President Pipes: Origin and Distribution, Wyoming Archaeologist, 2006 50(10):9-30

THE WYOMINGARCHAEOLOGIST

VOLUME 49(2)FALL 2005

ISSN: 0043-9665

[THIS ISSUE PUBLISHED

JANUARY 2008]

THE WYOMING ARCHAEOLOGISTWyoming Archaeological Society, Inc.

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THE WYOMING ARCHAEOLOGIST is published quarterly by the Wyoming Archaeological Society, Inc, with the assistance of the Wyoming Department of Parks and Cultural Resources. Address manuscripts and news items for publication to: Dewey Baars, Editor, The Wyoming Archaeologist, 1000 W 19th St, Wheatland WY 82201.

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The Wyoming ArchaeologistVolume 50(1), Spring 2006

THE WYOMING ARCHAEOLOGISTVOLUME 50(1), SPRING 2006

Table of Contents

WYOMINGARCHAEOLOGIALSOCIETYFINANCIALDONATIONFORM...................... 2

IN MEMORIUM:RHODAOWENLEWIS:1943-2007............................................................ 3

IN MEMORIUM:TIMNOWAK............................................................................................... 4

NEWSANDANNOUNCMENTS................................................................................................ 5

PRESIDENTPIPES:ORIGINANDDISTRIBUTION byMichaelA.Pfeiffer,RichardT.Gartley, andJ.ByronSudbury........................................................................................................ 9

LATExPEELS:AMETHODFORPRESERvINGNATURALANDCULTURALSTRATIGRAPHY byWilliamEckerleandJenneM.Moe............................................................................ 31

HAFTEDSTONETOOLS:ALOOKATHUNTER-GATHERERExAMPLESFROM THECENTRALANDNORTHWESTERNPLAINS byCodyNewton ...............................................................................................................35

WYOMINGARCHAEOLOGICALFOUNDATIONFINANCIALDONATIONFORM........ 48

THIS ISSUE PUBLISHED JANUARY 2008

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The Wyoming Archaeologist Volume 50(1), Spring 2006

WYOMING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETYMEMORIAL GIFT or CONTRIBUTION FORM

Given by: Miss, Mrs., Mr., Ms., Dr. $ (Amount)

Name: Last First Middle

Address: City & State Zip Donor phone number ( ) ___________________ TYPE OF GIFT: General Contribution [ ] Specific Contribution [ ] In Memory of:

Name City & State In Honor of:

Name City & State Specify where you would like your money to go (e.g., Mulloy or Frison Scholar-ship Funds, The Wyoming Archaeologist, ???????)

PleasemakeyourcheckpayabletoTHEWYOMINGARCHAEOLOGICALSOCIETYandsendtoCarolynBuff,ExecutiveSecretary/Treasurer,1617WestridgeTerrace,Casper,WY82604

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IN MEMORIUMRHODA OWEN LEWIS

1943-2007

The editors of the Wyoming Archaeologist encourage members and other readers of the journal to submit obituary information about WAS members to the editorial staff in Laramie when such notices appear in local papers. We will then recognize the accomplishments of these members in the journal. Thank you.

RhodaLewis,aUniversityofWyomingalum-nus,longtimevolunteer,memberoftheboardoftheFriendsoftheFrisonInstitute,AdjunctLectur-erattheDepartmentofAnthropologysincethefallof2006,passedawayThursdayevening,April19,2007. Rhoda Owen Lewis was born in MedicineLodge,KansasonFebruary13,1943toNeilandBertie Owen. OnApril 19 at the age of 64, shediedpeacefullyinthecompanyoffamilyatIvin-sonMemorialHospitalinLaramie,Wyoming.SheissurvivedbyhersonsRobertCraigandWilliamLee. RhodaearnedaB.S.degreeinEducationfromChadronStateCollegeandanM.A.degreeinAn-thropologyfromtheUniversityofWyoming.Sheworked in the field of archaeology for more than 30years,retiringin2005fromherpositionasRe-gionalArchaeologistfortheFishandWildlifeSer-viceinDenver,Colorado. Sinceretirement,Rhodahadbeensupervisingtheconstructionofhernewhouse,participatinginthegovernanceoftheGeorgeC.FrisonInstituteasaboardmemberandactivevolunteer,andwasre-centlynamedasadjunctfacultyattheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofWyoming. Rhodawasastrongadvocateforhighereduca-tion.Inmanyways,shewasaposterchildforthepowerofeducationtochangethelivesofpeopleforthebetter.HerfamilyhaschosentocreatetheRhoda Owen Lewis Mamorial Fund, to be man-agedbytheGeorgeFrisonInstitute.Thisfundwillbetoprovideassistancetonon-traditionalstudentspursueingadegreeinArchaeologyorAnthropol-ogyattheUniversityofWyoming.Rhoda’sestated

seeded the fund with an initial contribution. Tomaximize the effect of the donations, the familyasksthattheybemadethroughtheWyomingAr-chaeologicalFoundatio. SendcheckspayabletotheWyomingArchae-ological Foundation to the Rhoda Owen LewisMemorial Fund, c/o George Frison Institute ofarchaeologyandAnthropology,Dept.3431,1000EastUniversity’UniversityofWyoming,Laramie,WY82071-3431.

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IN MEMORIUMTIM NOWAK1947-2007

Timothy Ray Nowak, 60, of Cheyenne diedJuly31attheUniversityofColoradoHospitalinDenver following a five month battle with leuke-mia. Tim was born June 3, 1947, in Fargo, N.D.,and grew up in Moorhead, Minn. He received abachelor’sdegree from theUniversityofMinne-sotain1969andamaster’sdegreefromHarvardUniversityin1972.AsanarcheologistspecializinginMayancultures,TimspentseveralyearsinGua-temala,wherehewasmarriedtoLudyAnnabellaMoralesNavarrofrom1970to1976,andfatheredtwodaughters,IlkavanessaandDanikaWaleska. UponhisreturntotheUnitedStates,heworkedfortheCorpsofEngineersinPierre,S.D.,andwasmarriedtoAnaLucretiaGomarBarillasfrom1977to 1983. He married Pamela Sue Gieser in 1984andthecouplehadonedaughter,KatrinaGabrielleNowak. Tim was employed by the Bureau of LandManagement (BLM) as senior archaeologist andCulturalHeritageprogramleaderinWyoming.HealsoservedastheWyomingBLMNativeAmeri-canprogramcoordinator.HewastheBLMDeputyPreservation Officer for Wyoming and a founding member of the national-level BLM Preservation

Board.WithinWyoming,heservedontheGover-nor’sTaskForceonContextDevelopment. Timhadresided inCheyennefor14yearsatthetimeofhisdeath. HewasinvolvedwiththeCheyenneLittleThe-atrePlayers,wasaboardmemberoftheCheyenneChamberSingers,andwasamemberofGideonsInternational. An active member of First UnitedMethodistChurch,Timalsoorganizedandledsev-eralmissiontripstoGuatemala. He is survivedbyhiswife,PamelaSue (neeGieser)NowakofCheyenne;daughters,Ilkavan-essaMoraandherhusband,EdgarofKing,N.C.,DanikaWaleskaNowakandherhusband,SergioFaz of Guatemala City, and Katrina GabrielleNowakofCheyenne; threegrandchildren,Kathiaand Erik Faz, both of Guatemala City, and LucaMoraofKing,N.C.;afutureson-in-law,BrandonNelson of Cheyenne; a brother, Terry Nowak ofPensacola, Fla.; five nieces; and two nephews. Hewasprecededindeathbyhisparents,Wal-terThomasNowakandDorothyLuella(Martell);andhisbrotherRobertThomasNowak.

WyomingTribuneEagle--08/05/2007

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NEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

WYOMING ARCHAEOLOGIST SURPRISED WITH HIGH HONORS

DescribedasacredittotheU.S.Armyandthecitizens of Wyoming, Project Director Dave Re-iss with the Office of the State Archaeologist was presentedwiththeprestigiousHonoraryWyomingCowboyColonelAwardby theAdjutantGeneralMaj.Gen.EdWright. Theaward,foundedbystatestatute,ispresent-edtomilitaryandcivilianpersonnelforoutstand-ing efforts of direct and specific nature, according to Wyoming National Guard Chief of Staff Col.TimSheppard. StateArchaeologistMarkMillerandDepart-ment of State Parks and Cultural Resources Di-rectorMilwardSimpsonalso took thepodiumtopraisetheworkthatReisshasdone. ReisswasalsopresentedanAdjutantGener-al’sCoinbyMaj.Gen.EdWright.Thecoin,de-signed by Maj. Gen.Wright, has been presentedworldwide to military and civilian individuals inrecognitionofexcellence. Sincetheearly1990s,Reisshasdirectedcul-turalresourceinvestigationsandsurveysofWyo-

mingMilitaryDepartmenttraininglandsandfacili-tiesthroughoutthestate.HiseffortshavepositivelyimpactedboththeWyomingMilitaryDepartmentandtheNationalGuard. Under his direction, more than 36,000 acreshavebeensurveyedandmorethan800historicalandarchaeologicalsiteshavebeendocumented. Many of his investigations have taken placeatCampGuernseywhereReisshasbeeninvolvedwithavarietyofactivities,includingNativeAmer-icanconsultations. “Davehasdonehis jobwithprofessionalismandpassion,”Col.Sheppardsaid.“Butmorethanthat,hehasexhibitedcompassion.Herealizesthatothersmayhaveadifferingpointofview,andhecan disagree with them without being disagree-able.” Duringtheyears,Reisshasproventoprofes-sionallyhandleavarietyofculturalissuesassoci-atedwithCampGuernsey,according toGarrisonCommanderCol.StevenMount,whichisadmira-bleconcerningthatthereare17NativeAmericanTribes affiliated with the facility. “Through his service, Mr. Reiss has greatlyassisted the Wyoming Army National Guard in

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complying with statutory responsibilities for theprotection of the state’s cultural heritage whilemeeting the military mission in support of unitsand soldiers training at Camp Guernsey,” Con-struction and Facilities Management Officer Col. TammyMaassaid. “I’veneverthoughtofmyjobaswork,”Reisssaiduponreceivingtheaward.“I’vealwaysthoughtofthepeopleI’vedealtwithandworkedwithasfriends.” Reisswaspresentedtheawardduringasur-priseceremonyattheWyomingStateMuseumonJune14,2007.

2007 WYOMING ARCHAEOLOGY MONTH PROCLAMATION

Governor Dave Freudenthal proclaimed Sep-temberWyomingArchaeologyAwarenessMonthduring a brief ceremony in his office Thursday. Gov.Freudenthalwasjoinedduringtheproc-lamation signing by members of the WyomingState Historic Preservation Office, the Office of the WyomingStateArchaeologist,theWyomingStateArchives,theWyomingArtsCouncil,theUniver-

sityofWyomingDepartmentofAnthropology,theU.S.BureauofLandManagement,theU.S.ForestService,theWyomingDepartmentofTransporta-tion,andtheNationalTrustforHistoricPreserva-tion. After signing the proclamation, Gov. Freud-enthalwaspresentedwiththisyear’sArchaeologyAwarenessMonthposterandarecentpublicationonWyomingrockartentitledAncientvisionsau-thored by Julie Francis and Lawrence Loendorf.Dr. Frison, professor emeritus from the Univer-sity of Wyoming, explained the significance of the MummyCaveSiteportrayedinthisyear’spostertothegovernor. TheWyomingArchaeologyAwarenessMonthcelebrationwillincludetheninthannualGeorgeC.FrisonInstituteofArchaeologyandAnthropologysponsoredlecture,PeopleinHighPlaces–GettingtoandLivingontheWorld’sHighPlateaus,byDr.Mark Aldenderfer of the University of Arizona.ThelecturewillbeheldintheUniversityofWyo-mingEducationAuditorium,Sept.27at4p.m.Areceptionwillfollowthelectureat4:30p.m.intheAnthropologyBuilding. The 2007 Wyoming Archaeology AwarenessMonthposterfeaturingMummyCaveisavailable

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free of charge. It may be picked up at the StateHistoric Preservation Office in Cheyenne in the Barrett Building, 2301 Central Ave., 3rd floor or inLaramieattheEducationAnnexBuilding,13thand Lewis, 3rd floor, Room 351. Thepostersarealsoavailableviamailwithan$8chargetocovermailingcosts.Limitoneposterperperson.Sendyourrequestalongwithacheckor money order payable to “WyomingArchaeol-ogy Month” and your name and mailing addressto: Judy Wolf, State Historic Preservation Office, WyomingArchaeology Month, Dept 3431, 1000E.UniversityAve.,LaramieWY82071. The2007WAAMt-shirtsandcoffeemugsareavailableattheStateMuseumStoreinCheyenneor via wyoshpo.state.wy.us/waamindx.htm. Thisyear’sdesigndepictsahorseandriderbasedonaprehistoricpetroglyphfromasiteinsouth-centralWyoming. Short sleeve shirts are available at a cost of$15.Shirts in sizes 2xLare available for an ad-ditional$1.50.Longsleeveshirtsareavailablefor$22.Add$1.50forsize2xL. For the first time, ceramic coffee mugs, featur-ingthesamehorseandriderdesign,areavailablefor$12.95. Proceeds from the sale of the t-shirts andmugsareusedtohelpfundWyomingArchaeologyAwarenessMonthactivities.

