic

zones from South to North (Thakur, 1981; Shina,

1997) (Fig. 1B). These are: (i) Zanskar suture zone

(ZSZ): This zone comprises of Precambrian base-

ment of Zanskar crystalline complex and overlain by

Phanerozoic sediments including upper Palaeozoic

volcanic rocks of the Zanskar supergroup. This

forms the northern margin of the Indian plate; (ii)

Indus suture zone (ISZ): This zone consists of a

remnant of a tectonised oceanic lithosphere repre-

sented by the Shergol melange and the Nidar

complex with a former volcanic arc indicated by

the volcanogenic Dras and Khardung formations and

the Ladakh plutonic complex; (iii) Shyok Suture

zone (SSZ): This is a relic of the back-arc basin and

does not represent the tectonic repetition of the

Fig. 2. The drainage pattern of the Indus and the Shyok river systems and th

Indus suture; (iv) Karakoram plutonic complex

(KPC): This appears to be genetically related to

the Ladakh plutonic complex; both were generated

from the subducting Indian oceanic plate. It is

believed that the boundary between the Indian and

Eurasian plate lies at the junction of Central Pamirs

and North Pamir.

2.2. River systems

The Indus is the main river in the region and flows

in a NW direction along the ISZ. It originates from the

glaciers at Kailash Mountain and finally joins the

Arabian sea. The Indus follows a constricted trend at

places flowing through narrow gorges cutting deep

into the country rock. Elsewhere, it occupies a wide

valley and has a meandering channel. The Shyok river

(a tributary of the Indus) flows in a wide valley and

becomes very wide at the confluence with the Nubra

e distribution of palaeolakes and present-day lakes in the study area.


river. The alignment of the Shyok river is very

unusual, originating from the Rimo glacier (one of

the tongues of the Siachin glacier), it flows in a SE

direction and at joining the Pangong range it takes a

NW turn and flows parallel to its previous path. The

Shyok flowing in a wide valley suddenly enters a

narrow gorge after Chalunka and then joins the Indus

at Skardu (Pakistan). The Nubra river originating from

the Siachin glacier also behaves like the Shyok, before

Tirit the SE flowing river takes a NW turn on meeting

the river Shyok (Fig. 2). The similarity in the courses

of these two important rivers probably indicates a

series of palaeo fault lines trending NW–SE in

delimiting the upper courses of the rivers. The

importance of the Indus and the Shyok rivers is in

the deposition of a huge thickness of Quaternary

sediments.

3. Aims and methods

In this article, we report our field observations to

show the distribution of the lacustrine (both palaeo

and present-day) deposits along the Indus river and its

tributaries (Shyok and Lamayuru rivers). Reconstruc-

tion of the former lacustrine sections was used to

estimate the sedimentological details, palaeolake

extent and tectonic activity. Our main aim was to

locate the Quaternary deposits and map them so that

palaeoclimate, climate modeling, tectonics and earth

surface processes can be studied. The area between

77–798 longitude and 32–368 latitude (Figs. 1, 2)

forms the focus of the present study.

The radiocarbon dates were obtained on the bulk

samples (muds). The samples were pretreated follow-

ing the procedures as outlined in Rajagopalan et al.

(1978). Generally, black, carbonaceous and charcoal-

rich muds were preferred for radiocarbon dates. Some

samples of the Lamayuru section were analysed for

clay mineralogy with Seifert X-ray diffractometer,

using Cu/Ni radiation at 40 kV/30 mA, from 58 to 3082h. The sediments of the Spituk–Leh and Khalsar

sections were studied for pollen analysis, but the

section was found to be palynologically barren,

perhaps due to oxidation of the pollen or due to

inadequate sampling techniques. Soft sedimentary

deformation structures were studied in the Khalsar

and Tirit sections.

4. Palaeo-lacustrine deposits exposed along the

Indus valley in the study area

Two major palaeo-fluvio-lacustrine deposits (Spi-

tuk–Leh and Lamayuru) are exposed along the Indus

valley, however, all along the Indus valley small

deposits of Quaternary sediments ~N4 m are exposed

in the study area.

