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Introduction to Social Work

2.1 Methods in Social Work Practice

2.1.1 Methods of social work are grouped as

2.1.2 Social Case Work

2.1.3 Social work agencies have three major factors that determinetheir classification.

2.1.4 Importance of casework process is as follows

2.1.5 Casework Process

2.1.6 Problem-solving processes following factors are visible.

2.1.7 Principles of casework

2.2 Social Group Work

2.2.1 Social Group (Working with groups) Examples of existing groupsin Afghanistan

2.2.2 Aim and objectives of the Group

2.2.3 Principles Social Group Work

2.2.4 Social Group

2.2.5 Types of group

2.2.6 Characteristics of Primary Group

2.2.7 Difference between Primary and Secondary Group

2.2.8 Skills of social group worker

2.2.9 Group Dynamics and Stages of Group Dynamics

2.2.10 Social groups, traditional groups etc

2.2.11 Shura Jirga as an example of Group Work (Conflict Resolution)

2.2.12 Child Self helps Groups

2.2.13

Understanding Groups

2.3 Community Development

2.3.1 Community

2.3.2 Essentials of a community

2.3.3 Community Development

2.3.4

Power dynamics, conflict and its management in community

2.3.5 Principles of Community Development

2.3.6 Community development: Concept and practice of self-help

2.3.7 Community mobilization and community participation

(including existing practices)

2.3.8 Children as social change agents—child participation, childconsultations

2.4 Social Research

2.4.1 Importance of Social Research

2.4.2 Social research is important for the following reasons

2.4.3 Research Process

2.4.4 Types of Social Research

2.4.5

Research / survey techniques

2.4.6 Research may be more beneficial in the following areas

2.4.7 Tools of research

2.5 Social welfare administration

2.5.1 Task of Administration

2.5.2 Administration is a group progress

2.5.3 Agency programme starts with General terms

2.5.4 Gives definite shape to principles

2.5.5 Major Aspects of Administration

2.5.6 Importance

2.5.7 Social Action/ Intervention Social Action—concept, purpose andprocess

2.5.8 Intervention

2.6 Social action

2.6.1 Methods of Social Action

2.6.2 Process of social action (Steps in social research)

Methods in Social Work Practice (Primary methods and SecondaryMethods)

Social Work methods are purely professional knowledge, not barrowedfrom any other disciplines. It is also called social work practice.Theses methods and application differentiate social work and manyothers social sciences that base mere on theoretical knowledge. Forinstance, sociology, psychology, anthropology and philosophy all lackspecific methods like social work although having well advancedtheory.

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2.1.1 Methods of social work are grouped as

1.Primary method: are that systematic and planned way of performing anactivity, which is fundamental to Social Work. These are just likeroots of social work, which give birth to other braches.

2.Secondary method: these are secondary because it facilitates theprimary methods. There are also the derivatives of primary methods.

Primary method:

1.Social Case Work

2.Social Group Work

3.Social Organization and development

Secondary method:

1.Social Research

2.Social Action

3.Social Welfare Administration

Primary method:

1.Social Case Work

2.1.2 SOCIAL CASE WORK (Working with Individual child and adult)

Social Case Work is one of the basic methods of professional socialwork which is concerned to help and assist individuals, in findingsolutions to their problems.

Social Work has been defined by:-

Mary Richmond a social worker and a case worker practitioner, whosebrilliant work in social diagnosis was the first and remainsoutstanding effort in case work process (a problem solving process).

M. Richmond in 1917 defined social casework “the art of bringingabout better adjustment in social relationships of individual, i.e.men, women and children”.

Then again in 1922 Mary Richmond identified that social casework “isthe process which develops personality through adjustment consciouslyeffected, individual by individual-between men- and their socialenvironment”.

Towle in 1947 defined social casework as “a method by which certainspecial services are made available in areas of unmet needs”.

Helen Haris Perlmam in 1957, in her book social casework (a problemsolving process) has discussed the dynamic components, which make upthe casework situation.

Helen Perlmam defined social casework as “a process used by certainhuman welfare agencies to help individuals to cope more effectivelywith their problems in social functioning”.

Charlotte Towle and Helen Haris Permam, both being the teachers ofsocial work, worked on the faculty of the school of social servicesadministration of the University of Chicago. Both had a deep thinkingabout social case work and had made a valuable contribution to socialwork profession

As mentioned above eminent social work professionals have attemptedand produced valuable definitions of social casework practice. Likeothers a struggle is made to contribute some clarity to the existingdefinitions within our culture.

This brings forth a new definitions by the authoress that socialcasework is “a process of helping individuals to utilize the availableresources individual or group material or non material in their socialset up for better adjustment”

Through social case work is taken as a helping process but it shouldbe kept in mind that a person under stress has to use his own effortsto cope with the situation under the guidance of a professionalperson. Hence it is an art of helping individuals to work outbetterment develops personality and tackle the existing situations inan effective way.

Life of a man has become very complicated. The relationship on thebasis of requirements-impersonal relationship- with rigid and boundedattitude has made the life more complexed. The problems, which an

average man is facing in a society, are the outcome of ones’ personaland environmental factors, which leads to mal-functioning and mal-adjustment.

2.1.2 Components of social casework

The components, which develop a social casework situation, are:

1.---------Person-------------- under stress

2.---------Problem------------situation effecting

3.---------Place---------------agency with resources

4.---------Professional-------skilled man with knowledge and practice

5.---------Process-------------an effort and a way towards solution

Social casework components or basic elements being the nucleus of itspractice are described as:

1.Who is a person in social work practice?

The person is a man, woman, or child (irrespective of age) anyone whofinds or needs some help and assistance in his social-emotionalliving. This person is known as a client, the moment he starts seekinghelp and becomes a part of social casework practice. Hence a clientcan be defined as a person under stress because of his limitations.

1.What is the Problem?

Problem is a situation, which arises from man’s surrounding and actsas an obstacle and has attacked the adequacy of his efforts to workeffectively.

The problem may be of two conditions:-

------ Intra personal problem

------ Inter personal problem

Intra personal problem is the situation, which affects only one man,and the impact of the situation is being felt by only one particularman (client)

Inter personal problem is the situation which effects two or morethan two individuals (a group)

2.1.2The situations or problems which a man suffers in his social setup are:-

1.Physical Problem

2.Physiological Problem

3.Psychological Problem

4.Social Interaction Problem

5.Economic Problem

Physical Problem of a man is related to his environment, surroundingand set up. The problems, which a person faces in his environment, canbe his or her housing problem, crowded places or slums, drainagesanitation, provisions of school, medical care and recreation.

Physiological problem is related to the physic or organic disorder ofthe people i.e. a person may be having a problem of adjustment bybeing physically disabled, crippled, blind, deaf or impaired hearing,dumb or speech disorder.

Psychological problem is the problem of adjustment in his environmentdue to his personality disorder. The problem is of complexities i.e.inferiority complex or superiority complex, it can be the outcome ofbroken homes, in-resolved Oedipus conflict, tensions, stresses,aggression, aggressive behavior, resulting in anxiety, depression,phobia, psycho-pathic behavior and psycho-somatic disorder.

Social Interactional problem is the problem relationship individualto individual- individual to group and group-to-group or institution-to-institution. Every individual being a member of the society has tolive an interdependent life for which he has to live a life ofobligations, which is approved by the cultural network. If there isany hindrance in performing these obligations positively then an

imbalance continues in social life of a man, which ends in mal-adjustment or social hindrances, and is known as social problems.

Economic Problem is the financial limitations of a man when he canjot keep a balance in his unlimited desires and limited resources.This gap results in two extremes i.e. haves and has nots- thisfinancial discrimination increases other social hindrances andsituation which upsets the life of the man.

1.Which is the functional place for help?

Functional place in social work practice is known as an agency- anorganization, which provides assistance- material or non-material, tothe person who is seeking help.

An agency gives services of material aid, situational change,counseling, and psychological help.

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2.1.3 Social work agencies have three major factors that determinetheir classification.

1.Their source of support

2.Their source of professional authority

3.Their special function and area of concern.

On these bases three types of agencies are found functioning in thesociety.

Government agency, an agency that is run, supported and belongs tothe Government. It is started by the state for the welfare of humanbeings when its need is realized.

Private Agency is an agency of the people. When the people becomeaware of the situation and they try to find out a way to its solutionthen they get organized in a group form, with division of labour andwith a support of donations. Hence this organization when becomefunctional is known as a private agency or a self supportedorganization.

Semi-government Agency. It is an organization which primarily gets astarts on the basis of volunteer services as a self supported agencybut latter on the basis of its good functioning, with positiveachievement of its objectives, with a systematic planning,organization and functioning it receive some financial and moralsupport from the government on regular basis. Hence, when it becomes acombination of two setups then it is called a semi-government agency.