ANTHROPOLOGY DEPARTMENTMOVES INTO NEW BUILDING ON

UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING CAMPUS

In July,2007, theDepartmentofAnthro-pologymoved into a new$16milliondollarfacilityandheldaribbon-cuttingceremonyonSeptember27.U.W.PresidentTomBuchananandA&SDeanOliverWalterattended,aswellassome300alumniandUWfaculty,staff,andstudents.Themultipleribbonswerecutwithhaftedobsidianbladesbyseveralindividuals,includingvisitingalumni,suchasDr.DennisStanford (Smithsonian Institution), represen-

GOVERNOR’S PROCLAMATION

WHEREAS, Archaeology is the scientific study ofsitesandartifactassemblagesinordertobetterunderstandthenatureandpatternsofpasthumanbehavior.WHEREAS, Wyoming Archaeology AwareaessMoath connects the public with the state’s cul-tural heritage through education outreach, whichstrengthens the importantbondbetweenpastandpresentinthefabricofmodemsociety.WHEREAS,Archaeologicalsites,whichwerere-peatedlyoccupiedoverlongperiodsoftime,oftenprovidesomeofthemostusefulinfonnationaboutcontinuityandchangeinancientwaysoflife.WHEREAS, Wyoming Archaeology AwarenessMonth 2007 showcases the Mummy Cave SitelocatedintheAbsarokaMountainsbetweenCodyand Yellowstone National Park. The rockshelter

containeddeeplyburied sediments that produced38distinctoccupationlevelsfoundduringexcava-tionsfrom1963-1966.WHEREAS,MummyCaveprovides9,000yearsof evidence for mountain occupation, infonningscholars abouthighaltitudeadaptationsand sug-gesting possible connections between prehistoricinhabitantsandlaterNativeAmericanpeoples.WHEREAS, The site holds a prestigious posi-tioninthehistoryofWyomingArchaeologyasasignificant investigation by the Buffalo Bill His-toricalCenterandtheSmithsonianInstitutionthatenlightenedscholarsaboutthelengthysequenceofhumanoccupationintheRockyMountains.

NOW, THEREFORE, I, DAVE FREUDEN-THAL, Governor of the State of Wyoming, doherebyproclaimSeptember2007tobe

“WYOMING ARCHAEOWGY AWARENESS MONTH”

inWyoming,andurgethepeopleofWyomingtotakepartintheactivitiesplannedtoenhancepublicawarenessofarchaeology.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto setmy hand and caused the Executive Seal of theGovernor of Wyoming to be affixed this __ day of _ 2007.

DaveFreudenthal,Governor

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tativesofthestateandtheWyomingArchaeo-logical Society, and Brigid Mulloy, daughterofWilliamMulloy,thedepartment’sfounder.Coincidentally, the opening also marked thedepartment’s40thanniversary. The celebration included several talksbydepartment alumni, who discussed their ca-reers in anthropology, These included Eliza-bethCartright,TomFerguson,JohnJameson,JoanneMack,DaveMcKee,LauraScheiber,and Francis Smiley. They reminisced aboutthedepartment’spreviousdigs including thatknownasthe“rathouse”andGeorgeFrison’sdirt-floored lab in the basement of the Arts and Sciences building. They also discussed theimportanceofWyoming’sroleintheireduca-tion. Theopeningcoincidedwith theFrisonInstitute Board meeting, and so guests were

alsotreatedtoalecturebyDr.MarkAldender-fer(UniversityofArizona)onhisresearchinTibet. The state archaeologist’s office dis-played10yearsworthoftheiraward-winningarchaeology month posters. The Wind RiverSingers provided a drumming performance,andthehumanremainsrepositorywasblessedbyArapahoelders. We’restillgettingsettledintothenewfa-cilities,butallagreethatitmarksanewerainthe department’s development. For those ofyouwholiveawayfromWyoming,pleasestopbyandaskus for a tour if youpass throughtown.

RobertKellyAnthropologyDepartmentHead

GeorgeFrison,ProfessorEmeritusandformer Wyoming State Archaeologist,cutting one of the ribbons opening thenewAnthropologyBuildingwithahaftedobsidianblade.

ThenewUniversityofWyomingAnthro-pologyBuildingatthecornerof12thandLewis,inLaramie,Wyoming.

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ABSTRACT AnthropomorphicterracottatobaccopipefragmentshavebeenfoundinhistoricalarchaeologicalsitesacrosstheUnitedStates.Thispaperwilldiscussthesubsetoftheseknownwidelyas“PresidentPipes”.Thisisactu-allyamisnomersincesomeofthesepipesarededicatedtopresidentialcontenders.Severalnewpointsoforiginfor these pipes manufacture have been discovered.In addition to the anthropomorphic clay pipes, therearealsoanthropomorphicMeerschaumpipesandnonanthropomorphicpresidentandpresidentialcontendercommemorativepipes.Abriefoverviewofthedistribu-tionof“PresidentPipes”andasummaryoftherelevantliteraturearepresented.

INTRODUCTION Shortstemmedclaypipesinearthcolorswithvariouskindsofdetachablestemshavebeenreferredtoasstubstemmed,reedstemmed,terracotta,Shaker,and“stum-melpfeifen”.Anintriguingsubcategoryofthisgroupisthe anthropomorphic, figural, or “face” pipe. Anthropo-morphicclaytobaccopipeproductionbeganinAmericainthe18thCentury.ThesubcategoryofU.S.presidentpipesisintriguingduetotheirpoliticalnature,thefactthat they are meant to represent specific people, and un-tilrecently,thequestionofwheretheywereproduced.Thesepipeshavebeen recovered fromarchaeologicalsitesacrossthecountry,rangingfromsmallfragmentstointactpipes.Fordecades,thesourceofaparticulargroupofthesepipeshasbeenwidelyspeculateduponsincetheyhadnotbeenrecoveredfromanyoftheknownU.S.pipefactorysitesorwasterdumps.Althoughtheyarewidelyreferredtoas“PresidentPipes”,itseemsthattheyshouldmorecorrectlybereferredtoas“CampaignPipes”.How-ever,thisnomenclatureisnotentirelysuitablesincesomeofthesepipes,particularlyforPresidentWashington,arecommemorativeinnature.Thispaperwillconsistofachronologicalreviewofthepertinentliterature,theGer-

PRESIDENT PIPES: ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

byMICHAEL A. PFEIFFER, RICHARD T. GARTLEY,

AND J. BYRON SUDBURY

Originallypresentedat the8thSouthCentralHistoricalArcheologyConferenceMemphis,Tennessee28Octo-ber2006.

manoriginofsomepipes,andillustrateexamplesofsomePresidentpipes.Somereferencestotheknowndistribu-tionofthesepipesinthearchaeologicalliteraturewillbeadded.However,scouringthearchaeologicalliteratureforoneortwo(frequentlynon-illustrated)fragmentsperreportisfarbeyondthescopeofthispaper.

BACkGROUND AND CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW OF THE PERTINENT LITERATURE

The first article to mention more than one or two examples of President pipes was Calver’s article onHistoricalClayPipes(1931).Calverdepictssixwhiteballclaypipeswithintegralstems:theBuchananrebus1pipe(foundinexcavationsinCentralParkNewYork),fullbustpipesofLincoln,GeneralGrant,GroverCleve-land,BenjaminHarrisonandonewithpatrioticemblemson both sides said to be a memento of Lincoln’s first campaign.HementionsthatBarneySpringmadepipesoftheBuchanantypein1856.However,CalverdoubtedthatSpringmadethisspecimen.HealsodetailssomeofSpring’smanufacturinghistoryandlocations.Calverdoesnotillustrateanyspecimensofdetachablestemtobaccopipes. One of the earliest articles specifically on President pipes included a letter of inquirybyBernardFontanaconcerningclaypipebowlsfromarchaeologicalsitesinsouthernArizona(PainterandFontana1968).Thefourpipeshewasseekinginformationonwereasmallcentersectionofface,anearlywholegreenglazedWashingtonpipe,anorangeglazedFillmore(hementionsanidenticalspecimenfromFt.vancouver,Washington),andalightorangeFr.Piercestem.PainterattributedtheirmostlikelymanufacturetotheAkronSmokingPipeCo.ofAkron,Ohio. Inanotherarticlefrom1968,PeterShurkediscussesPresidentialCampaignpipes inhis collection (Shurke1968).The collection includes a white ball clay pipewithalikenessofBenjaminHarrisonontherightsideofthebowlwithEagle,shield&arrowsontheleft.HealsoillustratesawhiteballclayLincolnEmancipation

1 Arebusisamessage(sometimesariddle)consist-ingofpicturesrepresentingsyllablesandwords.

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pipewithagreenlaurelwreathandablackchildhold-ingontoablackchainrecliningagainstthebackofhisheadabovethestem.HisTaftPipeismadebyGambierofParisandhasamoldnumberof1684.Shurke’sotherpresidentialpipesareincludedinthe“PresidentialPipesofOtherMaterials”section. Inasinglepagearticle,Paintersummarizeshisinfor-mationonPresidentPipes,mostlyfrominformationfromAlanP.OwensofNorfolk,virginia(Painter1969:47).Heliststhefollowingpipesandprobablemakers:

Henry Clay–originunknown;William Henry Harrison –madein1888byCharlesKurthofBrooklyn,N.Y.;Franklin Pierce – made in 1850s makerunknown;Millard Fillmore–pipemadeinPennsyl-vania,makerunknown;James Buchanan–madein1856byBarneySpringofRochester,N.Y.;Abraham Lincolnpipe–madein1860byBarneySpring;Andrew Johnson–pipemadein1864–un-knownpossiblybyBarneySpring;Ulysses S. Grant –madein1868byBarneySpringofRochesterandBoston;Peter Cooper –madein1880byA.Peyrau(NYC) [ran for office in 1876);Grover Cleveland –pipemadein1892byCharlesKurth;Williams Jennings Bryan – dated 1908makerandoriginunknown.

Paintermentionsasetof“President”pipesmadeinthe1890sfortheSmithsonianInstitutionfrommoldsthatSpring had used in preceding years. The specific type of UlyssesGrantpipemadeisnotdiscussed.Itcouldhavebeenawhiteballclaypipeoroneofthefullheaddetach-ablestemstyles. AnotherarticleillustrateseightclayPresidentpipes(Cousley1972).WhiteballclaypipeswithintegralstemincludeBuchanan(withrebusforname),WilliamMcKin-ley,BenjaminHarrison(fullheadbutstembrokenoff),andGroverCleveland(anthropomorphicandfaceontheright side types).Pipeswithdetachable stems includethehexagonalHenryClay,abrownZacharyTaylor,andaMillardFillmorewithobviousmoldseamdown thecenteroftheface. The article by Thomas is the first to specifically show the full bust head of a “philosopher” style andrefer to it as a General Grant pipe. The style looksmuchmoreliketheJohnTaberproducedpipesthantheknownGermanexamples.Hementionsthatitappearsto match those illustrated in theWatkins book Early

New England Potters and Their Wares.WhiletheTaberpipeshavenonamesappearingonthem(Thomas1973)

“yet another is described as having ‘GeneralGrant’impressedonitsstem.Thisexampleac-cordingtoanarticlewhichappearedinAmeri-can CountryAntiques was the workmanshipofoneBarneySpringofRochester,N.Y.,andlater of Boston.A set of Presidential bowlswas produced and given to the Smithsonianin the 1890’s from the original molds anddiesSpringhadusedyearsbefore.”

Thomas also illustrates the French firm Gambier’s WilliamTaft andWilliam Jennings Bryan pipes, thewhiteballclayBuchanan“Rebus”Pipe,thewhiteballclayLincolnpipewithanembossedbustonthefrontofthepipe,andthefullheadpipesofGeorgeWashington,HenryClay,ZacharyTaylor,MillardFillmore,andFrank-linPierce(Thomas1973). In1979, theambitious taskofdocumentingwhatwas known about USA clay tobacco pipe productionresultedinanillustratedsurveyandreviewarticletitledHistoricClayTobaccoPipemakersintheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Sudbury1979).Thislandmarkstudyreported19thCenturyPresidentpipesmadeinNewHampshire,NewYork,Texas,andvirginia,butalsorecognizedthatPresidentpipesandotheranthropomorphicpipesofthesameageandquality(Sudbury1979:Plate30)hadbeenrecovered in mid-19th century archaeological contextswhoseplaceofmanufacturewasunknown. Sullivan’sshortsectiononPoliticalPipesillustratesfourpoliticalpipes,twowall-mountmatchholdersandmentionsseveralotherpoliticalpipes(Sullivan1980).The most unusual is from the 1880 campaign of Winfield Hancock. It is a claypipewith amustard colorglazewithanopenhandandaroosterabovethestemandthejunction of the stem and bowl. He also mentions theFrenchmadebustpipesfromthe1900,1904,and1908campaigns of William McKinley, William JenningsBryan,TheodoreRoosevelt,andWilliamHowardTaft,allofwhicharemarked“GambierAParis”.Herefersto the mold numbers as sequence numbers. Effigy pipes ofbothRooseveltsaredepicted.SullivanmentionsthatheknowsofatleastfourbustdesignsforTeddyinclay,meerschaum,andbriar,withandwithouthisRoughRiderhat. The definitive work on the John Taber and John Taber,Jr.,claytobaccopipemakerswaspublishedbyS.PaulJung,Jr.in1996.JohnTaberSr.probablymadepipesinAlfred,Maine,fromabout1840to1845andinWells,Maine, from about 1845 to 1860. JohnTaber Jr. wasfirst listed as a tobacco pipe maker in 1850 in Rochester, NewHanpshire.By1851-53hebeganmanufacturingin

