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Dana Keller

Daniel Schugurensky/Mary Margaret Fonow

SST501: Foundations of Social Transformation

4/30/2013

Play and Personal Relationship as Critical Factors for Social

Transformation

In our play we reveal what kind of people we are.

OvidRoman poet43 BC–17 or 18 AD

As adult human beings, we tend to take ourselves, and most

things in life, quite seriously. Most modern societies value work

over play—some more than others—but nonetheless it seems to be

the predominant paradigm. Work is for “getting things done,”

while play is often considered unproductive or a waste of time.

While this is especially true for adults, it is also becoming

increasingly true for children. Schools are moving more and more

toward testing in “core competency” areas—even for kindergartners

—and in doing so are eschewing art, music, and recess to make

room for “more important” learning. Yet, despite our seriousness

and focus on work as the solution to all of our problems, we are

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facing more complex, difficult-to-solve, and divisive issues than

ever, both locally and globally. By incorporating a sense of

play, and allowing more space and time for play in every sphere

of our lives, we can create deeper personal connections with

others that allow us to stop generalizing about and objectifying

people and instead help us work together to find solutions to

problems where a serious work-ethic approach has thus far failed.

We cannot simply blame capitalism for this state of affairs

(although the focus on productivity in this type of economy does

contribute to our belittling of play); state-run socialist and

communist countries have had the reputation of being even more

serious (probably due to the depressing economic circumstances

and government oppression people live under). Lack of play is not

just a problem for the United States—it’s a global issue. Japan

and China are notorious for draconian work hours (Fukada) . In

his TEDxBG talk, entrepreneur Steve Keil makes the case that his

home country of Bulgaria is last in the European Union in

education and economics, and is rated as one of the saddest

places on Earth because as a society they don’t value play

(Keil) . People across the globe—especially in “developed”

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nations—seem to have forgotten that human beings were designed to

play, not just as children, but also throughout our lives.

In this paper, I will define play, outline four benefits of

play and give examples of how play has already been used in

social transformation. I will make the case that it is more play,

and perhaps less work, that will help solve many of our personal,

political, national, and global issues, and—perhaps more

importantly—will give us a greater quality of life, regardless of

our circumstances. Play is the path to meaningful personal

relationships, and both play and personal relationship are

critical elements necessary for hastening social transformation.

What Is Play?

While many early psychologists (such as Jean Piaget, Sigmund

Freud, and Lev Vygotsky) included play as an important part of

their human development theories, one of the most renowned works

regarding play was written by the Dutch cultural historian, Johan

Huizinga (1872-1945). His book, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in

Culture, was published in 1938 and explored many of the ways that

play influences culture. (Note: Homo Ludens is a play on the term

“Homo sapiens” and means “Man, the player.”).

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For Huizinga, play includes everything from primitive play,

to childhood games, to sacred rituals. He gives play these

characteristics:

…we might call it a free activity standing

quite consciously outside ‘ordinary’ life as

being ‘not serious,’ but at the same time

absorbing the player intensely and utterly.

It is an activity connected with no material

interest, and no profit can be gained by it.

It proceeds within its own proper boundaries

of time and space according to fixed rules

and in an orderly manner. It promotes the

formation of social groupings which tend to

surround themselves with secrecy and to

stress their difference from the common world

by disguise or other means. (Huizinga 107)

(Note: My emphasis in bold.)

Thanks to Huizinga’s work, and that of other early play

researchers like Marian Diamond, Ph.D. (University of California,

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Berkeley), play has slowly become its own area of research. Data

gathered from scientific studies and experiments is helping

people begin to realize that play is not trivial nor is it only

for children; it is part of an important, lifelong biological

process. One present-day expert who has spent his career studying

play is Stuart Brown, M.D., a medical doctor, psychiatrist,

clinical researcher, and the founder of the National Institute

for Play. In his book, Play: How it Shapes the Brain, Opens the Imagination,

and Invigorates the Soul, Brown outlines what he has determined as the

“properties of play”:

Apparently purposeless (done for its own sake)

Voluntary

Inherent attraction

Freedom from time

Diminished consciousness of self

Improvisational potential

Continuation desire

(Brown 17)

For the purposes of this paper, I am going to accept Dr.

Brown’s properties, which correlate strongly with Huizinga’s and

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bear a striking similarity to most other expert definitions.

