Power Reservoirs of Jumble-Based Biomass in Asia

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Metadata of the chapter that will be visualized onlineBook Title Agricultural Biomass Based Potential Materials

Chapter Title Power Reservoirs of Jumble-Based Biomass in Asia

Copyright Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Corresponding Author Prefix Dr.

Family name Kumar

Particle

Given name Manoj

Suffix

Degrees

Division Amity Institute of Microbial Technology

Organization Amity University Uttar Pradesh

Address 201303 Noida, India

Email [email protected]

Author Prefix

Family name Bhadrecha

Particle

Given name Pooja

Suffix

Degrees

Division School of Biotechnology and Biosciences

Organization Lovely Professional University

Address Phagwara, Punjab, India

Author Prefix

Family name Pirzadah

Particle

Given name Tanveer Bilal

Suffix

Degrees

Division Department of Bioresources

Organization University of Kashmir

Address 190006 Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India


Author Prefix

Family name Malik

Particle

Given name Bisma

Suffix

Degrees





Author Prefix Dr.

Family name Rehman

Particle

Given name Reiaz Ul

Suffix

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Degrees





Author Prefix

Family name Prasad

Particle

Given name Ram

Suffix

Degrees




Author Prefix

Family name Pachouri

Particle

Given name UmeshChandra

Suffix

Degrees




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Abstract Technology-based efforts towards the treatment of unwanted bugsrejected by the human population which cause unhealthy lifestyleneed to be restored as renewable energy. Available data for theutilization of biomass are from bagasse 6 %, sugarcane residues12 %, rhizomic crops residues 9 %, cone residues 20 %, wheatresidues 25 % and rice residues 28 %, which accounts for bioenergypotential of 1550 PJ/year from sugarcane residues, 407 PJ/year fromrhizomic crops residues, 2614 PJ/year from cone residues,3299 PJ/year from wheat residues and 3407 PJ/year from riceresidues. The current scenario of the scarcity of energy sourcesraises the curtains on other resources where Asian countries likeIndia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, etc. are having population-based jumbles (municipal rejection, domestic garbage, faecal matterof railway toilet flush, hospital effluents, etc). These jumbles must beadded to the power catalogue as promising power reservoirs,especially when the prices of fuels are increasing from the past fewdecades at a global level. This channelization scheme not onlycreates the power reservoirs; rather, we can restore the lost sight of agreen belt. Also, other power resources are bringing forwardproblems like oil depletion and global warming. This is the reasonwhy many governments including the private sectors are endorsingthe ideas for expanding the use of biofuels derived mainly frombiomass. Biomasses from rich lands of Asian countries are promisingreservoirs of energy that need to be exchanged where India can bethe biggest tunnel. Use of such thin and convenient bioenergyreservoirs will alter the rigorous and costly approach of mechanicaland physical conversion, and we can create a long-lasting avenue.The “rejection to selection” approach of such energy reservoirs willcreate a noble gateway for developing countries in Asia. Utilization ofsuch a process in entrepreneurship through small- and large-scalemunicipal stationary tanks will help in increasing the living standards,energy security, health security and economic status of Asiancountries. Generating a database system which maintains therecords of the faecal matter generation sources (industry, railwaystations, hospitals, municipal, etc.) and utilization at national levelswill keep statistical information on each country’s contribution.Biomass from safari land which is the source of worthy trees must notbe sacrificed for ample amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin,starch, proteins and other organic and inorganic components, thoughthe conversion approach costs us million dollars and makes thebioenergy mission impossible. Here, the authors have suggested theconnecting links for power generation from the jumble tanks, thustrying to create a green, healthy and powerful Asia.

