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Perception of Plants in Ancient Times and Their Use as Motifs RevealingAspects of the Cultural Landscape in Side, TurkeyMeryem Atka; Hacer Mutlu Danacib; Reyhan Erdoğana

a Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Akdeniz, Turkey b Department of Architecture,University of Akdeniz, Turkey

Online publication date: 28 May 2010

To cite this Article Atk, Meryem , Danaci, Hacer Mutlu and Erdoğan, Reyhan(2010) 'Perception of Plants in Ancient Timesand Their Use as Motifs Revealing Aspects of the Cultural Landscape in Side, Turkey', Landscape Research, 35: 3, 281 —297To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/01426391003743579URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01426391003743579

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Perception of Plants in Ancient Timesand Their Use as Motifs RevealingAspects of the Cultural Landscape in Side,Turkey

MERYEM AT_IK*, HACER MUTLU DANACI** &REYHAN ERDO �GAN**Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Akdeniz, Turkey **Department of Architecture,

University of Akdeniz, Turkey

ABSTRACT Landscape can be defined as a complex of human and natural interactions throughtime. Therefore, landscape identification requires a complete understanding of social, natural,economic, aesthetic and cultural values. Contributing to the aesthetic-visual integrity of thelandscape, plants are a valuable indicator, recording the type and degree of the human – naturerelationship over time. Our feelings, imagination and perception often contribute to the culturaldimension of the landscape and the role of plants in mythology can be used as a kind of linguisticcode for helping to understand some aspects of cultural landscapes. The aim of this study is todemonstrate how a number of key plants were perceived in ancient cultures using some examplesfrom the Mediterranean landscape and to use them to help to evaluate different dimensions ofarchaeological landscapes using the case of the ancient city of Side in Turkey. Multi-dimensionalapproaches in landscape evaluation which use symbolic meaning can generate valuable knowledgeabout cultural landscapes. This is precisely because cultural landscapes are the sum of biological,physical and cultural components, while plants as natural elements have bridged the biologicaland cultural dimensions.

KEY WORDS: Cultural landscape, perception, plant myths, city of Side

Introduction

Landscape means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of theaction and interaction of natural and/or human factors (Council of Europe, 2000).According to Kronert et al. (2001), the interaction of cultural and natural qualities ofan area helps to define the landscape as a complex of human and nature interactionsthrough time. There are a series of natural components that create landscape such astopography, soil, water, climate, flora and fauna. Defined as a community of plantsin an area within a time span (Cepel, 1990), flora is one of the landscape elements

Correspondence Address: Meryem Atik, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture,

Akdeniz University, Antalya 07070, Turkey. Email: [email protected]

Landscape Research,Vol. 35, No. 3, 281–297, June 2010

ISSN 0142-6397 Print/1469-9710 Online/10/030281-17 � 2010 Landscape Research Group Ltd

DOI: 10.1080/01426391003743579

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that most often interacts with human use and therefore has always been symbolic ofthe attachment to nature.

The term ‘culture’ is derived from the Latin ‘colere’, to cultivate, to care for or topreserve (Naveh, 1995). Our feelings, imagination, understanding and perceptioncontribute to the cultural dimensions of landscape and help us integrate the naturaland cultural attributes within it. Thus our perception is strongly determined by ouroverall experience sensed through both body and mind.

In any given landscape each rock, river or tree has its own history, whilehuman cultures blend these stories with those of their own artefacts. Spirn (1998)indicated that landscapes are a form of literature in the broadest sense of theword and have multiple modes: folklore, prosaic homilies, myths, drama, epic,oratory and poetry.

Coleman (2003) points out that culture and landscape are highly interconnected.Culture is born from the landscape as we form our beliefs and values around theresources and settings that support us. Nature has been subjected to the effects ofhuman habitation and exploitation for thousands of years and plants have alwaysbeen at the forefront providing food, fodder, fuel, building materials and medicinesupon which people are still crucially dependent today.

Perceiving nature as a whole and identifying with it emotionally is part of whatleads towards a total understanding of the social, natural, biological and, finally,aesthetic value of the landscape. Thus relevant anthropological and philosophicalapproaches that reveal the interactions between man and nature can help to bringout some of the cultural dimensions within the landscape.

History demonstrates that human culture and civilization in Europe expandedout from its beginnings in the eastern Mediterranean towards the North Sea(Antrop, 2004). The very first cultural imprints in the landscape can be found inthe archaeology of the Mediterranean, characterized not only by the physicalremains of settlement and field patterns, walls, terraces or buildings, but also inthe myths and legends about nature and the natural values of plants. These wereoften related to particular places, deities or used to explain the origin of naturalphenomena.

