Outdoor thermal comfort characteristics in the hot and humid region from a gender perspective

Chien-Hung Tung • Chen-Peng Chen • Kang-Ting Tsai • Noémi Kántor • Ruey-Lung Hwang • Andreas Matzarakis • Tzu-Ping Lin

C.-H. Tung • K.-T . Tsai

Program of Landscape and Recreation, National Chung Hsing University, 250 Kuo Kuang Rd, Taichung 402, Taiwan

C.-P. Chen

Department of Occupational Safety and Health, China Medical University, No. 91 Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung 404, Taiwan

N. Kántor

Research Center for the Humanities and Social Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, 250 Kuo Kuang Rd, Taichung 402, Taiwan

R.-L. Hwang

Department of Architecture, National United University, 1 Lienda, Miaoli 360, Taiwan

A. Matzarakis

Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Werthmannstr. 10, 79085 Freiburg, Germany

T.-P. Lin (*)

Department of Architecture, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan

e-mail: lin678@gmail.com

Abstract Thermal comfort is a subjective psychological perception of people based also on physiological thermoregula- tion mechanisms when the human body is exposed to a combination of various environmental factors including air temperature, air humidity, wind speed, and radiation conditions. Due to the importance of gender in the issue of outdoor thermal comfort, this study compared and examined the thermal comfort-related differences between male and female subjects using previous data from Taiwanese questionnaire survey. Compared with males, the results indicated that females in Taiwan are less tolerant to hot conditions and intensely protect themselves from sun exposure. Our analytical results are inconsistent with the findings of previous physiological studies concerning thermal comfort indicating that females have superior thermal physiological tolerance than males. On the contrary, our findings can be interpreted on psychological level. Environmental behavioral learning theo- ry was adopted in this study to elucidate this observed contradiction between the autonomic thermal physiological and psychological–behavioral aspects. Women might desire for a light skin tone through social learning processes, such as observation and education, which is subsequently reflected in their psychological perceptions (fears of heat and sun exposure) and behavioral adjustments (carrying umbrellas or searching for shade). Hence, these unique psychological and behavioral phenomena cannot be directly explained by autonomic physiological thermoregulation mechanisms. The findings of this study serve as a reference for designing spaces that accommodates gender-specific thermal comfort characteristics. Recommendations include providing additional suitable sheltered areas in open areas, such as city squares and parks, to satisfy the thermal comfort needs of females.

Keywords Outdoor thermal conditions • Gender differences • Taiwan • Sun avoidance • Environmental behavioral learning theory

Introduction

Thermal comfort is defined as that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment (i.e., with the combined effect of air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and thermal radiation) and it is assessed by subjective evaluation (ASHRAE 2004). Many indoor standards of thermal comfort have been developed for air-conditioned and naturally ventilated spaces (ASHRAE 2004; ISO 2005; CEN Standard EN15251 2007). Since many leisure and recreational activities are conducted in outdoor environments, exposing participants directly to the weather, open-air thermal comfort is also an important research area (Spagnolo and de Dear

2003; Lin et al. 2011). Several studies conducted in various climate zones have indicated that the number of individuals who use outdoor spaces is highly related to the thermal conditions and occupants thermal comfort (e.g., Nikolopoulou et al. 2001; Nakano and Tanabe 2004; Thorsson et al. 2004, 2007; Eliasson et al. 2007; Lin 2009; Lin et al. 2012b, 2013). That is, the usage of outdoor spaces may increase if occupants exposed to thermal conditions they perceive more comfortable. The energetic basis of human thermal comfort is the energy balance of the body, that is, the heat produced inside the body should be equal to the net heat loss (Fanger 1972). Humans reach and maintain this balance through a variety of autonomic physiological reactions (The Commission for Thermal Physiology of the International Union of Physiological Sciences 2001). Constriction and dilatation of peripheral blood vessels, shivering, and sweating are among the most fundamental autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms (Hensel 1981; Bernard 2002; Havenith 2005). In cold conditions, the body tries to preserve the heat inside the body core by vasoconstriction. If these actions are not enough to maintain thermal balance, shivering starts to produce extra heat. In hot conditions, the body acts to promote heat loss. The blood vessels dilate to facilitate the peripheral blood flow transporting heat from the body core to the skin with this. Once reaching the skin surface, the heat is released to the environment. The dissipation of metabolic heat to the environment is predominantly achieved by perspiration, as evaporation of sweat means heat loss (Havenith 2005). To perceive the thermal status of the environment as comfortable, the metabolic energy in the body has to be balanced with the net heat loss to the environment while the skin temperature and the sweat rate are within a comfort range (Fanger 1972). Moreover, as thermal comfort was defined as a condition of mind at which occupants are satisfied with the thermal environment (ASHRAE 2004), it is important to keep in mind that it is a psychological phenomenon. Indeed, several studies have pointed out that thermal comfort cannot be fully explained in terms of the autonomic physiological regulation; it is also affected by various psychological as well as behavioral factors. Some studies about the influence of experiential factors on thermal comfort perception indicated that individuals living in hot and humid regions have better tolerance for high temperatures than those living in temperate regions, supporting the concept of both physiological and psychological thermal adaptation (Karyono 2000; Feriadi and Wong 2004; Lin and Matzarakis 2008). Expectations (McIntyre 1980; Hwang and Lin 2007), perceived control (Paciuk 1990; Brager et al. 2004), and cultural characteristics (Malama et al. 1998; Knez and Thorsson 2006) are other psychologically acting factors that markedly impact thermal comfort (Lin 2009).