1.Who is the Professional Person, Who will help?

A professional person is the one with knowledge and skill. He is knownas the social caseworker and is a representative of his profession andagency. He has the obligations towards.

1. His profession

2. His agency

3 His client

4 His own self

As a professional person he must know and be committed with feelingto the philosophy that guides the practice of social work profession.This means that the social case worker practices in the convictionthat individual human welfare is the purpose and he is to work withdedication.

The worker has to enhance the physical, social and psychologicalwelfare of the client, separately or collectively, which is given by aprocess, which combines certain professional methods and behaviors.

1.The Process

Case Work process is essentially is one of the problem solvingmethods.

The intent of case work process is to engage the person himself bothin working on and in coping with the one or several problems thatconfront him and to do so by such means as many stand him in good ashe goes forward in living.

2.1.4 Importance of casework process is as follows: -

Provision of a therapeutic relationship that sustains the client andaffects the nature of his emotional relation his problem

Provision of systematic and flexible way by which the client maydiscuss and work over the nature of his problem, his relation to itand its potential solution

Provision of such assistance which will exercise and implementclients’ adaptive action upon his problem

2.1.5 Casework process

Problem solving process contains three essential operations or phases,which are interlinked and intertwined i.e.

•Study,

•Diagnosis/assessment and

•Treatment.

Study phase is the facts collection time. Such facts may be ofobjective reality and objective reality and subjective reaction, ofcause and effect, of relatedness between the person (client) and hisproblem.

In study process the facts and conditions related to his presentsituation and immediate past of the client is tired to be tracedwithin his internationalism.

Diagnosis or Assessment of the facts is an important phase. Itprovides an opportunity to the worker to find out an answer to thequestion-what is the problem?

That is to say-the facts are turned over, probed into andreorganized-examined in their relationship to one another, searchedfor their significance.

It is the phase, which builds up a connection between facts of drivesand of goals, of obstacles and of aims.

In short diagnosis is thinking about and organizing facts into ameaningful goal-pointed explanation.

The third and final phase is treatment in problem solving process. Itis the decision to take up some over action to change person’sresponsive relationship to the problem. Treatment is theimplementation of conclusions as to what and how of action upon theproblem.

2.1.6. Problem-solving processes following factors are visible.

1.The client becomes the subject to the case workers’ efforts

2.Involvement of the client is positive and responsive through out theprocedure

3.It is the conscious involvement of both the case worker and theclient to make the process a success

4.In problem solving activity, treatment (action plan) depends onstudy and diagnosis phases

5.Planning of an action, involves all the executive and integrativefunctions of the ego. Because problem solving lies in the use ofoperations parallel to those of the ego.

In summary, then, the casework process is a problem solving processthat employs orderly, systematic methods, which are a base to anyeffective thinking and feeling towards action. Since it deals with theproblems of individual’s social living, hence, their solutions musttake place by and through the persons involved in those problems. Forthis very purpose, social casework process/method attempts to help itsclient to perceive and appraise himself and his situation and mobilizehim to act in consonance with his understanding.

It also provides an emotionally freeing and sustaining climate, whichprovides a relief to the client from his stress and tension.

The worker, deeply attuned to the individual (client), offers supportand stimulus to exercise his actual, latent and unknown powers andmeans to more from conflict to resolution- from stalemate to decisionand action.

2.1.7. Principles of casework

The technical principles of case work gives an effective way ofreaching case work goals and develop its practice as the human naturechanges with time.

Thus the principles to guide the caseworker in practice are not onlywhen he is in client-worker relations, but also in the initialinquiring phase of the casework method. Important principles to bepractices in social casework. Methods are as follows:-

1.Principle of acceptance:- The client and the worker when meet forthe first time for problem solving-both view this contact by twodifferent approaches.

The client: approach the meeting or contact by the damaging effects ofinvolvement in a stressful situation.

The Worker: strengthen the contact by professional know how andexperience.

A relationship between two persons (client and Worker) begins withunequal situations of security and power.

In initial meeting the caseworker tries to develop rapport (contact)by having generalized discussions on society, human beings, generalproblem and the limitations of the people. This gives the general viewof the client’s behavior and personality. The determinants of client’sbehavior in a stressful situation and the possibilities of modifyingany element require the positive attitude and interest on the part ofthe investigator in the person involved because the main concern ofcontact between the worker and the client is about the person, theproblems and its solution. For this purpose a bi-lateral or two waysapproach of acceptance is expected.

Worker------------------ Acceptance-----------------------client

In casework setting, the worker approaches the client with a genuinelywarm interest, with concern about its determinants and theirmodifiability. The caseworker meets the client, accepting him as aperson, who is in trouble. Acceptance is the opposite of denial orrefusal. The caseworker accepts the client as a person with problem,

rather problematic personnel. The caseworker tries to understand andmanifest a positive and undivided interest in what the client does andsays about him or her and others in a particular situation.

The caseworker tries maximum to understand the relevant forces behindhis behavior. The caseworker’s accepting approach to the client shouldbe a response from the client of counter acceptance. Because theclient-case worker relationship is, at least tentatively,characterized by mutual acceptance i.e. Rapport-a positiveprofessional relationship of the client and the social caseworker.

2. Principle of communication:- Communication in social case workmeans interaction between the worker and the client. Both may agree ordisagree about the issues they discuss, but if they are trulycommunicating, then each must understand what the other means what hesays and does.

Communication in social case work interview takes place in to ways:-

1.Through words-discussion or relating the problem

2.Through feelings and expressions

The social workers should be capable of co-relating the words and theexpressions of the client to know the real situation of the client.

It is assumed that in his initial contact and communication, theclient explains the difficulties in his current situation. He explainsthe conditions not always as clearly as he perceives them, but ratheras fully as he believes the worker’s presence allow him to recountthose. The worker must identify himself as an available receptive, asympathetic and non-blaming listener before he starts his session withthe client and he has to prove it from his deed. The worker that hehas to work within the criteria and schedule of the agency should alsokeep it in mind, therefore no undue promises should be made.

The principle of communication in casework practice calls forclarification and re-clarification of the conditions under which twopeople engage in a professional rapport (client-case workerrelationship).

Hence the client as a whole may be considered under a stressfulcondition. Therefore in the principle of communication in socialcasework practice is that the workers contribute to role-clarificationof the client.

3. Principle of individualization:- In social case work practice aclient is the man, or individual a human being, having worth anddignity. A person, with good and bad habits, some qualities anddrawbacks, with some capabilities and limitations. It is thesituation, which makes him dependent and independent, which bringshurdles for him or her in their social functioning.

The principle of individualization stipulates that the caseworkertries to relate and help them as an individual-as a person in asituation involving a unique combination of biological, social andpsychological forces.

It helps the caseworker to assess the client’s personality within theabove-mentioned forces and to see how he or she with their unknowncapabilities can solve their problem. Therefore individualization ofthe client in a particular situation helps in rendering effectivelythe services and the treatment (action plan).

4. Principle of participation:- The dictionary meaning of the wordparticipation is to take part. In social case work practices where theprofessional worker and the client are in contact-rapport-for thesolution of the problem of the client and an effort in made to helpthe client to regain a personal-social balance that is satisfying andenduring. The client must be involved as an active participant in theprocedure of solving the problem. A ready-made solution for a clientreacts his personality and makes him more dependent.

Through active participation and involvement of the client inprofessional process will reinforce the feelings of inadequacy.Primary goal of problem solving process in case work practice is tostrengthen the ego of the client, to increase realization of facts andthis can only be possible by the active and encouraged participationof the client. It increases client’s self determination-capability ofdecision making in regard to many elements in the stressful situation.

Principle of participation in fact helps in increasing insight ofclient within his own self-so that he may know the facts related tothe problem- to its solution with his personal and agency resourcesunder the guidance of a professionally skilled person.

5. Principles of confidentiality: - literary meaning of the wordconfidentiality means law of keeping secret. In social work practiceit is one of the most important and ethical principles. This principleagain includes to the worker’s obligation to preserve confidentialinformation given by the client, which is his (client) basic right.

The social caseworker tries to get information about personal, andgroup life in order to have a clear understanding of the problem indepth. In fact the client is a direct source of information for theworker and face-to-face contact provides more assistance to the workerto know the feelings of the person in relation to his problem, whichmay be of great help in preparing the treatment plan.

The worker assures the client about his professional obligations. Inpractice, it means that the worker has to take his job seriously andwould not discuss the maters of the client in public and socialcircles. In professional relationship the client is generally expectedto remain protected, within the law of community (social norms) andstate, gossips or discussing the case of the client sometimes becausea failure. Hence it’s the utmost duty of the social caseworker topractice the principle of confidentiality as his rigorous guide. Thispractice increases competence of the worker as a trust worthy person.On the other hand it does not mean that the worker is the onlyapproach of the client-having problem solving strategies. In fact asocial worker is a part-an important unit-in the problem solving team.Therefore at times the social worker has to take help of other teammembers including medical doctors, lawyers, psychologists andpsychiatrists according to the nature of the client’s problem.

