Present and Future Challenges of Coastal Erosion in Latin America

Journal of Coastal Research SI Coconut Creek, Florida 2014 1–16 71

Present and Future Challenges of Coastal Erosion in Latin America Rodolfo Silva†*, M. Luisa Martínez‡,†, Patrick A. Hesp§, Patricio Catalan∞,£, Andres F. Osorio&, Raul MartellЄ, Monica Fossati+, Graziela Miot da Silva§, Ismael Mariño-Tapia#, Pedro Pereira@, Rodrigo Cienguegos₴,£, Antonio Klein%, and Georges GovaereѦ

ABSTRACT Silva, R.; Martínez, M.L.; Hesp, P.; Catalan, P.; Osorio, A. F.; Martell, R.; Fossati, M.; Miot da Silva, G.; Mariño-Tapia, I.; Pereira, P.; Cienfuegos, R.; Klein, A., and Govaere, G., 2014. Present and future challenges of coastal erosion in Latin America. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 1–16. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The coastal zones of Latin America have many landforms and environments, including sedimentary cliffs, deeply incised estuaries, headlands, barrier coasts and low lying, muddy coastal plains. These forms will respond differently to the expected changes in climate and associated sea level rise, which may produce coastal erosion in the future. Considering the coasts of Latin America overall, erosion is not yet a serious threat, although it is widespread and it is severe in some parts. Major erosion problems are frequently associated with human intervention in sediment supply, with poor planning or with the morphodynamic nature of the coast. Permanent erosional processes, locally or regionally, are caused by tectonic subsidence, deforestation and the fragmentation of coastal ecosystems, land use changes and sediment deficits because of infrastructure built along the coast. In this article we analyse coastal erosion in Latin America and the challenges it presents to the region. We first highlight the relevance of Latin America in terms of its biodiversity; then we describe the population at risk, demographic trends and economic growth throughout the low lying coastal zones. We also examine the vulnerability of the region by analyzing the resilience of key coastal ecosystems after exposure to the most frequent hazards that affect coastal zones in Latin America, namely tropical cyclones, sea level rise, ocean acidification, earthquakes and tsunamis. Finally, we discuss seven case studies of coastal erosion across Latin America. We close the study by pinpointing the main areas of concern in Latin America and explore possible strategies to overcome erosion and thus sustain economic growth, minimize population risk and maintain biodiversity.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Coastal erosion, Low lying coastal areas, Low elevation coastal zone, coastal hazards, coastal resilience, Latin America.

INTRODUCTION

The morphology of coastal regions has always been partly shaped by erosion processes. Indeed the evolution of the Earth´s physical environment as a whole owes much to erosion. These processes were not given much attention until the adverse economic, social or environmental effects felt by communities began to be linked to erosion.

In the Americas, long before the Conquest, several native navigation techniques (coastal, lacustrine and fluvial) existed, with numerous, diverse wooden crafts being used (Biar, 2014). The construction of larger ports and associated infrastructure took place when Spaniards arrived in America and commerce with Europe became important (e.g., O’Rourke and Williamson, 2002). The necessity for harbours, and then new coastal settlements, was followed by the construction of infrastructure and thus began the intensive modification of the coasts of The New World. For over four centuries land management, both inland and coastal, did not consider the coastal zone as an integral part of hydrological units such as watersheds. The

www.cerf-jcr.org

www.JCRonline.org

____________________ DOI: 10.2112/SI71-001.1 received 18 August 2013; accepted in revision 13 September 2014. *Corresponding author: [email protected] © Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2014

†Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Mexico City, México

§School of the Environment Flinders University Adelaide, South Australia

‡Instituto de Ecología, A.C. Xalapa, Veracruz, México

∞Departamento de Obras Civiles Universidad Técnica Federico Santa

María, Valparaíso, Chile

&Grupo OCEANICOS Universidad Nacional de Colombia Medellín, Colombia

ЄSubcordinación de Monitoreo Marino CONABIO Mexico City, México

+ IMFIA - Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad de la República Montevideo, Uruguay

£Centro Nacional para la Investigación en Gestión Integrada de Desastres Naturales, Santiago, Chile

₴Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile

#Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mérida, México

%Centro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do Mar, Universidade do Vale do Itajaí, Itajaí, Brazil

ѦInstituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica

2 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 71, 2014

consequence was that the relevance of coastal morphodynamics was not taken into account until recently, when it became apparent that this was essential for the security and economic wellbeing of coastal populations.

The coastal zones of Latin America feature a wide range of land forms. Expected climate change will bring about sea level rise and the different landforms will respond in different ways (e.g., Muehe, 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to explore the potential vulnerability of the distinct coastal types in response to climate change. Since risk to people is a key factor in vulnerability, the risk is greatest in the urbanized coasts, where the greatest impacts are expected to be caused by floods. However, the absence of long-term observations of oceanographic data and detailed topo-bathymetric data (e.g., González-Vázquez et al., 2014) presents a major difficulty for the evaluation of different risk scenarios at local level and consequently for the application of strategies aimed at minimizing these impacts on the population.

Coastal erosion along Latin American shorelines, although widespread and in some parts severe, is not yet seen as a serious threat considering the coast as a whole. Major erosion problems are most frequently associated with human intervention in the sediment flux or are associated with the morphodynamic nature of river mouths (e.g., Muehe, 2010). In addition, tectonic subsidence is often a cause of regional vulnerability, as well as that which occurs in areas of permanent loss of sediments, owing to deforestation or to fragmentation of coastal ecosystems (e.g., sand dune vegetation, mangroves), to land use changes (mostly for agriculture and cattle ranching, and focal urban sprawl) and to sediment deficits caused by the presence of infrastructure (dams in the watersheds, jetties and groynes). Regionally, differentiated climatologic and oceanographic forcing mechanisms impose different responses to the varied geologic-geomorphologic environments.

In this article we analyse coastal erosion in Latin America and the challenges it presents to the region. We first highlight the relevance of Latin America in terms of its biodiversity and show the spatial patterns of species richness; we then analyse the population at risk throughout the low lying coastal areas, as well as the demographic trends and economic growth. To assess the vulnerability of this region we also analyse the vulnerability and resilience of key coastal ecosystems, and explore the most frequent and intense hazards that occur in the coastal zones, namely tropical cyclones, sea level rise, ocean acidification, earthquakes and tsunamis. Finally, we discuss some case studies of coastal erosion across Latin America; in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Costa Rica, Brazil, Uruguay and Chile. We close the study by pinpointing the main areas of concern in Latin America and explore possible strategies to be considered in order to sustain economic growth, minimize population risk and maintain regional biodiversity.

LATIN AMERICA IN A WORLD CONTEXT

Different criteria exist to define the countries that make up Latin America, but for the purposes of this study, we focused on those countries where Spanish, Portuguese or French is spoken and which are considered as Latin American by the World Bank (2014). Hence, Latin America consists of twenty countries (see

Figure 1). Of these, only Bolivia and Paraguay have no coastline, while three countries are islands (Cuba, Dominican Republic and Haiti). Based on economic criteria, the World Bank has considered Haiti as a low-income country; Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Paraguay are lower middle income countries and the rest (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela) are upper middle income countries.

Figure 1. Location of the countries of Latin American.

Biodiversity

As reported by Mittermeier et al., (1997), 70% of the world´s biodiversity is concentrated in some 17 countries, which are described as "megadiverse" by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP-WCMC). Of the ten most megadiverse nations in the world, six are Latin American: Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Mexico, Ecuador and Venezuela (1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 9th, respectively). The potential loss of ecosystems due to sea level rise and coastal erosion will have a shift in response patterns of biodiversity, both terrestrial and marine.