Keywords Biomass - Reservoirs - Cellulose - Green belt - Industry - Faecal

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Power Reservoirs of Jumble-Based Biomass in Asia

Pooja Bhadrecha, Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah, Bisma Malik, Reiaz Ul Rehman, Ram Prasad, UmeshChandra Pachouri and Manoj Kumar

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015K. R. Hakeem et al. (eds.), Agricultural biomass based potential materials, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13847-3_21

M. Kumar ()Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201303, India e-mail: [email protected]

P. Bhadrecha · U. PachouriSchool of Biotechnology and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

T. B. Pirzadah · B. Malik · R. U. Rehman · R. PrasadDepartment of Bioresources, University of Kashmir, 190006 Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, Indiae-mail: [email protected]

B. Malike-mail: [email protected]

R. U. Rehmane-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Technology-based efforts towards the treatment of unwanted bugs rejected by the human population which cause unhealthy lifestyle need to be restored as renewable energy. Available data for the utilization of biomass are from bagasse 6 %, sugarcane residues 12 %, rhizomic crops residues 9 %, cone residues 20 %, wheat residues 25 % and rice residues 28 %, which accounts for bioenergy potential of 1550 PJ/year from sugarcane residues, 407 PJ/year from rhizomic crops residues, 2614 PJ/year from cone residues, 3299 PJ/year from wheat residues and 3407 PJ/year from rice residues. The current scenario of the scarcity of energy sources raises the curtains on other resources where Asian countries like India, Myanmar, Paki-stan, Nepal, Bhutan, etc. are having population-based jumbles (municipal rejec-tion, domestic garbage, faecal matter of railway toilet flush, hospital effluents, etc). These jumbles must be added to the power catalogue as promising power reservoirs, especially when the prices of fuels are increasing from the past few decades at a global level. This channelization scheme not only creates the power reservoirs; rather, we can restore the lost sight of a green belt. Also, other power resources are bringing forward problems like oil depletion and global warming. This is the reason why many governments including the private sectors are endorsing the ideas for expanding the use of biofuels derived mainly from biomass. Biomasses from rich lands of Asian countries are promising reservoirs of energy that need to be exchanged where India can be the biggest tunnel. Use of such thin and convenient

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bioenergy reservoirs will alter the rigorous and costly approach of mechanical and physical conversion, and we can create a long-lasting avenue. The “rejection to selection” approach of such energy reservoirs will create a noble gateway for devel-oping countries in Asia. Utilization of such a process in entrepreneurship through small- and large-scale municipal stationary tanks will help in increasing the living standards, energy security, health security and economic status of Asian countries. Generating a database system which maintains the records of the faecal matter gen-eration sources (industry, railway stations, hospitals, municipal, etc.) and utilization at national levels will keep statistical information on each country’s contribution. Biomass from safari land which is the source of worthy trees must not be sacrificed for ample amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, starch, proteins and other organic and inorganic components, though the conversion approach costs us million dollars and makes the bioenergy mission impossible. Here, the authors have sug-gested the connecting links for power generation from the jumble tanks, thus trying to create a green, healthy and powerful Asia.

Keywords Biomass · Reservoirs · Cellulose · Green belt · Industry · Faecal

Introduction

Biomass refers to the diverse materials obtained from plants and animals, which can be used as raw materials for the creation of useful energy in various forms and for diverse purposes (Sambo 2005). Biomass comes in a variety of forms, but can be classified broadly in terms of end use into fuel biomass, feed biomass, fi-bre biomass, organic fertilizer biomass and chemical biomass (Ogwo 2012). The versatility of biomass can be measured by the fact that the storage is easy and is transferable to energy (electricity, heat). Biomass can also be utilized as a raw mate-rial for the procuring fuel and chemical feedstock. Depending upon the availability of the biomass, either small-scale or large-scale units can be set up (few kilowatts to megawatts), and thus the utilization of biomass will contribute to energy poli-cies. However, there are certain technological constraints which keep the produc-tion costs high and prevent the large-scale use of biofuels. It is being debated and research is going on for the suitable conversion technology for a particular biomass. The conventional energy generation from the fossil fuels poses serious environmen-tal problems by emitting greenhouse gas (GHS). The use of alternative renewable energy sources will help reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and the pollution throughout the world. Currently, green energy resources contribute a little amount of the total energy to cater to the demands of the people, highlighting biomass as the most predominant source, that accounts for about 12 % of total energy require-ment. This source of bioenergy includes agricultural waste, municipal solid waste (MSW) and forest residues. Biomass being abundantly available in nature can be utilized as a source of energy for the production of heat and electricity for rural and urban areas. Besides, it also promotes rejuvenation of biomass vegetation to avoid