2.2. Social Group Work:

Human being is a social animal; they can’t live with out the socialinteraction, and community life. Social interaction is one of theindirect ways learning by doing. A child learns with in his own groupand also takes knowledge from the groups that are child focused or anyothers. The social groups working for the children play important rolein individual child life. Group first assesses the ability andweakness of a child and then relates him /her accordingly to othergroups with in the child reach in a school, community or aninstitution. The establishment of satisfying group life outside thefamily is pre- requisite for effective social living, which everyindividual must accomplish though out his life. To some children itcomes naturally for others it may have to be developed and foster. Sogroup addresses those who need care for the development of social

habit that further help them in social development. Mutual give andtake policy enables the members of the child group and assistance fromthe outside group to evolved mutually satisfying social relationshipamong themselves. An early childhood good experience being with familyor assisted by the groups developed positive attitude of the childrenthat goes along with his/her life. So group intervention aim is togive a constructive and satisfying group experience to children andindividuals. The children are likely to adopt constructive and goodbehaviors and approaches also in other sphere of life.

Social casework is not the whole of social work. All human beings donot live alone. They grow up in families, tribes; communities’ etc.group life is basic for every human being.

Another important area of social work is social group work, whichdeals with the individuals as a member of the group. Some definitionsof social group work are:

1.Social group work is that method of social work, which helpsindividuals in the improvement of their social functioning and theachievement of desirable social goals.

2.Social group work is the method which helps the individuals toenhance the social functioning through purposeful group experience andcope more effectively with their problems.

3.According to H. B. Trecker, group work is “A process and a methodthrough which individual groups in social agency setting are helped bya worker to relate themselves to other people and to experience growthopportunities in accordance with their needs and capacities”.

Social group worker does not concentrate on individual alone. It helpsin educational development and cultural growth of the members of thegroups. The worker is interested in helping the individuals throughguided group interaction

2.2.1 Social Group (Working with groups) Examples of existing groupsin Afghanistan

Groups in Afghanistan are mostly based on ethnicity, kinship,Inheritance, religion, geographical demarcation, historicalperspectives etc. Such groups are deep rooted and strong. It alsobecomes an individual identity with in a community. Appearance,clothing, resemble certain ethnic group. Language is another visiblesymbol of recognition for a layman to differentiate the identity of anindividual and group. But some time for certain cause people cometogether to achieve specific goal and objectives. These are mostlylimited to the achievement of that goal and lose its integrity soonafter that. Traditionally speaking Jirga/shura are some common namesthat exist sine time immemorial in the afghan community. Politicalparties were present in different form affiliated with one or anothersocial /political mandate. Religious groups play vital role in the waragainst Russia. For the reconstruction and rehabilitation ofAfghanistan new groups came into existence. National and internationalNGO’s came forward for advocacy, needs, rights, and welfare of theafghan community. There focus was again according to their mandate.Some started work for children, other for women, health, education,human rights, poverty alleviation and so on. All such NGO working forthe same cause with in Afghanistan developed groups, consortium,commission, etc. UN sister agencies started their work from their owngroups. Local male female organized themselves under different nameand groups. Government is making work hard to develop differentcommission, bodies, institution to address the needs and rights ofvulnerable groups. Community organized themselves in committees,shura’s, and Jirga, to implement, help and sustain the projectsinitiated by different organization. For further development group,like mentally retarded, physically handicapped, scouts, child tochild, Girl Guide, were established at different level.

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2.2.2 Aim and objectives of the Group,

The success of the group work depends on the creative abilities,skill, and attitude of the worker. Workers conduct him in such a wayas to enable to group to achieve its objectives. The plays, the roleof helper, and enabler. Cementing force, keeping the group intact, andgiving their activities proper direction with the help of group. Theirfurther job is to stimulate the initiative, the group consciousnessand self-direction in the group. In the words of H.B.Trecker: “socialgroup work is not only a matter of what the worker does but also amatter of how the worker does it and why does it that way. Truly, thekey to social group work is the worker. The worker is an, ‘enabler’rather than the ‘group leader’. The are interested in seeing to itthat groups are helped to a greater independence and self reliance.”

Social group work has many objectives to help the individuals of thegroups and community. The following are some of them:

1.To teach the individuals to live and work together and toparticipate in the activities of a group for their intellectual,emotional and psychological growth.

2.To solve problems of adjustment by developing personality ofindividuals through group process.

3.To give opportunity to those who have potentialities of leadership.

4.To make the best use of leisure time of the people.

5.To learn the division of Labour and specialization of roles.

6.Group therapy helps patients who are in need of physical, mental andemotional adjustment.

7.To prepare the people for social change.

8.To transmit knowledge, experience and skill to one another.

9.To encourage the individual as member of the group to express theirfeelings, ideas and desires.

10.To reduce isolation.

11.To create group feelings and sense of belongings in the members ofthe group.

12.To establish social relationship among them.

In short, social group work provides a training ground for democraticlife. Thus, social group work has proved equally beneficial toindividuals, groups and community.

Purpose of the Group

The broad objectives of the group work are similar to social workprofession as a whole. Social group work tries to enrich communitylife by helping individual learn how to take responsibility for theirown behavior and how to take to become participating members of thegroup. Thus the member of the group become socially mature and learnshow to work as a team. The programmes must be based on social needsand support of the community. Participation in-group activities leadto their personal satisfaction and social advancement. Group workseeks to provide opportunities for planned group experiences that areneeded by all people. As a specialized technique, group work seeks toprovide a group setting in place of old institutions like joint familyand neighbor hood etc. that once used to provide a healthy group lifeexperience so essential for the development of an integratedpersonality. Here the object of social group work is to provide a kindof experience in a controlled environment, which enables the membersto participate freely and effectively in varying group situation.

Social group provides a training ground for democratic life .Thegroup members imbibe democratic values and get experience inconducting themselves in a democratic way. Democratic experience haseducative and liberalizing effects on the participants, which islikely to make them democratic in outlook. Group work has a preventiveaspect also. The problem of delinquency (criminal behavior) is mostdue to poor unhealthy conditions. So that it is important to startpreventive programme in order to check the occurrence of severalsocial problems. Group work activity is integral part of suchprogramme. Prevention is better than cure. So group work has provedequally beneficial to individual, grouped and communities.

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2.2.3 Principles of Social Group Work:

The group worker must understand the basic principles of social groupwork and must be guided by them in his professional practice.Principles are guiding statements that have come from experience orresearch. Their generalizations are based upon what has been observedgood practice with groups in different situations.

The purpose of these principles is to guide the group worker whoneeds knowledge of the individuals and groups’ behavior and socialconditions as well as the ability to work efficiently with the groupof people.

H. B Trecker in his masterpiece “Social Group Work – Principles andPractice”, has given the following principles of social group work:

Principle of planned group formation: The group is the basic unitthrough which individuals are helped to grow physically, socially,culturally and psychologically. The first task of the group worker isto form a group. The group workers should be aware about the needs andresources of the group and also their potentialities limitations andthe cultural values of the areas.

Principle of helping or enabling function: The function of the groupworker is helping or enabling function. So, he should solve hisproblems on self-help basis. The objective should be according to thewishes and capabilities and help them for the solution of theirproblems within their own resources through self-help basis.

Principle of purposeful relationship: Group work method requires theworker to form purposeful relationship with group members, which meansthat they should focus on the needs of the people, which are expressedby the members. We can achieve such relationship through self-knowledge and self disciplined.

Principle of organization: The organization of the group should beflexible, should be adjustable in various situations. It should changewith the needs of the group and according to the change situations forthe smooth function of the group.

Principle of self decision or planning: The group must be helped tomake its own decision, its own planning and programmes and the membersshould take the responsibility according to their ability.

Principle of programme acceptance: the members of the group accordingto their capabilities, educational level, needs, experience and socio-economic level should accept Programme of the group. These programmesshould progress in relation to the developing capacity of the group.

Principle of people: Without acceptance this programme by the peopleit cannot give the good results. The social group worker shouldconvince the people to accept this programme, which is aimed at thesolution of their felt needs. They people should accept the advice tosolve their mutual respect and love increases the good relationships,which helps in understanding of social group worker and group and forthe solution of the problems and for the development of the programme.

Principle of best utilization of resources: The group and communityresources should be utilized in relation to the group and individualneeds for the benefits of the group as a whole.

Principle of individualization: The individual should be convinced ina way that he should feel to contribute to the group welfare. Howeverthe individual and the group should feel for the development and newchanges in the community.