Spatial patterns of coastal and marine diversity vary throughout Latin America. Coral reefs (Figure 2a) occur mostly along the Atlantic coast, and are concentrated in the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela and some parts of the central region of the Brazilian coast (IMaRS-USF, 2005; IMaRS-USF and IRD, 2005; Spalding et al., 2001; UNEP-WCMC et al., 2010). Worldwide, there is greatest coral reef species richness in South East Asia, while the Caribbean-Central America and India follow (Tittensor et al., 2010a). Mangroves are more widely distributed than coral reefs, and are found along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Latin America (Figure 2b), on

Present and Future Challenges of Coastal Erosion in Latin America 3 _________________________________________________________________________________________________


both shorelines of Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Brazil (Spalding et al., 2010a; 2010b; Lopez-Portillo et al., 2011). As with the spatial pattern of coral reefs, the highest species diversity of mangroves is also found in South East Asia (Tittensor et al., 2010a), but ranking in second place are central America, Colombia and Venezuela. Seagrasses follow a similar distribution pattern, except that they are more scarce on the Pacific coast, do not occur in Ecuador, but are found in Chile (Green and Short, 2003) (Figure 2c). Seagrass biodiversity is also concentrated in South East Asia, while the second most diverse area is the eastern coast of Africa, followed by the Caribbean (Tittensor et al., 2010a; 2010b). Finally, Tittensor et al., (2010a; 2010b) analysed the global patterns of marine diversity in terms of species richness, and considered a total of 11,567 species that covered 13 major coastal and maritime species groups: marine zooplankton, mangroves, seagrasses, corals, squids, cephalopods, fish (coastal fish, tuna and sharks) and mammals (cetaceans and pinnipeds). In Latin America, marine biodiversity is greatest in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Central America, Colombia and southern Brazil (Figure 2d).

Demographic Trends and Economic Growth

Latin America faces major challenges in terms of population growth, economic development and the conservation and restoration of its coastal ecosystems. In addition to the climate change impact, coastal areas are also exposed to different environmental conditions that may vary in a very short time scale (e.g., tectonic activity) or over decades (e.g., El Niño-Southern Oscillation - ENSO) or even with unpredictable occurrence (e.g., hurricanes and tsunamis). As a first step to quantify populations and areas of land vulnerable to maritime and coastal phenomena, topographic contour levels can be used to assess exposure.

Land elevation is an interesting point for comparing the vulnerability of Latin American coasts with respect to other regions. In this context, a comparison of population growth in low elevation coastal zones (LECZ), defined here as the contiguous low lying areas along the coast that are less than 10 metres above sea level, is made with data from Africa, America, Asia, Europe and Oceania. Using the database generated by CIESIN (2013) and the World Bank (2014) a new database was produced with past population trends and a projection for 2100. The LECZ information was derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), 3 arc second (~90m).

In Figure 3 we show demographic trends in Africa, America, Asia, Europe, Oceania and Latin America. In the lower panel, we show the millions of people in LECZ that are at risk in the different regions and the estimated population for 2010 as well as for 2100. African population growth is by far the highest, followed by Latin America. In the top panel we show the evolution of population densities for 2010 and 2100 and the relative area of LECZ and population living in LECZ in 2010 with respect to the total of each region. Excluding Antarctica, the amount of world land in the LECZ was around 1.8%, by 2010, but 10% of the world population lived in these areas, with a density of 288 inhabitants per km2; this is expected to increase to 455 inhabitants per km2 by 2100. Today, 75% of the world population living in LECZ, is concentrated in Asia. It is clear,

therefore that most of the land at risk in the world are areas of low elevation in Asia and the Americas. Population density is estimated to be the highest in Africa and Asia. Because population growth is highest in Africa, the population at risk will also increase. The population at risk is lower in the Americas than in Europe but these trends will reverse as the population growth is higher in the Americas, especially in Latin America. The total population living in LECZ in Latin America for 2010 is 5.6% of its total population while the land at risk is around 1.8% of its total land area.

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of key coastal ecosystems throughout Latin America (a) coral reefs (Spalding et al., 2001); (b) mangroves (Spalding et al., 2010a; 2010b); (c) seagrasses (Green and Short, 2003) and (d) oceanic and coastal diversity (Tittensor et al., 2010a; 2010b).

By 2100, the expected population trends in these LECZ are

clearly different for each of the continents. For example, from 2000 to 2100 the population is expected to multiply in Africa, America, Asia, Europe and Oceania by 3.32, 1.78, 1.63, 0.90 and 1.31 times, respectively. In contrast, the population of Latin America is likely to multiply by 1.83 times, second to Africa, so while the total population living in Latin America LECZ is lower than the world average, except for Africa, the risk will increase substantially for Latin America compared to most of the world by 2100.

A summary of the population and population density for 1990, 2000, 2010 and that expected for 2100 in Latin American countries is presented in Figure 4, as well as the relative and total territory exposed in LECZ. From this figure it can be seen

4 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


that in terms of population density Haiti and the Dominican Republic are the most vulnerable countries. In Latin America, the countries with most vulnerable populations and land at risk are Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, in descending order. Only Cuba is expected to experience a decrease in coastal population (-12%); the rest of the countries will experience population growth, ranging from 30% (Mexico) to 150% (Costa Rica) between 2010 and 2100. It is interesting to note that Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador are the only countries where the relative population density is lower than the relative LECZ area. Noticeably, tropical cyclones are very frequent in these countries.

Figure 3. Population and LECZ by continent and for Latin America.

Because the socioeconomic conditions of Latin America vary

between countries, and because the cost of living and free market conditions are not the same, it is difficult to establish an economic basis for comparison between Latin American

countries. For this reason it was decided to use the human development index (HDI) proposed by The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP/RSP, 2006). The HDI is an index of socioeconomic development that allows comparisons to be made across regions. UNEP considers HDI = 0.7 threshold as the limit of countries with high human development. Half the countries have a relatively high HDI: Chile, (highest), is followed by Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, Panamá, Mexico, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil (lowest) (Figure 5). In contrast, HDI in the remaining 10 Latin American countries has slowly increased and is still suboptimal. Overall, HDI in Latin America has increased slowly and to a relatively low level, but it has reached much higher values in comparison with HDI estimates for the world as a whole.

Figure 4. Relative and total population relative to the national total in each country, population density and LECZ by country for Latin America.

COASTAL HAZARDS AND RESILIENCE “Vulnerability” refers to the weakness of the exposed system

(e.g., the number of people killed per million exposed) and “resilience” is the capacity of a system to experience shocks (a disturbance) while essentially retaining the same function, structure, and feedbacks (Holling, 1973; Walker et al., 2006; Escudero et al., 2012). A resilient shoreline reduces population risk because vulnerability is reduced.

The coasts of Latin America are exposed to a wide range of hazards that affect the coastal population. Here we explore some of the frequent and intense hazards faced (tropical cyclones/hurricanes, sea level rise, ocean acidification, earthquakes and tsunami events), and analyse how population vulnerability and coastal resilience determine local risk. In order to evaluate the most frequent hazards for coastal zones in Latin



America, a database was built using information of cyclones (Knapp et al., 2010), sea level rise (NOAA, 2014), acidification (Halpern et al., 2008), earthquakes and run up from tsunami (NGDC / WDS, 2014).

In the following sections some of the most common, documented, natural hazards which affect Latin America are presented.

Figure 5. Evolution of the human development index (HDI) over time for each Latin American country.

Cyclones Tropical cyclones, called hurricanes in North America, when

the wind speed is greater than 64 kn (120 km/h), occur in many regions and affect most tropical coasts (Figure 6a). Between 1970 and 2009, these hydrometeorological events claimed 789,000 lives and caused great economic damage in the world (Peduzzi et al., 2012). Because of the coastal population growth, all regions have increasing vulnerability to tropical cyclones. Nevertheless, the risk (exposure times vulnerability) has been reduced in some regions because the vulnerability (number killed per million exposed) is lower. This is the case for North America, where the tropical cyclone/hurricane risk has declined in spite of an increasing coastal population. In Central and South America, as well as Asia, vulnerability has decreased dramatically since 1970, because of improved early warning systems, the construction of shelters and the reforestation of coastal areas (Paul, 2009).