Numerous studies have examined gender-related differences regarding indoor thermal comfort. Karjalainen (2012) indicated in a thorough literature review about the researches in this topic—mainly based on physiological measurements and questionnaire data-that in more than half of the conducted laboratory and field studies women expressed more dissatisfaction than men despite the similar thermal environments. However, most studies have found no significant gender differences regarding the so called neutral temperature. Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive and systematic gender comparisons regarding outdoor situations; only a few studies have conducted preliminary investigations on differences between male and female subjects concerning open-air thermal comfort (Kenawy and Elkadi 2012). However, the gender-related behavioral adaptation methods are commonly observed in outdoor environments of Taiwan, that is, conspicuous sun protection attitude of women. Females protect themselves from sunshine by remaining in areas shaded by trees or buildings, or by using umbrellas, hats, or other shielding objects when situated in direct sunshine (Lin 2009). These acts show that Taiwanese women have an attitude to avoid sun exposure with extraordinary caution. A study on thermal comfort and the usage of public squares found that female subjects usually stayed longer in shaded areas compared to males (Lin et al. 2012a). These results regarding thermal-adaptive behavior suggest significant gender differences in thermal perception, which could be related to gender-specific thermal physiology or other underlying influencing factors. To examine the topic, this study performed a gender analysis and comparison on various psychological and behavioral characteristics, using two databases on outdoor thermal comfort derived from previously established field measurements in Taiwan. Then, based on the results of previous thermal physiological measurements, a general discussion was conducted in order to examine whether the subjective psychological thermal perceptions and the adaptive behaviors of women and men were consistent with gender-specific physiological thermoregulatory characteristics. Finally, gender differences regarding thermal comfort and relevant potential causes were examined using various perspectives and theories.

Data and method

Database

This study adopted two thermal comfort survey databases conducted in Taiwan; both of them were based on micrometeorological measurements and questionnaire surveys. One was conducted in the frame of the Field

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Investigation of Outdoor Thermal Comfort (FIOT) project (Hwang and Lin 2007; Lin et al. 2011) and the other is derived from the Museum of Fine Art (MOFA) project (thermal comfort survey in Museum of Fine Art) (Lin 2009). The field surveys of the FIOT project were conducted in Taichung, Yunlin, and Chiayi in Taiwan. Concerning the physical measurements, the air temperature (Ta, in degree Celsius), relative humidity (RH, in percent), wind speed (v, in meter per second), global radiation (G, in Watts per square meter), and globe temperature (Tg, in degree Celsius) were measured compliant with the ISO 7726 (ISO 1998) standard. The mean radiant temperature (Tmrt, in degree Celsius) was calculated based on the same standard using the measured values of Ta, Tg, and v (ISO 1998), and then corrected according to the findings of a previously conducted Taiwanese study of parallel measurements of the globe thermometer and the six-direction short- and long-wave radiation flux measurement system (Lin and Matzarakis 2011). The questionnaire surveys of the FIOT project resulted in 1,644 datasets. The first part of the questionnaire collected demographic information such as age and gender, and data concerning metabolic rate (activity levels) and clothing insulation (checklist about the garment worn by the individuals). The second section asked subjects to rate their current evaluations related to thermal comfort using standardized scales. Thermal sensation was evaluated on the seven-point ASHRAE scale consisted of the following thermal sensation votes (TSV): −3, cold; −2, cool; −1, slightly cool; 0, neutral; 1, slightly warm; 2, warm; and 3, hot. Thermal preferences were assessed using the McIntyre preference scale (“right now I would prefer “cooler temperature”, “no change“ or “warmer temperature”), while overall thermal comfort (OTC) was rated on a seven-point scale ranging from −3 (very dissatisfied) to +3 (very satisfied). Subjects were also asked to rate their instantaneous perceptions of, and preferences for wind, sunshine and humidity. Wind/sunshine/humidity perceptions were assessed on a seven-point scale from −3 for “very weak (low)” to 3 for “very strong (high)” with 0=“neutral”, and preferences were evaluated on a 3-point scale with, “I would prefer wind/sunshine/humidity to be weaker (lower),” “I prefer no change in wind/sunshine/humidity,” and “I would prefer wind/sunshine/humidity to be stronger (higher)” (Lin et al. 2011). For MOFA project, the field surveys were conducted in a public square in front of the National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts, Taichung City. The microclimatic measurements and questionnaire surveys were similar to those in FIOT project. The interviews in this case were supplemented with some additional questions about the adapted behavior for thermal environment, e.g., moving to shaded area, adjusting clothing, and using umbrellas (Lin 2009).