Principle of evaluation: The continuous evaluation of the group workprocess and the progress is essential. The group worker shouldevaluate the progress in accordance with the prescribed standard. InPakistan, social group work method is used in community centers,hospitals, and educational and other institutions. The principles ofsocial group work can successfully apply not only in the limitedfields but also in the larger fields of social welfare and even inworking with other political, social and religious group.

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2.2.4 Social Group:

Social group in the ordinary sense means that any collection of morethan one individual, but sociologically it is a collection ofindividuals interacting with each other under a recognized structure.

A social group is always motivated by some common goals and interests,characterized by some rules and regulations (formal and informal),which regulates the behavior of its members.

Ogburn defines it: The group in a statement “We feelings”. Wefeelings mean that the members of the group develop basic responsesfor each other.

The following are some of the essential characteristics, whichdistinguish a group from a non-group: 1.Collection of individuals

2.Psychological interaction.

3.Common goals and interaction.

4.Group norms.

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2.2.5 Types of group:

There are two types of groups:

1. Primary and 2. Secondary

1. Primary Group:

It is a small group in which a small number of persons come in todirect contact with one another. They meet face to face for mutualhelp, companionship and discussion of common questions. They live inthe presence and thought of one another. The characteristics can beachieved in the following ways:

1.Face to face interaction among the members.

2.Mutual aid among themselves

3.Realization of common problems among the group members.

The primary group is the primary in the sense that the members withinthe group are emotionally, attitudes, ideas and habits of individualdevelop with this group and these things depend upon:

1.Frequency of interaction among themselves.

2.The duration of interaction among the members.

3.Intensity of social context.

4.Common object of interaction among the members.

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2.2.6 Characteristics of Primary Group:

Intimate feelings and close relationship. In a primary group, wedirectly cooperate with our fellows and our relations with them aremore personal.

A group may be called primary because it has exerted an influence inthe early life of a man that is before other groups could influencehim. Family in this sense is a primary group because its influenceover the child at the earliest. In a primary group, men do the samething together with the cooperation of each other. Their relations areface to face to achieve their common interest. All the membersparticipate in this process and they share common experience and havea common aim. These may be a division of Labour in primary groups.

Thus in a primary group:

1.There is physical closeness among members.

2.The members have common aims.

3.The relations of the members are an end in them.

4.The relations of the members are spontaneous.

5.Members have personal relations.

6.There is continuity in the relations of the members.

2. Secondary Group:

Secondary group is one, which is large in size; city, political partyand labour union etc. Here the human contacts are undefined andsuperficial. They have direct influence over the others. They knowpersonally only few members and their function. Here cooperation withhis fellow work is indirect. According to Paul Landis “Secondarygroups are those that are relatively casual and impersonal in theirrelationship. Relationship in them is usually complicated rather thanmutually helpful”.

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2.2.7 Difference between Primary and Secondary group:

The following are the main points of difference between primary andsecondary group:

Size: Primary group is small in size as well as in area. Themembership is limited to small number and usually confined to adefined area. It is not spread over the wide world. In a secondarygroup, the membership and area is large. The membership is scatteredin different parts of the world.

Types of structure: Every secondary group is regulated on formalrules. A formal authority is set up with designated powers and clear-cut division of labour in which function of each other is specified inrelation to the function of all the rest fellows. Primary group isbased on informal structure. The members participate in the sameprocess. There is spontaneous adjustment in the working of the group.There is no formal and detail. The structure is simple in the primarygroup.

Kind of co-operation: In a primary group, the members directlycooperate with each other, participating in the same process. They sit

together, discuss together, play together and decide together. In asecondary group, the cooperation with the fellow members is indirect.The members cooperate only to achieve the group’s objectives. It isnot the process that binds them together but the object to whoseattainment, they unite. They do not work together but one work for theother.

Relationship: In the primary group, the relationships of the membersare direct and personal. They meet face to face and develop directcontacts. In the secondary group, the relationships are not direct andpersonal because they do not live in same place and thought of oneanother. They just work with each other and see each other.

2.2.8 Skills of social group worker

The worker in the group have different role to play at a time, beforestarting an activity he must be aware the group dynamics, interaction,environment and interest of the group to achieve the set goal andobjectives. For that he must have some skill in hand in order toimplant the project according the expectation of, first group andsecond the community for him/her if working. He /she must be skilfulto gain first the confidence of the group using his/her professionalskill. He must also try to bring cohesion and unity on the part ofother members in the group. Needs, resources with in-group should beclear to the group worker, to mobilize the group with prevailingresources for a particular problem. He/she must define his/her ownrole with further work with the group members for participation anddeveloping leadership. There are positive and negative feelingdeveloped when the group interacts. The group worker must be aware ofhis/her own feeling to control, and helping group to share positive/negative feeling, for clarification and smooth group work. The groupworker must have skill in program development and guide others with inthe group to bring their input to make it participatorier on the partof the group. Utilizing the group own resources in way that it notleads to inter group rivalry. All resources should be used on commonconsensus of the group. He also has the skill how to use the agencyand community resources for a particular project. As the imbalancecreate dependency and lack of ownership. Skill of evaluation andfollow up is another important skill for the group worker to evaluatethe internal and external factors for the betterment of the group.

Impartiality and trust is the core of group work. If the group workerand the group accept each other in totality, the group work processwill be more affective. Skill of caseworker is also important for thegroup worker to deal with individual problem of the group member incase of any disagreement.

2.2.9 Group Dynamics and Stages of Group Dynamics

The interaction and interpersonal relationships between members of agroup and the ways in which groups form, function, and dissolve. Groupdynamics is an important aspect of successful teamwork and is a factorinfluencing the outcome of any form of group activity, includingtraining courses. Issues of power, influence, and interpersonalconflict all affect dynamics and group performance. One means ofhelping people to create positive group dynamics is sensitivitytraining

Tuchman’s forming storming norming performing model - original model

The progression is:

1.Forming

2.Storming

3.Norming

4.Performing

Features of each phase:

Forming - stage 1

High dependence on leader for guidance and direction. Little agreementon team aims other than received from leader. Individual roles andresponsibilities are unclear. Leader must be prepared to answer lots

of questions about the team's purpose, objectives and externalrelationships. Processes are often ignored. Members test tolerance ofsystem and leader. Leader directs (similar to Situational Leadership®'Telling' mode).

Storming - stage 2

Decisions don't come easily within group. Team members vie forposition as they attempt to establish themselves in relation to otherteam members and the leader, who might receive challenges from teammembers. Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertaintiespersist. Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles.The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distractedby relationships and emotional issues. Compromises may be required toenable progress.

Norming - stage 3

Agreement and consensus is largely forms among team, who respond wellto facilitation by leader. Roles and responsibilities are clear andaccepted. Big decisions are made by group agreement. Smaller decisionsmay be delegated to individuals or small teams within group.Commitment and unity is strong. The team may engage in fun and socialactivities. The team discusses and develops its processes and workingstyle. There is general respect for the leader and some of leadershipis more shared by the team. Leader facilitates and enables (similar tothe Situational Leadership® 'Participating' mode).

Performing - stage 4

The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why it isdoing what it is doing. The team has a shared vision and is able tostand on its own feet with no interference or participation from theleader. There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makesmost of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader. The

team has a high degree of autonomy. Disagreements occur but now theyare resolved within the team positively and the team makes necessarychanges to processes and structure. The team is able to work towardsachieving the goal, and also to attend to relationship, style andprocess issues along the way. Team members look after each other. Theteam requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader. The teamdoes not need to be instructed or assisted. Team members might ask forassistance from the leader with personal and interpersonaldevelopment. Leader delegates and oversees

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2.2.10 Social groups, traditional groups etc (with particular focus tochildren and family)

There are traditional and modern groups with in the community and onorganizational, government level for the benefit of the children. Thedivision of the child groups in Afghanistan is from the very startwith in the family on gender basis. Girls and Boys are playingdifferent games and organized themselves with in the family orcommunity. Parents and community don’t like that the boy or girlshould join the games of the other groups. If such happened such boyor girl is mostly given special name as per their action, likekhazoolai, for boy etc. A group of children reciting holy Koran in themosque with religious teacher is one of the traditional groups.Children playing with other children on family, khel, tribe, andgeographical area are another example of it. Children going to thesame school with in the community are another group. With in suchorganization there are special groups for special purposes. Likesarandowai (scouts) Inzabat (To keep in the organization peace andharmony) etc. Foot ball, cricket, volleyball, shakai skhai are othertype of groups with in community.

NGO’s organized different groups on the basis of their needs andorganization mandate. As some NGO are working for disabled groups,other for mentally retarded children, some working with school to

update the education standard, other working in community for thechildren not going to school to educate them with in their community.

Government set up some special care units and organized differentgroups of children as per their needs. Such are street children,kodakistan, orphanage center, children with disability and so one. Thegroups of the children are mostly organized every where according tospecific needs. With group organization the needs become more visibleand easy to Asses and address.