Also, the perspective I will take is that in addition to play

activities, we can also have a “spirit of play” regardless of

what activity we happened to be engaged in. Play can be anything

from games, to storytelling, to engaging in hobbies—it is an

approach that fits the above parameters and that approach can be

taken in any situation.

Huizinga, Dr. Brown, and their colleagues have discovered

that human beings not only can and do play, but also that we have

a biological need to play and that it must serve some

evolutionary purpose; otherwise we would no longer be playing. If

it is true that we need to play and are engineered to play, then

the question remains: Why should we play? Let’s look at some of

the benefits play can provide us as individuals, for communities,

and for our world.

Four Benefits of Play and their Relationship to Social Transformation

While play researchers have determined many benefits, there

are four that I’d like to focus on for the purpose of

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demonstrating that play is a critical factor for social

transformation:

Play connects people and builds relationships

Play encourages cooperation and collaboration

Play fosters innovation

Play facilitates healing

Next, I’ll examine what some of the experts in the field

have to say regarding each of these areas and consider some

examples of how play is already being used for social

transformation, illustrating why we should build on these

successes to bring more play to socially transformative

processes.

Play connects people and builds relationships

Play is a fun and expeditious way to build personal

relationships. So many of today’s problems have been polarized

into “us vs. them” adversarial viewpoints. When we stop

generalizing, labeling, and objectifying each other, we can

connect in very real human ways that emphasize our commonalities

and humanness. I don’t see how we can move beyond our current

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issues around race, gender, the environment, social injustice—

well, around any topic—until we build personal relationships.

Dr. Peter Gray is a research professor at Boston College and

author of the book, Free to Learn. He has a regular blog on the

popular magazine website, Psychology Today, and includes several

interesting series on the benefits of play. In one of his blog

posts, “Play Makes Us Human II: Defeating Dominance and Achieving

Equality,” (Gray) he asserts that we have two ways of governing

ourselves in social groups: through hierarchy, dominance, and

force (not conducive to personal relationship), or through social

play, which, in his words, “demands equality.” In this same

Internet article, he further states:

In human beings, the spirit of play can

suffuse all sorts of activities, including

productive work, and when this happens the

playful mode of governance can trump and

defeat the hierarchical mode. Hunter-gatherer

peoples throughout the world seemed to have

understood this, and they used this

knowledge, more or less deliberately, to

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arrange their entire social existence in a

manner that permitted them to avoid

hierarchy, dominance, and coercion. (Gray)

When we can create ways of interacting with one another that

allow us to work together rather than dominate each other, we are

one step closer to social transformation.

Likewise, another expert, Ana Marjanovic-Shane, Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor of Education at Chestnut Hill College, states

in her book, Vygotsky and Creativity, that during play, people are “co-

authoring an imaginary world” and, in fact, are “co-authoring

each other” (Connery, John-Steiner, and Marjanovic-Shane 56).

This means that when we are playing together, we are actually

transforming the other person and being transformed ourselves.

Marjanovic-Shane, whose work is strongly influenced by Russian

psychologist Lev Vygotsky, further states that during play, the

participants “…become a ME and YOU…the ME and YOU is not a mere

relation; it is a relationship” (56) . Through this relationship,

which is fully voluntary, the people involved can establish human

contact outside the bounds of reality. We can get beyond our

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objectification of the other person and move into real personal

relationship; it is much easier to dominate or marginalize the

idea of a person than it is to dominate or marginalize a real

person to whom we relate.

A real-life example of how play can build relationship was

demonstrated when activist Myles Horton established the

Highlander Folk School during the 1930’s in Tennessee. He created

a space where adults could play and establish relationships

outside the boundaries of reality; people attended voluntarily,

engaged in dialogue, told their stories, sang together, enjoyed

meals together, etc. and by doing so were able to form real

relationships, interracially and across gender, that were

impossible in their day-to-day lives. The world the participants

created is what allowed participants like Rosa Parks to see the

possibility of an alternate world, spurring on her activism in

the “real” world.

I would also argue that the open format of the World Social

Forum creates is a play space as well. People come voluntarily to

share ideas, sing, dance, march, and dream. There is no ultimate

goal other than to connect with one another around social justice

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issues. Through this play, participants gain new insights and

ideas that they, in turn, can act on once they return to their

real-world lives. Without the personal connections that are

created in this space, it is hard to imagine that entire

movements would be as able to collaborate and jointly move their

causes forward.