4.1. Spituk–Leh section

The Spituk lake probably formed as a result of

damming of the Indus river due to a tectonically

triggered debris avalanche (Fig. 3A, B) and may have

been about N40 km in length and 3–4 km in width

(Fig. 2). Two palaeolacustrine sections—a N22-m-

thick and a 10-m-thick are exposed at Spituk (4 km

downstream of Leh town). There are similar lacustrine

deposits all along the Indus, downvalley from Karu

village (Fig. 2). As much has been eroded, only

patches of lake sediments remain. A large debris flow

deposit marks the downward extremity (Fig. 3C) of

the deposits (just 2–3 km from Spituk) after which the

Indus enters a narrow gorge (N800 m). Perhaps this

debris avalanche was responsible for damming the

Indus, thereby flooding the valley and forming the

lake.

The lacustrine section is exposed by the modern

Indus at an altitude of about 3090 m at Spituk (Fig. 3).

The sediments overlie the Ladakh batholith and are

exposed on the right flank of the Indus river.

Subsequent dissection, faulting and slumping of the

section over the years have caused preservation of

only a part of the original fill. The older and the main

section is N22 m thick and can be divided into seven

lithological units (Units I–VII) of intercalated sand

and clay horizons (Table 1; Fig. 3A(I)). Faulting,

associated with microfaulting, is seen in Unit V. Due

to slumping, a younger deposit (10 m thick) obscures

the base of this section. This 10-m-thick section can

be divided into four lithological (Units I–IV) units of

intercalated sands and clays (Fig. 3A(II); Table 1).

Extensive shattering and jointing is seen on the top

levels, which could be due to weathering.

The country rocks around Spituk are represented

by the Ladakh batholith towards the north and

molasse sediments towards the south. The lacustrine

deposits are confined towards the right flank of the

Fig. 3. (A) Lithology of the Spituk–Leh palaeolake section. (B) Quaternary deposits exposed at Spituk. (C) Debris flow deposits downstream

after the Spituk–Leh section responsible for blocking the Indus river.


Table 1

Lithological section of the Spituk–Leh section

Unit Thickness

(m)

Depth (m) Lithology

Older sequence

Unit I 1.8 0–1.8 Very coarse sand with angular

fragments of the country rock

Unit II 3.1 1.8–3.9 Fine silty sand

Unit III 3.2 3.9–7.1 Clay (bedded)

Unit IV 0.9 7.1–8.0 Sand (medium to fine grained)

Unit V 10.2 8.0–18.2 Clay (bedded) with dark mud

bands at 4 levels; weathered

and shattered at the top levels

Unit VI 1.5 18.2–19.7 Sand (coarse to medium)

Unit VII N2.8 19.7–N22.5 Fine laminated clay

Younger sequence

Unit I 2.3 0–2.3 Coarse sand with angular

gravel of country rock

Unit II 3.4 2.3–5.7 Clay, laminated and crinkled

Unit III 2.6 5.7–8.3 Sand fining upwards

Unit IV 1.7 8.3–10 Clay thinly laminated

Table 2

Radiocarbon chronology of the Spituk–Leh section and Trit section

Sample no. Laboratory no. Level (m) Radiocarbon age

(years BP)

Spituk–Leh section

Younger sequence

RC1 BS-2074 3.8–3.9 33,440F1160

RC2 BS-2084 9.7–9.8 30,980F690

Older sequence

RC3 BS-2840 10.3–10.4 50,790F5370

RC4 BS-2074 22.5–22.6 40,330F1130

Tirit section

TRC1 BS-2188 4.30–4.40 24,970F550


river while they may have been washed away on the

left flank. Table 2 shows the radiocarbon chronology

of the section. According to the radiocarbon ages, an

average sedimentation rate of ~110 cm/1000 years is

calculated for the older section, while the younger

section gives a comparatively higher sedimentation

rate of 232 cm/1000 years. Thus, the base of the lake

is calculated to ~N50,000 years BP.