Thermal comfort indices

Several indices integrating thermal environmental factors and the energy balance of the human body were applied to assess outdoor thermal comfort, e.g., predicted mean vote (PMV) (Fanger 1972), effective temperature (ET*, degree Celsius), standard effective temperature (SET*, degree Celsius) (Gagge et al. 1986), outdoor standard effective temperature (OUT_SET*, degree Celsius) (de Dear and Pickup 2000; Pickup and de Dear 2000; Spagnolo and de Dear 2003), and physiologically equivalent temperature (PET, degree Celsius) (Mayer and Höppe 1987; VDI 1998). The PMV, ET*, and SET* indices have a solid basis for indoor use, whereas the OUT_SET* and PET indices have been primarily designed for outdoor use (Spagnolo and de Dear 2003; Lin 2009). Because PET is recommend in VDI-Guideline 3787 (German Association of Engineers) (VDI 1998) and it has been used in several outdoor studies concerning thermal environments and thermal comfort (Andrade and Alcoforado 2007; Oliveira and Andrade 2007; Thorsson et al. 2007; Kántor and Unger 2010; Kántor et al. 2012a, b; Nastos and Matzarakis 2013), this study applied PET as the thermal index. PET is defined as the Ta at which in a typical indoor setting (Ta=Tmrt; vapor pressure=12 hPa; v=0.1 m/s) the heat budget of the human body would be in equilibrium with the same core and skin temperatures as those that would evolve under the complex open-air conditions. Because of the “indoor reference environment” in its definition, PET enables a person to compare the integral effects of complex thermal conditions outdoors with his or her own indoor experiences (Mayer and Höppe 1987; Höppe 1999). To calculate PET from the mea- sured meteorological variables (Ta, RH, and v) and the obtained Tmrt, this study adopted the RayMan model, which has been designed to predict radiation and thermal comfort conditions in urban areas (Gulyas et al. 2006; Matzarakis et al. 2007; Lin et al. 2010, 2013 Matzarakis et al. 2010; Hwang et al. 2011).

Results

Gender differences in neutral temperature

The neutral temperature (Tn) refer to the optimal temperature at which people perceive neither cool nor warm (Fanger 1972), and it is the most obvious indicator to evaluate the characteristic thermal comfort requirements of certain groups of occupants. The general approach to obtain neutral temperature is to calculate the mean TSV (MTSV) within each temperature interval (bin), and then fit a linear regression function between MTSV and the temperature (de Dear and Fountain 1994; Lin et al. 2011). The neutral temperature may be expressed in terms of any indices with a dimension of

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Celsius degrees; as mentioned before, in this study we applied the PET index. The width of temperature bins used for this analysis was 2 °C PET. Figure 1 plots the MTSV values of male and female subjects calculated for each PET bins. The optimally fitting linear equations are,

Female: MTSV = 0:122 PET−3:07 (R 2 ¼ 0:96) (1)

Male: MTSV = 0:121 PET–3:15 (R 2 ¼ 0:98) (2)

Substituting MTSV=0 into Eqs. (1) and (2) results in the neutral temperatures 25.2 and 26.1 °C PET for female and male subjects, respectively. A difference of 0.9 °C PET, existing between the neutral temperatures of women and men, reveals that the optimal temperature of females is slightly lower than males.

Gender differences in thermal acceptable range

Another approach to evaluate subjective thermal comfort characteristics is to define temperature (PET) ranges in which different groups of occupants feel satisfied in terms of thermal conditions, i.e., the thermal acceptable range. ASHRAE Standard 55 (ASHRAE 2004) specifies acceptable thermal environment as those conditions that a substantial majority of the occupants (minimum, 80 % of them) would perceive thermally acceptable; i.e., ≤20 % of occupants would find those conditions unacceptable. Based on the suggestion of de Dear and Fountain (1994), this study treated a vote “unacceptable” if it was outside the three central categories of the TSV scale. Figure 2 shows the respondents’ percentage of unacceptability in each 2 °C PET bin. The fitted second-degree polynomial curves were also superimposed into the chart (Fig. 2). The lower and upper boundaries of the acceptable PET ranges for men and women can be determined using the 80 % acceptability limits, namely where the fitted curves and the 20 % unacceptability line intersect. In line with the fact that Taiwan is located in hot–humid climate regions, people chose more often positive thermal sensation votes, and therefore the upper limit of the acceptability range could be determined with greater accuracy. The upper boundary was obtained at 28.8 °C PET for females and 33.2 °C PET for males, indicating that women have lower warm acceptability than men. That is, female subjects are psychologically intolerant against hot conditions compared to males.