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321 Power Reservoirs of Jumble-Based Biomass in Asia

environmental deterioration with deprivation of agricultural land necessary for the livelihood of the rural population. Paliwal et al. (2010) reported that rejuvenation of biomass also maintains equilibrium between CO2 generation during combustion and its uptake during photosynthesis. Figure 1 gives a comparative structure of the natural energy sources present on earth.

There is a huge gap between the requisite influx of energy and dependent popula-tion at a global stage; this crisis needs to be overcome by alternative energy sources which must be eco-friendly and affordable for developing countries. “One man’s trash is another man’s treasure”. Asia is richly endowed with alternate energy re-sources—solar, wind biomass and small hydros that are widely distributed across the country. These sources can be utilized through commercially viable technolo-gies to generate energy to provide fuel security, without endangering the environ-ment. Various government and private organizations have been making efforts to popularize alternate energy technologies—improved chulahs, biogas plants, bio-mass gasifiers, solar photovoltaic systems, energy recovery from urban, industrial effluents, mobilizable faecal waste from domestic, municipals, Indian railways, etc. Moreover, a waste management system also plays a vital role in reducing the deleterious environmental effects through various methods. The adopted bioenergy technology flowchart is well described and shown in Fig. 2. Waste management is a challenging problem in all countries more so in developed countries. The main sources of organic waste such as agricultural waste, household food waste and hu-man and animal waste are produced by humans, and these wastes can be decom-posed under aerobic or anaerobic condition. But some unscientific methods fol-lowed in disposing of organic wastes lead to loss of organic matter and also cause environmental pollution.

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Fig. 1 Source: Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Indus-try (METI), Japan

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Biomass, such as woody biomass and energy crops, is currently an important source of bioenergy to cater to the energy demands in various parts of the world. This bioenergy source possesses tremendous potential to provide the alternative and attractive source of energy mainly in developing nations. However, exploita-tion of this potential is only permissible if there are promising economic and/or environmental effects. One of the essential aspects is the evaluation of the potentials and estimation of resources in the locale of targets and restriction for their practi-cal utilization. International biofuel trade is going to be an essential factor in the near future. These facts are propitious while considering the production of densified biofuels based on biomass. In most areas of the world, the current biomass use is clearly below the available potential. Only for Asia does the current use exceed the available potential, i.e. non-sustainable biomass use. Therefore, increased biomass use is possible in most countries. Proper utilization of forest and other biomass residues seems to be a promising alternative to cover the future demand for green and sustainable energy (MattiParikka 2004). Figure 3 well represents the biomass resources and their utilization.

Sources of Biomass

Biomass is present throughout the planet in different forms.

Agricultural Biomass

Agricultural biomass plays a vital role in the bioenergy sector to cater to energy de-mands. However, its capability to generate bioenergy without any effect on climate

Fig. 2 Bioenergy technology flowchart. (Klass 2004)AQ4

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or food security lies mainly in the use of abandoned agricultural lands. Nowadays, agricultural land is declining at a very fast pace. Although yields will probably con-tinue to enhance, so will pressure for food and grazing land, driven by a combina-tion of increasing human population and enhancing demands for a meat-based diet.

At a scale persistent with the obtainable resources, the bioenergy sector presents a range of exciting opportunities for enhancing energy independence and sustain-ability and decreasing the forcing of climate change. But deployed at a larger scale, it could threaten food security and aggravate climate change (Field et al. 2007).