4.2. Lamayuru section

Lamayuru basin is located at an altitude of 3600 m.

The Lamayuru palaeolake (Fig. 4) has been studied by

many workers (Burgisser et al., 1982; Fort et al.,

1989; Bagati and Thakur, 1993; Bagati et al., 1996;

Kotlia et al., 1997a,b, 1998; Phartiyal, 2000). Accord-

ing to Burgisser et al. (1982) and Fort et al. (1989), the

lake was formed due to the damming of the Lamayuru

river by a tectonically triggered landslide. The sedi-

ments are more than 100 m thick and composed of

carbonaceous muds, sands, silty clays and matrix

supported breccia (Fig. 4A) (Kotlia et al., 1998;

Phartiyal, 2000). The lake valley fill is a product of

complex interplay of lacustrine fluvio-deltaic and

colluvial process. The base of the fluvio-lacustrine

section has been dated to 35,500 ka BP (Kotlia et al.,

1998). The base of the deposits has preserved soft

sedimentary deformational structures (e.g., micro-

faulting, composite contortions, anticlinal/synclinal

features), the presence of which supports the role of

tectonic activity at the time of the lake formation. The

neotectonic movements around Lamayuru are also

evident by the formation of river terraces developed

along the Lamayuru river, the presence of waterfalls

on the western side of Lamayuru village and the

formation of a gorge (600 m) and entrenched

meanders within the coarse of the Lamayuru river.

Various aspects of this section have been studied

(palynology, magnetostratigraphy, micropalaeontol-

ogy). The 105-m lacustrine horizon (Fig. 4B) com-

posed of carbonate-rich strata interlayered with clay/

silt/sand has yielded nine fossiliferrous horizons of

freshwater ostracods and gastropods (Kotlia et al.,

1998). The X-ray diffractograms of all the samples

basically show similar diffraction patterns (Fig. 4A),

only the relative abundance and the intensities of the

peaks vary. The major minerals are Illite, Kaolinite

and Smectite, although Illite is dominant and stable all

through the section. The stable illite values are

suggestive of limited chemical weathering, rapid

erosion and cold climatic conditions. Comparatively

higher values of kaolinite are encountered at 6, 57 and

75 m levels (see Fig. 4A).

Along the Indus valley lacustrine deposits are also

encountered along the river Indus from Khalsi towards

GomaHanu and Dhah—the Aryan tribe villages. Here

the Indus flows in a very narrow course compared to

the Leh valley, however, remnants of Quaternary

deposits are seen perched at the walls of the valley.

Some of the exposures range from ~4 to 10 m in

Fig. 4. (A) Lithology and clay mineralogy of the Lamayuru palaeolake deposit. (B) Lamayuru palaeolake deposit (also called Moonland).

B.Phartiya

let

al./Geomorphology65(2005)241–256

248


thickness and are composed of compact clay, sand and

silt horizons.

5. Palaeo-lacustrine deposits exposed along the

Shyok river in the study area

A huge Quaternary deposit is seen downvalley

from Khardung village in the Shyok valley, in the

northern part of the Khardung La (5645 m) pass. The

approximately 150–200 m thick deposit is exposed by

the Pharkatokpo nala (Fig. 5). All along the Shyok

river the Quaternary deposits are seen perched about

~1000 m above the riverbed, directly over the country

rocks. Most of these exposures are inaccessible.

Similar deposits are visible at the confluence of the

Shyok and the Nubra rivers at Tirit, however,

lacustrine deposits are absent from the Nubra valley.

Among the sections along the Shyok river only two

are well exposed, one at Khalsar and Hundri exposed

by Pharkatokpo nala and Hundri nala, respectively

(Fig. 6A). Other small exposures like at Udmaru, Tirit

villages were also mapped. A huge Quaternary

deposit is found at the base of the Rimo glacier from

where the Shyok river originates (Fig. 2).

5.1. Khalsar section

The Khalsar palaeolake could have been formed by

the damming of the Shyok river by tectonic activity.