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Wolfeboro in fourdifferent locations:EndicottStreet-Wolfeboro,BeaverBrook–EastAlton,TheTaberMillonMinkBrook–SouthWolfeboro,andatThePipeShoponMinkBrook–SouthWolfeboro.AtLeast115moldstylesareknownfromthesefourlocationsandshowaprogressionovertime.Onlyasinglebowlandbowlbasewithshankfragmentareshown(Plate4,No.13)fromtheEndicottlocationdatingfrom1853to1864.JungreferstotheseasU.S.Grantpipes.HeillustratesmanymorefragmentsfromthelaterBeaverBrook(1864-1866)andPipeMill(1866-1882)locations.Onpage24hementionsthattheU.S.GrantdesignduplicatesastylemadeatUslarandGrossalmerode,Germany,butthatthepipesmadebyTaberaresmaller. O’Connor illustrates four clay pipes, two meer-schaumpipes,andasilverpipe(1997).Hedescribedoneof the pipes as “This finely carved likeness of Woodrow Wilsoniscataloguedasbeingmadeofclayorchalk,butismorelikelyameerschaum.”Thepipeappearsverysimilarinsizeandexecutiontothe1896WilliamJenningsBryanalsoillustrated.Heshowsatallornate,shortstemmed,claypipewithasixsidedbowlandalikenessofHenryClayonthefrontpanel.HeattributesthattotheperiodofClay’scandidacybutthestyleisofaverymuchlatertimeframe,probablythe1890s.Hislastillustratedclaypipe is “AbrownandgoldpaintedceramicpipewithabamboostemshowsaproudUlyssesS.Grant,whoservedaspresidentfrom1869to1877.”Thepipeinthephotocopiedarticlehasashinyappearanceasifitwereglazed.ItlooksverysimilartoUslarandGrossalmerodemadepipes. Gartley was the first to document the GermanmanufacturingsourcefornumerousPresidentPipesandotheranthropomorphicpipesintheprintedtobaccopipeliterature(Gartley2003).TheotherstyleswerereferredtoasPhilosopher,Queenvictoria,QueenLouisa,Turk,Sphinx,andHercules.OneofthephilosophervarietiesmayactuallybeaPresidentGrantbutthereisnonameonthepipe.InGerman,thesearereferredtoas“Stum-melpfeifen”orstubpipes.ThetwomainmanufacturingcentersdiscussedareUslar,inLowerSaxony,andGros-salmerode,inHesse.Theselocationsare40kilometersapart.MuchofthismaterialasitrelatestoPresidentPipesispresentedinthiscurrentpaper.GartleyalsodiscussesAmerican archaeological finds of long stemmed white claypipesmanufacturedinGrossalmerode. Gartley’sinterestinanthropomorphicpipesdevel-opedafterparticipatinginexcavationsinNewOrleans,Louisiana,whereseveralexamplesofthistypeofpipewererecovered.ThesitestestedweretheOrangeStreetCistern,dated1845-1860,andtheAnnunciationSt.Privy,dated1850-1860;bothsitesarelocatedinthe“IrishChan-nel”areaofthecity(GartleyandCarskadden1987). In 2003, Sudbury updated his initial 1979 USA

pipemakersurveywitha251slidePowerPointpresenta-tionwhichincludedillustrationsof31presidentpipes,including 19th Century specimens recovered from theGermanyfactories(Sudbury2003a,2003b).Thehttp://www.claypipes.comwebsiteincludesaGrossalmerode-manufacturedGerman facepipe in themasthead; thisanthropomorphicpipeisnotoneofthoseunderdiscussioninthispaperbutitdoesillustratetheclassicgreenglazeinuseinthe1850s(Sudbury2002). Bell’sarticleisashortdiscussionofabout60“face”pipes known to him (Bell 2004). Bell presents eightfigures; the first seven show two different examples each of GeorgeWashington, ZacharyTaylor, MillardFillmore, Franklin Pierce, Lewis Cass, Henry ClayandUlyssesS.Grant.Thelastphotoisadisplaycasecontaining 66 clay anthropomorphic or effigy pipes (less than half are in the “President Pipes” category).Although the Grant pipes have no name stamped onthem, Bell identifies them as Ulysses Grant pipes.

“LauraWatkins excavated a reddish-orangeGrantpipeonthesiteoftheJohnTaberPotterywhichwasinproductionfrom1863-1872.Presi-dentGrantwon two terms,defeatingHoratioSeymorein1868andHoraceGreeleyin1872.Thispipeappearstohavebeenmadeanddistrib-utedfrom1865to1870.Thereareatleastthreeknownmoldsofthispipe.”(Bell2004).

PRESIDENT OR CAMPAIGN PIPES MADE IN OTHER MATERIALS

PipescommemoratingPresidentshavebeenmadefrom other materials besides clay. A wooden effigy briar fullbustreliefofTeddyRooseveltinhisRoughRiderscapisillustratedbyShurke(1968).Themaker’smarkonthispipeisW.D.C(WilliamDemuth&Company).Thesamearticlealsoshowsasetofwooden“japanned”pipesissuedduringthecampaignof1876withhandpaintedportraits.OnepipehasthelikenessesofRutherfordB.Hayesandhis runningmateWilliamA.Wheeler.TheotherhastheportraitsofSamuelJ.Tildenandhisrun-ningmateThomasA.Hendrick.Cousley(1972)showsacarvedFrenchbriarinthelikenessofJohnF.KennedyandaLincolnbustmeerschaumalongwithamailingcardwithaminiaturecorncobentitled“LittleMac”.ThesetinypipeswerecirculatedduringthebriefboomforGeneralDouglasMacArthurin1952.Sullivan’sshortsectiononPoliticalPipesillustratesaFranklinRooseveltbriarpipe,whichwasproducedinbothlargeandsmallbowls,whicharemarked“Bruyere/Superieure/MadeinFrance”(Sul-livan1980).Sullivanalsohasphotographsofwallmountiron matchboxes from the 1872 campaign of HoraceGreeley(inQuakerhat)andUlyssesGrant(withmilitarycap). Rapaport’s article discusses a rare collection of

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Meerschaumpipessculptedinthelikenessoftwenty-ninepresidentsfromGeorgeWashingtontoHerbertHoover(Rapaport1994).ThepipesweresculptedinGermanyandthecollectionnowresidesinaprivatecollectioninChicago.O’Connor’s1997articleincludesasilverpipesmokedbyAndrewJackson,ameerschaumpipeinthelikeness ofTeddy Roosevelt, and a meerschaum pipesmokedbyUlyssesGrant.Meerschaumpipesbecameverypopularinthemid-1850sandhelpedtocontributetothedemiseoftheclaypipe.

ORIGIN OF THE GERMAN PRESIDENT PIPES Germananthropomorphicreed-stemtobaccopipes,“stummelpfeifen”,literally“stubpipes”,ofthemid19thcenturyarefrequentlyfoundinarchaeologicalexcava-tions in the United States. They were specifically made for exporttoAmericaandtheGermanpipemakersbelievedtheywereforusebyslaveslivingoncottonplantations;hence they were sometimes called “Sklavenpfeifen”(slavepipes)and“Negerpfeifen”(Negropipes)(Anony-mousn.d.b,Stephan1995).Butaswillbeseenin thediscussionbelow,thisnotionisnotsupportedbyavailablearchaeologicalevidence.Amongthevarietiesofstum-melpfeifenareportrayalsofAmericanpresidentsorotherAmerican political figures. This has led some American archaeologiststosuggestthattheyarepresidentialcam-paign promotional items (c.f. Cresthull 1969:52).ThegeneralfeelingamongmanyAmericanarchaeologistshasbeenthattheywereproducedintheUnitedStates.(c.f.Sudbury1979:Plate30;Hudsonetal.1974:66,Figure19)However,inGermany,theGermanoriginsofthesepipesandtheirexporttotheUnitedStatesarewellknownandwelldocumented(Anonymousn.d.b,Seeliger1993,Stephan1995).TwotownsinGermanyabout40kmapart,UslarinLowerSaxonyandGrossalmerodeinHesse,areknowntohavebeencentersfortheproductionofthesepipes.PresidentpipesproducedattheseGermanmanu-facturingsitesincludeGeorgeWashington,HenryClay,ZacharyTaylor,LewisCass,MillardFillmore,FranklinPierce,and“Philosopher”(a.k.a.U.S.Grant).(Stephan1995;Gartley2003;Sudbury2003.)

PIPE PRODUCTION IN USLAR The Uslar municipal museum provided historicalinformationaboutthepipeindustryinUslar(Anonymousn.d.b).Thefollowingsummaryisbasedonthisinforma-tionandSeeliger(1993).ThemanufactureofclaypipesinUslarbeganin1767withthearrivalofanexperiencedpipemaker from Neuweid. The first products were long-stemmedwhiteclaypipes,with theproductionof thisstylecontinuingthroughthe19thcentury.Manyofthesepipesweremodeledafter thewidelydistributedpipesmadeatthattimeinHolland.ExportsfromUslartotheUSAandeventoHollandbeganaroundtheendofthe

18thcentury.PeterW.Meseke,thesonoftheUslarpipe-makerAugustMeseke,settledintheUSAin1836,andremainedforabout20years.Whileinthestates,MesekedealtinimportedpipesfromUslar.Duringthatperiodmuch of the pipe production in Uslar was specifically destinedfor theAmericanmarket; in1845 therewere4.5millionpipebowlsexportedtotheUSA,principallyto the southern states.The export trade peaked at 11millionpiecesin1866.TheStummelpfeifenportrayedAmericanpresidents in three-dimensions, forexampleGeorgeWashingtonandFranklinPierce(Figure1),orother likenesses,forexampleHenryClay,LewisCassand“Turks”).Theywereglazed invariouscolorsandmadeforsmokingwithawoodenstem.Accordingtotheinformationfromthemuseum,thedeclineoftheAmeri-canbusinesswastriggeredononehandbytheturmoiloftheAmericanCivilWar,andontheotherhandbytheemergenceofAmericanpipeproduction.Moreover,thesourceoflocalpipeclaywasexhausted,sothatinthefinal years of the pipe business at Uslar the required clay hadtobeshippedfromGrossalmerode.Thelastfactorydiscontinuedproductionin1918.

PIPE PRODUCTION IN GROSSALMERODE Archaeological finds place the beginning of white claypipeproductioninGrossalmerodeataround1650.Inapproximately1830theproductionof“Stummelpfeifen”forexport to theUSAbegan.Asonof thepipemakerHeinrich Goebel spent some time inAmerica dealinginpipesfromGrossalmerode.In1845,Grossalmerodeexported13,412hundredweightsofpipes toAmerica.Stephan calculates that this would amount to a mini-mumof13.5millionpipes(Stephan1995:66).Dataforseven producers in the period 1864-1866 shows that95%oftheirproductsweresoldinthewholesaletradetoAmerica.Duringthe1860’s,changesinthepoliticalsituation in theUSAwereresponsibleforamajorde-creaseindemandforGermanpipesandasaresult,mostpipemakersinGrossalmerodewereoutofbusinessby1872withoneworkinguntil1915(Seeliger1993).

PERSONS REPRESENTED ON “STUMMELPFEIFEN” FOUND IN USLAR AND GROSSALMERODE

TheGermananthropomorphicpipes(Figures2and3)haveawhite, tanor reddishearthenwarebodyandcanbeeitherunglazedorglazed.Theglazedpipesarefoundinoneofseveralcolors;red,red-brown,red-or-ange,orange,black,yellow,green,beigeorbrown.Thepossible use of pipemolds from the same supplier inbothlocations,andthedocumenteduseinUslarofclayfromGrossalmerode,presentsproblemsindifferentiatingpipesmadeinthetwolocations.Stephansuggeststhatthe green-glazed pipes were primarily made in Uslar

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Figure 1:UslarMuseumcataloglistingofPiercepipesfoundattheMesekepipefactoryinUslar.PhotoCourtesyofDirkRackwitz.

Figure 2:Pipesfromthe1845-1860NewOrleans,Louisianacistern.A.Redglazedmarked“WASHINGTON”.B.RedunglazedVictoria.C.RedglazedTaylorpipemarkedinScript,“RoughandReady”.

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(Stephan 1995:186).The identifying names are thoseusedbyStephanorfoundonmanufacturer’spricelists.

AMERICAN COPIES OF GERMAN “STUMMELPFEIFEN”

SomeAmericanpipefactoriesproducedimita-tionsof the importedGermanproducts.However, theAmericancopiesarequitecrudecomparedtotheorigi-nals. Threeunglazedpipes(Sudbury1979:202,Plate30)foundat theMatthewDuncanpottery,whichoperatedfrom1856to1880inBastropCounty,Texas,areroughcopiesoftheGermanZacharyTaylorpipes.Theyexhibitall the design elements but not the fine details of the Ger-manpipes,suggestingthattheyweremadeinmoldscastfromaGermanoriginal.Moldsoforiginalobjectsareknowntoresultin“aninferior,weakandrelativelyun-detailedfacsimileoftheoriginal”(Anonymousn.d.c). An unmarked, unglazed “philosopher” pipe withatanbodyandaredslipwasfoundinan1850’sprivyinBaltimore,Maryland(Stilts,2002,personalcomm.).A gray glazed philosopher pipe with the same designfeaturesastheabovewasfoundintheColumbiaRiverGorge,Washingtonsite,whichwasoccupiedfromthe1820stothe1880s(Minor,Ricketal1979:Table10-19,Fig10-18a-f;Pfeiffer1989:Catalog1-4,6-9).ThesespecimensareverysimilartothoseillustratedbyStephan(Stephan1995:Figs.220,221,223,228,Plates11and12.), but they lack the fine details of the hair and beard oftheGermanexamples(Figure4).TheJohnTaberpot-terymadethesesomewhatinferiorcopiesoftheGermanphilosopherpipesinEastAlton,NewHampshire(Sud-bury1979:170,171,Plate4-15)duringthe1864-1872period. Twohundredexamplesof“Queenvictoria”pipes

were found at the Old Sacramento site in California.TheywerefoundinthepreviouslymentionedbuildingthatburnedinNovember1852.Thewomanportrayedonthepipeshadthecurlyhairanddoublebeadnecklacesof theGermanvictoriapipe;however thepipeshadayellow-brown glazeover awhite claybody andwerecoarsely formed. Itappears thatnoattemptwasmadetoeliminatethemoldlines.AnobviousvariancefromtheGermanpipes is that theanglebetween theshankandbowlis90degreesontheAmericanpipes,whereastheangleontheGermanspecimensisapproximately45degrees.CrudeQueenLouisaandHerculespipesintheDougDiezcollectionhavethesamebody,glazeandstemangleastheabove“Queenvictoria”pipesandaremostlikelyproductsofthesamemaker.Thesourceofthesepipesisnotknownbutthe90degreeanglebetweenthebowlandshanksuggestsanAmericansource. Beginninginabout1850,factoriesinPointPleasant,Ohioproducedgreatnumbersofpipesuntilthelate19thcentury(Sudbury1979).Thesewerewidelydistributedandarecommonly found today;somestylesoccuronthe same sites that have also yielded president pipes.Theknownproductsofthesefactorieswerestonewarereed-stempipes.Infact,onetypeofpipemadeinPointPleasant,aTurkpipe,mayhavebeeninspiredbytheTurkpipesfromUslarandGrossalmerode(Stephan1995:166).Againtheanglebetweenthestemandbowlis90°,com-paredtothe45°angleontheGermanspecimens.