Municipal Waste

The generation of MSW has been increasing around the world due to the various in-terconnected reasons such as industrialization, urbanization, economic growth and population growth. There is a positive correlation between the MSW generations in terms of kilogram per capita per day with the economic development around the world. The growth of the industries has resulted in the migration of people from the rural areas leading to a rapid increase in population, and thus the waste genera-tion increases proportionally to the increase in population. In the urban areas, the increase in per capita generation has led to changes in the lifestyle with the result that people tend to spend more and thus the MSW generation per capita increases tremendously. This increase poses a challenge for disposal since more and more land is required for dumping. Moreover, due to the changing pattern of the waste it has become imperative that the MSW be segregated for better waste management at the operation facilities (Kaushal et al. 2012).

Most of Asian developing countries face solid waste (SW) generation problems, the main constraints being weak organization and limited budget allocation for solid waste management (SWM). So, their SW reduction is conducted from the source up to the landfill sites. SW generation is between 0.4 and 1.62 kg/capita/day; the com-position of biodegradable organic waste is in the range of 42–80.2 %. No separation at source, complicated collection processes, open dumped landfill and no control

Fig. 3 Biomass resources and bioenergy utilization

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of gas emissions and leachate in landfill are among the common problems faced. Alternative solutions of SWM in Asian developing countries use social and techni-cal approaches. Social approaches are changing the public behaviour by improv-ing community through training, and encouraging partnerships with decentralized SWM. The technical approaches are reducing biodegradable SW at source, convert-ing waste to energy and using simple technology. These approaches are expected to improve the sustainability of SWM in Asian developing countries (Dhokhikah and Trihadiningrum 2012).

Sewage

The sewage sludge is a mixture which is composed of primary and microbiologi-cal sludge, and it contains nontoxic organic compounds, inorganic material and some toxic components. Sludge management has many options for the treatment of sludge of which energy production is also an option. There are many procedures for sludge treatment such as anaerobic digestion (AD), co-digestion and incineration in combination with energy recovery and co-incineration in coal-fired power plants (Kolat and Kadlec 2013).

Forestry

Forests, one of the important sources of fuelwood, have been meeting the energy re-quirement of most of the rural poor. Due to continued depletion of forest cover and density, the sustainability of fuelwood is questioned; whereas, the ever-increasing demand and poor return of the forest has to be catered with innovative technology and judicious use of fuelwood. Various developmental programmes and societies like National Afforestation Program (NAP), Green India Mission and Joint Forest Management committee should be commenced in both developed and developing countries, to ensure the maximum and fruitful utilization of these rich energy reser-voirs (Madguni and Singh 2013).

Woodfuel

The Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study (APFSOS) is an organization af-filiated to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) which gathers information regarding the forests. Its role is to examine the information, review and give the out-look regarding the key issues related to forest growth. It has been ascertained that by the year 2050 the world carbon emissions would need to be at the 2000 level or even lesser, even though the energy demands would also increase over this period. There are no simple solutions for delivering this change; however, a mix of conservative approaches of energy usage would help in lowering the carbon intensity. For tread-

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ing towards the sustainable energy path, there is a need to change the supply and demand pattern. These changes would require time and foundations have been laid for this process because it is a matter of great urgency. Some business communities around the world have shown keen interest in achieving this goal.

Wastes from Hospitals

There are stringent regulations around the world for the hospital waste manage-ment, and due to this it is receiving attention as waste generation in this sector ranges between 0.5 and 2.0 kg/bed/day. The SW generated from the health sector consists of various items such as plastics (7–10 %), disposable syringes (0.3–0.5 %), glass (3–5 %), bandages, linen, other infectious waste (30–35 %) and other general wastes (40–45 %). These wastes can also be further utilized as energy sources (Babu et al. 2009).