The personal relationships created in a spirit of play make

it possible for us to recognize the humanness in each other and

make it more difficult for us to perpetuate systems and

frameworks that harm other people. It is more difficult to harm

real people with whom we are connected, than it is to harm notions of

people from whom we are disconnected. This is why personal

relationship is critical for social transformation.

Play encourages cooperation and collaboration

Another aspect of play critical for social transformation is

that it encourages cooperation, which is undoubtedly important

when confronting opposing viewpoints while trying to effect

change or when trying to move a group of like-minded people to

action. In 2009, Patti Delaney conducted an interview of Peter

Gray about his article, “Play as a Foundation for Hunter-Gatherer

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Social Existence,” which appeared in the Spring 2009 edition of

the American Journal of Play. Gray said, “To play well, and to keep

others interested in continuing to play with you, you must be

able to see the world from the other players' points of view”

(Delaney).

When we are voluntary participants and engaged in the play

process, we want to work together to keep our experience going.

During play, often without even realizing it, we are cooperating

and collaborating with others—we are learning how to please

others while still meeting our own needs and desires.

A wonderful example of how play is being used to transform

communities is in the Argentine development program Rosario

Hábitat. Josh Lerner, who holds a Ph.D. in politics from the New

School for Social Research and is executive director of the

Participatory Budgeting Project, has done research in this

community and highlights what he found in his article, “Playing

with Power: Participatory Planning Games in Rosario’s Villas.”

Inspired by learning theories from Paolo Freire (a Brazilian

educator, philosopher, and theorist of critical pedagogy) and

Theater of the Oppressed (created by Augosto Boal, a Brazilian

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theater director, writer, and politician), planners and

organizers in Latin America have integrated games and gaming

strategies into participatory processes. After a long history of

non-participatory planning processes, influence from socialist

politics has encouraged a change. Since 1989, Argentina’s third-

largest city, Rosario, has had a socialist government and has

brought more participation to issues of public health, social

economy, social well being, and decentralization. However,

despite much success, there were still horrible living conditions

in the informal settlements on the outskirts of the city

(villas), which housed 13 percent of the city’s population.

In 2000, the city’s housing agency, the SPV, began a

comprehensive development approach to turn the “villas” into

legitimate, functioning neighborhoods. However, initial plans,

presented to residents through community meetings, were met with

strong resistance and outright refusal. After bringing in an

expert in participatory planning, Gustavo Romero, the agency

approached the problem in a new way: through games and game-like

processes. The entire project was able to achieve remarkable

results through participatory gaming tools like puzzles, cartoon

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cards (to assist in brainstorming), and final creative

presentations by participants that included “talk shows, TV news

reports, and skits” (Lerner 191) . In Lerner’s words:

According to the facilitators, the initial

game serves three purposes. It gets nearly

all participants out of their seats and

actively taking part, making it less

intimidating for them to speak later. The

game helps people get to know their neighbors

and establish a collaborative atmosphere. The

trick at the end forces them to question

their perspectives and assumptions, making

them more open to new ideas. While most

people assume that the game is competitive,

by the end they discover that collaboration

is essential. (Lerner 191) (Note: My

emphasis in bold.)

It is clear from the success in the Rosario project, that

play and play-like attitudes can facilitate cooperation and

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collaboration—even when critical issues like relocation are being

addressed. The participatory and voluntary nature of play makes

it collaborative, and through this collaboration, we can develop

better solutions that engage the people who are most impacted. As

Marjanovic-Shane says in a 2007 video produced about the event,

Performing the World:

…[in play] you create an imaginary world…in

which you can start to see the future and

possibilities that are not yet here. So it’s

something completely turned toward the future

which is very hopeful because of the energy

of connecting everybody and giving a power of

multiple visions coming together. (Spirito)

Collaboration and a future filled with hope, in my opinion,

are definitely critical elements of social transformation.

Play fosters innovation

Marjanovic-Shane’s quote shows that play is not only

collaborative, but because of the “power of multiple visions

coming together” it can also foster innovation. Tony Wagner is

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the first Innovation Education Fellow at the Technology &

Entrepreneurship Center at Harvard, and prior to holding that

position he was the founder and co-director of the Change

Leadership Group at the Harvard Graduate School of Education for

over a decade. In 2012 he published, Creating Innovators: The Making of

Young People Who Will Change the World. While Wagner’s main focus is on

the education system and how to improve it, he includes play,

passion, and purpose as critical factors for innovation.