We encounter remnants of the palaeolake Quaternary

deposits all along the Shyok valley its upstream

extremity being at Hutung (Fig. 5A). The wide Shyok

valley flows into a narrow course after Chalunka.

Perhaps Quaternary deposits once filled the valley but

in the course of time and due to neotectonic activity

and uplift the deposits got washed away and only their

remnants are now seen perched on the valleys

sidewalls. Sections are however absent from the

Nubra valley where glacial till and outwash plain

deposits are encountered. The Khalsar lake might

have been about 60–80 km long and occupying the

width of the Shyok valley (Fig. 2). The yellowish

lacustrine silts/clays contrast strikingly with the dark

colored Khardung volcanics as we descend in the

Shyok valley. The main section is exposed by the

Pharkatokpo nala (Fig. 5A) on the left bank of the

Shyok. The sediments have a great lateral as well as a

vertical extent (~150 m). The section is basically

made up of clay, silt and sand horizons interlayered

with huge fluvial sequences and debris flows. Fig. 6A

shows the lithology of the section. We could only

study the section in parts therefore a complete

sequence could not be set up. The field sketches of

the lacustrine deposit are shown in Fig. 5B and C. We

can see the four levels of deformation and the contact

of the lacustrine strata with the country rock.

Deformation sediments are composed of alternations

of mud, silts and sand and are restricted to single

stratigraphic layers bounded by undeformed beds

suggesting synsedimentary deformation. The

observed deformation structures are interpreted to be

the products of liquefaction and fluidization of

unconsolidated clay, silt and sand during past earth-

quakes and are evidence of palaeoseismic movements

in the area, which resulted from the release of stress

along the faults. The deformation levels have a finite

lateral extent and are bounded by horizontal layers.

They include convolute structures, microfaulting,

sand dykes, pillow and ball structures and flame

structures (Fig. 6C). Upadhyay (2001, 2003) has also

reported deformation structures in this section. These

features suggest the occurrence of seismic tremors

even after the formation of the lake. Voluminous

amounts of talus and huge bounder beds (~800 m) are

seen below the main section and lenses of the debris

are seen entrapped between the clay and silt layers

(Fig. 5C). Radiocarbon chronology of the four levels

of the deformation levels is in progress.

5.2. Hundri section

A huge Quaternary deposit is exposed at Hundri

perched at about 1000 m above the present riverbed

(Fig. 7). The slumped, tilted mounds (~30 m) of the

deposit have slided down the main section. The main

section is horizontally bedded and consists of clay

mixed with cobbles and pebbles of the country rocks

intercalated by sand and silt layers.

5.3. Tirit section

The 7-m-thick section comprises intercalated sand

and clay layers. Being the result of glaciolacustrine

sedimentation, there is a relative abundance of clastic

deposits in this section. The clay layers are seen with

Fig. 5. (A) Detailed map of the Shyok–Nubra valley showing the distribution of the Quaternary deposits in the Shyok valley. (B) Field sketch of

the Khalsar palaeolake section showing four levels of deformation structures (not to scale). (C) Field sketch of the Khalsar palaeolake deposit

showing the relation to the country rock (Khardung volcanics).


Fig. 6. (A) Lithology of the Khalsar palaeolake section. (B) Photograph showing the Khalsar palaeolake section. (C) Palaeoseismic structures at

Level 1 of the Khalsar palaeolake section.

Fig. 7. Section at Hundri showing the Quaternary sediments.



unoriented fragments of slates and granites of the

country rock. Three levels of soft sedimentary

deformation structures are seen at 1.9-, 3.8- and 4.3-

m levels. An 80-cm-long sand dyke is seen at the 4.3-

m level indicative of liquefaction that must have taken

place due to tectonic disturbance and is indicative of

palaeoseismic activity in the lake basin. (Fig. 8A, B).

The deformation structures at other levels consist of

microfaulting, convolute structures and sand dykes.