Biofuels

Biogas

Biogas is another bioenergy source composed of methane, carbon dioxide and other gases (hydrogen sulphide). Production of biogas is mainly influenced by various parameters such as temperature, pH, substrate, loading rate, hydraulic retention time (HRT), carbon/nitrogen ratio and mixing. At the small-scale level, distinct digesters are used in many rural areas to cater to their energy needs as they are cost-effective and easy to handle. The biogas produced is utilized in cooking and heating, in the form of biogas stoves, fertilizers and for lighting and power generation (Rajendran et al. 2012). Various models of biogas plants used in India are floating drum ( Indian) digester, fixed-dome (Chinese) digester, Deenbandhu model, Appropriate Rural Technology Institute (ARTI) biogas plant, water kiosk biogas plant, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR) biogas plant, Malaprabhu biogas plant, fixed-dome biogas plant and institutional biogas plant. Various types of dung give varying amounts of gas production, e.g. 0.023–0.04 gas/kg from cattle, 0.04–0.059 from pigs, 0.065–0.116 from poultry and 0.02–0.028 from human faeces.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel, another green energy option, generally comprises monoalkyl esters and was previously derived from vegetable oils or animal fats via the transesterification process. Biodiesel production from pure vegetables or seed oils is not cost-effective and constitutes about 70−85 % of the overall biodiesel production cost; besides,

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municipal sewage sludge that contains significant amount of lipids has gained worldwide attention as a cheap lipid feedstock for the production of biodiesel. There are numerous ways for biodiesel production which include alkali- or acid-based transesterification; however, alkali-based transesterification is a rapid process and thus is used commercially. Moreover, for the biofeedstock that constitutes more than 1 % free fatty acids (FFAs; sludge), mainly acid catalysis followed by base ca-talysis is recommended because of soap formation with alkali-catalysed transesteri-fication and high FFA. In order to enhance biodiesel production, it is recommended that wastewater operators utilize novel microorganisms that possess oil-producing capabilities. Besides, these microorganisms also possess the ability to resist obnox-ious chemicals present in the sludge (Kargbo 2010).

Bioethanol

Asia has a great potential for bioethanol production from biomass (crop residues and wasted crops), and could produce up to 291 GL/year of bioethanol. The most avail-able feedstocks in Asia are rice straw, wheat straw and corn stover. On the global level, there is a potential of bioethanol production from the feedstock of wasted major crops (crops lost in distribution) such as corn, barley, oat, rice, wheat, sor-ghum and sugarcane. Tables 1 and 2 provide an outline of the bioenergy produced by the wasted grains in Asia (Kim and Dale 2004). Figure 4 shows the biomass con-sumption in Asian countries. The sustainable biomass production in many countries such as China, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand is from planta-tions and is estimated to be in the range of 182.5–210.5, 62–310, 0.4−1.7, 3.7–20.4, 2.0−9.9 and 11.6–106:6 Mt/year, respectively. Further, it has been calculated that by using the advanced technologies the annual electricity generation potentials from the green biomass resources are estimated to be about 4.5, 114, 27, 79, 254 and 195 % of the total electricity generation in the year 2000 in Malaysia, India, China, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, respectively (Bhattacharya 2003).

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Table 1 Bioethanol production in Asia from wasted grains. (Kim and Dale 2004)Grain From wasted

grainFrom grain replaced by DDGS*

From grain stover/straw/bagasse (sugarcane)

Total bioetha-nol (GL)

Gasoline equivalent (GL)

Corn 4.41 2.41 9.75 16.6 11.9Barley 0.50 0.32 0.61 1.44 1.03Oat 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.12 0.08Rice 10.5 3.87 186.8 201.2 144.5Wheat 4.16 2.62 42.6 49.32 35.42Sorghum 0.24 0.13 – 0.37 0.27Sugar cane 0.82 – 22.1 22.1 15.9

DDGS Distiller’s dried grains with solubles

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Bioenergy Conversion Techniques

Several processes available for the conversion of biomass to usable energy forms include physical conversion of biomass (firewood, pelletizing, particleboard production), thermochemical conversion of biomass (combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, carbonization, hydrothermal gasification, hydrothermal liquefaction, biodiesel production) and biochemical conversion of biomass (biomethane, ethane fermentation, acetone–butanol fermentation, hydrogen fermentation, lactic acid fer-mentation, silage, composting).