Sea Level Rise Trends

Based on tide station measurements around the world, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) Report estimates that over the past century, the global sea level rise has ranged from 1.7-1.8 mm/yr (IPCC, 2007). Tide stations measure Local Sea Level, which is the height of the water along

the coast relative to specific, stable, vertical points (or bench marks) on land. However, the measurements at any given tide station reflect sea level rise as well as vertical land motion, such as subsidence, glacial rebound, or large-scale tectonic motion. Because these two levels are changing, the land-water interface can vary spatially and temporally and must be defined over time. Local sea level trends may differ greatly from the average rate of global sea level rise, and can vary widely from one location to the next. For instance, in some places in the north of the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 6b) significant subsidence is occurring and so relative sea level trends show an increase of over 10 mm a year, while areas of Chile reflect a decrease in relative sea level because the land is subjected to regional uplift, related to tectonic factors and subduction effects (Baker et al., 2013). Relative Sea Level Trends are critical for many coastal applications, including coastal mapping, marine boundary delineation, coastal zone management, coastal engineering and sustainable habitat restoration design. These values focus on relative sea level trends, computed from the monthly averages of hourly water levels from specific tide stations, called monthly mean sea level.

Figure 6. The most frequent and intense hazards for the coastal zones of Latin America. (a) tropical cyclones (from Knapp et al., 2010); (b) sea level rise (IPCC, 2007); (c) ocean acidification (after Halpern et al., 2008); and (d) earthquakes and tsunami runup (NGDC/WDS, 2014).

Acidification Changes in CO2 concentration alter the aragonite saturation

state (ASS) of the ocean, among other chemical properties of seawater. As ASS levels drop, the ability of calcifying species such as corals and shelled invertebrates to create calcium carbonate structures declines (S22). The global distribution of

6 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


ASS values has been modelled at 1-degree resolution for pre-industrial (circa 1870) and modern times (2000-2009) (S23). Halpern et al., (2008) found intense acidification in the Atlantic Ocean, but mostly in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean (Figure 6c).

In the Caribbean Sea some beaches are retreating because the coral reefs are becoming less robust and are losing bulk density, due in part to acidification and excessive sedimentation, and therefore the energy of the waves is greater on the coast (e.g., Odériz, et al., 2014).

Earthquakes and Tsunami

Because of plate tectonic features, earthquakes are common and relatively frequent in Latin America, especially along the Pacific coast, as well as in the Caribbean (Figure 6d). Tsunami runup has been reported all along the Pacific coast, but most importantly in Chile. Based on the above, coastal populations and development planners should consider these uncertainties which are unpredictable and can cause extensive damage and human loss.

Earthquakes trigger co-seismic crustal deformations that produce either coastal subsidence or uplift, affecting coastal environments and changing almost instantaneously the local sea level. These changes can be as small as a few centimetres or as large as several meters in vertical (e.g., Farias et al., 2010), i.e. on the order of the expected see level rise in 2100. Tsunami can induce a wide range of effects. The most obvious is loss of human life (e.g., Fritz et al., 2011), but there can also be loss of infrastructure and economic loss, both direct and indirect (e.g., Marin et al., 2010), alteration of coastal environments, contamination, and changes in coastal geomorphology (e.g., Goff et al., 2012; Catalan et al., 2014). Moreover, the temporal and spatial scales of these events are large; often spanning hundreds of kilometres of coast for earthquakes, while tsunami can span the entire Pacific Ocean basin. Similarly, recovery rates also vary depending on the magnitude and extent of the damage. For example, there was rapid recovery of coastal sand barriers following the 2010 Maule earthquake and tsunami in central Chile (Villagran et al., 2013, Catalan et al., 2014), indicating a very resilient coast. However, anthropogenic disturbances have affected the rates of recovery in Japan (e.g., Tanaka et al., 2012). The wide extent of tsunami action implies that they must be taken into consideration also in locations far away from the areas where they are generated.

Importance of Integrity of Coastal Ecosystems

Depending on the health of coastal ecosystems and their elements that provide ecosystem services (e.g., coastal stability), it is possible for a coastline to recover naturally from an extreme event. Coastal ecosystems provide important goods and services to society, such as food, leisure activities and coastal protection especially in tropical/subtropical regions, and are a vital component of the earth’s natural environment. Because human activities have often led to the degradation and fragmentation of these systems, their resilience has deteriorated and in consequence, human populations have been adversely affected. In Latin America, where coastal infrastructure and economic growth are expanding (e.g., development of ports, tourist

activities and the exploitation of natural resources) and large-scale coastal problems have had important impacts on infrastructure and human well-being (Hong, 2006; Escudero et al., 2014; Mallmann and Pereira, 2014), interesting ideas have developed to improve the management of coastal ecosystem integrity that include the involvement of communities. This is relevant for the management of strategic ecosystems and improves the effectiveness of coastal ecosystems. That is, participatory strategies, such as co-management, help to improve governability while letting communities adapt to the needs of coastal ecosystems. This is the case of marine protected areas in the Caribbean (Camargo, 2009), where the coral reef ecosystems provide coastal protection. Another example of a participatory strategy to sustain a Latin American ecosystem is the fishing program in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, where the key management goal is not to maximize the fishing catch, but to maintain the ecosystem and thus allow sustained production (Appeldoorn, 2008). An opposing case is reported by González et al. (2014) where conflicting commercial interests overexploit the natural resources.

Those strategies to maintain the biological balance of the ecosystems help to improve the coastal resilience. Therefore the natural services provided, like coastal protection, in the end will be more effective.

Mangroves, wetlands and dunes are examples of ecosystems of strategic importance in Latin America. Mangroves are tightly regulated by ecohydrodynamical processes, which involve interactions and feedback between terrestrial, estuarine, coastal, and offshore areas (Wolanski, 2006). Mangroves evolve via intertwining nonlinear interactions between biological, chemical, and physical factors, each of which has particular temporal and spatial scales. To understand the mangrove ecosystem as a whole, and to preserve it and ensure that human activity does not disrupt it, interdisciplinary studies should be undertaken. One example of the importance of mangrove ecosystems is its function of as a natural sink for atmospheric CO2 (Ayukai, 1998), and as coastal protection. Mazda et al. (2007) explain the function of wetlands and mangroves, pointing out that there is a nonlinear relationship between wave attenuation and the size of wetland and mangrove ecosystems, which means that even small wetlands afford substantial protection from waves. One possibility to increase the coastal protection in Latin America could be combining manmade structures with wetlands and mangroves (Blanco et al., 2011; Urrego et al., 2014).

COASTAL EROSION IN LATIN AMERICA

To illustrate the importance of the conservation of key coastal elements, some examples from Latin America are presented.

Extreme Hydrometeorological Events

The Effects of Hurricane Wilma (2005) in Quintana Roo, Mexico Many coasts in northern Latin America are exposed to intense

tropical cyclones, and many of these coasts are important for tourism which provides substantial revenue. On October 21st, 2005, hurricane Wilma hit the coast just south of Puerto Morelos, near Cancún. Contrary to what is usually expected, aerial photographs revealed substantial sand accumulation after



the hurricane at Puerto Morelos; the dry beach increased 30 meters (Figure 7). Six months later the coast and the beach returned to their original condition; prior to Wilma. Three main factors account for this situation, i) the coral reef, just off the coast, offered natural protection to the beach, ii) the hurricane driven hydrodynamics carried sand from the northern beaches to the south, and iii) sand was available to be eroded from the dunes and placed in the surfzone and foreshore. In other words, at Puerto Morelos the natural dynamics of the area increased the resilience of the coast. In contrast, in nearby Cancun the same storm removed >7 million cubic meters of sand from the beach system, leaving 68% of the sub-aerial beach as bare bedrock, and the rest considerably eroded, given that the foredune sand was not available. In this case, the infrastructure built on the dunes along this barrier island restricted the natural sand budget, generating massive offshore sediment transport that was lost from the system. Therefore, the conditions for natural dune regeneration no longer existed and natural recovery was not possible (Silva et al. 2012).