The coarse clastic sediments in the section appear to

be a function of its proximity either to a glacier or a

large river. It is most likely that the Siachin glacier

was in close proximity to Shyok–Nubra confluence

during the existence of the lake and was one of the

main sources of water to the Khalsar palaeolake. The

section at 4.30 m level from the base is dated to

24,970F550 years BP. (Fig. 8A; Table 2). Palaeo-

seismic/tectonic activity must have been prevalent in

the region at this time as deformational levels are

encountered in the younger beds of this glaciolacus-

trine profile.

Seeing the remnants of the Quaternary deposits in

the Shyok valley, which are exposed on both sides of

the river, proves that all these sections and many more

Fig. 8. (A) Lithosection of the Tirit section. (B) 80 cm long sa

perched at heights which were inaccessible were a

part of the same lake system. The lake may have been

huge ~60–80 km in length and occupying the whole

valley’s width.

6. Present-day lakes

Pangong Tso is situated at an altitude of 4267 m and

has a catchment area of 28,700 km2, Pangong Tso lake

(Fig. 9A) is the largest lake in the area and occupies a

long, submerged valley which has been dammed to the

west by a ridge formed by tectonic activity associated

with the Karakoram strike slip faulting (Fig. 2) (Huang

et al., 1989) or by a moraine deposit during Last

Glacial Maximim (Norin, 1982). The lake forms the

international boundary between India and China and

its major portion lies in Chinese territory. No work has

been carried out in the lake from the Indian side

although some research has been carried out from

the Tibetan side on mineralogy, radiometric chro-

nology, palynology and isotopic contents of carbo-

nates (Fontes et al., 1996; VanCampo et al., 1996).

During high stands the lake drains into the Shyok

nd dyke at the deformation Level 3 of the Tirit section.

Fig. 9. (A) Pangong Tso lake. (B) The Quaternary deposits exposed towards the eastern part of the diminishing TsoKar lake. (C) The vast More

plain (N40 km in length), perhaps a remnant of a palaeolake. (D) Dying glacial lake at Bhaktpur city.


river (Fig. 2). The lake is a chain of five basins

separated by shallow sills (Hutchinson, 1937; Norin,

1982; Ou, 1981) and which thus evolves as a series

of lakes connected by rivers.

The other major lakes in the area are the

TsoMorari (4500 m), TsoKar (4485 m) (Fig. 9B),

Kyun Tso and the Kyun Tso lakes, the twin lakes

(west of TsoMorari) and Mipdpy Tso, Yusup Tso

and the Kyuie Tso (see Fig. 2). Of these, the

TsoMorari and the TsoKar lakes are very large lakes

compared to the other lakes of this region. However,

in the recent years, the TsoKar lake has shown signs

of receding water levels. The lake, which was

massive, now forms several smaller lakes. A large

plain (More plain; Fig. 9C), about 40 km to the west

of TsoKar, comprises dominantly fanglomerates

capped with bog deposits. Some of the other

shrinking lakes in the area are at the Bhaktpur city,

north of Baracha La pass (4500 m). There, a glacial

lake (Fig. 9D) is now completely filled. The

Quaternary sediments (~20 m) composed of clay,

silt and sand are exposed on the extreme north side.

It is interesting to note that the palaeolake deposits

concentrate towards the western part of the study

area while all the present-day existing lakes occur

towards the eastern side (Fig. 2).

7. Discussion and conclusion

Evidence from the presence of the Quaternary

lacustrine deposits shows that three major lakes

existed in the study region in the Quaternary—

namely, the Spituk–Leh palaeolake and the Lamayuru


palaeolake along the Indus river and the Khalsar

palaeolake along the Shyok river. As much of the lake

sediment is now eroded away, only patches of the

sedimentary records are preserved. The Indus river

was dammed about N50,000 years BP by a debris

avalanche downstream of Spituk that resulted in

flooding of the basin up to Karu forming a lake of

~N40 km in length and 3–4 km wide. Damming of the

Indus river by massive landslides (Abbott, 1849;

Becher, 1959) and records of catastrophic flooding

in the Peshawar basin due to breaching of these

landslide dams (Burbank, 1983) suggest that such

events are not geologically uncommon in this region.