There are various factors which influence the choice of bioenergy conversion pro-cesses such as the biomass feedstock type and quality, requirement or desired energy form, economic conditions, environmental standards and project specific factors (McKendry 2002). Generally, on a large scale, the biomass conversion to energy is attempted using thermochemical, biochemical (biological) and the mechanical extraction (coupled with esterification) processes, even though the cost of biodiesel production is high in comparison with fossil fuel and is thus uncompetitive. This

Table 2 Potential bioethanol production from grain in Asia. (Kim and Dale 2004)From waste crop (GL) From lignocellulosic biomass (GL)Corn 6.82 Corn stover 9.75Barley 0.83 Barley straw 0.61Oat 0.04 Oat straw 0.07Rice 14.4 Rice straw 186.8Wheat 6.78 Wheat straw 42.6Sorghum 0.37 Sorghum straw –Sugar cane 0.82 Bagasse 21.3Subtotal (A) 30.1 Subtotal (B) 261.0Total 291.0

Fig. 4 Biomass consumption in Asian countries

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situation may change in the near future as there is an increased awareness among masses about the environment and much research is being conducted for the im-provements in technologies.

Thermochemical Conversion

Three main processes used for the thermochemical conversion of biomass are as follows.

Combustion

Combustion involves burning of the biomass at 850 °C that leads to the production of energy (heat, mechanical power or electricity). It involves numerous equipment such as boilers, stoves, turbogenerators, furnaces, steam turbines, etc. These com-bustion plants consist of boilers that capture heat and then convert it into electricity. Moreover, these are also associated with extensive air pollution control systems that clean the combustion gases to comply with regulatory emission limits before they ooze out into the atmosphere through a chimney. These plants varies from small scale (domestic heating) up to large scale (industrial plants in the range 100–3000 MW) and possess the capacity to use about 50,000–300,000 t of biomass per year. In coal-fired power plants, co-combustion technology is a promising alterna-tive because of the high conversion efficiency of these plants. However, the net bio-energy conversion efficiency for biomass combustion power plants varies from 20 to 40 %. Higher energy efficiency is obtained with systems more than 100 MWe or when the biomass is co-combusted in coal-fired power plants. A heat engine cycle, the Stirling cycle, uses combustion to provide shaft power directly but the develop-ment of the cycle is presently limited to small power outputs.

Gasification

During the process of gasification, the partial oxidation of biomass at the tempera-ture range of 800–900 °C yields combustible gaseous mixtures. The “syngas” pro-duced can be utilized for energy production or can be used for producing meth-ane, chemicals, biofuels or hydrogen. The “syngas” has a low calorific value (CV; 4–6 MJ/Nm3) which can be either burnt directly or used as a fuel for gas engines and turbines (Natural Resources Institute 1996). There is one integrated concept called the biomass integrated gasification/combined cycle (BIG/CC) by which the gas tur-bines can convert this “syngas” to electricity with a high conversion efficiency. The important advantage of the above process is that it is compact and the “syngas” is cleaned before combustion in the turbine. Furthermore, the utilization of costly gas cleaning equipment is avoided and there is high conversion efficiency ranging from

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40 to 50 % for a plant of 30–60 MWe capacity. However, this BIG/CC technology is not yet commercially available and is at the demonstration stage (Mitsui Babcock 1997; EU 1999; Aston University 1986). The methanol and hydrogen produced from “syngas” are produced by gasification processes (either hydrogen indirect or oxygen blown) and these have a future in transportation. These processes are favoured for methanol and hydrogen because of their higher CV values (9–11 MJ/Nm3).