SUMMARY OF GERMAN MANUFACTURE OF PRESIDENT PIPES

According to Seeliger, (1993:165), for Grossalm-erodeaswellasUslar,themostimportantportswherepipesenteredNorthAmericawereBaltimore,NewYorkandNewOrleans.Stephan(1995:166)statesthatmost

Figure 3: Pipesfromthe1850-1860NewOrleanscistern.A.Redglazed,unmarkedWashing-tontype.B.Unglazed,white,marked“HENRYCLAY”.C.Redglazed,marked“PRES(IDENT)(FILL)MORE”.

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ofthepipesfromGrossalmerodewereshippedtoNewYork,inadditiontoBaltimoreandsomeotherportsintheSouth.Fromthesemajorportsthepipeswouldhaveread-ily been dispersed across America and that is confirmed inthearchaeologicaldiscoveries.Thisdistributioniscon-sistentwiththeaccountsfromUslarandGrossalmerode.However,thenotionthatslavesprimarilyusedthesepipeshas not been confirmed in the reports examined by the authors. It is difficult to believe that slaveholders would have been purchasing imported pipes specifically for theirslaves.Infact,onlytwoofthepipesdiscussedsofarwerefoundonplantationsites.However,asearchofavailablereportsofarchaeologicalexcavationsofsouth-ernplantationshasturnedupanadditionalexample.Abadlydamagedgreen-glazedpipesimilartotheGermanpipes bears an image of an unidentifiable person. This pipewasamong2000whiteclaypipesfoundattheDogRiverPlantationsiteinAlabama(Waselkov2002).Thisplantationwasabandonedbytheendof theAmericanCivilWar(1865). Pipesrepresentingtwopresidents,TaylorandFill-more,shouldalsobeincludedinthepipevarietylistingsforUslarandGrossalmerode.TheTaylorpipemostlikelydatestohistermaspresident(1849-50),andwouldrepre-senttheearliestknownofthepresidentialseriesofpipes.HenryClaymaybetheearliestintheseries.TheGer-man-producedpresidentialseriesapparentlyendswithFranklinPierce.Ifasreported,pipeswerebeingexportedtotheUSbythemillionsuptoandincluding1866,itisinterestingthat therearenoknownGermanreedstem

pipesdepictingJamesBuchanan(president1857-1861)orAbrahamLincoln(president1861-1865). ContemporaryGermandocumentsdatingtoabouttheendoftheAmericanCivilWarshowthatthepipemak-ersofGrossalmerodewereconcernedwiththedecreaseinsales toAmerica.Oneapparent reasonfor thedropwasthatAmericantariffshadbeensubstantiallyraisedduringthewar,makingGermanpipesmoreexpensive.ThehighertariffsencouragedincreasedproductionintheUSandnewfactorieshadbeenestablishedhere(Stephan1995:135).AmongGrossalmerode’sAmericancompeti-torsinthemid-nineteenthcenturywouldhavebeenthepipefactoryatPointPleasant,Ohio,theJohnTaberpot-teries inMaine and inNewHampshire, the extensivepipeproductioncenterinAkron,Ohio,andpossiblythepipeindustryofPamplin,virginia,whichallproducedlargequantitiesofreed-stempipes.Duringtheperiodca.1847-1890theMerrillpotteryinAkron,Ohioalsomadereed-stempipes.In1847theMerrill’sofAkron,Ohio,hadinventedandpatentedpipemakingmachinery;theMerrills reported that theyproduced280,000pipes in1850(Sudbury1979:184).Astonewareanthropomorphicpipe,variouslysuggestedtorepresentThomasJeffersonor Jefferson Davis, has also been reported (Sudbury1979:Plate57).AnapparentlyCivilWarvintagestubstemanthropomorphicbrasspipemoldofthissamebasicstylehasbeenreported(Sudbury1979:Plate64)andhasrecentlybeenusedtoproduct“counterfeit”pipesforsale(Figure4).Thismoldandthe“Jefferson”pipearethesamebasicformastheLincolnpipeillustratedinFigure

Figure 4: ContemporarypipesproducedfromthemoldillustratedbySudbury(1979:Pl.64).A.Whiteclayspecimen.B.Stonewareversion,includingadditionalpost-moldingtooling.

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(PainterandFontana1968:161,162).

Henry Clay LostthreePresidentialelections(1824asDemocraticRepublican;1832asaNationalRepublican;1844asaWhig) HenryClaywasaprominentAmericanpoliticianinthe1803-1852period.Alaurelwreathencircleshisheadandtheshankismarkedincapitalletters,“HENRY”ontheleftsideand“CLAY”ontherightside(Stephan1995:Fig.225). Amongthethreepipesfoundinthe1850-1860An-nunciationStreetprivy, locatedinthesamecityblockasthepreviouslydiscussedNewOrleanscistern,wasawhiteclaypipemarked“HENRYontheleftsideoftheshankand“CLAY”ontherightsideoftheshank(Figure3b).ThispipeissimilartotheHenryClaypipesillustratedfromGrossalmerode(StephanFigure225)andmaybeaGrossalmerodeproduct.ThereisalsothetallclaypipewithasixsidedbowloftenreferredtoasaGerman“Cof-feehouse”style(Figures7,8)(O’Connor1997:58).Thiswouldhavehadalongstemandmouthpiece.TheHenryClayandotherearlierstylesofthispipe,usuallywithnocountryoforiginmaking,aremarked“WARRANTEDTOCOLOR”ontheshankorabovethehead.Accordingtotheirca.1915productcatalog,theAmericanClayPipeWorksofBrooklyn,NewYorkcatalogwasmanufactur-ingHenryClaypipes(Jung1988:11).Meerschaumpipesstartedbecomingpopularandwidelydistributedinthemid-1850sandtheyarevaluedmoreastheybegintocolorfromsmoking.Thismayhavebeenanattempttocollatethewonderfulsmokingqualitiesofmeerschaumwiththemorehumbleclay.Mostknownexamplesofthisstylewithaknowncountryoforiginaremarked“Austria”and

Figure 5: GeorgeWashingtonpipes recovered in theUSA.A.Clearglazeover redclay,un-marked.B.Whiteclay,unglazed;marked“WASH…”ontheleftstem.

16.ThepipeinFigure4mayrepresenttheimageofRobertE.Lee.

kNOWN ExAMPLES OF CLAY PRESIDENT PIPES

George Washington 1789-1797 [Pipeactuallyproducedmid-19thcentury] Washingtonclaytobaccopipes(Figure5)arethoughttobeprimarilycommemorativeinnaturesincenoneareknowntodatefromeitherhispresidentialcampaignsorperiod in office. Washington wears a crown with an encircl-ingbandofv’s.Theshankissometimesmarked“WASH-INGTON”incapitallettersontheleftside(Stephan1995:Figs.223,224,228andPlate12). Ared-brownglazedGeorgeWashingtonpipe,marked“WASHINGTON”wasfoundinthe1845-1860levelOr-angeStreetcistern(Figure2a).Itappearstobeidenticaltothe Washington pipes confirmed to be from Grossalmerode (Stephan1995:Figs.223,224,228,Plate12).AnunmarkedWashingtonredglazedpipewithadifferentimagecamefromtheAnnunciationStreetprivy(Figure3a).StephandoesnotillustrateasimilarpipeandifnotforanexampleintheDougDiezcollectionmarked“WASHINGTON”,itwouldbeastretchtocallthisaWashingtonpipe.Abowlfragment bearing the typical crown of theWashingtonpipeswas foundat theDesoto,NebraskaTownsiteSite(25-WN-16)datedto1855-1875(Pfeiffer1982:189,Fig.29j,2006:88).AfragmentofaprobableWashingtonpipewithanorangebodyandaclearglazewasfoundinexcava-tionsattheHudson’sBayCompany’sBellevueFarm,SanJuanIsland,Washingtonwhichwasoccupiedfrom1853toabout1870(Pfeiffer1983:161,165,168,Figs.1eand2e).Agreen-glazedmarkedexamplewasreportedfromasiteinArizonadatedtothesecondhalfofthe19thcentury

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mayhavebeenmadepost1891McKinleyTariffAct. Zachary Taylor: 1849-1850 Taylorisdepictedwearingalaurelwreathsimilartothose worn by some of the other political figures in this seriesofpipes.ZacharyTaylor,whowasPresident1849-50,wasnicknamed“OldRoughandReady.”Thesepipeswereusually,butnotalways,marked.Whenmarked,thelegend“RoughandReady”appearsontheleftsideoftheshankineitherscriptorblockletters.StephandoesnotidentifyTaylorpipesasproductsofGrossalmerode.Howeverheillustratesbutdoesn’tcommentuponanap-parentlyunmarkedpipethatseemstobeidenticaltoanunmarkedTaylorpipefoundinPennsylvania(Stephan1995:Plate224).

A red-brown glazed pipe from the Orange StreetcisterninNewOrleans,ismarkedinscriptontheleftsideoftheshankwiththelegend“RoughandReady”(Figure2C).Wilson(1971:Fig.36C)illustratesamarkedgreenglazedRoughandReadypipefromFortSanders,Wyoming.Themarked shankof a red-brown”RoughandReady”pipewas foundduring theexcavationsattheJamesLangworthysiteinDubuque,Iowa.Thehousewasoccupiedfromthe1830’sto1974andthecontextofthepipewasnotdatedwithanyprecision(Perryn.d.:5).Aredglazedpipemarked“ROUGHANDREADY”inuppercaseblockletterswasfoundatFortJohnsonSouthCarolina(Steen2002:736).Asimilarpipeofunknownprovenienceisshown(Figure9B). An unglazed unmarked ZacharyTaylor pipe was

Figure 6: HenryClaystubstemmedpipes,manufactured inGermanyandfound intheUSA.SpecimenCwasfoundinanIllinoisprivy.[Scaleofthesephotographsvaries.]

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excavatedfromaprivydatingtothe1850’sinStateCol-lege,Pennsylvania(Stilts,2002,personalcomm.).

Lewis Cass Lost1848electiontoTaylor (USSecretaryofState1848,1857-1860).Alaurelwreathencircleshisheadandtheshankismarkedincapi-talletters“LOUIS”ontheleftand“CASS”ontheright(Figure10)(Stephan1995:Figs.224,225,228andPlate12).Agreen-glazedpipemarked“LEWISCASS”wasfoundatFortSanders,Wyoming(Wilson1971:49,Fig.36E).Anothermarked“LEWISCASS”pipeisreportedfromBexarCounty,Texas(Hudsonetal1974:66,Figure19).Apipemarked“LEWISCASS”wasfoundinaHar-rison,Ohioprivydatingfrom1860-1880(Anonymousn.d.a).TheseallappeartobeidenticaltothedocumentedGermanCasspipes.

Millard Fillmore: 1850-1853 FillmoreisshownwearingalaurelwreathsimilartothoseshownontheHenryClayandLewisCasspipes.Allexamplesseenaremarked“PRESIDENT”ontheleftsideoftheshankand“FILLMORE”ontheright(Figure11).AlthoughthistypeofpipeisassuredlyaproductofUslar orGrossalmerode, Fillmore is not listed amongthepresidentsonpipesrecordedasmadeinUslarandGrossalmerode.Howeverthepipeshavethesamestyle,pasteandsuperiorqualityastheotherGermanpresiden-

Figure 7: HenryClayPipe in “CoffeehouseStyle” pipe, marked “HENRY CLAY” abovebust.

Figure 8: HenryClayPipeproducedbytheAmericanClayPipeWorks,Incorporated;stemcorkstillpresent.Leftside.B.“WARRANTEDTOCOLOR”onrightshank.

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tialpipes.SpecimensofthispipewereobservedinthecollectionsofGermanworkerswhohadexcavatedatthemanufacturingsites(Sudbury,personalobservation).

Franklin Pierce: 1853-1857 ExamplesfromGrossalmerodearemarkedincapi-talletters,“FR.PIERCE”ontheleftsideoftheshankand “PRESIDENT” on the right side (Figures 12, 13and 14), and a band of stars encircles the shank nearthebaseofthebowl(Stephan1995:Figs.225,227andPlate12).Seeliger(1993:146)illustratesasimilarpipefromUslarbutitismarked“FRANKPIERCE”ontheleftsideof theshankand“PRESIDENT”ontherightside.ItalsolacksthebandofstarsfoundontheGros-salmerodeexamples. A clear-glazed pipe with a slip on a tan body,marked“FR.PIERCE”ontheleftsideoftheshankand

Figure 9: ZacharyTaylor(“RoughandReady”)Pipes.A.Ballclayspecimen,“RoughandReady”on left sideofstem (NYC).Theca.1850Germanmold for thispipe is illustratedbyStephan(1995:133).B.Redglazeonredclay,unmarked.C.Greyclay,unglazed,unmarked.D.Greyclay,glazed,unmarked.

“PRESIDENT”ontherightsideoftheshankwasfoundinexcavationsattheHudson’sBayCompany’sBellevueFarm,SanJuanIsland,Washington(Pfeiffer1983:161,165,168,Figs.1eand2e).Anunglazedorangepipewiththeabovemarkingsisreportedfroman1850-1900siteinArizona(PainterandFontana1976:161,162).ThesepipeshaveabandofstarsencirclingthefrontendoftheshankandmatchineverydetailthePiercepipesillustratedbyStephan(1995;Figs.224-227).Wilsonillustratesanothervariety of Pierce pipe from Fort Sanders,Wyoming,which was occupied from 1866-1882. (1971: 48, Fig.36A).Thisred-bodiedclear-glazedpipeisdescribedashavingthename“FRANKLINPIERCE”ontheleftsideoftheshankand“PRESIDENT”ontheright,withtheletters“C.P.”below“PRESIDENT”.ThispipelacksabandofstarsandthisvariantisnotevidentinthePiercepipesillustratedbyStephan(1995).