Gender differences in thermal preference votes

As mentioned in the previous section, the thermal environment of the survey subjects was examined using PET, as an integral thermal index describing the combined effect of air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and mean radiant temperature. However, certain factors may exert stronger effects on people’s acceptance of an overall thermal environment. For instance, some people may express dissatisfaction because of increased air temperatures, and others who are less concerned about high temperatures may express dissatisfaction toward strong sunshine, high humidity or weaker wind speed (Stathopoulos et al. 2004; Oliveira and Andrade 2007; Lin 2009). To reveal the meteorological key parameters in terms of Taiwanese subjects’ thermal comfort, we examined the distribution patterns of occupants’ preferences for air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and sunshine according to their evalu- ations of OTC. Moreover, we compared in this term the male and female participants. The objective was to understand whether the OTC is affected by the individual meteorological factors in the same extent in the case of men and women, or there could be significant gender-related differences. As mentioned in the “Data and method” section, the OTC was evaluated on a seven-point scale ranging from −3 (very dissatisfied) to +3 (very satisfied). As the number of OTC votes in the extreme categories were quite low while the middle option (0) had very high frequencies, we decided to create three OTC groups for the subsequent analysis: dissatisfied (−3, −2, and −1), neutral (0), and satisfied (1, 2, and 3). The preferences regarding air temperature, air humidity, wind speed, and sunshine were rated on a three-point scale with “I would prefer temperature/wind/sunshine/humidity to be weaker (lower),” “I prefer no change in temperature/wind/ sunshine/humidity,” and “I would prefer wind/sunshine/humidity to be stronger (higher)”. As expected, when people were satisfied according to their OTC (i.e., in the state of thermal comfort) the frequencies of “want no changes” preference votes were very high. In the case of humidity preference, the 0 votes were predominant even in the other OTC categories. In the cases of the other three parameters (temperature, wind, and sun preference), however, there are strong and clear tendencies: as OTC votes changed from satisfied to dissatisfied, the proportion of people wish for changes in terms of the meteorological parameters gradually increased (Fig. 3). Corresponding to the hot climate of Taiwan, the subjects desired usually changes that would mitigate their thermal stress; i.e., cooler temperature (Fig. 3a), stronger wind (Fig. 3b), and weaker sunshine (Fig. 3c). Besides these obvious tendencies between the OTC groups and thermal preferences, Fig. 3 reveals an interesting difference between the two genders’ subjective evaluation. Namely, the females wanted changes in greater extent than the males, even if they were satisfied with their overall thermal comfort status. The biggest differences between the preference vote distributions of man and women can be seen in the case of sunshine preference, especially in the OTC groups “neutral” (39 % males and 51 % females wished for less sunshine) and

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“satisfied” (14 % males and 21 % females wished for less

sunshine; Fig. 3c). This indicates that women have enhanced desires for weaker solar radiation than men do even when they are satisfied with the thermal environment. To study the gender effect on the sunshine preferences concerning objective physical conditions, participants were assigned to groups according to the levels of global radiation (in watts per square meter). Again, the gender-related differences in the subjectively desired levels of sunshine were examined. The amount of solar exposure increased by 200 W/m 2

between groups and the proportions of participants preferring weaker sunshine were determined for each group based on the whole database (Fig. 4a). The results indicated that for both genders, the proportion of participants preferring weaker sunshine gradually increased with higher levels of global radiation. In groups with sunshine levels over 800 W/m 2 , approximately 90 % of the participants preferred weaker sunshine (87 % of males and 91 % of females). Additionally, more female than male participants wished for weaker sunshine regardless of the amount of sun exposure. The gender differences are especially

Fig. 2 The correlation between thermal unacceptability and PET in the cases of male and female participants

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great in the case of the lowest global radiation category (21 % of males and 36 % of females). Doing the same analysis for the hot seasons (from March to November) only, the gender differences become even bigger in the lowest sunshine-exposure group (Fig. 4b). While the proportion of males preferring weaker sunshine in the group “<200 W/m 2 ” was only 21 %, the corresponding percentage

for women was 48 %, which was more than twice of the proportion recorded for men. This suggests that approximately half of the female population prefer weaker or no sunshine even when in an environment with minimal global radiation, clearly indicating female’s rejection toward solar exposure.