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis involves heating the biomass at around 500 °C in the absence of air and converts it into liquid (bio-oil or bio-crude), solid or gaseous form. Figure 5 depicts the range and possible yields of pyrolysis energy products. Flash pyrolysis is gener-ally utilized for the production of bio-oil enabling the conversion of biomass to bio-crude with an efficiency rate of up to 80 % (Aston University and DK Teknik 1993; EU 1999). Bio-oil finds great application in turbines, engines; besides, it is also used as a feedstock for refineries. However, there are certain limitations associated with the bio-oil such as poor thermal stability and corrosivity. To overcome these limitations, bio-oil undergoes certain processes so as to lower oxygen content and remove alkalis by means of hydrogenation and catalytic cracking of the oil.

Fig. 5 Pyrolysis: bubbling fluidized-bed reactor. (Jahirul et al. 2012)

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Other Processes

Bio-oils are also produced by other processes like hydrothermal upgrading (HTU) and liquefaction. The HTU process generally occurs in wet environment under high pressure and converts the biomass to partly oxygenated hydrocarbons, and currently this process is in its infancy stage. However, liquefaction process is not commonly used because of certain reasons such as complex nature of reactors and fuel feeding system and being more costly. Liquefaction involves conversion of biomass into a stable liquid hydrocarbon at low temperatures and high hydrogen pressures (Warren Spring Laboratory 1993).

Biochemical Conversion

Biochemical conversion involves fermentation and AD, together with a lesser-used process based on mechanical extraction/chemical conversion.

Fermentation

Fermentation involves the production of bioethanol from sugar crops (sugarcane, sugar beet) as well as starch crops (maize, rice). This phenomenon involves the use of certain enzymes produced by microorganisms (yeast) which act on these sugars and then convert it into ethanol Fig. 6. Thermophilic microorganisms are regarded as special candidates for bioethanol production at the commercial scale because they bare the capacity to resist high temperature and toxic by-products formed dur-ing the fermentation process (Pirzadah et al. 2014). It is estimated that about 1 t of dry corn produces about 450 l of bioethanol. Besides, the residue produced during the fermentation process is used as cattle feed; however, in the case of sugarcane, the by-product (bagasse) is used in combined heat and power programmes (CHP; Coombs 1996). Nowadays, lignocellulosic biomass is used as a feedstock for bio-ethanol production.

Anaerobic Digestion

Under AD, organic matter is converted into gaseous form generally termed as bio-gas (mixture of methane and carbon dioxide with small amount of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide; EU 1999). This phenomenon is carried out by various micro-organisms such as bacteria with an energy content of about 20–40 % of the lower heating value of the feedstock. It is an efficient technology especially for treating biomass with high moisture content ranging from 80 to 90 %. Biogas has a direct application in spark ignition gas engines (s.i.g.es) and gas turbines and can be up-graded to higher quality, i.e. natural gas quality, by the removal of CO2. It can also be

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Fig. 6 Flowchart of cellulosic ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass. (Source: Pirzadah et al. 2014)

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used in s.i.g.e. as an energy source to generate electricity only; however, the overall conversion efficiency from biomass to electricity is approximately about 10–16 %. As with any type of power generating system using an internal combustion engine as the prime mover, waste heat from the engine oil and water-cooling systems and the exhaust could be recovered using a combined heat and power system.

Mechanical Extraction

This phenomenon involves extraction of oil from the seeds of bioenergy crops like jatropha nut, groundnut, Pongamia, etc. Besides, the residue produced during this process is used as animal feed. It has been estimated that about 3 t of rapeseed are required to produce 1 t of oil. This rapeseed oil then undergoes further process-ing (esterification) resulting in the formation of rapeseed methyl ester (RME) also known as biodiesel (Warren Spring Laboratory 1993). In some European countries, it is also used as a supplementary transport fuel. Figure 7 depicts a generalised flow sheet for the production of methyl ester biodiesel and the by-product glycerine.