Wagner argues that our culture of consumerism is

unsustainable both economically and spiritually, and that

knowledge is now a commodity. The world no longer cares what we

know, Wagner says, but what we can do with what we know. In his

TedXNYED talk, Play, Passion, Purpose, Wagner talks about IDEO, one of

the most innovative design companies in the world, whose motto is

“Fail early, and fail often,” because there is no innovation

without trial and error. Play and a playful attitude and

atmosphere can create a space where trial and error, and failure,

is okay because the stakes are imaginary.

David Kelly, CEO and founder of IDEO, appears in the PBS

video series, The Promise of Play, created by the National Institute

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for Play (NIFP). In the video, Kelly talks about how play is a

critical element of design thinking—the kind of thinking that

leads IDEO to its incredible success and is now being used for

social innovation.

The problem about being serious is that it

tends to go in the conventional direction

that everyone else is going…playful allows

you to say something unexpected and that’s

liable to lead to some new direction. Because

when you’re trying to create something,

you’re always trying to go in a direction

that people haven’t thought of going. Play is

really essential to that. (Promise of Play /

4 of 12 - Corporate Play and IDEO - YouTube.)

This is exactly what social transformation will require: new

directions people haven’t thought pursuing. Conventional

strategies for coming up with solutions will result from the

system of thinking that produces the problem in the first place.

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New ideas for real transformation, then, will need to arise out

of a different way of thinking that challenges conventional

wisdom. In the same PBS video, Brian Sutton-Smith, play theorist

and Professor Emeritus at the University of Pennsylvania,

validates that play is one way to get to new ideas by calling

play “the anteroom to creativity.”

The world of innovation is all about taking risks, making

mistakes, and learning from them, and play is a way we can do

this when real world risks are too costly, either monetarily or

personally. Play provides a safe place for people to experiment

with new ideas, to fantasize about new possibilities, to

“pretend” to see the world in a different way. Huizinga called

play spaces “magic circles” where a temporary world could be

created free from the judgment and frameworks of reality. It is

in such an “anteroom” (and one could make the point again that

Highlander Folk School was such a place) where new, feasible

ideas for social change can be discovered.

There are many examples of ways we can use play to already

leading to the discovery of solutions to real-world issues. One

such example is Volkswagen’s 2009 “The Fun Theory” campaign

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(www.funtheory.com), where the company gave out awards for ideas

that changed people’s behavior for the better through fun

solutions. The finalists came up with a traffic camera that pays

motorists for going the speed limit, a bottle bank arcade to

encourage glass recycling, and a garbage can with “bottomless”

sound effects to encourage people not to litter.

When the city government in Auckland, New Zealand, estimated

that an additional one-million people would be moving there over

the next thirty years, they created a game for current citizens

to play to come up with urban planning ideas that would

accommodate the anticipated growth in the best possible way.

(Schiller)

In addition to these small examples, a form of play that has

had a more widespread impact is Augusto Boal’s “forum theater,”

which I referred to earlier as an inspiration for using play in

the participatory planning process of the Rosario Hàbitat. Boal

was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1931 and became a famous

theater director, writer, and politician. His best-known work,

Theater of the Oppressed, outlined his perspective that mainstream

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theater was used by the ruling-class to manipulate the masses and

that theater could be used as a weapon for social change.

Initially, his use of “Theater of the Oppressed” simply used

actors to act out audience ideas, asking the audience for

alternative endings. One time, an audience member was so

frustrated by the actors’ portrayal of her situation that she got

up and entered the scene herself to demonstrate her perspective,

and Forum Theater was born. In Forum Theater, the actors ask for

real-life situations from the audience, begin the scene, and then

encourage audience members to interrupt the scene, replacing the

actors, and act out their own ideas. An interview (excerpted from

his obituary) quotes:

“Unlike the dogmatic political theatre of the

1960s, which told people what to do, we now

ask them what they want.” What excited him,

he said, was the unexpected creativity of the

process. “Many times we came up with a simple

idea no one had thought of before.” (Sierz)

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Boal was strongly influenced by the pedagogical and

political principles of Paolo Freire, who was a Brazilian

educator, philosopher, and theorist of critical pedagogy. His

book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, was the inspiration for Boal’s work.