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2.2.11 Shura Jirga as an example of Group Work (Conflict Resolution)

Shura & Jirga is one informal institution that has very formal effectson the Afghan. It is dubbed the bulwark of liberty and independence."The shura& Jirga, by which most community business, both public andprivate, is settled in Afghanistan), is probably the closest approachto Athenian democracy that has existed since times immemorial. TheJirga, shura represents the essence of democracy in operation underwhich every individual has a direct say in shaping the course ofthings around him. Practiced this way, democracy operates as aspiritual and moral force instead of becoming an automation of votes,"writes Syed Abdul Qudus in his book, The Pathans

The shura, Jirga is a customary judicial institution in which casesare tried and rewards and punishments are inflicted. From the outset,the use of the shura, Jirga is limited not only to trials of major orminor crimes and civil disputes but it also assists in resolving

conflicts and disputes between individuals, groups and tribes. It isthe only vehicle by which the political administration in the tribalareas dispenses justice.

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2.2.12 Child Self helps Groups

Traditional speaking children in Afghanistan organized themselves indifferent group setting. Children with in family, community, mosqueeducation, school going children groups are few example. The childrenin such group understand each other problems and deal with throughelders of their respective communities. Such are mostly happened inthe rural areas, while in urban areas the children are facingdifferent problems to deal with. Due to lack of specific communitythey need out side support for their group or organization. Suchsupport is mostly extended by the NGO’s, UN sister agencies,Government institutions. The children organized themselves under theumbrella of the mentioned organization. A social worker from therespective organization guides the process of the group for thefulfillment of their needs through self help or out side agency. Suchgroup deals with their problem with awareness raising, practical worklike, painting, music group, child journalist etc.

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2.2.13 UNDERSTANDING GROUPS

Any group of individuals working towards the same goal must co-operatewith each other in order to achieve success. Any group activity shouldbe premised on the notion that the individual is insufficient inrelation to the expected output. The strength lays in members’ com-plementing each other in a manner that leads to the achievement ofgroup goals.

WHAT IS A GROUP?

A group can be thought of as two or more persons who are interactingwith one another in such a manner that each influences and isinfluenced by each other.” (Shaw, 1981) Without mutual influence, youare a free rider. Given this definition, list the groups that you areinvolved in and indicate how the groups influence you and vice versa.

ISSUES RELATING TO GROUP SIZE

Before you constitute any group, be aware of the advantages anddisadvantages brought

about by group size

Advantages of a large group:

• Different skills.

• Different values.

• Different perceptions.

• More people power.

• Social facilitator – increased output due to increased number ofpeople as well as individual accountability.

Disadvantages;

Out of control

Different opinion with no consensus

Personal interest and gain

Personality clashes

Diverse values, Perception

Lack of leadership

The Importance of Preparation for the meeting

To ensure everyone involved has the opportunity to provide theirinput, start your meeting off on the right foot by designating ameeting time that allows all participants the time needed toadequately prepare. A meeting time and place has been designated,make yourself available for questions that may arise as participantsprepare for the meeting. If you are the meeting leader, make a meetingagenda, complete with detailed notes.

In these notes, outline the goal and proposed structure of themeeting, and share this with the participants. This will allow allinvolved to prepare and to come to the meeting ready to work togetherto meet the goal at hand.

The success of the meeting is hinged on the skills displayed by themeeting leader.

To ensure the meeting is successful, the leader should:

•Generate an agenda to all involved in the meeting

•Meeting should be started with recitation of the Holy Koran

•Start the discussion and encourage active participation

•Work to keep the meeting at a comfortable pace – not moving too fastor too slow

•Summarize the discussion and the recommendations at the end of eachlogical section

•Circulate minutes to all participants

•While these tips will help ensure your meeting is productive andwell-received, there are other important areas that need to be touchedon to make sure your meeting and negotiation skills are fine-tuned andready to take to the boardroom.

Managing a Meeting

Choosing the right participants is key to the success of any meeting.Make sure all participants can contribute and choose good decision-makes and problem-solvers. Try to keep the number of participants to amaximum of 12, preferably fewer. Make sure the people with thenecessary information for the items listed in the meeting agenda arethe ones that are invited.

If you are the leader, work diligently to ensure everyone’s thoughtsand ideas are heard by guiding the meeting so that there is a freeflow of debate with no individual dominating and no extensivediscussions between two people. As time dwindles for each item on thedistributed agenda, you may find it useful to stop the discussion,then quickly summarize the debate on that agenda item and move on thenext item on the agenda.

When an agenda item is resolved or action is agreed upon, make itclear who in the meeting will be responsible for this. In an effort tobypass confusion and misunderstandings, summarize the action to betaken and include this in the meeting’s minutes.

Issuing Minutes

Minutes record the decisions of the meeting and the actions agreed.They provide a record of the meeting and, importantly, they provide areview document for use at the next meeting so that progress can bemeasured - this makes them a useful disciplining technique asindividuals' performance and non-performance of agreed actions isgiven high visibility.

The style of the minutes issued depends on the circumstances - insituations of critical importance and where the record is important,and then you may need to take detailed minutes. Where this is not thecase, then minutes can be simple lists of decisions made and ofactions to be taken (with the responsible person identified).Generally, they should be as short as possible as long as all keyinformation is shown - this makes them quick and easy to prepare anddigest.

It is always impressive if the leader of meeting issues minuteswithin 24 hours of the end of the meeting - it's even better if theyare issued on the same day.

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2.3 Community development

2.3.1 Community:

Community refers to people who live in some specific relationship toone another and who shares interests and values.

According to Bogardus:

“A social group with some degree of feelings and living in a givenarea.”

Schnore defines community as:

“Population whose are interdependent on a daily basis and who performsmany activities that satisfies the population’s economic and socialneeds.”

Webster’s dictionary describes two kinds of communities. The first isa body of people living in the same place and with same laws. Thesecond is a body of people having common interests. The first isgeographical and the second is psychological or spiritual.

According to Cary:

“Community is a group of people who lived in some spartanlyrelationships to one another and who shares interest and values”.

According to Mhann:

“Community as any group of people who live together and belongtogether in such a way that they do not share this or that particularinterest only but a whole set of life or interests.”

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2.3.2 Essentials of a community: 1.Physical part: Territory,buildings, roads, streets and lawns. They constitute physical part ofa community.

2.Means of production and employment: When people live together in theform of community, they must have some means of earning production andemployment. They can become employee of a private firm, company, andgovernment or have their own business.

3.Services: Water supply, electric supply, transport andcommunication, shopping centers, medical services, educational andhealth centers, recreational facilities. These all things people musthave in community.

4.Relationships: People of a community live in a network of relation,family, friendship circle, personal relationship etc. there are threetypes of relationships:

i) Primary ii) Secondary iii) Tertiary

1.Primary: Relationship is basic and natural, so relationship withparents is called primary relationship.

2.Secondary: Relations of individuals are less personal and noemotional attachment with one another. Their contacts are casual andnot based on parental basis, e.g., when there is interaction betweenan employee and his employees or of a shopkeeper and a customer. Theyconstitute a secondary relationship.

3.Tertiary: This relationship needs no physical relations. In case oftertiary relations, we know about a person through newspaper, radio orTV but we don’t have any personal contacts with him or her. So this iscalled tertiary relationship.

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2.3.3 Community Development:

Social work in community setting is to organize, mobilize and help thecommunities to identify their own needs with resources in thecommunity to address those needs accurately, and motivate communitymembers to realize their aspirations. The social worker role isempathetic, to felt himself as a community member and realize on thesame way as each member of the community feel the problem. Then hetries to teach the community with skill and knowledge of communitydevelopment. This makes the community empowered to help themselves andbecome self-reliant. Sympathetic approach on other hand on the part ofthe social worker will leads to dependency. As in sympathy the helpermostly extend all sort of help with out the community involvement.Each community having problem is also full of resources. No one canresolve the community problem and to address it as accurately as thecommunity can do. There is a common proverb, “That the village rabbitcan be caught easily by the village dog”, as the dog of the villagebetter knows the ways to her home, her eating, playing timing. Socialworker just enables the community to work in an organized way.