Biomass Energy Programmes

Programmes related to green energy offer many advantages but achieving them re-quires significant management policies. There are various government and private organizations that work for the efficient production of bioenergy from biomass.

Fig. 7 Biodiesel processor layout and design for transesterification

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The International Energy Agency (IEA) is one of the autonomous bodies (estab-lished in November 1974) within the framework of the Organisation for Econom-ic Co- operation and Development (OECD) to implement an international energy programme (OECD/IEA 2007). The main focus of these organizations include: employment generation to uplift socio-economic status of the people, saving foreign exchange, environmental security, energy security, achievement of climate change communities and acceleration of the green energy. Moreover, the government should provide subsidies to local farmers for biomass cultivation at a large scale. The im-portance of developing green energy in a sustainable way should be universally rec-ognized; however, no such internationally sustainability assurance system exists for bioenergy or biofuels more broadly. Sustainability requirements will eventually need to be agreed upon internationally, applied locally and to all biomass regardless of end use, if leakage effects or impact shifting is to be avoided. Research and development (R&D) programmes regarding biofuels or bioenergy should be greatly encouraged.

Conclusion

With the changing climatic conditions and escalation in oil prices, current research is focusing towards alternative and promising green approach of energy by using clean technologies utilizing organic waste. Bioenergy from jumble-based biomass which is abundantly available and evenly distributed in nature not only reduce the dependence on petroleum resources but also contribute to sustainable development by diminishing GHG emissions. Currently, the major hindrance in the conversion of jumble-based biomass to bioenergy involves biomass feedstock, conversion technol-ogy, hydrolysis process and fermentation. With respect to biomass feedstock, major hindrances are supply, cost, handling and harvesting. The major obstacles associ-ated with the conversion technology involve processing of biomass, convenient and cost-effective pretreatment process to detach hemicellulose and cellulose from their complexity with lignin. Another objection is to develop an adequate and economical hydrolysis process for depolymerization of cellulose and hemicellulose present in the biomass to generate higher levels of simple sugars. Enzymatic hydrolysis is con-sidered as a potent phenomenon for saccharification of complex polymer. Currently, only few commercial technologies are available for the conversion of jumble-based biomass into biofuels. In order to commercialize this technology at a large scale, much research is needed to make this technology accessible and cost-effective.

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Babu BR, Parande AK, Rajalakshmi R, Suriyakala P, Volga M (2009) J Int Environ Appl Sci 4(1):65–78

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EU (1999) Biomass conversion technologies. EUR 18029 EN ISBN 92–828-5368–3Field CB, Campbell JE, Lobell DB (2007) Biomass energy: the scale of the potential resource.

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dues. Biomass Bioenergy 26:361–375Kolat P, Kadlec Z (2013) Sewage sludge as a biomass energy source. Acta Univ Agric Silvic

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Chapter 21: Author Query

AQ1. Please provide affiliation details of the author “Ram Prasad”.

AQ2. Figures 1 to 7 are low quality. Please provide better quality images.

AQ3. Please check if further details have to be added to figure caption.

AQ4. The following authors are cited in the text but are not given in the reference list: “Klass 2004”, “Babcock 1997”, “Aston University1986”, “Jahirul et al. 2012”, "Natural Resources Institute 1996" and “Coombs 1996”. Please provide full references.

AQ5. Please check whether the section heading “Woodfuel” should be changed to “Fuelwood.”

AQ6. Please check whether the changes made in the sentence “Moreover, for the biofeedstock that constitutes…” convey the intendedmeaning.

AQ7. “*” is cited in Table 1 but not given in the table footnote. Please check.

AQ8. Please provide complete details for the references “Aston University and Teknik 1993”, “Babu et al. 2009” and “Sambo 2005”.

AQ9. Please provide the page ranges for the following references “Field et al. 2007”, “Ogwo et al. 2012”.

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Power Reservoirs of Jumble-Based Biomass in Asia

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