Conceptually, landscapes have a complex character combining natural andcultural aspects and they are valued in many different ways. Most people tend toexperience landscapes in a holistic way and interpret or read them within their owncultural context (Antrop, 2005a). People tell different ‘stories’ about the landscapeand it is often found that each individual’s assumptions are orientated to differentsets of values, depending on the issue and place involved (Soliva, 2007). Ancientmyths are a kind of linguistic form similar to these stories, but tend to deal withgods, goddesses and heroes. Many evocative examples can be found in Greek andRoman mythology, mainly originating from the Mediterranean, as attempts tounderstand and explain natural wonders and phenomena by means of a spiritual andimaginative path between reality and fantasy.

Set mainly in a context of popular piety, the myths and legends—told by some andlistened to by others—were initially disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition,surviving many generations but the introduction of stone for monumental buildingsin ancient times made the transmission of them as tangible remains possible for us tounderstand. This kind of mythology has been a valuable source of inspiration for art

282 M. Atik et al.


and philosophy since it first appeared. For example, the rustic and pure MountOlympus, home of the gods, was covered by a thick layer of snow in winter andshaded by beautiful trees in summer. The god of gods, Zeus, was often picturedwearing a crown composed of bay, olive and oak leaves. Eagles and mountain peakswere dedicated to him, whereas the goddess Hera was pictured holding apomegranate (Tollu, 1964; Comert, 1999). Thus, plant symbols have been intimatelyassociated with classical deities since the earliest times.

It is important to remember that, unlike traditionally built heritage structures,cultural landscapes exist both as an artefact and as a system which is both a processand a product (Coleman, 2003). Monuments are public structures designed andbuilt, in scale and detail, to be both non-prosaic and clearly recognizable forms ofthe built environment (Moore, 1996).

The character of buildings can be simultaneously ordered, communicative andsymbolic. Plants have inspired artists in shaping architectural design and have aspecial influence on monumental landscapes. Ramsey (1922) indicated that the foresttradition was very strong for the ancient Greeks and Romans and was reflected inthe design and aesthetic of their buildings. We can learn much from their way oflogical statement and breadth of expression. Their aesthetic differs from that ofGothic buildings which were a contrasting logical and artistic development of forestforms and ideas.

Landscape can be treated like a book that tells us who we are and how we arrivedat this place which we call the modern world (Fairclough et al., 2002). To be ableactually to read it requires a better understanding of the interactions betweenlandscapes and the cultural and social forces behind them. With regard to this,archaeological landscapes are more than myths and legends which come down to usthrough the long march of history but they help to illuminate the physical remainswhich would otherwise be harder to read.

The interaction of culture with landscapes is a reciprocal and even cyberneticrelation: not only do cultural impacts shape our landscapes, but our view aboutlandscapes is also a product of culture and this, in turn, affects our relationshipwith and our continuing shaping of these landscapes (Naveh, 1995). However,there is a limited source of studies into the role of human values and perceptions inthe creation of cultural landscapes and how human – nature interactions can resultin a unique cultural heritage, especially for ancient cultures with limited writtenrecords.

The aim of this study is to understand how perceptions of plants in the pastcan contribute to the understanding of different dimensions of the culturallandscapes of the present time. It also aims to help to convey aspects of a uniquecultural heritage for future generations. Therefore in the first part of our study wetry to show some examples of plant perception in ancient Mediterraneanlandscapes and how the myths and legends associated with the gods andgoddesses may contribute to the comprehension of cultural landscapes. In thesecond part we demonstrate the different dimensions of archaeological landscapesusing the case of the ancient city of Side in Turkey, based on both mythologicaland botanical features of some selected plants widely used for decoration onmonuments. The scope of this paper is a multi-dimensional approach tolandscape analysis.

Plants and the Ancient Cultural Landscape in Side, Turkey 283


Methodological Approach

As stated by Johansen (2004), past meaning cannot be read or perceived from amonument without access to the social context of its production. Landscape historyis one of the methods used to collect abstract information about the landscape andlandscape elements. Therefore, a survey of available archaeological data on plants aslandscape elements was selected for certain plants that are characteristic ofMediterranean landscapes. The methodological approach of this study wasdeveloped from Gomez-Sal et al. (2003), Antrop (2005b) and Lorzing (2005).Different dimensions of cultural landscape were analysed: aesthetic, economic,ecological and cultural.

The ancient city of Side, in Antalya Province, Turkey, was chosen as thecase study because of its outstanding nature and wealth of landscapes blendedwith different cultures as a result of its habitation since ancient times, as wellas its being a natural peninsula with an intact bond between sea and land(Figure 1).