An Extratropical Storm (2005) in Punta del Este, Uruguay Tropical cyclones seldom hit South America (Figure 6a).

However, in 2005, a violent, extratropical storm affected Uruguay on August 23–24. The winds of the system exceeded 160 km/h for a period of over 12 hours, and affected the departments of Canelones, Montevideo, San José, Colonia and Maldonado, where most of the country’s population is concentrated. The NOAA reports that thousands of homes were damaged and that seven people were killed. Erosion on the coast was intense with nearly 3m height lost on some beaches. The beach pier at Mansa was broken in two (Figure 8). The natural recovery of the beach-dune system has been very slow: the resilience of the system was partially weakened because of the urbanization of the coastal area.

Unexpected Geotectonic Activity In some cases geological aspects are not considered in studies

of coastal evolution, although they can be very important. On March 25, 2012 a Mw 7.2 Richter scale earthquake was registered in Chile, and over 45 shocks were recorded in the marine area of Mexico, as well as tectonic instability along the Pacific coast. This generated a landslide at Los Frailes beach, in Baja California, eroding 1.3 hectares of the beach (figure 9). This type of sudden beach erosion tends to be reversed naturally because sediment sources and the hydrodynamics factors which affect the beach do not change.

Increase of Swell Events Two situations can cause flooding: cyclones and cold fronts

generating storm surge episodes. Cyclones have a relatively high impact on coastal areas, especially in cities, in the tropics. The impact of these tropical storms depends on the orientation of the coastline, which may act as a natural, protective barrier. Storm surge episodes, however, are recurrent and are the most frequent cause of coastal flooding. Other meteorological events that may cause powerful swell are cold fronts that originate in the North Pole. These fronts travel southbound to the Gulf of Mexico and

from there eastward over the Caribbean Sea affecting large coastal areas.

Figure 7. Aerial photographs of Puerto Morelos (Mexico) before(left photo) and after (rigth photo) hurricane Wilma (2005). Note the large scale accretion and overwash terrace formed following the hurricane.

Therefore, sometimes flooding is not directly related to local meteorological conditions, but is the result of hydrodynamic phenomena causing the arrival of heavy swell from far away. An example of this is the city of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia), where urban areas are extremely sensitive to the risk of coastal flooding during storm surges. A statistical study based on hourly sea-level observations from 1950 to 2000 showed overflow levels of 0.29, 0.34, and 0.37 m for return periods of 10, 50, and 100 years. The extreme vulnerability of some areas of Cartagena to flooding raises questions for the future, taking into account the rates of sea-level rise as well as the effects of wave erosion (Andrade et al., 2013).

Ineffective Solutions In Playa Caldera, Costa Rica, (Figure 10), as in many other

places in Latin America, port management is carried out without

8 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


considering coastal processes. In this case, when sand accumulates in the harbour, the basin is dredged and the sand is placed in the middle of the Gulf of Nicoya, outside the natural system and so it is transported away by the ocean currents. As a result, the sediment deficit has created severe erosion on Caldera beach. Approximately one million cubic meters of sediment have been lost since the 1980s, when the port was built and the retreat of the coastline has been in the order of 60 m. During storms, flooding frequently occurs in the village as well as damage to the road and the houses near the coast.

Figure 8. Mansa Beach, Punta del Este, Uruguay, after the extratropical storm on August 23-24, 2005. Courtesy of Luis Teixeira and Rodrigo Alonso.

Cuban beaches in general show a trend of erosion. In Varadero beach, the main tourist centre in Cuba, studies by Juanes et al., (1986) revealed that in the 1980s, the beach retreated 1.2 m per year. The main causes of the erosion were identified as sediment deficit and human interventions, such as the offshore mining of sand and the destruction of the dunes as a consequence of tourist developments. As a result of these actions a series of measures were adopted to control the erosion, some regulatory and some engineering works. Legislation prohibits the construction of new buildings on the dunes and existing buildings that are damaged by the erosion are not repaired, rather they are demolished and not replaced. The most important engineering project to take place was the beach nourishment carried out in five stages between 1987 and 2009, depositing) some 2.3 million cubic meters of sand (Figure 11).

However, despite these actions there is still erosion taking place in Varadero.

Figure 9. Los Frailes beach before (2010) and after (2012 and 2013) the landslide.

Figure 10. Aerial view of Playa Caldera, Costa Rica. Left panel aerial photography. Right panel: Satellite image.

Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic is one of the main

tourist destinations in the country, with beautiful beaches and winds and waves suitable for all manner of water sports. Unfortunately, the erosion processes active on this beach threaten its quality and therefore the attraction of the area is



diminished. There is a shortage of sand, there are scarps in the dunes and the shoreline is retreating. The main cause of the erosion is the deficit in the sediment balance due to a reduction in the sand deposited by river flows in the region. This reduction is directly related to sand mining for industry, which began in the latter part of the 20th century in the Yásica, Camú and Muñoz rivers. In an attempt to minimize the effects of the erosion, various measures have been taken including the building of revetments and groins and the relocation of buildings landward. None of these measures has stopped the erosion, and some have had the opposite effect. The photos in Figure 12 show views of Playa Dorada over time. In 1992 there is no sign of erosion while in 2005 the degradation in the beach system can be appreciated, as well as the inadequate solutions applied. In 2008 a beach nourishment scheme was successfully executed.

Figure 11. Varadero beach, 2008

Cases like Varadero and Puerto Plata are common in Latin

America. For example (Silva et al., 2012; González-Leija et al., 2013) reported that more than 7 million cubic meters of sand were used in two campaigns of beach nourishment in Cancun, Mexico, and the problem was not solved, merely put off. Moreover, with the dredging activities other ecosystems were affected. More critical cases are reported by (Martins and Pereira, 2014; Martinez et al., 2014) where the sand supply deficit is originated inland and inaccurate diagnostics of the problems were made, followed by ineffective coastal protection measures. It is also common to find local authorities, keen to build new infrastructures (e.g., harbours, tourist developments),

ignoring the unavoidable consequences of their interventions and having to face coastal erosion, as has been reported by Gomes and Silva (2014) and Delgadillo-Calzadilla et al., (2014).

Figure 12. Views of Puerto Plata (República Dominicana)

In Brazil, Mühe (2005) affirms that although it is not an

imminent threat on the coasts in general, erosion occurs in

1992

2005-a

2005-b

2008

10 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


places on all the Brazilian coast to a greater or lesser extent, but it is most prominent on the NE coast (Dominguez, 2009; Vital, 2009; Dillenburg and Hesp, 2009). The erosion is often the result of human interventions which disrupt the sediment balance due to constructions which interfere with the free circulation of coastal sediments. This is the case on the beaches of Fortaleza and Recife.

Some erosion is also natural as sections of coast continue to readjust or straighten following the Holocene transgression. For example, the 620 km long coast of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil is characterized by two prominent embayments or re-entrants and two projections (Dillenburg et al., 2009). The projections are undergoing erosion while the embayments are undergoing progradation (Dillenburg and Barboza, 2014). In both cases the barriers predominantly comprise transgressive dunefield systems, with the most active ones in the eroding sectors. Efforts to halt the erosion will largely fail due to this being a long term natural process in the eroding sectors. Hazards related to dune encroachment in towns and cities and related health factors (e.g., silicosis - an incurable, progressive lung disease caused by overexposure to dust containing silica) are significant in some of these dunefields (Figure 13).