Concept and Approaches of community work- Directive and non-directiveapproaches

A community is broadly defined as any group of people, within aspecified physical, geographical boundary, that comes together for acommon purpose or goal. A community can be a rural village, adisplacement camp, and a group of children living on the streettogether or a neighborhood in an urban city. In communities, theleaders of the community can include: traditional leaders, religiousleaders, elders, clan chief, women leaders, youth leaders andtraditional healers and others. The people can elect the leaders orself selected due to force or for a specific role or job. Theseleaders are usually responsible for maintaining law and order and forresolving the problems of their people. Importantly, leaders alongwith parents are the Duty Bearers of the community’s children and havethe responsibility for their care and protection

Concept of participation, empowerment, leadership, power dynamics,conflict and its management, social mobilization, and gender/ non-discrimination issues in community and other types [of discrimination]

Participation;

If the people are involved by doing, they will learn/understand andwill feel sense of responsibility and ownership. The people

involvement in program will minimize dependency and develop self-reliance amongst the community. Otherwise, they will be left dependentand deprived. While working with the people, one must understand andrespect the people, their culture, traditions, religion, their beliefsand practices. One must keep in mind that the community has a lot ofresources, potential and have the power of resilience. They can plan,design and implement with minimum external help. They can bounce back;resume the shape, which they lost due to hardships, miseries andreplacement.

A belief in people, in their strength, in their ability to change, intheir desire to help each other, and in their capacity to assess theirneeds and solve their problems is the entry point to the community bythe aid workers.

However, what the community can do and what help the Aid Agenciesshould provide is still confusing and complex phenomenon? The peopleexpect every thing from the service providers and they extend allpossible help with in their resources. The communities have manyresources, but the wrong that an outsider commit, ask for the problembut not for the resources. In the problem assessment resources shouldalso be identified and utilized. The aid worker should address theleft over problem. How it is possible and how long the program will besustained with out community involvement and participation?Sustainability and self-reliance means exploration, exploitation, andutilization of people’s internal resources. External resources shouldbe available as a catalyst to mobilize, and stimulate people forchange. Who will look after when the donor stop the project,Governments can’t afford to look after the project due one or anotherreason.

In every program or activity five “W” and one “H” things are veryimportant i.e. what, what to do, need assessment with resourcesidentification. Whom, project or activity is for whom, who will takebenefit of it and how much. Why, why the problem should be address,what are the available facilities, what need extension modificationetc. When, In every program or activity five “W” and one “H” thingsare very important i.e. what, what to do, need assessment withresources identification. Whom, project or activity is for whom, whowill take benefit of it and how much. Why, why the problem should beaddress, what are the available facilities, what need extensionmodification etc. When, time span, when the project will start andwhen will complete time duration. Where, the geographical location,tribe, people etc. How, is the question what are the methods for doing

the project community based, participatory, and sustainable? “What”shows the problem, issue, activity, or objectives? “Why” indicatescauses, reasons of the problem. Why is it so? Why these things areneeded? Why it happened? Whereas “How” indicates how to address theidentified problems/ issues or needs. It shows plans, actions,methods, techniques or strategies to achieve the objectives.

If what and why and whom are clear, than it becomes easier to knowHow. Again three things are most important i.e. who identified thoseproblems and prioritized them. Who make decisions, give suggestionsand prepare action plans. By whom and how the plans will beimplemented? These are the questions, queries that make one wonderwhile working with the people and the people do not know why and how?

This basically teaches us the importance of people’s participation inprogram and activities. What does participation mean in its realsense and how we translate it? Where the best interest lies, is itfor aid agencies or for the people? Real participation means,” aprocess in which an individual (group) decides to take part inspecific decision making and actions and over which he / she mayexercise specific control.” It doesn’t only mean mere involvement inactivities but active participation in all project stages viz. problemidentification to follow up and to have effective control over entireproject planning stages and program.

Community could be defined as; a particular social interaction-typically characterized by:

A sense of belonging

A sense of common purpose and common goals

A high degree of cooperation and participation in pursuing commongoals

An inter personal climate characterized by mutual respect, a sense offraternity or fellowship etc.

The community should look after the project, own it and make itsustainable on their own

Rural communities have a stronger sense of community compared tourban communities. Therefore, the basic and the most important thingare to make them in to communities with in the urban setting. When the

community spirit develops, then it becomes easier to seek the people’scooperation and assistance to help themselves and others. However,without making them in to community, individualism will come outconsequently. Resultantly the aid workers will work, leaving themdependent and spoon feeded. In case the people are appraising theirpersonal / individual problems it means the community spirit is weak.But when the people are mostly concerned with community issues, thenit is evident that the sense of community exists. In either case it isrequired to change the direction and introduce the programaccordingly. Before going how to work with community, it is desirablefirst to recognize them, explore their situation, location, thespecific problems and needs with resources the community have.Community Mobilization may undertake the following steps;

Identification of resource persons, community elders, representativesfrom the community and other resources with in a community

Establishment of community representative body (jirga, shura,committee), organize them and sensitize them for further step ofmobilization.

Community development is the process of planning and developing socialservices in order to meet the health and welfare needs of a community.

Richard W. Pastern defines it as:

“An organized body of knowledge which deals comprehensively with thecommunity and with all of the various functions of the community lifeas integrated parts of the whole.”

W. W. Biddle and L.G Giddle defines it as:

“A social process by which human beings can become more competent tolive with and again some control over local aspects of frustrating andof changing world.”

United Nations (Bureau of Social affairs) defines communitydevelopment as a:

“A process designed to create conditions of economic and socialprogress for the whole of community with its active participation andthe fuller possible reliance upon the community initiative.”

Gangrade, K. D. 1971 defined community development as a:

“The process by which the efforts of people themselves are united withgovernment authorities to improve the economic, social and culturalconditions of communities to integrate these communities into the lifeof nation and to enable them to contribute fully to nationalprogress.”

Basic principles of community development, which also reflect thephilosophy of social work, are always lying hidden in the foundationof every development society.

The main objectives of community development are:

1.To promote all social development of the community

2.To develop the spirit of community life.

3.To develop self-help reliance in the individuals so that the peopleare able to manage their affairs and problems themselves.

We can also say that community development is also a process ofhelping people of a particular area who have common needs andinterests and who have organized they to solve their problems throughcooperative efforts by using all the available resources.

Community development believes that all people are good and all needequal opportunities for the development of their personal abilitiesand their talents, so they should be provided opportunities ofparticipation in various developmental programmes.

Community development means welfare of the whole community. Itattempts to develop the capacities and resources of the people, makethem aware of their needs and problems and their resources andabilities to enable them to contribute and participate fully to thenational progress.

To achieve welfare of the people and better living condition of thecommunity, the people should be involved in such type of activitieswhich are designed to improve their conditions of the community whenpeople participate in community development programmes collectivelythen they learn the importance of cooperation. Health atmosphere iscreated and better understanding is developed among them.

Training of committees in specified training packages like communityneed assessment, identification of resources (internal/external)children/female rights, community mobilization/participation, selfhelp, role/responsibilities of committee members, safe environment,pollution its causes and remedies, reproductive health etc.

Training and building their capacity,

Training means change. After the training neither trainees nor trainerremain as he was before the training. In the child training mostly theinformation goes from one side other listens. In the adult training,mostly the training is participatory learning. The information isshared from both sides. Through training education is transferred forawareness and practical use. “Education is a well that cannot dry.”the next step is to mobilize them. The train community elders will notonly work on their own, they will mobilize others with resources towork jointly.

Participation

When the capacity is build, elders are train, the next step isparticipation. The train community stakeholders will work jointly withthe aid agency and participate actively to share their part in theproject.

Implementation

This step is joint venture on the community and donor agency side.Both will work close to each other from need assessment toimplementation of the project.

Awareness Rising:

The best tools for awareness rising are trainings, workshops, andseminars for different organizations, child group leaders, parents,family, and community members’ etc. Other methods include masscampaign, individual and group meetings with committee’s members,youth groups (boys/girls), family, parents / community members,children and women etc. Female participation should be encouragedthrough motivation and training, literacy, education and Vocationaltrainings etc. Topics could be children and women rights, childexploitation, abuse, neglect, child labor, environment pollution andprotection, water and sanitation, garbage proper disposal, health,hygiene, reproductive health, gender awareness and development.

Success indicators

Success indicators should be set in the beginning of each project tomeasure the success of the project at different stages. These are thetools that give direction to the project success of failure. Forexample, in education project, one indicator will be childrenenrollment in the school; second will be decrease in the child laboretc.

Follow UP

Follow up is again a very important step for community and donoragency both. Both should be involved in the follow up process aftereach step of implementation in-order to put the project on the righttrack. Also to address the loophole or drawbacks and find out thesolution collectively.

Evaluation;

It is the last part of each project where the project as whole isevaluated jointly again by the donor and implementing partners. Theysee with expert eyes and check the success and failure of the projectand then try to find out the remedies for its solution. Evaluation isof three types, one is with in the process evaluation, where thecommunity and donor agency representative discuss day-to-day affairsof the project. Second is the after the project completion both partyset together and evaluate the project. Third is out side

evaluation where consultants are coming to check, the success of theproject with the goal and objectives set in the beginning.

Empowerment,

Empowerment means to enable a person or community to look after theiraffairs on their own. Skill and know how is transferred to theindividual or groups through capacity building, raising awareness, etcfor the empowerment. With empowerment the individual or groups areable to look after the project on their own.