Plants in the Mediterranean Landscape and their Perception

The Mediterranean region was a key location for ancient human civilization. Thediverse nature of the surroundings and environmental conditions, particularly thefavourable climate, allowed people to inhabit, live off and cultivate the land sincevery early times. Nature spirits were associated with special types of landscapes suchas caves, dense woodlands, the summits of mountains, springs, waterfalls, rivers andthe sea (Wycherley, 1991).

Land clearance for agriculture, overgrazing, logging, mining, disturbance by fireand an overall domestication of the land in the Mediterranean basin since 9000 BChave led to the developments of evergreen scrublands as the semi-natural vegetationtype of much of the area. The Eastern Mediterranean flora is defined by xerophilous

Figure 1. Location of Side in ancient times.

284 M. Atik et al.


trees and bushes of kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), olive (Olea europea), mastic tree(Pictacia lentiscus), terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus), carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua),Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia), laurel (Laurus nobilis), cistus (Cistus creticus) andoleander (Nerium oleander) mixed with junipers (Juniperus excelsa and J. oxcycedrus)and cedar (Cedrus libani) above 1000 m (Yılmaz, 1998, 2001; Altan, 2000).

Nesbitt (1995) reported that the historical uses of some Mediterranean nativeplants date back more than two thousand years. Some of the seed remains found injars at the Late Bronze Age shipwreck dating to around 1300 BC found at UluBurun on the southwest coast of Turkey were fig (Ficus carica), grape (Vitis vinifera),pomegranate (Punica granatum), olive (Olea europea), pine (Pinus pinea) and sumac(Rhus coriaria).

The interpretation of archaeological landscapes needs to be considered not onlyon the basis of their aesthetic dimensions, but also on their cultural meanings. Plantshave been a source of inspiration for decoration in architectural designs and haveprovided constant sources of motifs for monumental landscapes. A basic under-standing of the properties of the plants lying behind the myths and legends helps inthis interpretation. Some examples of plant perceptions which are based on mythicalnarratives are given in Table 1. Oak, one of the typical species of Mediterraneanvegetation, was used to symbolize a long-lasting life and power, whereas Calabrianpine with its dark silhouette represented mourning and grief.

Background and History of Side

The city of Side is situated within the Pamphylia Region, known in classical timesas ‘the land of all tribes’ and at that time surrounded by Lykia to the west, Ciliciaand Trakheia to the east and Pisidia to the west (Figure 1). According toHerodotos, Lykians used bows made of cherry dogwood (Cornus mas) andarrows made of reed (Phragmites australis) as part of their military equipment.Cedar (Cedrus libani) and cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) were importantmaterials for building ships.

The history of the city of Side can be traced back to around 700 BC. The firstsettlers were native Anatolians who founded the city (Mansel, 1967). Its name comesfrom the old Anatolian name for the pomegranate (Punica granatum) (Mansel, 1967;Guclu, 1997; Aydınozu, 2004).

The city was under the rule of Lydia in 600 BC, Persia in 500 BC and Alexanderthe Great in 400 BC. After the arrival of the Greeks, Side experienced its age ofmagnificence in the Roman period and became an important trade centre at the time(Table 2).

Known also as ‘Old Attelia’, Side managed to preserve some autonomy,grew prosperous, and had become an important cultural centre by 200 BC.However, a steady decline began from the fourth century AD and it became aprovincial centre as the seat of the Bishopric of Eastern Pamphylia. A thick layerof ash found during excavations proves that conflagration destroyed the cityaround AD 900–1000, perhaps as a result of the Persian invasion. According toGuclu (1997), the geographer and traveller Idrisi described Side as a dead citywith emigrating inhabitants when he visited in the 1150s and recalled ‘BurnedAntalya’ (Table 2).



Table

1.A

summary

oftheperceptionofsomeMediterraneanplants

associatedwithmythicalnarratives

(Kritikos&

Papadaki,1967;Atac,

1983;

Can,2000;Comert,1999;Gezgin,2007)

Commonname

Speciesname

Perception

Calabrianpine

Pinusbrutia

Pitys,anymph,fellin

lovewithPan,thegodofforestsandlowlands,butsheturned

into

apinetree

toescape

thebullyingofBoreas,thegodofthenorthwindandstorm

.Therefore,to

beclose

toPitys,Panalwaysused

torest

under

thepinetrees.When

thewindblows,thepinetreesmourn

andprotect

Panfrom

thestrong

sun.