Figure 13. The city of Cidreira, southern Brazil, is sited within an active transgressive dunefield. The barrier history is one of long term erosion. Significant hazards exist due to future shoreline erosion, dunefield migration into infrastructure, and human health (particularly silicosis) and groundwater pollution. Photo courtesy of Nelson Gruber.

Miot da Silva and Hesp (2013) and Miot da Silva et al.,

(2013) discuss the significant vegetation growth and foredune development that occurred along approximately 650 km of the Southern Brazilian Holocene Barrier over the second half of the last century, particularly in the late 1970’s. This increase in dunefield stability coincided with a regime shift of the PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation) in 1976/1977 from the ‘cool” to the “warm” phase (Mantua et al., 1997) This regime shift was followed by an increased frequency and intensity of El Niño events (and consequent increase in rainfall) in Southern Brazil (Dias, 2009) thus contributing to dunefield stabilization, foredune development, decrease in dune erosion and a potential decrease in coastal erosion. Projections to 2100 (Junquas et al.,

2012) indicate that these wetter than normal conditions may persist, or even intensify, while others are showing a potential increase in the intensity of both El Nino and La Nina into the future (Ashok et al., 2012). However, a decrease in rainfall and/or increase in wind velocity may not cause vegetation loss and consequent potential foredune, or perhaps beach erosion if hysteresis is substantial (cf. Tsoar, 2005; Miot da Silva and Hesp, 2013).

Hoefel (1998), Klein et al., (2006) and Araujo et al., (2010) document the erosion processes at the Piçarras beach, in the state of Santa Catarina, suggesting that since the mid-1970s the beach has been continuously eroding and that the imbalance in the sediment load of the region as a whole is becoming progressively worse. The latter is due mainly to the construction of infrastructure in 1974; in addition to the silting of the remaining coastal lagoon. But the most damaging factors have been the disorderly development on the active beach profile (houses on the edge of the sand, buildings and roads close to the shoreline), combined with the destructive power of high energy metereological events in the 1980s and 1990s. All of these factors destabilized the beach system and have impeded its ability to rejuvenate naturally. Since 1998, three coastal restoration works have been carried out around the Piçarras river mouth through beach nourishment programs and coastal structures in an effort to halt the loss of sediments and increase the durability of the nourishment.

Unsuitable Location for Tourist Development, Holbox, Mexico Sand spits are in a state of continuous morphological change

as a result of the prevailing storm conditions of the maritime climate, and due to natural recycling of sediment along the spits leading to the spatio-temporal development of eroding and prograding sectors. The resilience of the natural ecosystems that develop here depends on fragile biophysical balances. The natural topography makes these ecosystems very attractive for tourist developments, although they are implicitly very high risk areas. Often economic interests override common sense, so that governments allow and even encourage tourist development, putting not only investment but also human lives and ecosystems at risk. At Holbox, on the Yucatan Peninsula (Figure 14), erosion on the spit is a cause of concern for the hoteliers but the costs involved for any potential rescue of the beaches is far greater than the economic benefits generated by the resorts.

Coastal Squeeze In the north east of Brazil the coastline is generally receding

(Dominguez, 2009; Figure 15). This is noticeable along several stretches of the coast of Pernambuco, but is felt mostly in the area of the Recife metropolitan area. Here, as in many other places, urban encroachment and the construction of infrastructure along the coast, coupled with sea level rise processes, has led to a “coastal squeeze”, which results in the loss of coastal habitats. This is due to the high water mark being fixed by a hard structure (defence structure, a sea wall, or a city) and the low water mark migrating landwards in response to SLR, anthropogenic interference over sediment supply and other coastal processes that accelerate shoreline recession. The end result of coastal squeeze is that ecosystems are lost, the dynamic



nature of the shoreline is limited and hence, the resilience of the system is diminished.

Figure 14. Evolution of the sand spit at Holbox, Mexico

Resilience On February 27, 2010, a huge Mw 8.8 Richter scale

earthquake hit central Chile causing widespread damage but relatively few casualties, despite its magnitude (Madariaga et al., 2010). The epicentre was located off the coast near the Maule region, of Chile, but the rupture area extended over several hundreds of kilometres (Vigny et al., 2011). This massive rupture generated devastating tsunami waves that affected more than 600 km of the Chilean coastline and the Archipelago of Juan Fernández, 660 km off Valparaíso. Coastal settlements were severely damaged several hours after the initial shock (Fritz et al., 2011; Yamazaki and Cheung, 2011). Important changes were also produced on beaches and river mouths with generalized erosion, and co-seismic uplift and subsidence at different locations (Farías et al., 2010; Villagrán et al., 2013; Catalán et al., 2014). In general, these sudden changes were followed by a natural recovery in the following months with varying times mostly controlled by the available sediment supply. In figure 16, an example of the impact of the tsunami on a normally closed coastal lagoon is shown. Prior to the arrival of tsunami waves, a sandbar was present separating the lagoon from the sea. The intense flooding produced by the tsunami washed away the sandbar thus opening the lagoon to the sea.

Nevertheless, several months after the event, the system had recovered its previous configuration showing the resiliency of this system, representative of the post-tsunami response of the Chilean coast.

Figure 15. Recife metropolitan area showing urban encroachment and the construction of infrastructure along the coast. Upper panel: aerial view of Bairro Novo (Olinda City); Lower Panel: Argus image of Boa Viagem beach, Brazil.

However, when the stable functioning of an ecosystem is

altered, its ability to recover naturally is lost and, in the long term, social and environmental sustainability can be affected.

One such example, has been reported by Silva et al., (2012) (Figure 17) where the costs of artificial recuperation following hurricane damage in Cancún (Mexico) cost more than a billion USD in areas where the dunes were built upon and there was no reef protection. The role of these fragile ecosystems in coastal resilience is very important in terms of ecosystem services, but bad management practice and diverse environmental pressures (i.e. hurricanes and climate change) are placing them at risk.

River mouths As described in Prandle (2009) estuaries are the zones where

the fresh water from a river mixes with sea water. They act as

12 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


both sinks and sources for pollutants depending on: (i) the geographical sources of the contaminants (marine, fluvial, internal and atmospheric), (ii) their biological and chemical nature and (iii) temporal variations in tidal amplitude, river flow, seasons, winds and waves.

Figure 16. Tsunami impact and recovery of the Estero Paredones, located near Bucalemu, in the VI Region. Upper panel: Photograph taken few years before the tsunami, of February 27, 2010 event. Middle panel: Photograph taken in March 2010. Lower panel: Photograph taken in January 2011.

Figure 17. Extreme erosion (left photo), natural (center photo) and artificial recovery (right photo) of the beach after the impact of a hurricane in Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico

River mouths generally have a complex, dynamic morphology, with a high probability of natural erosion on the banks depending on the sediment balance. River mouths and deltas have been chosen historically by humans for settlement; urbanisation that diminishes the natural protection of the coast against hydro-meteorological forcing, which increases erosion. Whilst allowing the natural morphological evolution of river mouths to take place seems the option with least long term risk, this rarely happens, as there is usually strong social pressure to intervene in the natural processes in order to reduce the erosion

problem and/or avoid a natural delta migration that could interfere with population settlements. On the Uruguayan coast, for example, there are many cases of coastal erosion due to the natural migration of river mouths, exacerbated by anthropogenic actions. Several low impact engineering “solutions” has been proposed by (Teixeira et al., 2008; Solari et al., 2014; Alonso et al., 2014).

It is necessary to improve the research and monitoring of estuarine areas in Latin America in order to prevent coastal erosion at their margins. This is particularly relevant for cities bordering estuaries, because they are exposed to rising sea level which changes the magnitudes of tides, surges and waves. However the underlying, longer-term (decadal) issue is how estuarine bathymetries will adjust to these future changes (Prandle, 2009). It is thought that coastal erosion around estuaries will probably increase.