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James Buchanan: 1857-1861 Buchanan was elected five times to the House of Representatives;then,afteraninterludeasMinistertoRussia,servedforadecade in theSenate.HebecamePolk’sSecretaryofStateandPierce’sMinistertoGreatBritain.ServiceabroadhelpedtobringhimtheDemo-

Figure 10: LewisCasspipesmadeinGermany. A,B.Redclay,glazed.C,D.Whiteclay,un-glazedA.C.MarkedCASSonthestem.B,D.MarkedLEWISonthestem.

Figure 11:MillardFillmorepipes.A.Redglazeoverredclay.B. Whiteclay,unglazed.

craticnominationin1856becauseithadexemptedhimfrom involvement in bitter domestic controversies.(WhiteHouse2006) This is a white ball clay pipe with integral stem(Figure15).Thebowlhasanembossedrebusconsistingofabuckontherightsideandacannonontheleftside.Painter’sinformant,AlanP.Owens(1969),attributesthe

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manufacturetoBarneySpringofRochester,N.Y.Owensalsoattributesotherpipes,nowknowntobemadebyothers,tothatmanufacturer.

Abraham Lincoln 1861-1865 Lincoln was assassinated shortly into his secondterm.Thesepipesmaybecommemorativeinnatureandnotfromapoliticalcampaign(Figure16).Makersareunknown. ThebrokenstonewarepipeontheleftincludestheclassicallaurelwreathmotifsimilartothoseontheHenryClay,ZacharyTaylor,LewisCass,andMillardFillmorepipes.[NotestylisticsimilaritiestothemodernpipeinFigure 4, and the mold reported previously (Sudbury

Figure 12: Unglazed white pipe marked“FRANKPIERCE”,identicaltopipesfoundattheMesekeFactoryinUslar.Unknownprove-nience,JohnStiltscollection.

Figure 13: Green-glazed pipe marked “FRPIERCE”, with a band of stars around theshank, identical topipes found inGrossalm-erode.Unknownprovenience,JohnStiltscol-lection.

Figure 14: FranklinPiercepipes.A.Glazed,redclay.B.Whiteclay,unglazed.C.Glazed,redclay.

1979:Plate64)].

Ulysses S. Grant: 1869-1877 TheGermancatalogsrefertothisstyleasthe“Phi-losopher”pipe.TheGermanmanufacturedpipeshavethebestappearanceandaremostclearlymolded(Figure17and18).AfragmentofthisstylefromtheearlierTaberlocationatEndicottStreet,from1853to1864,datesbe-

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foretheperiodofGrant’spopularityintheNorth.UlyssesGrant was widely known from his CivilWar militarycampaignsasearlyas1864.TheTaberpipesweremadeattheBeaverBrooklocation,inEastAlton,from1864-1866.TheAmericancopiesoftheGerman“philosopher”pipe,aswellastheoriginalGermanimport,mayhavebeenmarketedasa“UlyssesGrant”pipe. One definite U.S. Grant clay pipe is shown inO’Connor(1997:60).“Abrownandgoldpaintedceramic

Figure 15: Buchananrebuspipe(manufactureruncertain).

Figure 16: LincolnPipes.A.StonewareLincolnpipe;probableUSAmanufacture.B.WhiteClayLincolnpipe,probableEuropeanmanufacture.

pipewithabamboostemshowsaproudUlyssesS.Grant,whoservedaspresidentfrom1869to1877.”Thepipeinthephotocopiedarticlehasashinyappearanceasifitwereglazed.ItlooksverysimilartoUslarandGrossalm-erodemadepipes.TheGermanmade“philosopher”pipeshaveoftenbeencalleda“U.S.Grant”pipeinAmericabyantiquariansandsomepipecollectors.TheAmericancopiesoftheGerman“philosopher”pipearereferredto“Grant”pipesbyPaulJung.MostoftheTaberpipesap-

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peartodatefromhistimeofpopularityduringthecivilwartohispresidency.

Benjamin Harrison: 1889-1893 Benjaminwas theGrandsonofPresidentWilliamHenryHarrison(Figure19).Inthe1880’sheservedintheUnitedStatesSenatewherehechampionedIndians,homesteaders,andCivilWarveterans.InthePresidentialelection,Harrisonreceived100,000fewerpopularvotesthanCleveland,butcarriedtheElectoralCollege233to168.Hewasdefeated in the1892 electionbyGrover

Figure 17: GermanmanufacturedGrantpipesfoundintheUSA.A.Redglazed,redclay.B,C.Unglazed.

Figure 18: TaberpipesinthelikenessofPresidentU.S.Grant.A.TaberEndicottStreet,Wolfe-boro1853-1864.B,C.TaberBeaverBrook,EastAlton1864-1866.D-G.TaberPipeMill,SouthWolfeboro1866-1882.

Cleveland. A white ball clay stemmed pipe is illustrated inShurke(1968:52).Healsomentionsasimilarpipewiththe likenessofGroverCleveland from the1888cam-paign.

William Mckinley: 1897-1901 McKinley’s term is most noted for the 100 daySpanish-AmericanWarinwhichtheU.S.destroyedtheSpanish fleet in Santiago Harbor, and annexed Guam, the Philippines,andPuertoRico.In1900,McKinleycam-

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paignedagainstBryan.WhileBryaninveighedagainstimperialism,McKinleyquietlystoodfor“thefulldinnerpail.”Hissecondterm,whichhadbegunauspiciously,cametoatragicendinSeptember1901.HewasstandinginareceivinglineattheBuffaloPan-AmericanExposi-tionwhenaderangedanarchistshothimtwice.Hediedeightdayslater.(WhiteHouse2006) Inadditiontothefourcolorsillustrated(Figure20),thereisanobviousdifferenceintheheightofthehead.Theremusthavebeenatleasttwodifferentmoldsfromthismanufacturer.AfullbustpipewasmadebyGambierofParis.

William Jennings Bryan BryanlostthepresidentialelectiontoMcKinleyin1896and1900andagaintoTaftin1908(Figure21). Sullivan(1980:153)mentionsaseriesoffourhighlydetailed bust figural pipes by Gambier of Paris for the electionsof1900,1904and1908.TheydepictWilliamMcKinley,WilliamJenningsBryan,TheodoreRooseveltandWilliamHowardTaft.SincetheGambiermoldnum-berforBryanis1683andthatofTaftis1684,thesetwopipesmaydatefromthe1908Campaign.

Theodore Roosevelt: 1901-1909 With the assassination of President McKinley,TheodoreRoosevelt (Figure22)became theyoungestUnitedStatesPresidentatage42.Althoughonlyelected

toasingleterm,hecouldhaverunforanotherfullterm.However, Roosevelt considered that his almost eightyearswasenoughandretired.Hemadeanotherrunforthepresidencyin1912.

William H. Taft: 1909-1913 WilliamTaft(Figure23)wasthehandpickedsuc-cessortoTheodoreRoosevelt.TaftalienatedmanyliberalRepublicanswholaterformedtheProgressiveParty.TheRepublicansre-nominatedTaftin1912.RooseveltthenboltedthepartytoleadtheProgressives.HavingasplitpartyguaranteedtheelectionofWoodrowWilson.

Richard M. Nixon: 1969-1974 RichardNixon(Figure24)waselectedbyapain-fullydividednationwithturbulenceinthecitiesandwaroverseas.In1972hewasre-electedoverdemocraticcan-didateGeorgeMcGovernbyoneofthewidestmarginsonrecord.Withinafewmonths,hisadministrationwasembroiledinthe“Watergate”scandal.Heresignedfromoffice in August 1974.

QUESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH One of the more interesting phenomena noticedduringtheresearchforthispaperhasbeenthenomen-claturefortheGerman“philosopher”ortheAmerican“U.S.Grant”anthropomorphicpipes.WeretheAmerican“Grant” pipes first copied from the German “philosopher”

Figure 19: BenjaminHarrisonpipe(bothsidesillustrated).A.Bust;stemreads:“PROTECTIONFOR.”B.Eaglewithshieldandarrows;stemreads“AMERICANLABOR.”

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Figure 20: McKinleypipes,probablyAmerican-made. All fourspecimenshave thename im-printedontheforehead(seeB).A.Red/pinkclay.B,D.Whiteclay.C.Orangeclay.

Figure 21: Bryanpipemarked“GAMBIERAPARIS.”MoldNumber1683.

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pipesandthenhadthe“U.S.Grant”attributedtothemat a laterdate?Were theGerman“philosopher”pipesevermarketedinAmericaas“Grant”pipes?WeretheyevermanufacturedinGermanyas“Grant”pipes?Isthe“Grant”pipeinO’Connor(1997:60)actuallyproducedintheUslar/Grossalmerodearea?HowmanyclaytobaccopiperepresentationsofAmericanpresidentsremaintobedocumented?Howmanyofthewhiteballclaypipesfrom

JamesBuchananthroughTheodoreRooseveltweremadeby Barney Spring? Spring’s production is insufficiently documented.Thefour illustratedexamplesofWilliamMcKinleypipesdemonstrateatleasttwomolds.Thesearedifferentfromanyoftheotherstylessowhomadethesepipes?Inthedaysofthetelegraphandnewspapersastheprimarymeansofinformation,werethesepipesreallypassedoutaswewouldpassoutcampaignbuttons

Figure 22: ThisstyleofpipeisverysimilartothatoftheMcKinleypipes[Figure20].Thesepipeswereprobablymadeby thesamemanufacturer. [A full bustpipeofRooseveltwasmadebyGambierofParis.]

Figure 23: TAFTpipemadeby“GAMBIERAPARIS.”MoldNumber1684.

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Figure 24: Thisporcelain-likepipeappearstobeacaricaturepiperatherthanacampaign,vic-toryorcommemorativeveinsinceitemphasizesthejowlsandnose.Makerunknown.

or were they given to specific supporters? Why are some majorGermanexportpipestylesnevermentionedintheGermanliterature?

CONCLUSIONSThecategoryof“PresidentPipes”mightbetter

bereferredtoas“PoliticalPipes”sincesome,liketheGermanproducedGeorgeWashington,arecommemo-rativeinnature,somearecaricaturesornovelties,andsomerepresentthecampaignsofthecontendersaswellas thewinners.TheGermanproductionappears tobeconcentratedfrom1844(HenryClay’slastattempt)thru1852 (Franklin Pierce’s first election). The production of “philosopher”copiesorU.S.GrantpipesbyJohnTaberisfromtheearly1850sthrutheearly1880s.WhiteballclaypipeswithanintegralstemhavebeenmadefromthetimeofBenjaminHarrisonthruTheodoreRooseveltbut theirmanufacturingsourceandhistory isnotwelldocumented.GambierofParismadefullbustpipesfortheelectionsof1900,1904and1908.TheydepictWilliamMcKinley,WilliamJenningsBryan,TheodoreRooseveltandWilliamHowardTaft.ThephenomenonofPoliticalPipesappears tobecentered in the timeperiodof themid-1840s thru the first decade of the 1900s.

ACkNOWLEDGEMENTSWethankDougDiezforphotographsofpipes

inhiscollection,DirkRackwitzofStadverwaltungUs-larforsupplyinginformationaboutthepipeindustryinUslar,JohnStiltsforsupplyingpicturesofpipesinhiscollection,andJeffCarskaddenoftheMuskingumvalleyArchaeologicalSurveyforhiscommentsandsuggestions.

S.PaulJung,Jr.suppliedthephotographsinFigure18.BenRapaportandGeneUmbergergraciouslysuppliedbackgroundmaterialandreferences.

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Anonymousn.d.c Antique Timepieces.http://www.timepiec-

es.com/jewelry.html.Bell,Max

2004 CollectingAmerican Face Pipes. Bottles and Extraspp.52-54.Spring.

Calver,WilliamL.1931 HistoricalClayPipes.New York Historical

Society Quarterly Bulletin14(3): 91-102.[Thiswasoneofaseriesofarticleslaterrepublished after Calver’s death (1940)in: Calver,William Louis and ReginaldP.Bolton.History Written With Pick and Shovel.NewYorkHistoricalSociety,NewYork,NY,1950,pp.280-291.]

Cousley,SamA.1972 PresidentialClayPipes.Antiques Journal

27(11):24-26.Gartley,RichardT.

2003 Deutsche “Stummelpfeifen” vonAus-

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grabungen in den USA. Knasterkopf 16:180-189.

Gartley,Richard,andJeffCarskadden1987 Marbles from an Irish Channel Cistern,

New Orleans, Louisiana. Proceedings oftheSymposiumonOhiovalleyUrbanandHistoric Archaeology5:12-125.

Hudson,William R., Jr.,Warren M. Lynn, and DanScurlock.

1974 Walker RanchAnArcheological Recon-naissance and Excavations in NorthernBexar County,Texas. Office of the State Archeologist Reports Number 26.TexasHistoricalCommission,Austin.

Humphrey,Richardv.1969 ClayPipesFromOldSacramento.Histori-

cal Archaeology3:12-33.Jung,S.Paul,Jr.

1988 American Clay Pipe Works Incorporated. [ca.1915catalogreprintwithaccompany-ingcompanyhistory.]Privatelyprinted,BelAir,Maryland.

1996 John Taber and John Taber Jr.: Two New England Clay Tobacco Pipe Makers. A Family History and Illustrated Catalogue. PrivatelyPublished,BelAir,Maryland.

O’Connor,Larry1997 PresidentialPipes.Pipes & Tobaccopp.56,

58,60,62.Fall.Painter,Floyd

1969 PresidentPipes–ASummary.The Cheso-piean7(2):47.April.

Painter,Floyd,andBernardB.Fontana1968 “PresidentPipes”fromArizona.The Che-

sopiean6(6):160-161.December.Perry,Michaelv.

n.d.A Territorial Period Site in Dubuque. Office of the StateArchaeologist, TheUniversityofIowa,IowaCity,Iowa.http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/learn/dubuque/tps1.htm

Pfeiffer,MichaelA.1981a ClayTobaccoPipesFromSpokaneHouse

andFortColville.Northwest Anthropologi-cal Research Notes 15(2):221-235.