Gender differences in outdoor thermal-adaptive behaviors

Thermal-adaptive behaviors are type of actions/reactions where people adapt to thermal environments to remain as close to thermal comfortable state as possible; i.e., with them, they improve the fit between the actual and the subjectively desired conditions (Nikolopoulou and Steemers 2003). In this section, outdoor thermal-adaptive behavior characteristics of male and female subjects are further explored. Each adaptive actions that male and female participants would take to im- prove their comfort level in hot conditions were examined and ranked in descending order based on the percentage as

Fig. 3 Percentage of male and female subjects preferring cooler temperature (a), stronger wind (b), and weaker sunshine (c) in three categories of overall thermal comfort state

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interviewees have chosen them (Table 1). This study found that in order to adapt to warm thermal environment, the majority of male participants chose moving to a shaded area (76.7 %), followed by drinking a beverage (50.4 %), adjusting clothing (34.4 %), wearing a hat (33.3 %), and finally, using an umbrella (14.8 %). The majority of female interviewees chose moving to a shaded area (65.1 %), followed by using an umbrella (39.6 %), drinking a beverage (37.9 %), fastening their hair (30.2 %), and, finally, adjusting their clothing (28.1 %). Moving to a shaded area was the top-rated thermal adaptation method for both genders, although the selection of less popular methods varied between genders. Males preferred drinking a beverage in order to relieve heat stress, whereas females preferred using an umbrella. These adaptive behav- ioral patterns further demonstrate women’s rejection of sun- shine, and indicate that the psychological sun preferences previously described are reflected in observable behavior.

Discussion

In the previous sections, the psychological aspects of thermal comfort (subjective evaluations) and the behavioral aspect of thermal adaptation were examined in the hot–humid climate of Taiwan. The results revealed gender differences regarding both aspects. The following sections seek to explore the underlying factors, including gender-specific thermal physio- logical characteristics at first, and then discussing the ob- served differences from the perspective of environmental be- havioral learning theory.

The physiological and psychological inconsistency in heat tolerance of women and men

To examine whether the gender-related thermal comfort dif- ferences found in this study from psychological point of view are in accordance with occupants’ autonomic thermoregula- tory states, physiological characteristics relating thermal ac- climation are also included in the discussion. When the thermoregulation is evaluated on the façade of heat strain, it describes the metabolic adjustments (decrease to minimal level) and other physiological responses to heat stress dedicated to dissipating excess heat from the body core (ISO 2004; Havenith 2005). The core temperature, heart rate, and sweat rate are among the physiological properties most fre- quently applied in the assessment of thermal strain (ISO 2004; American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 2006). More recent researches have attempted to explore additional skin physiological properties involved in the ex- change of body heat with the environment (Chen et al. 2011),

Fig. 4 Proportions of male and female participants desiring weaker sunshine when exposed to varying sunshine levels during the whole year (a) and during the hot seasons (b)

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including those demonstrating (1) the change of blood perfu- sion resulting from dilation or constriction of microvascula- ture in the skin (skin capillary blood flow, SCBF), (2) the level of hydration in the stratum corneum and viable epidermis which are the outermost layers of the skin (skin moisture), and (3) the invisible evaporation of water from the skin surface measured as the rate of water loss across the stratum corneum and viable epidermis (transepidermal water loss, TEWL). In these studies, the SCBF, skin moisture, and TEWL were realized as each representing a distinct stage in thermoregula- tion. An increase in their quantities corresponds to a stage of heat loss, i.e., releasing heat from the body to the environment (Chen et al. 2011). In Taiwan, Chen et al. (2011) investigated the sensational (TSV) and thermoregulatory adjustments (SCBF, skin moisture, and TEWL) of male and female college students experienced immediately after a

downward (from 28 to 24 and from 32 to 24 °C) or upward (from 20 to 24 °C) step change in the air temperature. They observed greater thermo- regulatory response, as manifested in higher SCBF, skin moisture, and TEWL, among the men than the women, pos- sibly attributed to a greater capacity in the metabolic heat generation of the males than that of females as implied in their body mass index (Chen et al. 2011). According to the findings of Chen et al. (2011), the bodies of male subjects react more intensively even around these near-neutral conditions, sug- gesting that the female participants’ heat tolerance is greater from thermal physiological point of view. Ichinose-Kuwahara et al. (2010) studied thermal conditions deviating from thermal neutrality; they assessed the gender- related differences in the sweat gland responses to the change in exercise intensity with respect to the subjects’ physical training status. They found greater sweating rate as well as higher sweat secretion per gland in the males than the level observed in their female counterparts when the mean body temperature was between approximately 36.5 and 37.3 °C. This was true both in the cases of trained and untrained persons. The difference between the genders was also ob- served in the control of sweating rate to an increase in exercise intensity; the females without prior physical training required a higher body temperature or work intensity to increase the amount of activated sweat glands than the other groups did (Ichinose-Kuwahara et al. 2010). Both studies as described here (Ichinose-Kuwahara et al. 2010; Chen et al. 2011) point- ed out a greater thermoregulatory tolerance among the female participants than that of their male counterparts (i.e., a delay or reduction in the autonomic thermoregulatory answers of the females compared to those of the males). On the contrary, the psychological and behavioral ques- tionnaire survey results from the “Results” section revealed that women had a lower tolerance to warm thermal conditions (i.e., less heat resistance) compared to that of men. In partic- ular, females demonstrated strong rejection toward sunshine. Because these findings are somewhat inconsistent with the discussions here based on a physiology perspective, an addi- tional investigation is implemented in the next section.