The Lamayuru lake was formed due to the damming of

the Lamayuru river by a tectonically triggered land-

slide according to Burgisser et al. (1982) and Fort et al.

(1989), more than 35 ka BP (Kotlia et al., 1997a,b,

1998). The lake fill is a product of a complex interplay

of lacustrine, fluvio-deltaic and colluvial processes.

These two lakes of the Indus valley must have existed

until the time of human colonization in the Ladakh

valley as is evident from the wall paintings at Alchi

(halfway between Lamayuru and Leh) considered to

be the oldest in Ladakh, depicting boats on a lake

(Burgisser et al., 1982, Pandey, 1975). The Khalsar

palaeolake was 60–80 km long and occupied the

Shyok valley. These palaeolakes must have been like

the present-day lakes existing in the region, such as the

TsoMorari, TsoKar and the KyunTso lakes. The

Pangong Tso lake, which presently is a chain of five

basins separated by shallow sills (Hutchinson, 1937;

Norin, 1982; Ou, 1981), would have been connected

to the Khalsar palaeolake lake in the past. Palaeo-

seismic activity had been prevalent as is evident from

the deformation structures in the Khalsar and Tirit

sections. Deformation sediments are composed of

alternations of mud, silts and sand and are interpreted

to be the products of liquefaction and fluidization of

unconsolidated mud, silt and sand during past earth-

quakes and are evidence of palaeoseismic movements

in the area which was a result of the movements or the

release of stress along the faults. The major faults

present in the study area are the Indus Suture and the

Karakoram Faults running NW–SE. The activation of

the Karakoram fault in the Shyok suture zone is

recorded at 13.9F0.1 Ma (Bhutani et al., 2003),

however, these fault lines must have been active

during the Quaternary especially at ~50,000 years BP,

35,000 years BP and 25,000 years BP. The tectonic

movement at 40,000–50,000 years BP is also recorded

from the south central Kumaun (Valdiya, 1986, 1989,

1993; Singhvi et al., 1994; Kotlia et al., 1997c; Kotlia

and Phartiyal, 1999) and Nepal Himalaya. Voluminous

amounts of scree coming down from the mountains,

huge fanglomerates on both side of the valleys, deep

gorges, narrow valleys, waterfalls, uplift and the

receding of the glaciers form some of the evidence

for Quaternary neotectonic activity. Today the region

experiences rock falls, tremors, landslides and debris

avalanches time and again as is evident from the

information given by the local residents. This could be

a combined affect of neotectonics and physical

weathering and erosion due to extremes of temperature

and absence of vegetation cover. We notice a specific

distribution of palaeolakes and present-day lakes

which can be attributed to east–west extension of the

Indian plate after the collision and uplift or the rotation

of the Indian plate during the Quaternary times. The

dying lake at Bhaktpur city (north of Baracha La pass)

and the extinct lakes could have resulted from the

combined effects of tectonic activity and climate

change. Stable illite values throughout the Lamayuru

section are suggestive of limited chemical weathering,

rapid erosion and the cold climate in the region,

although slightly favorable conditions were prevalent

at 6, 57 and 75 m levels of the section as shown by the

XRD results. As long climatic records from the marine

sediments and ice covers are now available, one

expects and looks for sharper signals of climate

change from continental situations. We are now

working on generating a long and complete continen-

tal record of climate change from these well-preserved

Quaternary sections on the roof of the world and hope

that our further continuing research in the area will

allow us to provide climate data and a chronology of

palaeoseismic tremors through Quaternary times.

Acknowledgments

Our sincere thanks to the Director, BSIP, Lucknow

for the encouragement. The XRD facilities were

provided by Geology Department, Lucknow Univer-

sity, Lucknow, India. We are grateful for critical

reviews and helpful suggestions provided by Dr.

Lewis A. Owen and Dr. A. Mather. We are thankful


to the field team for the help during the 2 months

fieldwork.

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