Sustainability: After empowerment when the group feels the project astheir own this is the time to hand over it to the people for furthercare and maintenance. As the NGO or government can’t look after it forthe whole time

Leadership

In the local context people mostly consider leader some thing aboveon all. The word Leaders are limited to political, religious parties.Other traditional leaders are Pir, sayed, community elders, Masher,Arbab, wakil etc. In the traditional society leadership is alsoinherited. After the father the community come together and declarethe son as their Khan, Mailk, pir, etc. While in the modern democraticsystem the leaders are elected through votes. Votes are different oneis secret ballot another is show of hands. Both are the part ofdemocratic system. But some leaders are due to his/her role with inthe community. They are social worker, do their jobs voluntarily,other is a gray beard elder who mostly come to, settled down disputebetween individual and groups. Communities have a trust on suchleaders and elect /select them through common consensus in a Jirga orshura. There past, present character, role is known to the people.Honesty, role model, empathy, speaking power, convincing skills,education, wisdom, knowledge of the religion, traditions, andgovernment law are some of the tools for local leader. They can awarethe people with in their reach, convince them, mobilize them forparticipation and action. So leaders does not mean a person heading aparty but a person having all above mentioned charter and skill towork for the benefit of a section, group, community etc. Since suchleaders and elders both are working closely with in our community,lets further differentiate the jobs of both for our knowledge.

Leaders Vs Elders

The leaders follows the Robert’s rules of order, the elders obey thespirit.

The leaders see the trouble and try to stop it. The Elders see thetroublemaker as a possible teacher.

The leaders strive to be honest; the Elders try to show the truth ineverything.

The democratic leaders support democracy; the Elders does this, too,but also listen to dictator and ghost.

Leaders try to be better at their jobs; Elders try to get others tobecome elders.

Leaders try to be wise; Elders have no mind of their own. They followthe events of nature.

Leaders need time to reflect; the Elders take only a moment to noticewhat’s happening.

The leaders know; the Elders learn.

The leaders try to act; the Elders lets thing be.

The Leaders needs a strategy; the Elders studies the moment.

The Leaders follows a plan; the Elders honor the direction of anunresolved and unknown river.

The Leaders make strategies to win; the Elders recognize others andbecome their student.

The Leaders try to change people; the Elders assume we are allexactly what we are meant to be.

The Leaders focuses on the issues; the Elders on feelings as well

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Power dynamics, conflict and its management in community

There are two type of community exist in Afghanistan.

“Centralized authority, administrative machinery, and judicialinstitutions -- in short, a government -- and in which cleavages ofwealth, privilege, and status correspond to the distribution of powerand authority”, characterized the first.

The second included “those societies which lack centralized authority,administrative machinery, and constituted judicial institutions -- inshort which lack government -- and in which there are no sharpdivisions of rank, status, or wealth.” . The urban areas of thecountry and the irrigated agricultural plains were under the controlof formal governments and their institutions in Afghanistan. Theinhabitants of economically and geographically peripheral areas in the

mountains, deserts, and steppes historically remained beyond thebounds of state control and therefore ran their own affairs. It wasthe latter’s very lack of wealth and marginal locations made theseareas unprofitable for the Afghan state to administer. State controlin these regions was therefore often indirect or even non-existent.While throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries the ability of theAfghan state to penetrate such areas through roads, communicationsystems, and force of arms progressively expanded, the level of localautonomy remained much higher than in other countries. In part thiswas because Afghanistan had avoided direct colonial rule by Europeanpowers and because the country’s economy has remained largelysubsistence based to the present day.

But how does one preserve order and solve disputes in society withoutgovernment? For people who depend on the state and its formalinstitutions to define law and ensure its enforcement, the absence ofgovernment presents a major problem. In the view of the 16th centuryEnglish political philosopher Thomas Hobbes, the absence of governmentor its collapse inevitably led to anarchy and a breakdown of socialorder to produce a “war of each against all” that he regarded as theworst of all possible worlds. Thus he concluded that the authority ofexisting governments was legitimate as long as they could preservesocial order. Anarchy and social disorder were greater dangers to thecommunity than any tyranny. Here law was based on a communityconsensus and the preservation of order fell to individuals and theirkinship or residential groups. Bound together by complex sets ofrelationships in face-to-face communities, the lack of formal lawcodes or judicial institutions did not breed anarchy. Instead thefreedom of the individual to do as he pleased was restricted by hisacceptance of a common cultural code of behavior whose norms wereenforced by the community members at large. The stress was on theequality of community members because all power and jurisdiction wasreciprocal, no one by right had any more power or authority thananyone else. It was expected that all community members would refrainfrom invading each other’s rights and property, and from injuring oneanother. In the event of violations, however, everyone had a right topunish the transgressors himself and to take appropriate retribution:an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a life for a life. Thusinstead of court prosecutions one had blood feuds that operated underspecific sets of restraints that defined acceptable limits of action.It was to prevent the emergence of such individual blood feuds, or toend those in progress, that communities developed forms of mediationand arbitration designed to restore social harmony. Indeed the worst

punishment such a community could inflict on transgressors was notdeath but permanent exile because it severed the individual from thecommunity, a form of social death.

The judges in dispute cases expect to play an active role in theirsettlement by seeking out the truth and examining the evidencethemselves, as well as questioning the parties. But in a societywhere written records are rare deciding who has title to disputedland, for example, can be problematic. Similarly in cases where thereare no eyewitnesses accusations of theft that are denied are hard toresolve. Under such conditions the maraka may demand that the accusedtake an oath or undergo an ordeal.

Taking an oath before God is a very serious matter among for thepeople of Afghanistan. The demand for an oath is, at minimum, anattack on a man’s honor because it implies you are accusing him ofbeing a liar. Indeed a man with a great deal of prestige may refuseto take such an oath for this reason unless the issue at hand iscritical and there is no way to avoid it. On the other hand, becausethe role of honor is so serious, it is generally assumed that a manwill tell the truth in taking an oath because it would be better to bedead than live in dishonor. However, particularly because oathsrequired of men who are accused of dishonorable acts (such as theft)come from potentially dubious sources, there are a host ofsupernatural consequences that will rain down upon the perjurer shoulda man lie. These include becoming poor, having your opinionsdisregarded, having you body become pale and ugly, seeing your landand livestock lose their productivity, as well as endangering the lifeof your children. As a result rituals that emphasize its seriousnesssurround the oath taking itself. Because swearing a false oath withinvillage or farmstead is believed to bring illness or reduce theproductivity of the land, the ritual must be held away from humanhabitation, often in a dry riverbed. Because the surface of the landis presumed to be polluted by contact with thieves, adulterers andcriminals, a half-meter deep hole is dug and a copy of the Quran laidin it. After undergoing ritual ablutions, the accused places hisright arm on the Quran and swears by Allah that what he is saying istrue and fair. Since at least some of the evil consequences that canbefall a false swear apply equally to a false accuser, demanding anoath unfairly also has serious consequences and may impugn the honorof the accuser.

The second way of determining truth is to demand that the accusedundergo an ordeal (tawda). Among some groups an ordeal is required in

addition to taking the oath, particularly in cases of theft. Trial byordeal is based on the belief that an innocent person will suffer noill effects from the ordeal while the guilty will. In Zadaran tribethe accused must then walk seven marked paces before throwing the ironaway after which his hand is bandaged. He spends the night underguard and then the hand is examined to see if it has blistered. If ithas, he is guilty; if not he is innocent and entitled to receive anindemnity for the false accusation and the accuser must apologize.The Tani tribe has a similar ordeal, but one that involves the accusedpicking three stones out of a pot of boiling water without sufferingblisters. Zadran (1978:243) observed that the popularity of theordeal as a means to determine truth was declining in favor of theoath alone even by the mid 1970s. This was because many people hadlost faith in its efficacy and because swearing oaths had ajustification in Islamic law while ordeals did not. In theft cases itwas being widely replaced by an additional swearing in which aninnocent relative of the accused was asked to take an oath that he hadno knowledge of the items stolen and that the accused was innocent.

Anthropologists examine sets of rules to understand how an informallegal system works. As outlined by Llewellyn and Hoebel (1941) thereare three ways to look at such rules: 1) rules as abstract principles,2) rules as actual behavior, and 3) rules as principles derived fromlegal decisions in cases of hitch or trouble. In the Afghan case amongPashtun it is the Pukhtoonwali that is the source of abstractprinciples that have been outlined above. Rules as generatingbehavior embody the notion of “doing Pashto,” that is enacting theircultural values in the real world where they take on specific forms.The more specific set of rules that are derived from and employed inlegal cases and dispute resolution are known as tsali (trail marker)It is the last area that is most concrete because actions taken byindividuals (or proposals for action) become subject to publicjudgment. The other tribes of Afghanistan resolve there dispute mostlythrough shura, Arbab, wakil, or religious leaders of the areas. Eitherthe prevailing traditions are the rules for resolving disputes orReligious solution is brought for resolution. Government constitutionis developed and the implementation process is continues in all partsof Afghanistan. The law of the land is for all to resolve the issuesaccording to it through judiciary.