Oak

Quercuscoccifera

ZeuswasvisitingPhrygia

withhissonHermes,butallthepeople

werehostileto

them

exceptanold

couple,

Philem

onandBaucis.Althoughthey

werequitepoor,they

welcomed

them

withallthatthey

possessed.

Transform

ingtheirsm

allhouse

into

atemple,Zeusasked

fortheirwish.They

decided

tobecomeguardians

ofthehouse

wherethey

spenttheirwhole

life.When

they

grew

even

older,Philem

onbecameanoakasa

symboloflong-lastinglife.

Myrtle

Myrtuscommunis

Dionysus,godofthevineandnature

wantedto

findhismother,Sem

ele,andpleaded

forhelpfrom

Hades.In

return

fortherelease

ofSem

ele,

Hades

asked

forthemost

preciousthingthatDionysuscould

give,

andit

wasthemyrtle

tree

thathegavein

return.Afterwardspeople

joined

inceremoniesofDionysuswearinga

crownofmyrtle

branches.

Laurel

Laurusnobilis

Apollo,thegodofthesunsawanymph,DaphneontheedgeofthePeneusriver,enjoyingnature

intheforest.

Fallingin

love,

hechasedher,andDaphnewasunable

toescape.

Prayingto

thegodsforhelp,shewas

transform

edinto

alaureltree

withagreytrunkandwithbeautifulfragrantleaves

whichbecamesacred

toApollo.

Cypress

Cupressussempervirens

Kyparissos,ahandsomeyouth

andclose

friendofApollo,im

pressed

thegodofthesunwithhisgifts

atfine

artsandparticularlyhispoetry.OnedayKyparissosaccidentallykilledadeerthatheloved

verymuch.

Beingin

deepgrief,therewasnoother

wayforKyparissosbutto

killhim

self.Then

Apolloturned

him

into

acypress

asasymbolofmourning,so

thatwhen

thewindblowsthecypress

readspoem

sandelegiesof

sadness.

Oleander

Nerium

oleander

YoungLeander

wasin

lovewithagirllivingonanisolatedislandin

theAegeanSea.Hecrossed

theseaevery

nightto

seehislover.It

wasastorm

ydaywhen

heagain

decided

togo,buthedrowned

whiletryingto

reach

theislandanddied.Wildwaves

washed

hisbodyagainst

sharp

rocksandfinallyleftitonthesand.

Theyounggirlwasin

sorrow

andlaid

oleander

flowersover

hisbody.Since

then

oleander

flowersare

the

symbolofLeander’sendless

love,

anddecorate

theseashore.

Olive

Oleaeuropea

Olivewasdedicatedto

Athena,goddessofintelligence

andbrilliance.Althoughshewasthegoddessofwar

andheroic

endeavour,shealsosymbolizedpeace.In

acontest

withPoseidonforthepatronageofAthens,

Olivewaschosenasthebestgiftthatwasgiven

byAthena,andtherefore

thecity

wasnamed

after

her.Olive

leaves

havebeenthesymbolofpeace

andglory

ever

since,andacrownofolivebranches

wasgiven

tovictors

incontests.

286 M. Atik et al.


The Ancient City of Side

The most exceptional inherited artefacts of ancient classical architecture aredecorations and sculptures that are found in the ruins. A distinct feature of citiesin ancient times was the defensive walls. The main city gate led to the agorawhich was the heart of the city and an essential part of its social life. A numberof temples and simpler stoas, columnar galleries, monuments and sculptures canalso be found. The Acropolis was placed on the highest point in most cities, witha theatre usually set on a suitable hillside. There were tombs along the roadsoutside the city gate, while stadia and gymnasia were built in or around cities(Wycherley, 1991).

Side Peninsula was a typical classical city, surrounded by both maritime andterrestrial walls. Most of the marine walls have been dated to the Greek Period. Themain city gate was on the eastern part of Side and decorated on the upper fascicle ofthree columns with a relief of the Pergamon victory in the second century BC

Table 2. Chronology of the ancient city of Side (adjusted from Mansel, 1967; Guclu, 1997;Antalya Valili�gi, 2006)

Period Occupation and important episodes

Before 700 BC A colony of Kime, an Anatolian city, 350 – 400 m wide and 1000 mlong , an important city in Pamphylia

700 BC Arrival of Greeks—use of local ‘Sidetic’ language, an extinctAnatolian branch of the Indo-European language familydocumented in coins and epigraphs

600 BC Lydian Dynasty—the first stamped coins around 600 BC—Side was under Lydian rule, as was the whole of Anatolia

547–460 BC Persian rule—Side minted its own coins, one symbol was the Pomegranatetogether with Athena and Apollo