Examining the lower heat tolerance and rejection toward sunshine of Taiwanese females from a behavioral learning theory perspective

In “The physiological and psychological inconsistency in heat tolerance of women and men” section, this study explored an inconsistency between autonomic physiological and psychobehavioral aspects in the gender-related thermal com- fort. Here, we try to interpret the psychological (thermal evaluations) and physical (behaviors) reactions of Taiwanese females from an environmental behavioral perspective. Be- havior can be seen as a result of learning process. As we learn, the way that we perceive our environment changes, and there- fore the way that we interact, or behave changes too. Classical behaviorists, such as John Broadus Watson (1913, 1930) and Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1938, 1948) contended that behavior is the result of learning under condi- tioning through external factors. Therefore, in behaviorist observations, observable behavior is a response to a manipu- lated environment. When people receive positive feedback (positive reinforcement) for a certain behavior, it increases the frequency of displaying similar behaviors. For instance, to encourage children to sit quietly, adults may reward quiet behavior of children with candy. The application of punish- ment (e.g., physical punishment or reprimands) after disrup- tive behavior also facilitates children in learning the behavior of sitting quietly. Psychologists have found that positive rein- forcement is the most powerful way to promote the desirable behavior as it allows both parties (children and parents) to focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Nevertheless, classical behavioral learning theory fails to explain certain learning processes, especially for latent behaviors that do not emerge immediately. Social learning theory criticizes classical behaviorism and its instructive principle of operant conditioning for oversimplifying learning processes, as behavioral modifiers

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(like positive reinforcement and punishment) solely are not adequate in relevant discourses on the human behavioral learning model. Indeed, lots of our behaviors are learned from other humans acting as models for us to learn the new behav- iors. The founder of social learning theory, Albert Bandura (Bandura et al. 1961; Bandura 1977), postulates that human learning process is a continuous interaction between people and their social environment. Most human behaviors are learned or acquired. From birth, people incessantly and unconsciously learn behaviors from others. Learning of behaviors progressively develops with age and expands with social circles to establish peo- ple’s actions, thoughts, emotions, and perceptions continu- ously. This extended learning process enables people to become socialized and accepted by their family and society. The stimuli and responses involved during this extended learning process come from society; thus, it is called social learning. This form of learning is the primary means for a person to acquire social behaviors. For instance, gender differences in behavior are the most prominent results of social learning. Most parents purchase dolls or kitchen play sets for young girls and toy cars or action figures for young boys. The majority of parents and society assume a strong correlation between toy playing behavior and sexual iden- tity. Thus, adults do not ask whether young boys would also enjoy playing with kitchen sets and dolls. Instead, adults impose discipline on children’s behaviors through the se- lection of toys and games. Consequently, the preferences that children develop are the outcomes of parental choices. Gender-specific behaviors are the results of social learning rather than voluntary learning. Thermal comfort perceptions and the related behaviors might also be acquired through social learning from observa- tion and education. This social learning process may implicate gender-related differences in thermal comfort characteristics. The findings of this study revealed a contradiction between the thermal physiological and the psychological aspects of heat tolerance in Taiwanese males and females. Women dem- onstrated superior physiological heat endurance; however, they displayed weaker psychological tolerance for heat. Com- pared with males, females showed a strong rejection toward sunshine and preferred using umbrellas. These findings indi- cate significant sexual differences in thermal-adaptive behav- iors. Thermal-adaptive behaviors are acquired from social learning, and the gender-related differences are resulted from learning gender-specific behaviors. In other words, thermal- adaptive behaviors of females are learned outcomes in a specific social context, rather than methods for mere heat stress avoidance. The results of this study suggest also that the special behaviors of females may be associated more to the efforts avoiding sun exposure than to reach/maintain thermal neutral- ity. This can be confirmed by the following:

1. the neutral temperatures of the two genders were quite close to each other (Fig. 1)

2. the gender differences found in the distribution of preference votes were greater in the case of sun preference than in the cases of other parameters (and it was true in all OTC groups; Fig. 3)

3. considerably higher proportion of women desired weaker sunshine than that of males even in the cases when they were satisfied with the thermal environment or felt it as neutral (Fig. 3c) or when they were exposed to weak global radiation with almost no heat effect on the body (Fig. 4)

4. the two most popular thermal-adaptive behaviors of women were actually sun-protective behaviors (Table 1).