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2.3.5. Principles of community development:

Following are the principles of community development:

1.Acceptance of community: The community organizer should accept thecommunity and should act in a way that the community should accept himand if he has some problem, he should study that and contact the localleaders in this regards and then approach the community to theinterest for the welfare of people in the community.

2.Understanding of felt needs and resources: The community workershould know the felt needs of the people and their resources and theyshould start work according to those felt needs. They should alsoexplore available resources, which are available outside thecommunity.

3.Individualization: Community worker should always try to identifyproblems faced by some individuals and group and should repair specialplans and programmes for them to make them participate with othergroups or individual of the community. By this we mean thatindividual’s attention is also necessary for the community workers.

4.Self-determination: Community worker should provide full freedom tothe local community to determine their needs and problems andresources act their own and should also give plans for their solution.He should encourage them in the planning for solution of theseproblems and should not impose his own views on them.

5.Freedom within limits: The social worker should guide the communityand make them free in giving the ideas of all about the solution ofthe problems but in decisions should not close the limits to violatethe interest of the group but the decision should be in the commoninterest of the community.

6.Empathy, not sympathy: Community worker’s attitude as also hisapproach towards work with the community should be non-judgemental.Whenever any decision is to be taken, it should be based on objective

facts concerning community life and values cherished by the community,not by the worker.

7.Flexibility: The community worker should involve various members ofthe community in different matters and also delicate authority tothem. The community workers should also be flexible to give rise tonew leadership according to change situation.

8.Progress programme experience: All the programmes in the communityshould be evolutionary and not revolutionary. All the programmeschalked out by the community and should take in to consideration thelocal needs and problems with the involvement of people in thecommunity.

9.People’s participation: The community worker should involve in theidentification of all issues, problems, needs and resources and alsodevelopment plans for this area. This participation should be from thefirst stage till final decision is taken.

10.Good or meaningful relationship: The community worker shouldestablish good relationship in the community. He should need all thegroups and sub-groups of the community and should understand theirproblems. This would enable him to involve the community as long as hefeels. They had developed capacity to lead as he deals at with theirown felt needs and problems.

11.Mobilization: The community organizer should mobilize its allresources whether internal or external to avoid duplication ofefforts. He should utilize these resources. He should also explore thetalents and ability of different groups in the community. It is verynecessary for the development of community.

12.Evaluation: The community worker should evaluate his work andpeople participation. He should also find out the various drawbacksand the groups between the various programmes of the communitydevelopment. The purpose of the evaluation is to readjust youaccording to the change situation.

2.3.6 Community development: Concept and practice of self-help,

Afghan community has their own traditional community center(Hujra/Batak) now batak in each community. Its use is traditionallyfor special occasions and only limited to male community. Female haveno participation in Hujra, they socialized themselves on community

oven, washing untienceil or clothing on stream, fetching water from awell or any other source.

Self-help activities are also very common in the afghan culture sincetime immoral. Ashar is commonly used for any collective activity forthe betterment of the community.

A leader (traditional social worker) takes the initiative to announcea common issue /problem, (that may be leveling of the street,reconstruction of the mosque or hujra, etc.). They announce it with inthe mosque or hujra and fixed the date and time. Each individual ofthe community is bound to work voluntarily in the welfare of thecommunity according to his power and resources. Some will come withanimals to bring, mud, and cement, stone, Sand, other with children toparticipate. Other will come with professional skill, (Carpenter,artisan, etc.) rich will bring food for the group. Elders will standto appreciate the efforts of the community. Drumbeater will drum toinform other to joins as well as to encourage and boost the moral ofthe community and so the process is continued. The individual forharvesting also calls Ashar plaguing, and helping in any other self-help farm activities. This may be the construction of the home,street, bringing fodder for the animal to dump it for the bad session,storage of the food grain etc.

The self-help activists are for the good and bad occasions both. Asin case of mirages and engagements first of all the activities areshared with in the families. Who will do what? Men, women, children,elders and youngster. Men are to arrange all food etc. from outside.While women to look after the cooking, boarding and logistic affairscleanliness etc. Children are be ready to bring on time water, quilt,etc. to the places where guest will stay. In case of death, communitywill look after to prepare grave, arrange food, and inform therelatives and friends of the family. Clean the mosque and Hujra forsetting of the guest. Even the female if not financial participationshares the sorrow to join the female cry and weep to decrease theemotional feeling of the female folk.

The community not only for the grieved family but also for the guestarranges cooked food for three days.

These are some example of the self-help activities on the communitylevel, It is further to be noted that communities also generate fundson their own. The famous custom is ‘Nagha’ when the medows, hills,grave yards are restricted for the animals of the community, for their

animal in order to grow up the small herb and shrubs. Naghachee is theman who look after such places, any animal cross the mentioned areasare caught and the owner is fined according to the prevailing customcalled, ‘narkh’. The man takes some of the fine money while the restis given to the village or community common contribution that islooked after by elders of the community. On special occasion like Eidor when the crops are ready for harvest, far village developmentpeople are asked to contribute. It depends on the financial status ofthe community. Village barber, Carpenter, messenger, also take theirown share from each individual in each crops for their job theyperform for individual member or community as a whole. Dada or Bara isanother such share taken by the skilled worker of the community fortheir job with in the crops before harvesting.

2.3.7 Community mobilization and community participation (includingexisting practices),

In the community participation the most important task is firstacceptance and Recognition of the problem with in the community. InAfghanistan there are many traditions that the community strictlyfollows. The community looks any foreign idea as an out side influencewith different agenda. The first important task is intervention. How asocial worker can approach to the community. Children educationsuppose is a problem, why the people are not interested who are thedecision makers, how to approach them with which strategy? What istheir opinion about female education, how they think and how theyperceive it what the local taboos about female education are? Thereare some traditional taboos against school education that mostly stopthe females from going to school. Even in the male education therewere some common slogans before like:

Those who learn in school

Are none but money’s tools?

In heaven they will never dwell

They will surely go to hell.

Such hurdle with in the community will make participation in theinitial stage may not be so spontaneous except with minority. Thecommunity may need education, enlightenment, encouragement andpersuasions. With in the community there are many opposing factorsthat play different game at different time .The tug of war betweenKhan and Malik, tribal chief, Arbab, political leaders, religiousleaders and above all community rivalry, enmities, faith and beliefsystems are some that divide the community into different interestgroups. The intervener must know all these factors will in advance asif a single of them are avoided they will create problem at the laterstage of the programme. Community participation will be possible onlyif relationship between various individuals and groups in thecommunity are cordial .If the member of all these groups are involvedand the interest of all these groups are taken into accounts. It willbe very difficult to find an ideal condition anywhere, but what isneeded is an ability to sink individual differences in view of commoninterest and to develop a sprit of scarifies in participating inprogrammes for the general good of the community.

Each community has strength to deal with their own needs and problemwith their own resources. Communities have individuals and groups ofdifferent socio-culture backgrounds. They are more interested for thefulfillment of their own needs and interest but due to the communalbounding they can be persuaded to sacrifice their narrow individualinterests for the sake of uplift of the community, provided they aretactfully handled. Community want change but also resist due topersonal interest of individual or groups with in community. Changewill take place; weather community want or not .It is in the interestof the community to accept the positive change. Community also needsexpert guidance for any change. Change maker should know each aspectof the changing circumstances and should be well equipped to giveanswer the community has. Positive aspect of the project to thecommunity should be shared or adopted well on time in order to gainthe confidence and interest of the community. Community should beinvolved right from the start to the last stage of evaluation in eachprocess. For multiple problems multiple strategies should also beadapted to address well the community needs.

2.3.8 Children as social change agents—child participation, childconsultations,

Children in each community have special impacts on their familymembers. Whatever they learn in the school is disseminated in theirhomes with others members of the family. They are listened to and

followed well by the elders. In the schools, special programs likechild-to-child will be beneficial to spread the message of children’srights in the communities. Gender awareness messages can also beincluded in the later stage in their syllabus. Children can also playan exemplary role by involving the children who are not attending theschool. As most of the parents are not educated, there is a need forawareness to the parents/grandparents and other uneducated familymembers within the house/family and community. The children can alsoplay an effective awareness role if they are equipped with publicitymaterial.

If child-to-child program is expanded into child-to-adult programswith gender awareness and other messages, it will be more useful.This will open the way for getting women into different programs. Inthe middle and high schools, a girl’s guide introduction will involvethe youth in decision making with special training packages. Withinthe community of Malgary Joona, young girls can level the ground forempowering both girls and women.