300 BC Ptolemaic rule, an Egyptian based Greek dynasty190 BC Big naval battle between the Syrian King Antiokhos III, and the

Romans188 BC Handed over to the Kingdom of Pergamon

—Prosperous growth of Side with silver coins and magnificent citywalls

—Became a centre of culture and education67 BC–200 AD Roman period

—Side was the seat of the state governor and important figures of theempire, building of the most significant parts of the city

300 Recognition of Christianity by Emperor Constantine401–501 Bishopric of Eastern Pamphylia700–900 Arab invasion

—Side was abandoned after an explosive fire and natural calamities1101–1200 Byzantine period

—Side was established as a larger city1207 Arrival of Seljuks1391 Arrival of OttomansSince 1996 Protected site



(Guner, 1967). On the southern part of the Side Peninsula, three important templeswere the temples of Apollo, Athena and the Anatolian Moon God (Figure 2).

Water was a precious and limited resource in ancient cities of the Mediterranean.Infrastructures for conveying water from distant locations, the opening of wells andcisterns carved out of rock faces were solutions to the use of available water. Anaqueduct 30 km long and reaching up to 25 m high in some parts was constructed toconvey water from the nearby city of Melas (modern Manavgat). A monumentalnympheum, a grotto with a natural water supply dedicated to the nymphs andtransforming a waterfall into a 10 m-wide fountain, was built in the Roman period inthe second century BC, and was a spectacular feature in Side.

A columned street starting from the main city gate led both to the south and to thenortheast surrounded by galleries and with shops behind. Overlooking the theatresquare, the agora with 100 columns was symbolized in the centre by the temple ofFortuna, the goddess of good fortune, with 12 Ionian and Corinthian style columns.The theatre, with a capacity of 15,000 people was one of the biggest theatres in thePamphylia region and in Anatolia. A semicircular orchestra was surrounded by awater channel (Figure 2).

Theatres as cultural and social centres were the focal points of gatherings forlarge-scale activities. People in ancient time were deeply engaged in coping with andfinding explanations for nature and natural phenomena especially natural disasters.The original idea of the theatre and theatrical performances was based oncelebrations such as appreciating a good yield from the harvest, blessing the powerof nature and commemorating the splendour of human – nature relations. The four-columned Roman Temple of Dionysus, god of wine and nature, near the theatre, wasused for gatherings for the celebration of the vine and its harvest.

Plant Motifs from Side

Plant motifs can be used in the development of an understanding of the place ofmonuments as landscape components and on how meaning is conveyed through

Figure 2. Ancient city of Side.

288 M. Atik et al.


archaeological heritage. We identified the precise nature and range of past meanings,based on a combination of the myths and the botanical features of the selected plantsthat are widely found as the motifs on the monuments.

Punica granatum. The name of this species comes from Punica, meaning theCarthaginian apple, associated with the ancient Punic people or Phoenicians fromthe Carthage Peninsula in North Africa, and granatum, granulosus, granula,granulum refers to being surrounded by each other or consisted of tiny granules,which is the characteristic structure of the seeds within the fruit. Pomegranate is adeciduous shrub or small tree with very bright ornamental flowers and apple-shapedred fruits containing the seeds (Blamey & Grey-Wilson, 1993).

In mythology a young girl, Side, escaped from pursuit and abuse by her father andkilled herself by the graveside of her mother. The gods, however, took mercy on thebeautiful girl and rewarded her by turning her into a pomegranate tree, the fruitstaking on the colour of her blood (Can, 2000; Gezgin, 2007). Dedicated to Hera, wifeof Zeus and goddess of women, wisdom and marriage, the pomegranate has been asymbol of fertility and abundance. Hera was often portrayed holding a sceptre in onehand and a pomegranate in the other, wearing a serrated crown resemblingpomegranate flowers.

Side, daughter of an Anatolian hero, Tauros, gave her name to the ancient city ofSide. Due to the derivation of its name there are many pomegranate motifs found indifferent monuments but the most significant example is a coin with the name of Sideand the symbol of the pomegranate depicted on it (Figure 3).

Pinus brutia. The generic name of Pinus brutia derives from Pinus pine and brutius,brutia or buritium meaning modern Calabria (Stearn, 2002), a region in southernItaly. Native to the Mediterranean region, it is an evergreen tree with needle leavesand is an important decorative and timber-producing species with distinctive reddishor green shoots and a red trunk (Blamey & Grey-Wilson, 1993).