To explain the Taiwanese women sunshine avoidance through social learning theory, it is important to remember that beyond the thermal effect of sun beams (due to the infrared components), the ultraviolet (UV) parts of the solar radiation are responsible for the sun tan. Among Taiwanese female, maintaining a lighter skin tone may be a consequence of social learning that is reflected in thermal comfort-related sun protective behavior. Studies on the light skin tone phenomenon (Yang 2008; Ou-Yang 2009) have indicated that not only Taiwanese, but also Asian (including Indian) females prefer a fair skin tone in general. For genera- tions, light skin tones have been perceived as a façade concealing various external flaws in Asian culture. That is, this feminine attribute (white skin) is treated so precious that it can compensate other possible aesthetical shortcomings of women. A study on Japanese culture suggested that skin tone is strongly associated with social status (Hall 2003). Specifically, darker skin tones signify a lower class because privileged members of higher class were not required to perform outdoor physical labor, and thus did not become tanned from sun exposure. In classic Chinese literature, a light skin tone is suggested to accent females’ beauty and femininity. In the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber, the author Cao Xueqin used the phrase “white and clear as a pear blossom” to describe the beauty of the heroine Lin Daiyu. The descrip- tion praises the heroine’s light skin tone and physical vulner- ability to accentuate her femininity and her need for protec- tion. Such descriptions of female characteristics reinforce the expectations for female to be weak and require protection in the Asian patriarchal society. In Asian society, being house- bound signifies chastity in women. Female in a patriarchal society are required to remain in their homes and isolated from social contact to avoid “tainting” their “pure” souls. Therefore, the preference for lighter skin tones may imply patriarchal control over female in society. The emphasis on sunshine rejection by Taiwanese women (Figs. 3c and 4) highlights their preference for lighter skin tones, which implicates social imitation. According to Bandura’s social learning theory (Bandura 1977), imitation

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is the simplest form of learning. The reason that female imitates the desire for light skin tones warrants explorations. According to sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1984), members of the upper class have established the class system through taste. In other words, styles, clothing, and cuisine were shaped by the upper-class elite, and members of the lower classes strived to learn and emulate the upper class in an attempt to improve their social status and culture. The social activities of the elite, especially for their female members, were generally held indoors. Hence, upper-class women exhibited fair skin tones. Conceivably, the current desire for light skin tones represents an integral effort to attain the taste of the upper class, femi- ninity and respectable behavior. The results of this study identified that Taiwanese females’ thermal-adaptive behaviors aim to maintain their skin tone pale not only to directly reduce their body temperature. A main contributor to the development of these behaviors is the social learning mechanism of gender roles. Finally, it is worth to add a note to the Taiwanese women’s sun-protective behavior from the point of view of additional skin-physiological advantages. While “The physiological and psychological inconsistency in heat tolerance of women and men” section focused on the autonomic human thermal regu- lation, this paragraph discusses the physiological effect of solar UV radiation. All over the world, it is commonly ob- servable phenomena that females pay more attention to protect their skin than male subjects. As mentioned before, UV radi- ation may cause suntan, but it can cause also solar erythema (as part of sunburn) as acute effect. Both of these conse- quences may be interpreted in Taiwanese women as coloration of the preferred white skin tone. Additionally, as a chronic effect, photo-aging of the skin is also attributable to the UV radiation, meaning sooner aging of the skin (decreasing water content, lower flexibility, became wrinkled) than the real biological aging. Moreover, excessive UV radiation is (one of the) the leading factor(s) in skin tumors and various dam- ages of the eyes (e.g., photoconjunctivitis and cataract; Lucas et al. 2006). Taiwan is located on the Tropic of Cancer, and therefore it receives stronger solar irradiation than the coun- tries further from the equator. People who expose themselves to sunrays in such a geographical context are more likely the objects of some of the above mentioned harmful effects. Therefore, the extraordinary sun-protective behavior of Taiwanese women aims to prevent their preferred white skin tone has an additional beneficial side effect: it helps to protect themselves from adverse health effects of UV radiation.