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

Frequently, urgent, short and mid- term solutions are implemented with insufficient information, thereby increasing the cost of the long term erosion solution (e.g., Lopez, 2014). However, in recent years there has been an effort to characterise coastal systems before any important anthropogenic intervention is carried out. (e.g., Vidal-Juárez et al., 2014). Also, in a few instances, state of the art techniques are being employed (e.g., Araruna Júnior et al., 2014) to capture the necessary information.

Regardless of the type of coast, the physical erosion phenomena (or deposition in some cases) on Latin American coasts are no different from those occurring in other regions of the planet (e.g., Nor Aslinda et al., 2014; Strusińska-Correia, 2014). Coastal areas are shaped by, and their temporal and spatial equilibria depend on, a whole range of underlying features such as geology, climate variables (e.g., temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration, climatic variability), marine processes (e.g., waves, wind, tides, storms, currents), human activity (urbanization, beach nourishment, structures, industrial developments, tourism), sediment transport (e.g., sources and sinks, river discharges), conditions and characteristics of sedimentary flows (e.g., quality and quantity of sediment available), sea level (e.g., local variations, climate variability, climate change, eustatic movements, tectonic activity), and the condition of natural ecosystems such as mangroves, coastal dune vegetation and coral reefs. However, there are certain ecological, economic and social aspects which give a particular character to the processes of erosion in Latin America: Ecological importance. Four of the five most megabiodiverse countries in the world are found in Latin America. Trends in population growth. For the next century, the population growth in Latin America will be the second largest in the world and it is estimated that the coastal population in LECZ will grow by 80%. Coastal squeeze. Current demographic trends and a projected sea level rise will generate a coastal squeeze resulting in the loss of natural coastal ecosystems and a reduced resilience of the coast. Socioeconomic development. To differing degrees, all Latin American countries still need to improve the socioeconomic conditions of their populations. Current demographic trends



indicate that growth will be exacerbated on the coasts and thus development programs must consider the natural dynamics of the coastal zone so that natural ecosystems are preserved while human lives and infrastructure are protected. The rapid growth of favelas, for example in Brazilian coastal cities, will lead to a significant increase in stress on coastal ecosystems if left unchecked (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Coastal squeeze: Brazilian favela. Source:http://www.scappoinbrasile.com/2013/11/12/quante-sono-le-favelas-brasiliane/

Urban areas in LECZ need better protection and measures that reduce population vulnerability which should include the maintenance and restoration of coastal dynamics. Low density areas in LECZ need flexible measures to sustain coastal dynamics and ecosystems. Good practice in the coastal management of areas with tourist development should include the maintainence of natural dynamics and adaptation to them. This can be achieved by preserving the ecosystems around coastal areas, creating appropriate set-back limits as, e.g., by placing construction behind the natural ecosystems (foredunes, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, among others), and preserving the natural functions in all coastal ecosystems (e.g., coastal barriers, large transgressive dune fields, mangroves, estuaries, rocky coasts etc). Moreover, in many places the restoration of beaches and relocation of infrastructure which is not compatible with the natural processes should be considered. Finally, one significant challenge is to understand coastal dynamics and set up monitoring programs for waves, tides, atmosphere parameters, coastline position and vegetation cover, especially at government level. For example, the lack of oceanographic buoys and wave data around much of the Latin American coast is a serious problem reducing our ability to understand coastal processes. Indeed, long-term monitoring will lead to better-informed decisions that will protect the coast and its increasing population.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This publication is one of the results of the Latin American

Regional Network global collaborative project “EXCEED -

Excellence Center for Development Cooperation – Sustainable Water Management in Developing Countries” consisting of 35 universities and research centres from 18 countries on 4 continents. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the German Academic Exchange Service DAAD, the Centro de Tecnologia e Geociências da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, the Fundação de Amparo a Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Pernambuco-FACEPE and the Instituto de Ingeniería of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México for their participation in this EXCEED Project. Andres F. Osorio would like to acknowledge project number 1118-569-34826 of Colciencias.

LITERATURE CITED Alonso, R.; López, G.; Mosquera, R.; Solari, S., and Teixeira, L.,

2014. Coastal Erosion in Balneario Solís, Uruguay. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, p. 48-54.

Andrade, C.A.; Thomas, Y.F.; Lerma, A.N.; Durand, P., and Anselme, B., 2013. Coastal Flooding Hazard Related to Swell Events in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Journal of Coastal Research 29(5), 1126-1136

Appeldoorn, R.S., 2008. Transforming reef fisheries management: application of an ecosystem-based approach in the USA Caribbean. Environmental Conservation 35(3), 232-241. doi:10.1017/S0376892908005018.

Araruna Júnior, J.T.; de Campos, T.M.P and Pires, P.J.M., 2014. Sediment Characteristiscs of an Impacted Coastal Bay: Baía de Guanabara, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 41–47.

Araujo, R.S.; Sprovieri, F.C.; Freitas Neto, D., and Klein, A.H.F., 2010. Variação da morfologia praial e identificação de zonas de erosão acentuada (ZEA) na Enseada do Itapocorói-SC. Brazilian Journal of Aquatic Science and Technology Itajaí. 14(1), 29-38.

Ashok, K.; Sabin, T.P.; Swapna, P., and Murtugudde, R.G., 2012. Is a global warming signature emerging in the tropical Pacific? Geophysical Research Letters 39. AN:L02701, DOI: 10.1029/2011GL050232.

Ayukai, T., 1998. Special Issue: Carbon fixation and storage in mangroves. Mangroves and Salt Marshes, 2, 189–242.

Baker, A.; Allmendinger, R.W.; Owen, L.A., and Rech, J.A., 2013. Permanent deformation caused by subduction earthquakes in northern Chile. Nature Geoscience 6(6), 492-496.

Biar, A., 2014. Native navigation traditions in Mexico Central Plateau: a study between archaeology and ethnology. In: Van Tilburg, H.; Tripati, S.; Walker Vadillo, V.; Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.). The MUA Collection, accessed July 28, 2014, http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1652.

Blanco J.F.; Londoño-Mesa, M.H.; Quan-Young, L.; Urrego-Giraldo, L.; Polanía, J.H.; Osorio, A.; Bernal, G., and Correa, I.D., 2011. The Urabá Gulf Mangrove Expedition of Colombia. ISME/GLOMIS Electronic Journal 9(3), 8-10.

Camargo, C.; Maldonado, J.H.; Alvarado, E.; Moreno-Sánchez, R.; Mendoza, S.; Manrique, N.; Mogollón, A.; Osorio, J.D.; Grajales, A., and Sánchez, J.A., 2009. Community involvement in management for maintaining coral reef resilience and

14 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


biodiversity in southern Caribbean marine protected areas. Biodiversity Conservation 18, 935–956. DOI 10.1007/s10531-008-9555-5

Catalán, P.A., Cienfuegos, R., and Villagrán, M., 2014. Perspectives on the long-term equilibrium of a wave dominated coastal zone affected by tsunamis: The case of Central Chile. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 55–61.

Center for International Earth Science Information Network - CIESIN - Columbia University. 2013. Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ) Urban-Rural Population and Land Area Estimates, Version 2. Palisades, NY: NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC). http://dx.doi.org/10.7927/H4MW2F2J. Accessed July 28, 2014.

Delgadillo-Calzadilla, M.A.; Mendoza, E.; Silva, R.; González-Vázquez, J.A., and Infante-Mata, D., 2014. Beach Erosion in San Benito Chiapas, Mexico; Assessment and Possible Solution. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 114–121.

Dias, M.A.F.S., 2009. As chuvas de novembro de 2008 em Santa Catarina: Um estudo de caso visando à melhoria do monitoramento e da previsão de eventos extremos. São José dos Campos: INPE, 67p.