1981b Notes on Unusual Clay Tobacco PipesFound inSeattle.Historical Archaeology 15(2):109-112.

1982a TheClayPipes. In:Kanakavillage/van-couverBarracks,1975.Reports in Highway Archaeology No. 7:113-127. Office ofPublicArchaeology,InstituteofEnviron-mentalStudies,UniversityofWashington,Seattle.

1982b Clay Tobacco Pipes and the Fur Trade of the Pacific Northwest and Northern Plains. M.A.Thesis,DepartmentofSociologyandAnthropology,UniversityofIdaho,Mos-cow.

1983a ClayTobacco Pipes from Hudson’s BayCompany’s Bellevue Farm, San JuanIsland,Washington (45-SJ-295). In:TheArchaeologyoftheClayTobaccoPipevIII.America.British Archaeological Reports, International Series175:162-183.

1983b The Tobacco-RelatedArtifactAssem-blage from the MartinezAdobe, Pinole,California. In: TheArchaeology of theClayTobaccoPipevIII.America.British Archaeological Reports, International Series175:185-194.

1983c ClayTobaccoPipesFromFiveArchaeo-logical Sites in Nebraska. Historic Clay Tobacco Pipe Studies2:39-47.

1989 Curation Manual for theArchaeologicalCollectionfrom45SA11,NorthBonneville,Washington.Heritage Research Associates ReportNo.83.Eugene,Oregon.

2006 ClayTobaccoPipesandtheFurTradeofthePacific Northwest and Northern Plains. His-toric Clay Tobacco Pipe Studies Research Monograph1.PhytolithPress,PoncaCity,Oklahoma.

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1993 Pfeifenmacher undTonpfeifen zwischenWeser und Hartzforland. Beiträge zur Volkskunde in Niedersachsen6.

Shurke,Peter1968 PresidentialCampaignPipesfromtheCol-

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tigations at the Hollings Marine Labora-tory,FortJohnson,Charleston,SC

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der Herstellung von technischer Keramik Teil2.Glas-undKeramikmuseumGros-salmerode,Germany.

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Gartley.Sudbury,Byron

1979 HistoricClayTobaccoPipemakersinthe

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UnitedStatesofAmerica.TheArchaeologyoftheClayTobaccoPipeII.AmericaI.Brit-ish Archaeological Reports, International Series 60:151-341.Oxford,England.

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Wares. pp.92-93,134-135,166-167.Ar-chonBooks(Reprintofthe1950HarvardUniversityPressedition).

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White House History Web Page,http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presi-dents/

Wilson,RexL.1971 Clay Tobacco Pipes From Fort Laramie

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MichaelA.PfeifferArchaeologistUSDAForestServicempfeiffer@fs.fed.us

RichardT.GartleyMuskingumvalleyArchaeologicalSurveymattfoy2000@yahoo.com

J.ByronSudburyConsultantJ.S.EnterprisesofPoncaCityjschemistry@hotmail.com

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ABSTRACT Thisarticledescribesthemethodologyandapplica-tionof latexpeel technology for documentingnaturalandculturalstratigraphy.Thetechniquesdiscussedarefor mounting a cleaned profile surface layer, several mil-limeters thick, upon a permanent flexible backing. Latex peels are rapid and inexpensive to construct, portableand compact.Their use permanently and accuratelydocumentsdetailsofdepositionalstrata,soilhorizons,micro-stratigraphy, and fabric of unconsolidated sedi-ments.They are valuable for recording cultural strataincludingoccupationlevels,stains,andfeaturesforfuturereferenceinthelaboratory.

INTRODUCTION Photo documentation and scaled profile drafting are typicallyused tocreatea recordofarchaeologicalsitestratigraphy.Oftenitisdesirabletohaveaportablephysicalrecordofthestratigraphy.Thisarticledescribestheuseandconstructionoflatexpeelsforthepurposeofdocumentingthestratigraphicrelationshipsofarcheo-logicalsites.Latexpeelsproduceamirrorimageofstra-tigraphypreservedasathinlayerofsedimentarygrainsadheringtoabackingandadhesivemedium.Descriptionsofvarioustechnologiesusedtoconstructsedimentpeelshavebeenpresentedintheliterature(Goldberg1974).Latexpeelsoffersomeadvantagesoverothermorerigidtypesofpeels. Techniques for constructing latex peels were first developedbyMcKee(1966)whousedthemforstudy-ing sanddune stratigraphy.Abrief descriptionof thisprocedureispresentedbyKlein(1971).Thisprocessof

constructing latex peels of profiles was adapted at the SplitRockRanchsite,(48FR1484;Eakinetal.1997)toprovideapermanentrecordofpithousewallmorphol-ogy. Latex peels are easily constructed on profiles exposed during the excavation process. In most circumstancesthe profile itself remains undamaged while taking the peel.Becausetheclothandlatexbackingofthepeelisflexible, the finished peels may be either attached to rigid backingfortemporaryviewingorrolledupandboxedfor permanent storage. Peels constructed at the SplitRockRanchsitewere rolled for transportandstorageand were subsequently unrolled several times for theanalysisandeducationalpurposes.Inthe21yearssincetheirconstructionthepeelsremaindurableandpliable.Althoughindividualgrainshavefallenoffnoneofthepeelssustainedanymajordamageorattrition.Becausethepeelremovesalayerofsediment,thesoilcolorsofsedimentaryandculturalstrataarewellpreservedandinsomecasessoilstructure,e.g.,massive,blocky,columnar,may also be preserved.When completed, latex peelsprovide permanent documentation of unconsolidatedsediments.They provide an accurate record of macroandmicro-stratigraphyandsoilhorizonation,aswellasthespatialrelationshipsofobservableculturalstrata.

PROCEDURES Thesurfacetobepeeledmustberelativelysmooth(Klein 1971:229) without protrusions, e.g. rocks orclods.Wavesorundulationsinthesurfacedonotcauseany major difficulties because the latex and cheesecloth backing is flexible and will follow the surface contours. Adequatepreparationofthesurfacecanbeaccomplishedinafewminutestoanhourdependingontheamountofirregularitiespresent. Throughaprocessof trial and error itwas foundthat the profile must be completely dry before a sealer (Krylon) is applied. Profiles that were prepared by

NOTE:Tradenamesused in thispublicationdonot necessarily imply endorsement of any specific productbytheauthor,theWyomingArchaeologi-calSocietyoranyofitsmembers.

LATEX PEELS: A METHOD FOR PRESERVING NATURAL AND CULTURAL STRATIGRAPHY

byWILLIAM ECKERLE AND JEANNE M. MOE

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usingwatertosoftenthesedimentswereallowedtodryovernightintheopenair.Ifrainorheavydewoccurredduringthenight,additionaldryingtimewasallowedthefollowingmorning. SeveralcoatsofKrylonweresprayedonthesurfaceand five minutes of drying time was allowed between eachcoat(Figure1).Thissealercoatpreventsweaklycoherentsedimentfrombeingdislodgedbythebrushasthe first coat of latex is applied. On this project, KrylonNo.1306WorkableFixativespraycoatingwasused.Itis made by Borden, Inc., Dept. CP., Columbus, Ohio43215.Klein(1971:Table6)suggeststheuseofKrylonCrystalClearSpray#1303madebytheKrylonCorp.,Norristown,Pennsylvania.Afterapplicationofthelastcoat,approximately30minutesofdryingtimewasal-lowed.BetweenfourandsixcoatsofKrylonwerefoundto be sufficient.

Latex cement was then applied directly from thecontainerusingasoftpaintbrush.ThecementusedwasWeldwoodLatexCement(DAP,Inc.,Baltimore,MD)

whichisstockedbymanygeneralbuildingsupplyoutlets.Klein(1971:Table6)suggeststheuseofCementex#600latex cement made by the Cementex Co., NewYork.Artist’slatexgessohasalsobeenusedforthisapplication(Kornfeld:personalcommunication.Manylatexcementswouldprobablyperformsatisfactorily.Inanycase,thereshouldbelittleornoacrylicinthecementortheKryloncoatingwillbemeltedoncontact.

Coverage of the profile should be as even as possible. LocationswherethecementisappliedtoothinmaynotadherewelltotheKrylonwhereasthickercoatingswillnot dry well. One coat of latex cement is sufficient before applicationof a cheeseclothbacking.Thecheeseclothprovidesastructuralbacking thataddsstrength to thepeel(Figure2).Thecheeseclothshouldbeappliedbybrushingitintothewetlatex.Ifthecheeseclothneedssplicedatleasta10cmoverlapisrequired.Latexwilldryquicklyonaverywarmday.Asecondcoatoflatexisapplied over the top of the cheesecloth after the first coat isdry.Klein(1971:230)suggestswaitingahalfhour.At

Figure 1: “Krylon” sealer being sprayed on profile at the Split Rock Ranch site.

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theSplitRockRanchSite,itwasfoundthat3-4hourswere required for the first coat to dry. The second coat wasallowedtodryovernight.Differentlatexproductswillrequireindividualizeddryingtimes.Thepeelswerecoveredwithplasticifovernightprecipitationseemedim-minentandthenextmorningthecoverwasremovedandthepeelallowedtodry.Dryingisdependentonmoistureand temperature conditions. Thus success is more difficult incoolanddampweather. Thepeelswere removedstartingat the topof theprofile and working downward. Large chunks or soil clods hadtooccasionallybebrokenawayfromthebackingaspeelingprogressed.Occasionallyverylargeclodswouldadheretothebacking.Thesewerebrokenupbygentlyusingatrowel,stillleavingalayerofsedimentadheringto the backing. After removal from the profile wall, the peels were laid flat, matrix side up, and allowed to air dry for2-3hours(Figure3).SeveralcoatsofKrylonwerethen applied to the exposed surface allowing five minutes dryingtimebetweencoats.

Figure 2: Profile wall with cheese cloth applied to latex.

Aswasmentionedabove thepeelsmaybe rolledfortransportandstorage.Althoughthisdoescausesomerubbingandlossofgrains,thedamageisnotappreciableespeciallyiftherollissupportedwithamaporcarpettube. The finished peels may be attached to plywood backing for permanent laboratory display.The peelsare relatively inexpensive to construct. It is estimatedthateach1sq.meterpeelcostapproximately$10.00formaterialsandconsumedamaximumof2-3personhourstoconstruct.

CONCLUSIONS Latexpeelsarerelativelyeasilyandinexpensivelyconstructed.They provide a permanent record of sitestratigraphythatisusableforlaterlaboratoryanalysisoreducationalpurposes.Materialsusedintheirconstructionarerelativelyinexpensiveandavailable.Thetechniquesdescribedareeasilyexecutedalthoughcareshouldbetaken that the profile is dry when starting the procedure. Finally,latexpeelsareeasilystoredwhenrolled.

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Figure 3: Peelafterremovalbeingcleanedandinspected.

REFERENCES CITEDEakin,DanielH.,MaryLouLarson,andJulieFrancis

1997 The Split Rock Ranch Site: Early PlainsArchaicAdaptationinCentralWyoming.InChanging Perspectives of the Archaic on the Northwestern Plains and Rocky Mountains, edited by Mary Lou LarsonandJulieFrancis.pp.394-449.UniversityofSouthDakotaPress,vermillion.

Goldberg,PaulS.1974 Sediment Peels from Prehistoric Sites.

Journal of Field Archaeology1:323-328.Klein,G.dev,

1971 A Sedimentary Model for DeterminingPaleotidal Range. Geological Society of America, Bulletin82:2,585-2,592.

McKee,E.D.1966 Structures of Dunes atWhite Sands Na-

tional Monument, New Mexico (And aComparison with Structures of DunesfromOtherSelectedAreas).Sedimentology7(1):1–69.

WilliamEckerleWesternGeoArchResearchP.O.Box521124SaltLakeCity,UT84152

JeanneM.MoeProjectArchaeology2-128WilsonHallMontanaStateUniversityBozeman,MT59717

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HAFTED STONE TOOLS: A LOOK AT HUNTER-GATHERER EXAMPLES FROM THE CENTRAL AND

NORTHWESTERN PLAINS

BYCODY NEWTON

ABSTRACT Chippedstoneisaubiquitouspartoftheprehistorichunter-gathererarchaeologicalrecordintheGreatPlainsand Rocky Mountains. It has long been recognizedmany chipped stone tools represent one element of acompositetoolsystemwhichincludesotherperishablematerials,suchaswoodandanimalproducts.Becausetheselattermaterialsrarelypreserve,understandingtherole of stone tools in prehistoric contexts is difficult. Although rare, some complete examples of thesecompositetoolsdoexist.Inthispaper,publishedintactcompositetoolsfromhunter-gatherersitesinMontana,Wyoming, Colorado, and Nebraska are summarized.Thegoalofthisstudyistodecipherthetechnologicalorganizationofhaftedstonetoolsinordertobetterthetechnologicalroleofstonetools,whicharealargepartofthehunter-gathererarchaeologicalrecord.

INTRODUCTION LithicartifactsarethemostrecognizedandstudiedaspectofprehistoricmaterialcultureintheGreatPlainsandRockyMountainregion.Lithicmaterialsrepresentthemostdurableformofartifactandareoftentheonlyartifactstowithstandthedestructioncausedbyhumanandenvironmentalprocesses(Andrefsky2005:1).Thestudyofchippedstonehasbeenanessentialtoolinthearchaeological reconstruction of prehistoric hunter-gathererlifeways. Chipped stone assemblages from archaeologicalsitesoftencontain formal stone tools.These tools arean important component of not only lithic analysisbut overall site analysis as well. Projectile points, inparticular,areoftenusedtodistinguishbetweendifferentprehistoricgroupsandestablishchronology(e.g.,Frison1991;Mulloy1958).Beyondsiteassemblageanalysis,archaeologistsusereplicationandexperimentalstudiesto estimate the prehistoric use and effectiveness ofprojectile points (e.g., Frison 1991; Frison 2004;Hunzicker2005).