In mythology, Dryope came to a clear lake to make a sacrifice to the nymphs. Shesaw a tree with bright flowers and wanted to collect some, but she did not know that

Figure 3. (a) Relief of pomegranate in Side, (b) pomegranate (Punica granatum) in the field and(c) a coin from Side with the symbol of the pomegranate.



the nymph Lotis had taken the form of the tree. When she plucked off a branch,Dryope turned into a pine tree as did the other nymphs becoming dark, black andsad pine trees (Can, 2000).

According to another myth Pitsy was a pretty, agile nymph who was loved by bothPan and Boreas. Pitsy herself was in love with Pan and chose him of the two suitors,so Boreas was furious and attacked her, throwing her into some rocks. The earth godshowed mercy and turned her into a pine tree forever growing on rugged rocks(Atac, 1983).

Being a dominant element of the Mediterranean landscape on steep calcareousmountain slopes, Calabrian pine is used as a decorative motif (Figure 4).

Vitis vinifera. The grape is one of the most ancient domesticated plants and hasplayed a continuous role in most civilizations and cultures. The use of the grapedates back to around Neolithic times, while the discovery of wine is known from asearly as 7000 BC. The cultivation history of Vitis vinfera has since been intimatelyassociated with the production and drinking of wine. Similarly, the scientific nameVitis resembles grape and vinifer, vinifera or viniferum meaning wine-bearing (Stearn,2002). Native to Europe and the Mediterranean, grape is a climbing shrub thatgrows up to 35 m and has small and greenish flowers, occasionally purplish, withjuicy berry fruits (Blamey & Grey-Wilson, 1993).

Due to its nutritious properties, the grape was accepted as an early blessing forhumanity and as a gift from the gods. The distribution of Vitis vinifera around theworld was the most important revolution in agriculture after the domestication ofwheat. A common belief about the grape was that the juice made into wine is aperfect substance to advance creativity and can give supernatural power. Therefore,the grape and wine had a significant value in ancient times and as a result, arefrequently portrayed on and described in many cultural artefacts (Figure 5).

Dionysus, God of wine and nature was often portrayed with wavy hair coiled witha wreath of grape leaves and holding a glass of kantharos, which was believed to healall illnesses.

Figure 4. (a) Relief of Calabrian pine in Side and (b) Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia) in the field.

290 M. Atik et al.


Citrus lemon. The species name for lemon comes from a Persian word ‘limun’(Simonetti & Pergher, 1990). Originating from tropical and subtropical southeastAsia, China and India, Citrus lemon grows best in the temperate Mediterranean zone(Turner, 1999) and has a great variety of properties that are widely used in the foodindustry, cosmetics and pharmacy.

Ancient Greeks referred to the lemon as ‘apple’. In mythology the ‘golden apples’,a grove of immortality, grew in the garden of the gods at the eastern end of theworld. Golden apples or lemons referred to the race between beautiful Atalanta andthe contestants who could marry her if they won. It was Hippomenes who droppedthe golden apples and distracted Atalanta’s attention, thereby beating her in the raceand becoming her husband.

Another myth involving the lemon concerned the origins of the Trojan War. Itrefers to a celebration given by Zeus, in which he forgot to invite Eris, goddess ofdiscord and jealousy. Hence, Eris threw a golden apple into the ceremony with a note‘for the fairest one’. When the three goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite eachclaimed the lemon, Paris of Troy was chosen to judge who the golden apple shouldgo to. Each goddess gave promises to Paris, but it was Aphrodite who he chose,because she promised to give him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen,thus starting the Trojan War (Atac, 1983; Comert; 1999; Can, 2000).

Besides being the subject of different perceptions in mythology, the lemon was awell-defined motif used in the decoration of cultural monuments (Figure 6).

Dimension of Archaeological Landscapes in the Ancient City of Side

The natural and cultural aspects of landscape are of particular interest because theyare interwoven in just about every instance. Soliva (2007) reported that the processof narrative analysis is actually a synthesizing of the data rather than a separation ofit into its constituent parts, while Fry et al. (2004) point out that at the regional levelit is more likely that natural features would be assessed, since they were importantaspects of perception and belief systems.

Evaluation of the different dimensions of the archaeological landscapes in the cityof Side, namely the aesthetic, economic, ecological and cultural is presentedinTable 3. Like most ancient cities, Side is located in the most suitable place within

Figure 5. (a) Relief of grapes in Side and (b) grapes (Vitis vinifera) in the field



the natural environment, thus encouraging both an ecological and aestheticdimension. The pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a distinct cultural asset for plantmotifs, which played an important role in the history, economy and cultural life ofancient Side. The glory of prosperity was reflected in the buildings of the city. Lloyd(2000) wrote that Side had a magnificent ceremonial road which ends with acolumned curtain that opens to the sea and the harbour, thus connecting theeconomic dimension with the aesthetic and cultural aspects. Side had become acentre of culture and education by 188 BC. Even the Syrian King of Antiokhos VIIwas given the nickname ‘Sidetes’ after studying in the city of Side.