Dillenburg, S.R., and Barboza, E.G., 2014. The strike-fed sandy coast of Southern Brazil. In: Martini, I. P., and Wanless, H. R., (eds) Sedimentary Coastal Zones from High to Low Latitudes: Similarities and Differences. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 388, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP388.16

Dillenburg, S.R.; Barboza, E.G.; Tomazelli, L.J.; Ayup-Zouain, R.N.; Hesp, P.A., and Clerot, L.C., 2009. The Holocene Coastal Barriers of Rio Grande do Sul. In: Geology and Geomorphology of Holocene Coastal Barriers of Brazil (pp. 53-91). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Dillenburg, S., and Hesp, P.A., (eds), 2009. Geology and Geomorphology of Holocene Coastal Barriers in Brazil. Springer-Verlag Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences 107, 380pp.

Dominguez, J.M.L., 2009. The coastal zone of Brazil. In: Dillenburg, S., Hesp, P.A., (eds), 2009. Geology and Geomorphology of Holocene Coastal Barriers in Brazil. Springer-Verlag Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences 107, 17-51.

Escudero, M.; Mendoza, E.; Silva, R.; Posada, G., and Arganis, M., 2012. Characterization of risks in coastal zones: a review. CLEAN–Soil, Air, Water 40(9), 894-905.

Escudero, M.; Silva, R., and Mendoza, E., 2014. Beach Erosion Driven by Natural and Human Activity at Isla del Carmen Barrier Island, Mexico. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 62–74.

Farías, M.; Vargas, G.; Tassara, A.; Carretier, S.; Baize, S.; Melnick, D., and Bataille, K., 2010. Land-Level Changes Produced by the Mw 8.8 2010 Chilean Earthquake. Science 329 (5994), 916.

Fritz, H.; Petroff, C.; Catalan, P. A.; Cienfuegos, R.; Winckler, P.; Kalligeris, N.; Weiss, R.; Barrientos, S.; Meneses, G.; Valderas-Bermejo, C.; Ebeling, C.; Papadopoulos, A.; Contreras, M.; Almar, R.; Dominguez, J., and Synolakis, C., 2011. Field survey

of the 27 February 2010 Chile tsunami. Pure and Applied Geophysics 168, 1989-2010.

Goff, J.; Chague-Goff, C.; Nichol, S.; Jaffe, B., and Dominey-Howes, D., 2012. Progress in palaeotsunami research. Sedimentary Geology 243, 70–88.

Gomes, G., and Silva, A.C., 2014. Coastal Erosion Case at Candeias Beach (NE-Brazil). In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 30-40.

González-Leija, M.; Mariño-Tapia, I.; Silva, R.; Enriquez, C.; Mendoza, E.; Escalante-Mancera, E.; Ruíz-Rentería, F., and Uc-Sánchez, E., 2013. Morphodynamic Evolution and Sediment Transport Processes of Cancun Beach. Journal of Coastal Research 29(5), 1146-1157.

González-Vázquez, J.A.; Silva, R.; Mendoza, E., and Delgadillo-Calzadilla, M.A., 2014. Towards Coastal Management of a Degraded System: Barra de Navidad, Jalisco, Mexico. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 107–113.

Green, E.P., and Short, F.T., 2003. World atlas of seagrasses. Prepared by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Berkeley (California, USA): University of California. 332 pp.

Halpern, B.S.; Walbridge, S.; Selkoe, K.A.; Kappel, C.V.; Micheli, F.; D'Agrosa, C.; Bruno, J.F.; Casey, K.S.; Ebert, C.; Fox, H.E.; Fujita, R.; Heinemann, D.; Lenihan, H.S.; Madin, E.M.P.; Perry, M.T.; Selig, E.R.; Spalding, M.; Steneck, R.S., and Watson, R., 2008. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319(5865), 948-952.

Hoefel, F.G., 1998. Diagnóstico da erosão costeira na praia de Piçarras, Santa Catarina. Dissertação (Mestrado) – Programa de Pós-graduação de Engenharia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro – RJ. 86p.

Holling, C.S., 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4, 1-23.

Hong, P.N., 2006. The role of mangrove and coral reef ecosystems in natural disaster mitigation and coastal life improvement. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 385 pp.

IMaRS-USF (Institute for Marine Remote Sensing-University of South Florida), 2005. Millennium Coral Reef Mapping Project. Unvalidated maps. These maps are unendorsed by IRD, but were further interpreted by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre.

IMaRS-USF and IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement), 2005. Millennium Coral Reef Mapping Project. Validated maps. Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre.

IPCC 2007. Climate change 2007: calcium carbonate structures declines (S22) C. (eds.). Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Published for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.

Juanes, J.L.; Ramirez, E.; Caballero, M.; Medvediev, V.S.; Yurkevich, M.G., 1986. Dinámica de los sedimento en la peninsula de Hicacos, Cuba. II. Efecto de las olas de viento en la zona costera. Revista: Ciencias de la Tierra y del Espacio 11, 35-45



Junquas, C.; Vera, C.; Li, L., and Le Treut, H., 2012. Summer precipitation variability over southeastern South America in a global warming scenario. Climate Dynamics 38(9-10), 1867-1883.

Klein, A.H.F.; Menezes, J.T.; Diehl, F.L.; Abreu, J.G.N.; Polette, M.; Sperb, R.M., and Sperb, R.C., 2006. Santa Catarina – litoral centro norte. In: Muehe, D. (ed.). Erosão e Progradação no Litoral Brasileiro. Brasília: MMA, p. 401-436

Knapp, K.R.; Kruk, M.C.; Levinson, D.H.; Diamond, H.J., and Neumann, C.J., 2010. The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 91, 363-376.

Lopez, R., 2014. Beach Restoration at Grand Velas Hotel, Riviera Maya, Mexico. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 86–92.

Lopez-Portillo, J.; Martinez, M.L.; Hesp, P.A.; Santana, J.R.H.; Vasquez-Reyes, V.M.; Aguilar, L.R.G.; Linares, A.P.M.; Jimenez-Orocio, O.; Delgado, S.L.G., 2011. Atlas de las costas de Veracruz: manglares y dunas. Gobierno del Estado de Veracruz, Mexico.

Madariaga, R.; Métois, M.; Vigny, C., and Campos, J., 2010. Central Chile finally breaks. Science 328 (5975), 181-182

Mallmann, D.L.B., and Pereira, P.S., 2014. Coastal Erosion at Maria Farinha Beach, Pernambuco, Brazil: Possible Causes and Alternatives for Shoreline Protection. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 24–29.

Mantua, N. J.; Hare, S.R., and Zhang, Y., 1997. A Pacific decadal interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bulletin of American Meteorological Society 78, 1069- 1079.

Marin, A.; Gelcich, S.; Araya, G.; Olea, G.; Espindola, M., and Castilla, J., 2010. The 2010 tsunami in Chile: Devastation and survival of coastal small-scale fishing communities. Marine Policy 34(6), 1381-1384.

Martínez, R.; Silva, R., and Mendoza, E., 2014. Identification of coastal erosion causes in Matanchén Bay, San Blas, Nayarit, Mexico. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 93–99.

Martins, K.A., and Pereira, P.S., 2014. Coastal Erosion at Pau Amarelo Beach, Northeast of Brazil. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 17–23.

Mazda, Y.; Wolanski, E., and Ridd, P.V., 2007. Part I. Outline of the Physical Processes within Mangrove Systems. Physical Factors that Shape Mangroves - Manual for the Preservation and Utilization of Mangrove Ecosystems. Terrapub. http://www. terrapub.co.jp/e-library/matsuda/

Miot da Silva, G., and Hesp, P.A., 2013. Historical changes and climate and human drivers in Santa Catarina dunefields, Southern Brazil. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38(9), 1036-1045.

Miot Da Silva, G.; Martinho, C.T.; Hesp, P.A.; Keim, B.D., and Ferligoj, Y., 2013. Changes in dunefield geomorphology and vegetation cover as a response to local and regional climate variations. Journal of Coastal Research SI 65, ICS 2013 Plymouth, 1307 – 1312.