Experimental approaches allow archaeologiststo better understand the effectiveness of prehistorictechnology. Studies such as those by Browne (1938,1940)demonstratedthepotentialcapabilityofthebowandarrowsystem.Otherexperiments,suchasthosebyFrison (1989), showed these systems were capable ofat least fatallywoundingpreyanimals.Therearealsodata available through ethnohistoric accounts givinginsight into how prehistoric groups may have usedtheir weaponry (e.g., Swanton 1938). These accountshavegivenarchaeologistsinformationonhowthemoreperishable and underrepresented parts of a prehistoricweaponssystemcouldhavebeenorganized. Stonetoolsusedinbutcheringandfoodprocessinghave not received the same amount of analyticalattention as projectile points. Along with prehistoricweaponrysystems,certainbutcheryandfoodprocessingtools were part of composite systems. Enthnohistoricassemblages provide examples of these types ofcompletetools(FowlerandMatley1979;Nordenskiöld1979).Overall,however,studyofprehistoriccompositetools is hampered by the lack of complete specimensfromthearchaeologicalrecord. The manufacture and maintenance of compositetools isanacknowledgedaspectofprehistorichunter-gatherer technology throughout antiquity. Keeley(1982:798)states:

Stone implements have been haftedcertainly since the Upper Paleolithicand quite probably since the MiddlePaleolithic. The idea that many of thelithic artifacts recovered from siteswereoriginallyhafted is soobvious thatlengthy consideration of its significance seems pedantic and superfluous.

The fact hafting elements are acknowledged, yetlargely underrepresented in the archaeological record,isproblematic.Itlimitsourunderstandingofprehistorictools;despiteacknowledgmentofhafting,therecovered

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lithicelementgenerallyrecoveredisoftentreatedasacomplete, independent tool. The labeling of chippedstone elements as “tools” is a misnomer because thisimpliestheyarecompleteandusable. Thistreatmentofchippedstonetoolsasindependenttools is inappropriate, especially because there arecompletehaftedtoolsrecoveredfromprehistoriccontextsthat do retain all of their elements, both perishableand non-perishable. The study of these artifacts cangive insight into the technologicalorganizationof theprehistoric hunter-gatherer groups that manufacturedandusedthem.

PURPOSE Hunter-gathererarchaeologydependsalmostsolelyonthematerialcultureleftbehindbyprehistoricpeople.Certainpartsofthismaterialculturedecaymorequicklythanothersandconsequentlytheseaspectsarelessunder-stood.Theperishablenatureofhaftedtoolelementsoftenprecludestheseartifactsfrompreservinginthearchaeo-logicalrecord.Considerationoftheeffectshaftingcouldhaveonourinterpretationsofthearchaeologicalrecordisoften neglected despite its significance (Keeley 1982:798-799).Thereareexamplesfromthearchaeologicalrecord,however, that retain theseperishablepartsandcanbestudied.Through the investigation of these examples,itmaybepossibletoinferbehaviorsandtechnologytootherartifactassemblageslesscomplete. Thestudyofcompletehaftedspecimenspermitsustoestimatewhatismissingfromassemblagesretainingonlypartofacompositewhole,whichisinmostcasesthelithiccomponent.Publishedcompletehaftedexamplesfromprehistorichunter-gatherersitesintheCentralandNorthwesternPlainshasbeencompiledandthissampleisanalyzedtoincreasetheknowledgebaseconcerninghafted tool typology and technological organization.Thoughthisstudyisnotcomprehensive(e.g.,thegrayliteraturewasomitted),theinformationpresentedpro-videsabaselineforfuturestudies

DATA COLLECTION Completeexamplesofhaftedstonetoolshavebeenrecovered from archaeological sites throughout thewesternUnitedStates.Theworkofearlyarchaeologistsinthearidregionsofthewestandsouthwestprovidedthemajorityoftheknownspecimens.SitessuchasLovelockCave (Loud and Harrington 1929) and Gypsum Cave(Harrington1933)inNevadaandsitesintheGreatSaltLake region excavated by Steward (1937) and others(see Aikens 1970; Cosgrove 1947; Gunnerson 1969;Jennings 1957; Jennings 1978; Wheeler 1973) haveyielded complete hafted specimens. Complete haftedstonetoolsfromnorthandeastoftheGreatBasinandUtaharelesscommon.Asmentionedabove,theCentral

and Northwestern Plains define the research area. This areawasdictatedbylogisticalconsiderations,butmostimportantly,wasselectedbecauseanypreviousstudyofthissortintheregionislacking. The data gathering process began with searchingtheregionalanthropologicaljournals,alongwithmorewidely diverse journals, such as American Antiquity.From here, a bibliography was started and potentialreferences were examined to determine if each sitecontained examples suitable for the study. Specimenswereincludedinthesampleifthechippedstoneelementwasstillcontainedinthehaftingelementsotherewasnoambiguityaboutthemannerofhaftingormaterialsused.Also,specimenswereconsideredcompleteforthepurposesofthisstudyevenifthehaftingelementwasincomplete(e.g.,ahaftedprojectilepointonabrokenshaft)because these tools stillhadallelementsof thehafting present. The final sample includes 26 complete examples from 15 sites or locales from Montana,Wyoming,ColoradoandNebraska(Figure1).

DATABASE Table1providesgeneral informationon the siteswherethehaftedtoolsusedinthissamplewererecoveredderived from published reports. As shown, there aresome basic similarities and constraints exhibited bythe sites permitting the recovery of complete haftedexamples.Allsitesarerockshelters,excludingHagen,whichisanopencampsite,andpossibly25FR22.Thedry depositional context of rockshelters favors thepreservation of perishable hafting elements. Thesespecimens derive from contexts dating to the LateArchaicormorerecentperiods.ThesiteswithassociatedradiocarbondatesareLateArchaictoLatePrehistoricinage.Thoselackingradiometricdates,can,forthemostpart, be placed into the same age bracket by relativedating. Table2isasummationoftheindividualspecimensfromthepublishedliterature.Notethecolumndenotingthe number of individual elements composing eachspecimen.AnindividualelementisroughlyanalogoustoatechnounitasemployedbyOswalt(1976:38).Oswaltuses the number of technounits as means to gaugethe complexity of subsistence technology. The basicunit concept is used in this study, as well, but unlikeOswalt,itisusedonlytomeasurethebasiccomplexityoftoolsratherthansubsistencetechnology.Inallcases,thenumberofelementscomposingaspecimenisthreeor greater and this indicates the primary elementscomprising these tools.The threeelementsare the(1)chippedstoneinsertedintoa(2)handleandstabilizedwithsomesortof(3)bindingagent. Thesamplecanbedividedthespecimensintotwobasic groupings: propelled tools and non-propelled

��


Figure 1: Mapofsitesorlocalitieswherehaftedstonetoolsfromsamplewererecovered.

��


Tabl

e 1:

Haf

ted

ston

eto

ols

ampl

esi

tein

form

atio

n.

SITE

ST

ATE

CO

UN

TY

SITE

#

AG

E D

ESC

RIP

TIO

N

# H

AFT

ED

REF

EREN

CE

Dau

ghte

ryC

ave

WY

Was

haki

e48

WA

302

Late

Arc

haic

or

smal

lbla

dein

sha

ft;

2Fr

ison

196

8

La

teP

rehi

stor

icH

orne

dO

wlC

ave

WY

Alb

any

48A

B30

5La

teA

rcha

ico

rkn

ifew

/par

tialw

ood

1G

ebha

rde

tal.

1964

Late

Pre

hist

oric

Mum

my

Cav

eW

YP

ark

48PA

201

Late

Pre

hist

oric

co

mpo

und

arro

ws

haft

w/

2H

uste

dan

dE

dgar

200

1

1

230

+/-1

10B

.P.

po

int;

min

iatu

reh

afte

dpo

int

Spr

ing

Cre

ekC

ave

WY

Was

haki

e48

WA

1La

teP

rehi

stor

ic

two

hafte

dda

rtpi

nts

in

2Fr

ison

196

5

A.D

.225

+/-

200

Fo

resh

aft

Wed

ding

oft

he

WY

Hot

Spr

ings

48

HO

301

Late

Arc

haic

da

rtpo

inti

nfo

resh

aft

1Fr

ison

196

2

Wat

ers

Cav

e

16

20+

/-16

5B

.PC

arbo

nC

ount

yM

TC

arbo

n--

----

La

teP

rehi

stor

ico

rco

mpo

und

arro

ww

/haf

ted

1C

ram

er1

978

P

roto

hist

oric

fore

shaf

tand

noc

ksha

ftG

host

Cav

eM

TYe

llow

ston

e24

YL2

La

teP

rehi

stor

ic

3po

ints

w/p

artia

lsha

fts;

6M

ullo

y19

58

A.D

.500

3kn

ives

(2w

ood/

1bo

neH

oski

nB

asin

M

TYe

llow

ston

e--

----

La

teP

rehi

stor

ico

rkn

ifein

woo

den

hand

le

1C

ram

er2

001

Pro

tohi

stor

icP

icto

grap

hC

ave

MT

Yello

wst

one

24Y

L1

Late

Pre

hist

oric

tw

opo

ints

w/p

artia

lsha

fts;

2M

ullo

y19

58

A.D

.500

one

isp

ossi

ble

knife

Hag

en

MT

Daw

son

24D

W2

Late

Pre

hist

oric

or

knife

w/b

one

hand

le

1M

ullo

y19

42

Pro

tohi

stor

icW

icki

upC

ave

MT

Bea

verh

ead

24B

E60

1po

ssib

ly

arro

wp

oint

atta

ched

to

1D

avis

197

5

Pro

tohi

stor

ic

pa

rtial

sha

ft25

FR22

N

E

Fran

klin

25

FR22

La

teP

reco

ntac

tkn

ifew

/bon

eha

ndle

1

Boz

ell1

994

A.D

.100

0-14

00C

ham

berC

ave

CO

P

uebl

o5P

E17

67

Late

Pre

hist

oric

ha

fted

poin

tin

fore

shaf

t;2

Nel

son

1970

P

anha

ndle

Asp

ect

kn

ifew

/woo

dha

ndle

Man

tle’s

Cav

eC

O

Mof

fat

5MF1

La

teP

rehi

stor

ic

knife

w/w

ood

hand

le;

2B

urgh

and

Sco

ggin

194

8P

lum

Can

yon

CO

La

sA

nim

as

5LA

2158

La

teP

rehi

stor

ic

knife

w/b

one

hand

le

1B

utle

r198

5

Roc

kshe

lterI

A

.D.9

00-1

250

��


Tabl

e 2:

Haf

ted

ston

eto

olin

form

atio

n.

SITE

SP

ECIM

EN

NU

MB

ER O

F H

AN

DLE

OR

MAT

ERIA

L K

NIF

E O

R

MAT

ERIA

L B

IND

ING

B

IND

ING

C

OM

PLET

E

EL

EMEN

TS

SHA

FT

TYPE

PO

INT

TYPE

EL

EMEN

T M

ETH

OD

EX

AM

PLE

Dau

gher

tyC

ave

13

hand

le

skun

kbru

sh

knife

ob

sidi

an

sine

w

ye

sD

augh

erty

Cav

e 2

3 ha

ndle

co

ttonw

ood

knife

un

spec

ified

m

issi

ng

ye

sH

orne

dO

wlC

ave

33

hand

le

pine

kn

ife

quar

tzite

m

astic

noM

umm

y C

ave

4 3

fore

shaf

t w

illow

ar

row

un

spec

ified

si

new

B

ye

sM

umm

y C

ave

5 3

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d ar

row

un

spec

ified

si

new

B

no

Spr

ing

Cre

ek C

ave

6 3

fore

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d da

rt un

spec

ified

si

new

A

yes

Spr

ing

Cre

ek C

ave

7 3

fore

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d da

rt un

spec

ified

si

new

A

noW

eddi

ng o

f the

8

3 fo

resh

aft

will

ow o

r da

rt un

spec

ified

si

new

A

yes

W

ater

sC

ave

chok

eche

rry

Car

bon

Cou

nty,

MT

9 4

fore

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d ar

row

ch

alce

dony

si

new

/mas

tic

A ye

sG

host

Cav

e 10

4

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d ar

row

un

spec

ified

si

new

/pitc

h A

noG

host

Cav

e 11

3

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d ar

row

un

spec

ified

si

new

un

know

n no

Gho

st C

ave

12

3 sh

aft

unsp

ecifi

ed w

ood

arro

w

unsp

ecifi

ed

sine

w

unkn

own

noG

host

Cav

e 13

3

hand

le

unsp

ecifi

ed w

ood

knife

un

spec

ified

si

new

yes

Gho

st C

ave

14

4 ha

ndle

un

spec

ified

woo

d kn

ife

unsp

ecifi

ed

sine

w/m

astic

yes

Gho

st C

ave

15

3 ha

ndle

un

spec

ified

bon

e kn

ife

unsp

ecifi

ed

mis

sing

yes

Hos

kin

Bas

in

16

4 ha

ndle

un

spec

ified

woo

d kn

ife

cher

t si

new

/mas

tic

ye

sP

icto

grap

h C

ave

17

4 bo

th

unsp

ecifi

ed w

ood

both

ch

ert

sine

w/m

astic

A

yes

Pic

togr

aph

Cav

e 18

5

shaf

t un

spec

ified

woo

d ar

row

ch

ert

sine

w/m

astic

, un

know

n no

gils

onite

Hag

en

26

3 ha

ndle

bi

son

verte

bra

knife

un

spec

ified

pi

tch

ye

sW

icki

upC

ave

19

3sh

aft

elm

orc

otto

nwoo

dar

row

ch

ert

sine

w

Ano

25FR

22

20

3 ha

ndle

bi

son

rib

knife

un

spec

ified

mas

tic

ye

sC

ham

ber C

ave

21

3 fo

resh

aft

unsp

ecifi

ed w

ood

arro

w

unsp

ecifi

ed

sine

w

A no

Cha

mbe

r Cav

e 22

3

hand

le

unsp

ecifi

ed w

ood

knife

un

spec

ified

ra

whi

de

ye

sM

antle

’s C

ave

23

4 ha

ndle

co

ttonw

ood

knife

un

spec

ified

w

illow

spl

ints

,

yes

pine

gum

Man

tle’s

Cav

e 24

3

hand

le

unsp

ecifi

ed w

ood

drill

un

spec

ified

ra

whi

de

ye

sP

lum

Can

yon

25

3ha

ndle

bi

son

scap

ula

knife

qu

artz

ite

mas

tic

ye

s

Roc

kshe

lterI

�0


tools.Inthissample,propelledtoolsincludearearrowsor darts andnon-propelled tools includeknives and apossible drill. Prehistoric people likely used haftedarrows and darts for cutting and knives may havebeenthrown,butthisdichotomyisusefulbecausethisanalysisisconcernedwithintendedtooluseratherthanincidentaltooluse. Thematerialtypesusedwerewoodorboneforthehandleorshaftandstoneforthebladeorpoint.Inthecases where the handle or shaft material was specified, thewoodorboneusedwasofalocallyavailablespecies.Thederivationofthelithicsishardertodiscernwithoutspecific sourcing of the material. The obsidian used forthebladeinSpecimen#1istheonlycaseinwhichthe material is definitely unavailable in the immediate site area.Thebindingelementsusedon theexamplesare mainly sinew, mastic, or both, with the exceptionofwillowsplintsandpinegumusedinSpecimen#23.Thebonehandledknivesshowatmostonlyonebindingelementwhereasthewoodenhandledknivesaremorevaried and exhibit multiple binding elements in somecases. When possible (n=10) the wrapping methodused on the arrow and dart specimens was recordedaccordingtoFigure2.AChi-Squaretestindicatesthereis a significant relationship between wrapping method A and the presence of notches (χ2=5.833,df=1, p=0.016).This probably indicates notching facilitated the crosswrapping method and was a more secure method ofhafting. Using the scaled figures provided in the publications, measurementsweretakenoneachspecimen(Table3).Figures3,4,and5describethemeasurementstakenforarrows/darts,side-haftedknivesandend-haftedknivesrespectively.Totallength(TL)andhandlelength(HL)wereonlyincludedinthetableforspecimenswithintacthandlesorshafts.Specimen#20isnotincludedbecausethe published figure did not include a scale.