Discussion

Human landscape perception, cognition and values directly affect the landscape andare affected by the landscape (Nassauer, 1995). Narratives are still largely unknownas heuristic devices in landscape and biodiversity research. However, mythologyabout the plants and plant motifs on monuments conveys a range of socio-symbolicmeanings in a clear and legible manner. In this study we tried to synthesize howperceived meanings of plants in ancient times reflected on the revealing aspect of thecultural landscape in Side, Turkey and how different dimensions can contribute tothe comprehension of such cultural heritage.

In the ancient city of Side, high cultural values from ancient times and people stilllive on in the archaeological landscape. As special places, monuments are imbuedwith a symbolic value and act as landmarks that allow orientation in space and time:the temple of Apollo, the god of light, facing east and Athena, the goddess ofwisdom, light and art, facing west, with Corinthian column pillars decorated byplant motifs were believed to protect Side’s harbour and shipping and to help sailorsto navigate (Aydınozu, 2004). These are the monuments in Side that symbolicallydescribe as communicative media, and are part of a dynamic network critical forsocial and cultural relations with nature.

The perception of plants has not only been valuable in relation to the social,cultural or ecological viewpoint, but also for the quality and enjoyment of life. Theancient monuments were characterized by the representation of living beings in theform of plants and animals. Plant forms used for ornamental decorations were

Figure 6. (a) Relief of lemon in Side and (b) lemon (Citrus lemon) in the field.

292 M. Atik et al.


Table

3.Evaluationofdifferentdim

ensionsofarchaeologicallandscapes

inSide(adaptedfrom

Gomez-Salet

al.,2003;Antrop,2005b;Lorzing,

2005)

Aesthetic

dim

ension

Archaeologicallandscapes

often

symbolize

themostspecialexamplesof

humanintegrationinto

nature

andprecise

modelsofancient

civilization.Sidewasapeninsula

typeofsettlementwhichfits

best

aroundthecoastalgeography.Monumentalbuildingsare

often

complementedbyavarietyofplantsymbolssuch

asthepomegranate,

Calabrianpine,lemonandgrape,whichenrich

thevisualcharacter

of

thecity

buildings.

Landscapes

perceived

firstfrom

theiraesthetic

dim

ension,which

represents

thevisualproperty

ofthelandscape.

Economic

dim

ension

Sidewasasm

allcity-state

within

aregionalfederationin

ancienttimes.

Itwasanim

portantmaritimecity

oftrade,

shippingandculture.The

magnitude,

power

andlevel

ofcivilizationwerereflectedin

the

monuments

inthearchaeologicallandscape.

Grapeandpomegranate

werealsotangible

evidence

oftheproductionsystem

inthecity.

Politicalopinionsandtrendsin

theeconomyandproductionsystem

soften

shapethedevelopmentofthelandscape.

Ecologicaldim

ension

ThelocationofSidereflects

themost

integratedrelationship

withthe

naturalenvironment.Theecologyofarchaeologicallandscapes

inSiderestsonthecity

planningin

harm

onywithnaturallandscape

factors

andtheuse

ofwaterchannellingsystem

swhichdonotdistract

from

thenaturalcoastline,

whilemakingthebestuse

oftopography,

aspectandclim

ate.

Theecologicaldim

ensionpresents

thedynamic

relationship

between

naturallandscapefactors

such

assoil,flora,etc.,andhelpsusto

understandthecontentofthelandscape.

Culturaldim

ension

Withregard

totheculturaldim

ension,themost

characteristicplant

motifin

thearchaeologicallandscapes

inSideisthepomegranate.The

nameofthecity

comes

from

thepomegranate

Punicagranatum

asa

symboloffertilityandabundance.Sideminteditsowncoinsin

500

BC

usingasymboloftheplant,thusalsoreferringto

theaesthetic,

economicandecologicaldim

ensionsofthelandscape.Pomegranate

isstillanim

portantcommodityin

thelocaleconomy,andthesymbolof

thecity.

Culturaldim

ensionbringsthevalues

andexperim

ents

from

thepast,

completingaesthetic,economic

andecologicaldim

ensionsofthe

landscape.



inspired by mythology and have become the symbol of the level of civilization thatancient societies reached.

Most stylized plant motifs found in Side are rosettes, leaves, flowers and seeds thathave a biological, mythical or aesthetic value. The values and knowledge presentedin this study give a valuable insight into the archaeological landscapes in Side, wheremyths and legends underpin the cultural context.