Mittermeier, R.A.; Robles, P., and Mittermeier, C.G., 1997. Megadiversity: Earth's Biologically Richest Nations. Mexico City (CEMEX).

Muehe, D., 2005. Aspectos gerais da erosão costeira no Brasil. Mercator – Revista de Geografia da UFC 4(7), 97-110.

Muehe, D., 2010. Brazilian coastal vulnerability to climate change. Pan American Journal of Aquatic Science–Electronic Peer-Review Scientific Journal 5 (2), 173-183.

National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) 2014. Global Historical Tsunami Database. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7. Accessed June 30, 2014.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 2014. MSL global trend. Tides and currents. noaa.gov/sltrends/MSL_global_trendtable.html. Accessed June 30, 2014.

Nor Aslinda, A.; Wan Hasliza, W. J., and Mohd Radzi, A. H., 2014. Coastal Erosion at Tanjong Piai, Johor, Malaysia. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 115–123.

Odériz, I.; Mendoza, E.; Leo, C.; Santoyo, G.; Silva, R.; Martínez, R.; Grey E. and López, R., 2014. An Alternative Solution to Erosion Problems at Punta Bete-Punta Maroma, Quintana Roo, Mexico: Conciliating Tourism and Nature. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 75–85

O'Rourke, K.H., and Williamson, J.G., 2002. After Columbus: explaining Europe's overseas trade boom, 1500–1800. The Journal of Economic History 62(02), 417-456.

Paul, B. K., 2009. Why relatively fewer people died? The case of Bangladesh's Cyclone Sidr. Natural Hazard 50, 289-304.

Peduzzi, P.; Chatenoux, B.; Dao, H.; De Bono, A.; Herold, C.; Kossin, J.; Mouton, F., Nordbeck, O., 2012. Global trends in tropical cyclone risk. Nature Climate Change 2, 289-294.

Prandle, D., 2009. Estuaries. Dynamics, Mixing, Sedimentation and Morphology. Cambridge University Press.

Silva, R.; Ruiz, G.; Mariño, I.; Vanegas, G.; Mendoza, E., and Escalante, E., 2012. Manmade vulnerability of the Cancun beach system: the case of hurricane Wilma. CLEAN–Soil, Air, Water 40(9), 911-919.

Solari, S.; Chreties, Ch.; López, G.; Teixeira, L., 2014. Analysis of the recent evolution of the sand spit at the Solís Chico river mouth. In: Green, A.N., and Cooper, J.A.G., (eds.), Proceedings 13th International Coastal Symposium (Durban, South Africa). Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue 66, 616-620.

Spalding, M.; Kainuma, M., and Collins, L., 2010a. World Atlas of Mangroves. A collaborative project of ITTO, ISME, FAO, UNEP-WCMC, UNESCO-MAB, UNU-INWEH and TNC. London (UK): Earthscan, London. 319 pp.

Spalding, M.; Kainuma, M., and Collins, L., 2010b. Data layer from the World Atlas of Mangroves. In Supplement to: Spalding

16 Silva et al. _________________________________________________________________________________________________


et al., Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/22

Spalding, M.D.; Ravilious, C.; Green, E.P., 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Berkeley (California, USA): The University of California Press. 436 p.

Strusińska-Correia, A., 2014. Beach stabilization at Kołobrzeg, Poland. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 124–135.

Tanaka, H.; Tinh, N. X.; Umeda, M.; Hirao, R.; Pradjoko, E.; Mano, A., and Udo, K., 2012. Coastal and estuarine morphology changes induced by the 2011 great East Japan earthquake tsunami. Coastal Engineering Journal 54(01), 1250010-1 - 1250010-25.

Teixeira, L., and López, G., 2008. Protección de costas: el caso del balneario La Floresta, Uruguay. XXIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Hidráulica. Colombia.

Tittensor, D.P.; Mora, C.; Jetz, W.; Lotze, H.K.; Ricard, D.; Vanden Berghe, E., and Worm, B., 2010a. Global patterns and predictors of marine biodiversity across taxa. Nature 466, 1098-1101.

Tittensor, D.P.; Mora, W.; Jetz, H.K.; Lotze, D.; Ricard, E.; Vanden Berghe, E., and Worm, B., 2010b. Data layers showing global patterns of marine biodiversity. In: Tittensor, D.P.; Mora, C.; Jetz, W.; Lotze, H.K.; Ricard, D.; Vanden Berghe, E., and Worm, B., 2010. Global patterns and predictors of marine biodiversity across taxa. Nature 466, 1098-1101 (Supplement) Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: http://data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/28.

Tsoar, H., 2005. Sand dunes mobility and stability in relation to climate. Physica A 357, 50–56.

UNEP/RSP, 2006. Accounting for Economic Activities in Large Marine Ecosystems and Regional Seas. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 181 UNEP/RSP and NOAA LME Partnership.

UNEP-WCMC, WorldFish Centre, WRI, TNC (2010). Global distribution of warmwater coral reefs, compiled from multiple sources (listed in "Coral_Source.mdb"), and including IMaRS-USF and IRD (2005), IMaRS-USF (2005) and Spalding et al., (2001). Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/13.

Urrego, L.; Molina, E.C., and Suárez, J.A., 2014. Environmental and anthropogenic influences on the distribution, structure, and floristic composition of mangrove forests of the Gulf of Urabá (Colombian Caribbean). Aquatic Botany 114, 42-49.

Vidal-Juárez, T.; Ruiz de Alegría-Arzaburu, A.; Mejía-Trejo, A.; García-Nava, H., and Enriquez, C., 2014. Predicting Barrier Beach Breaching due to Extreme Water Levels at San Quintín, Baja California, México. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along Developing Coasts: Selected Cases, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 100–106.

Vigny, C.; Socquet, A.; Peyrat, S.; Ruegg, J.C.; Metois, M.; Madariaga, R.; Morvan, S.; Lancieri, M.; Lacassin, R.; Campos, J.; Carrizo, D.; Bejar-Pizarro, M.; Barrientos, S.; Armijo, R.; Aranda, C.; Valderas-Bermejo, M.C.; Ortega, I.; Bondoux, F.; Baize, S.; Lyon-Caen, H.; Pavez, A.; Vilotte, J.P.; Bevis, M.; Brooks, B.; Smalley, R.; Parra, H.; Baez, J.C.; Blanco, M.; Cimbaro, S.; Kendrick, E., 2011. The 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule Megathrust Earthquake of Central Chile, Monitored by GPS. Science 332(6036), 1417-1421.

Villagran, M.; Cienfuegos, R.; Catalan, P., and Almar, R., 2013. Morphological response of central Chile sandy beaches to the 8.8 Mw 2010 earthquake and tsunami. In: Proceedings, Coastal Dynamics 2013, 1823-1834.

Vital, H., 2009. The mesotidal barriers of Rio Grande do Norte. In: Dillenburg, S., and Hesp, P.A. (eds.), 2009. Geology and Geomorphology of Holocene Coastal Barriers in Brazil. Springer-Verlag Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences 107, 289-324.

Walker, B.H.; Anderies, J.M.; Kinzig, A.P., and Ryan, P., 2006. Exploring resilience in social-ecological systems through comparative studies and theory development: introduction to the special issue. Ecology and Society, 11(1), 12.

Wolanski, E., 2006. Thematic paper: Synthesis of the protective functions of coastal forests and trees against natural hazards. Coastal protection in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami: what role for forests and trees? pp. 157-179

World Bank, 2014. Available at http://data.worldbank.org/. Accessed July 26, 2014.

Yamazaki, Y., and Cheung, K.F., 2011. Shelf resonance and impact of near‐field tsunami generated by the 2010 Chile earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters, 38(12). L12605, doi:10.1029/2011GL047508.

Present and Future Challenges of Coastal Erosion in Latin America

Documents

Transcript of Present and Future Challenges of Coastal Erosion in Latin America