ANALYSIS The hafted stone tools from the sample can begrouped based on morphological characteristicsprobably reflecting different prehistoric uses and technological considerations.The hafted points in thesample are categorized for use in either a bow andarroworatlatl anddart system.Therehasbeenmuchdebateoverhow todistinguishbetween theprojectilepoints used as darts and those used as arrowheads(BettingerandEerkens1999;NassaneyandPyle1999).Thomas (1978) presented a quantitative analysis ofhafted projectile points from museum collections todevelop classification equations that could be used to differentiatearrowheadsfromdartpointsinnon-haftedspecimens.Shott (1997) extendedThomas’s approachandincreasedthehafteddartsamplewithmoremuseum

specimens. This sample of hafted arrows and dartscontains specimens from predominately west of theRockyMountainsand thedesertSouthwest.Althoughthe Thomas and Shott samples contain no specimensfrom the Central and Northwestern Plains, becauseidentical measurements were used, specimens fromthisstudycouldbecomparedtoseeifthesamplesarestatisticallysimilar. TheThomassampleofhaftedarrows(n=132)wascomparedagainstthesample(n=7)fromthisstudy.T-testsindicate the two samples are not significantly different at the α=0.05 based on the variables of shoulder width (t=-0.449, df=137, p=0.654), neck width (t=-0.752, df=138,p=0.453),totalpointlength(t=-1.451, df=134, p=0.149)andshaftwidth(t=-0.502, df=138, p=0.616).An analysis of variance (ANOvA) between the dartsfrom Thomas (n=10), Shott (n=30) and this sample(n=2)indicatetheyarenotstatisticallydifferentbasedonthemutualvariablesofshoulderwidth(F(2,39)=0.062, p=0.940),neckwidth(F(2,40)=1.523, p=0.230)andtotalpoint length (F(2,39)=2.508, p=0.095). The similaritiesbetween the samples indicate a consistency in themanufacture of these hafted projectiles through space

Figure 2:Recordedbindingmethodsusedonhaftedprojectilespoints.

��


Tabl

e 3:

Mea

sure

men

ts(m

m)f

rom

haf

ted

ston

eto

ols

ampl

e.

SH

OU

LDER

N

ECK

SH

AFT

H

AFT

ING

B

LAD

E B

LAD

E H

AN

DLE

HA

ND

LE

STO

NE

TOTA

LSP

ECIM

EN

WID

TH

WID

TH

WID

TH

DEP

TH

LEN

GTH

W

IDTH

W

IDTH

LE

NG

TH

LEN

GTH

LE

NG

TH

TYPE

1

10.0

24

.6

12.6

5.

614

2.1

36.3

16

6.7

End

haf

t2.

53

.5

33.7

20

.4

101.

562

.5

S

ide

haft

3

66

.5

28.9

16

.1

93

.6

102.

4E

ndh

aft

413

.9

6.1

7.0

225.

0A

rrow

510

.8

5.1

3.0

19.3

A

rrow

621

.9

12.9

9.

7

32.5

17

0.3

Dar

t7

16

.4

12.1

78

.5

Dar

t8

26.3

14

.4

11.5

19

.1

36.7

20

8.1

Dar

t9

12.0

7.

66.

59.

3

25

.0

146.

0A

rrow

10

16.8

12

.1

8.5

6.8

22.8

83

.8

Arr

ow11

12.7

6.

94.

9

56.3

A

rrow

12

13.4

10

.3

7.1

4.4

18.8

71

.2

Arr

ow13

28

.4

13.8

16

.2

63.9

37

.8

S

ide

haft

14

53.9

24

.6

18.7

17

6.2

62.4

Sid

eha

ft15

74

.8

22

.1

102.

2

S

ide

haft

16

71.7

38

.0

25.0

13

6.0

90.0

20

7.7

End

haf

t17

15.2

10

.2

26

.7

74.5

E

ndh

aft

18

17.8

9.4

30

.5

173.

9A

rrow

19

10

.5

9.

4

66.0

A

rrow

21

13.4

9.

17.

8

Arr

ow22

38

.8

22.3

24

.9

85.9

124.

7E

ndh

aft

23

99.5

43

.1

41.2

11

1.3

21

0.8

End

haf

t24

8.

0

6.4

635.

0

643.

0E

ndh

aft

25

20

.0

41.0

25

.0

21.0

11

4.0

46.0

Sid

eha

ft26

89

.5

35.6

18

.6

170.

297

.5

S

ide

haft

��


Figure 3:Measurementstakenonarrowsordartsinsample.

Figure 4: Measurementstakenonside-haftedknivesinsample.

andperhapstime. Theknives(n=13)inthesampleexhibitsomebasicdesigndifferences.As indicatedbyStiger (2001:245),hafted stone knives fall into at least three categories:first, those with the blade hafted onto the end of a handle that is aswideorwider than theblade; second, thosehaftedontheendofahandlethatisnarrowerthantheblade;andthird,thosewiththebladehaftedontothesideofthehandle.Thissamplecontainsexamplesofhaftedstoneknivesfallingintoeachofthesecategories.

Therearefourknives(Specimen#’s16,22,23and24) with an end-hafted blade equal to or narrower inwidththanthehandle.Thefourknivesofthistypeallhavewoodenhandlesandat leastonetypeofbindingelement.Theshapeofthistypeofknifeisverysimilartoamodernknifewithadaggerblade.Specimen#24is considered to be a drill rather than a knife (BurghandScoggin1948:50)butstillmeetsthecriteriaofthiscategory. Blade material type was only specified for Specimen#16,whichischert.

��


α=0.05 level (Figure 7). The high correlation between the width dimensions of these elements probably reflects need for the handle and blade to fit together for hafting, especiallyend-haftedknives.Handle lengthandbladelength are not significantly correlated; even in theside-haftedsample,wherethelengthcorrelationmightbe more important in hafting, there is no significant relationship(N=6, r=0.600, p=0.208). Mannerofhaftingandmaterialsintheknifesampledemonstratepatterning.Thefrictionandmasticbindingusedintheside-haftedknivesdifferedsomewhatfromthesinewusedintheend-haftedexamples.Themasticand friction binding method seem to make the act ofhaftingamoresimpleandstraightforwardprocessthansinewbinding.Thiscouldhavebeenimportantifthesekniveswereusedfora typeofprocessing thatcausedshortuse-lifeofblades.Masticcouldsimplybeheatedtoamoreviscousstateinordertoreplacetheblade. The wooden material used in hafting was notfrequently identified in the literature but some specimens weretyped.Thesespecimenscontainedawoodspeciesavailable locally in the site area. Most likely thesespecieswouldhavebeenavailableatthetimeofknifemanufacture.

CONCLUSIONS AND SPECULATIONSItisgenerallyacceptedthehandleorshaftelementsofahaftedtooltakemuchlongertomanufacturethanthelithicelements(Keeley1982:800).Therefore,itcanbeargued the haft elements of tools play a significant role in thetechnologicalorganizationofprehistoricpopulations(Oswalt1976).Thepaucityofprehistorichunter-gathererexamplesofhaftedstonetoolsisproblematicwhentrying

There are three artifacts (Specimen #’s 1, 3 and17)where the stoneblade iswider than thehandle towhichitishafted.Stiger(2001:245)suggeststhistypemightrepresentahaftedknifewhichcouldalsobeusedas part of a projectile point system.This seems to bethecaseforSpecimen#17,whichMulloy(1958:64-65)indicateswaspossiblyahaftedarrowpointinwhichtheshaftwascuttomakeitintoasmallknife.Specimen#1isanextremelysmallblademountedonanevensmallershaft. This size of this knife is intriguing and couldindicateaveryspecializedpurpose. The majority of the knives in the sample (n=7)havethebladehaftedintothesideofthehandle.Fourof these specimenshavehandlesmanufacturedout ofbone. Three of the handles are specified as bison bone. Thedifferentskeletalelementsusedtomakethehandleswerearib,thespinousprocessofacervicalvertebraandascapula.Thesizeandshapeoftheseskeletalelementsmade them suitable as handle with little need formodification. The material used for the blades is only indicatedinthecaseofSpecimen#25whichismadeofquartzite. Looking at the variables separately by element(Figure6)indicatesthelengthandwidthofthebladesare significantly correlated at the α=0.01 level. This is not surprising given the limitations of manufacturingitems from chipped stone. Also, it is expected the specific intendedfunctionofaknifebladewoulddictateacertaintemplate. The lack of significant correlation between handle length and width could reflect differing material characteristicsormorphologicalconsiderationsbasedongraspingandleverage.Therelationshipbetweenhandlewidth and blade width is significantly correlated at the

Figure 5: Measurementstakenonend-haftedknivesinsample.

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todiscernthiscomponentofpastculture. There are definite morphological characteristics crosscuttingspatialandtemporalscales.Inaverybasicformthebreakdownofthedifferenttypescanbeshownasfollows(Figure8).Thefocusof thisstudywasthebifacially flaked group (no examples from the other categoriesweredocumentedfor thisstudy).Therearesomeinterestingquestionsraisedbythelackofunifaciallyflaked and grooved examples from all known complete haftedtools.Intheregionofthestudy,itisespeciallyinterestingthatcertaintools,suchasendscraperswhichoccur frequently in prehistoric sites, are rarely found

withthehaftingelement.TheliteraturesearchforthispaperdiscoveredonlyonehaftedspecimenfromCaveIatPromontoryPointinUtah(Steward1937:70-72).Thelackofhaftedexamplescouldbeduetothespecializednature of these tools (e.g., end scrapers used in hideprocessing) dictating use at only certain times of theyearanddifferingcurationstrategies.Thematerialsusedtomakeallhaftedtoolswouldhaveprobablybeenthesame,sopreservationwouldnotbebiasedagainstanyoneparticulartooltype. Theselectionofrawmaterialsusedinthemanufactureofhaftingelementscouldhavepotentiallybeenastrategic

Figure 6: Overlayscatterplotofbladeandhandlemeasurementsbyelement.

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process in much the same way as lithic procurement.At Crystal Cave in South Dakota, recovered haftingelements indicate different types of wood were beingusedfordifferentpartsinthemanufactureofcompounddart systems (Weathermon 2005). The compositecharacteristics and morphology of the knives in thesample indicate each type would have performedspecialized tasks more efficiently than the other. It is apparentside-haftedknivesweredesignedforcuttinginadrawingmotionandendhaftedknivescouldbeusedforagreatervarietyofcuttingstrokes.

Understanding themanufactureanduseofhaftedtoolscanleadtoamorecompleteknowledgeofthewaysin which prehistoric people responded to subsistenceneeds.Localconditionsandadaptivechoicesprobablydictated the rawmaterialsused, themanufacture timespent, the shape of each individual element, and finally, howeachelementwascombinedtocreateacompositetool.Completehaftedstonetoolsweretheendresultandtheyprovideinsightintotheentireprocess.Itisthroughthestudyofexistinghaftedartifactscoupledwithfurtherreplication,experimentationanduse-wearanalysisthat

Figure 7: Overlayscatterplotofbladeandhandlemeasurementsbydimension.

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Figure 8:Categorizationofhaftedstonetools.

archaeologistswillultimatelyattainabetterunderstandof hafting and the role it played in the technologicalorganizationofprehistoricpeoples.

ACkNOWLEDGMENTS ThispaperwasdevelopedoutofanideasuggestedbyJasonLaBelle.Withouthishelpandencouragementthispaperwouldnothavebeenwritten.GayleCarlson,Mike Fosha, Kevin Gilmore, Larry Loendorf, MarkStigerandJamesTruesdalewerecontactedandprovidedmuchinformationandguidance.JudithCooperprovidededitinghelpandgreatlyimprovedtheoverallqualityofthis work.Thanks to the anonymous reviewer whosecomments improved this paper immensely. Drawingontheresourcesandknowledgeoftheaforementionedindividualsgreatlyenhancedtheoutcomeofthiswork,butanyinconsistencies,mistakes,oroverlookeddataarepurelythefaultoftheauthor.

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CodyNewtonDepartmentofAnthropologyColoradoStateUniversityFortCollins,[email protected]

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