Rowntree and Conkey (1980) explained that cultural landscape is created andtransformed by human symbolic action. The widely used plants found on themonuments in Side analysed in this study were pomegranate (Punica granatum),Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia), grape (Vitis vinifera) and lemon (Citrus lemon).Jirmounsky (1939) emphasized that ornamental elements of artistic scope must besystematized with their aesthetic intentions and meaning; the unique example of thesense and spirit of place (Genius loci) of Side was the pomegranate. The name of thecity was derived from the plant where motifs of its fruit were widely used as anartistic media including coinage.

Rappaport (1979) pointed out the discrepancy between our cultural images ofnature and landscapes, as screened by our filters of beliefs, knowledge andpurposes without which it would be difficult to understand the structure, functionand meaning of cultural landscapes. According to our study it is possible to seethat there is frequently a close connection between mythological perceptionsabout some native Mediterranean plants and their form and habitat. Forexample, the evergreen Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia) has a dark colour and wasfound growing on rocky areas, whereas cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) was asymbol of mourning and elegies of sadness in ancient times as it is still today inmany cultures and beliefs. Oleander (Nerium oleander) was associated with thedeath of young Leander on the sea shore, while oak (Quercus coccifera) dedicatedto Zeus was a symbol of long-lasting life. Relative to ancient mythology,Calabrian pine can still be found growing on rocky habitats and oleander on thesea shore while the oak is a typical long lived plant species in the Mediterraneanenvironment.

Human integration of landscape elements to form optimal living environmentsresults in structures and patterns of occupation and use which, over time, have leftpatterned archaeological remains such as artefact and feature distributions(Johansen, 2004). Archaeological landscapes, as a piece of narrative evidence ofhistorical, cultural and ecological processes of universal value, offer a unique culturalheritage that is interwoven between perceptions and artistic work.

Guerrini (2007) stated that the goal of historic preservation has generally been tofix a historical moment, rather than to acknowledge change. A forward-lookingapproach with archaeological perspective is to analyse the historic character oflandscapes (Turner, 2006). A multi-dimensional approach in evaluating plantperception and their revealed affect on archaeological landscapes in Side showed thatby understanding the forms and meaning of plants, the explanatory power of mythsand stories and their motifs can be expanded to aid the understanding andpreservation of historical cultural landscapes.

Nature, character and the temporal duration of the living environment arecontingent upon a variety of factors. A landscape element or configurationencompasses the economic, social or religious needs of the groups of people

294 M. Atik et al.


occupying and embodying a larger regional landscape over time (Johansen, 2004).This is precisely because cultural landscapes are the sum of biological, physicaland cultural components. Plants as a natural factor are able to bridge biologicaland cultural ends of the spectrum and plant perception can be regarded ascommon ground for combining different aspects of the landscape (Fry et al., 2004) ordifferent features of landscape character (Buckley, 1999). In either sense a ‘horizon ofmeaning’ can generate valuable knowledge and contribute to an evaluation of thelandscapes of diverse cultural value and in particular help to protect them.

Naveh (1995) stated that the interaction between cultures and landscape can helpus to learn from the past, comprehend the present and envisage the future of ourcultural landscapes. Soliva (2007) argued that narratives can be a useful heuristicdevice in research as well as participatory landscape and biodiversity planningprocesses.

People often perceive, protect and shape landscapes in the course of symbolicprocesses which engage with their sense of place, memory, history and legend.Antrop (2005b) indicated that the processes and management of past traditionallandscapes, the manifold relationships that people have with the environment andthe symbolic meaning it generates, all offer valuable knowledge for more sustainableplanning and management of landscapes.

Different dimensions contributed to understanding a broader and morecomprehensive insight into the the archaeological landscape in Side. However, theconnectivity between each dimension that is provided by plant elements such as theones dealt with in this study helps to strengthen the uniqueness of such culturallandscapes and can support their conservation.

Interaction between landscape and human aspects go back to the first humanbeings. Cave drawings of prehistoric ritual scenes are almost the earliest landscapestories that we can witness. Being the most animate parts of the cultural landscape,plant motifs and patterns in archaeological landscapes are the products of that longhistory of thousands of years which were brought from the past, through the presentand hopefully into the future. Links with the distant past, evoked through myths andlegend, still resonate and can help us to appreciate the continuity within thelandscapes.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Administration Unit of Scientific Research Projectsof Akdeniz University. The authors would like to thank the Management of SideMuseum for their kind assistance and cooperation in this study. The authors wouldlike to thank Dr Simon Bell for his earlier revision and contribution to this paper.

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