Freire’s method for popular education included: 1) to see

the situation lived by the participants; 2) to analyze the root

causes of the situation, including both internal and external

sources of oppression; 3) to explore group solutions to these

problems; and 4) to act to change the situation following the

precepts of social justice ("About the Institute for Popular

Education | The Brecht Forum.").

Boal’s methods continue to contribute to the fight for

social justice. One example is the Brecht Forum in New York City.

The Brecht Forum “…is a cultural and educational center for

people who are working for social justice, equality and a new

culture that puts human needs first” ("About the Institute for

Popular Education | The Brecht Forum."). Their Institute for

Popular Education is grounded in popular education traditions

developed in Latin America, especially those of Paolo Freire and

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Augusto Boal, and their TOPLAB is dedicated to training people in

Forum Theater and other types of Theater of the Oppressed.

There are many, many more examples of using play to come up

with new ideas for social change. I’m sure with further research

and interviews with people involved in projects like ASU Skysong

and Ashoka, I would find many examples of how people are using

play to come up with new solutions to further social

transformation. The kinds of “crazy” ideas that come up when we

are free from the restrictions of reality may be just what we

need to create a new, better reality—one that would be difficult

to reach unless we think outside of current systems and norms.

Play is an important (and fun!) way to discover these world-

changing ideas.

Play facilitates healing

The fourth benefit of play I am addressing in regard to

social transformation is that it facilitates healing. When deep

and/or large-scale change takes place, people’s lives are

impacted in major ways. Consider the Rosario Hábitat example that

I gave earlier; people were asked to give up homes and land that

they had lived on for many years so that roads and utilities

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could be installed that would benefit the entire community. Of

course, they were provided with new, and some would say better,

options for housing, but even voluntary moves come with a certain

amount of personal upheaval that requires healing in order to

move forward. When change is caused by natural or manmade

disasters, there is also a need for healing—physically and

psychologically. Play can be extremely useful in building a sense

of hope throughout and after difficult changes.

In an interview for a 1997 article in The Seattle Times that

addressed actor Bill Cosby’s desire to “play” again after the

murder of his only son, psychologist and play therapist Charles

Schaefer, Ph.D. (thought of by many as the “Father of Play

Therapy”) commented, “Laughter, play and humor give perspective

to life. They help us deal with everyday stress and the more

serious stresses as well” (Nachman E1).

If any community has needed (and still needs) to deal with

serious stress, it is the people in the destroyed neighborhoods

of post-Katrina New Orleans. An article by Clara Irazàbal and

Jason Neville, Neighbourhoods in the Lead: Grassroots Planning for Social

Transformation in Post-Katrina New Orleans?, highlights how residents took

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to the streets in collective celebration as a way to reclaim

their neighborhoods and culture. By returning to the strong

cultural roots of music and parades in New Orleans, people were

able to assert their power, connect with one another, and

experience relief from the stress of an ongoing difficult

situation.

Healing from even more horrific events is being addressed

through play. In 1994, the Hutu, people indigenous to Rwanda who

had been discriminated against for years by the minority Tutsi

people, rebelled and in just 100 days approximately 800,000 Tutsi

and Hutu sympathizers died ("BBC News - Rwanda profile -

Timeline."). Many strategies are being used to bring people

together and heal so that people can coexist with those who

killed their loved ones. Clearly extraordinary healing and

forgiveness is needed. One organization, YEGO Rwanda, is using

the arts (among other program offerings) toward this goal. Their

CASIE program (Cathartic Arts and Socially Integrating

Experiences) uses music, dance, drama, and art to “encourage the

process of forgiveness and reconciliation.” ("Project Sponsorship

| YEGO Rwanda.")

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Arts are not the only form of “play” that can be used for

healing. Many sports programs, such as 4 Worlds United Soccer

Alliance, Football for Social Change, and Uncharted Play (which

is bringing to market a soccer ball that produces energy with

each kick), are using sports to change lives, build community,

and heal as well. A soccer night in Newtown, CT, which took place

in the weeks following the shooting massacre of December 2012,

drew professional soccer players from all over the country to

play with the kids. As one player said of the experience: “That’s

what it was all about – seeing these young kids come out here and

have fun, smile. Taking their minds off what’s transpired over

the last few weeks, and restore some sense of normalcy in the

healing” (Cohen)

When we are able to take our minds off pain and tragedy,

when we have the opportunity to “lose ourselves” in an activity—

especially during and after traumatic events—it helps to

alleviate our stress and open us to the possibility of enjoying

life again. In the case of Rwanda, play can even allow people who

have reason to hate each other to find forgiveness and

connection. Social transformation cannot be complete until people

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have the opportunity to heal from the pain of injustice, and play

is one critical way for us to do that.

Conclusion

Play is ambiguous by its nature (in fact Peter Gray’s book

is titled, The Ambiguity of Play), which can make it challenging to

outline the specific ways in which play has impacted and

continues to play an important role in social transformation.

While I’ve quoted play experts and given examples of how play has

been and is being used to transform society around the globe,

there is no body of research that I’ve found that directly

correlates play with lasting transformative effects.

What I hope that I have done is to show that even if

transformation can take place through serious work (and it has),

perhaps we can transform our world more completely, more

joyfully, and more rapidly by throwing play and a playful

attitude into the mix. We’ve all experienced tense situations

that can be shifted in a moment through humor or a change in

space or physicality—why can’t play create that same type of

shift on a larger scale?

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In Eric Olin Wright’s widely respected academic book,

Envisioning Real Utopias, he outlines four “interlinked components” for

social transformation: a theory of social reproduction of social

structures, a theory of the gaps and contradictions of

reproduction (of those structures), a theory of trajectories of

unintended social change, and a theory of transformative

strategies. Perhaps if he’d included in this academic work that

play is a critical element of these four components, his audience

might have taken him less seriously; however, the benefits of

play that I’ve outlined here would serve each of these components

well. Play and having a spirit of play is disruptive to

habituated ways of being and through personal relationships with

others can help us question and challenge our social structures.

During play, we can often see more clearly where the gaps and

contradictions are, and perhaps do so in a way that is less

threatening to the status quo, opening up possibilities for

change. Play can also increase the number of trajectories of

unintended social change, since there can be many outcomes and

secondary outcomes from play experiences. Finally, as I hope this

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paper has demonstrated, play can be a very effective strategy for

transformation, personally and societally.

Play puts us in the moment. It puts us in our bodies. It

changes the way we react, the way we think, the way we interact

with others. In the case of Boal’s “Theater of the Oppressed,” it

can be quite serious, or it can be as fun and outrageous as jazz

parades marching down a New Orleans street. While most work-

oriented processes have language, structures, and behavioral

norms that encourage us to see people as “other,” play encourages

us to “be on the same team” and, as Ana Marjanovic-Shane said, to

become “ME and YOU.”

Instead of rolling up our sleeves and getting to work, let’s

get in the sandbox. Let’s breathe and move and share our stories.

Let’s do things we enjoy that help us to be in our bodies and in

the moment. Let’s use play to see each other as human, to work

together to generate new ideas, and to forgive each other and our

circumstances so that we are better able to move forward in

relationship.

Play is our often-overlooked biological need and personal

right. My dream is for people everywhere to reclaim that right so

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we can facilitate moving toward a sustainable world that is more

egalitarian, more democratic, and, let’s face it: more fun.

Can we achieve social transformation without play and

personal relationship? Perhaps, but why would we want to?

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Works Cited

"About the Institute for Popular Education | The Brecht Forum."Web. 4/25/2013

<http://brechtforum.org/aboutinstitute>.

"BBC News - Rwanda profile - Timeline." February 5, 2013 2013.Web. 4/28/2013

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093322>.

"Project Sponsorship | YEGO Rwanda."Web. 4/25/2013

<http://yegorwanda.net/project-sponsorship/>.

Promise of Play / 4 of 12 - Corporate Play and IDEO - YouTube. Anonymous Prod. National

Institute for Play. Perf. Kelly, David. 2010. You Tube.

Brown, M. D.,Stuart. "Play: How it Shapes the Brain, Opens the Imagination,

and Invigorates the Soul." Avery Trade, 2010. 17. Print.

Cohen, Rick. "How Soccer Can Drive Social Change - NPQ - Nonprofit Quarterly."

June 25, 2012 2012.Web. 4/25/2013

<http://www.nonprofitquarterly.org/policysocial-context/20559-how-soccer-

can-drive-social-change.html>.

Connery, M. Cathrene, Vera John-Steiner, and Ana Marjanovic-Shane. "From Yes

and no to ME and YOU." Vygotsky and Creativity :A Cultural-Historical Approach to Play,

Meaning Making, and the Arts. 5 Vol. New York: Peter Lang, 2010. 56. Print.

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