Gender-sensitive space planning for thermal comfort

Space design is a gendered technology because designers inevitably tailor their designs to the presumed gender of future users. Numerous studies have examined space planning from a gender perspective, focusing on parking lot safety designs, the number and location of female’s restrooms, requirements regarding kitchens and laundry-drying areas, and nursing areas in public spaces (Massey 1994). Few studies on thermal comfort have considered integrating gender and space plan- ning. For example, the American Society of Heating, Refrig- erating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) con- structed psychrometric charts incorporating variables includ- ing temperature and humidity to define recommended ranges for summer and winter thermal comfort. The population group used to develop these standards consisted of middle-aged males wearing specific amounts of clothing and engaging in a specific level of activities; consequently, these standards were subjected to gender bias. Several subsequent studies have examined gender differences regarding thermal comfort in relation to space; for instance, Karjalainen (2007) explored thermal perceptions and preferences in Finnish males and females and found notable gender-related differences. He indicated that although women have greater requirements concerning thermal environments, air-conditioning tempera- ture controllers are mostly operated by men. The results of this study offer several applications in open- air environments. First, to improve female’s comfort in outdoor spaces, open areas, including city squares and parks, should incorporate additional adequate shelters, such as trees and pergolas. Appropriate shade should also be provided in over- passes and connecting corridors. Second, shelters or shields should be constructed using opaque or anti-UV materials in- stead of transparent glass or acrylic materials that render green- house effects. Furthermore, because the majority of females in Taiwan have minimal sunshine tolerance, shelters and objects providing shade should be installed based on the sun path in the region to provide effective protection from sun exposure. Serving the needs of women is highly important as usually they are the ones who take care of children on squares and playgrounds. As well as, because of the elderly people are those who have most spare time, they have greatest opportu- nity to use outdoor spaces. Both the youngest and oldest generations have vulnerable thermoregulation system, as well as women have lower sunshine tolerance. Hot, sunny days may hold back all of these demographic groups to attend outdoor public spaces, resulting these places less successful in terms of use. Therefore, it is really important to equip as much outdoor urban spaces with shelters as possible, helping to prevent the health of heat-sensible age groups and also to enhance the thermal (and overall) satisfaction of the sun- rejecting females.

Conclusions

This study examined the differences in thermal comfort char- acteristics, preferences, and adaptation methods from a gender perspective in the hot–humid climate of Taiwan. The primary findings related to the psychological and behavioral aspects of thermal comfort issues in genders are summarized below.

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1. Females felt themselves comfortable in somewhat lower PET than males, and were less tolerant to hot conditions. Linear regression analysis indicated that the neutral tem- perature for women (25.2 °C) was lower than that for men (26.1 °C). In addition, the maximum acceptable PET temperature was lower for female (28.8 °C) than for male subjects (33.2 °C). As human thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind, i.e., a mental state, the obtained differ- ences suggest that Taiwanese women are less tolerant to hot conditions in psychological aspect.

2. When people rated their OTC state poor (dissatisfied), they usually wished for cooler temperature, weaker sun- shine, and stronger wind. With more satisfied OTC values, the proportion of subjects desired for these chang- es gradually decreased. In the cases of all OTC categories, women wished for any changes of the meteorological parameters in a greater extent than males, indicating fe- males’ lower tolerance against the thermal environment.

3. Sunshine tolerance was considerably lower among females than males. Even in the cases when the participants reported to be neutral or satisfied (OTC≥0), proportion of subjects desired for weaker sunshine was higher in female participants than in the case of men. Of the women, 51 and 21 % wished for less sun in neutral and satisfied OTC state, while these ratios were considerably lower in males (39 and 14 %). This indicates that women have greater desires for weaker solar radiation compared to men. Fur- thermore, this study found that even under slight global radiation (<200 W/m 2 ), 36 % of the female participants still expressed a desire for weaker sunshine, whereas only 21 % of those were found among males. In the case of hot seasons, this percentage in women exceeded 48 %, which clearly reflects their attitude of rejection toward sunshine.

4. Male and female subjects tend to use different thermal-adaptive behaviors. Both genders favored moving to a shaded area as the primary adaptation method; however, the additional methods differed in popularity. Men pre- ferred drinking a beverage to relieve the heat stress and women preferred using an umbrella. This finding high- lights that the attitude of sunshine rejection in females extends from psychological to behavioral dimensions.

The results regarding female’s lower tolerance against out- door thermal conditions could not be explained using merely the classic thermal comfort theory, and seemed to be inconsistent with the results of previous thermal physiological studies. Therefore, our findings were discussed thoughtfully from a social learning perspective. Taiwanese female’s desire for low temperatures, as well as their sensitivity and obvious attitude of rejection toward sunshine asserts that they have developed a desire for healthy skin with light tones from social learning through observation, learning, and imitation. Fe- male’s intentions for remaining pale have become more powerful than their physiological thermal characteristics. Taiwan- ese women reject sunshine psychologically; consequently, they have acquired behaviors such as searching for shade and using umbrellas. Additionally, females wear special accessories to prevent their skin during the whole years; e.g., when are they riding a scooter (which is very popular in Taiwan), they wear masks that cover not only their faces against the air pollution but cover also their whole necks. Women wear light gloves and long sleeves (not long sleeved shirts, but extra sleeves on their arms) in the cases if their arms would be naked. Moreover, in contrast to Western women, sunbathing (lying on the beach) is not popular among Taiwanese females, precisely because they want to keep their skin tone as light as possible. It should be emphasize that our findings about the females’ lower heat tolerance and pronounced sun exposure avoidance in order to maintain their light skin tone relate to Taiwan, and cannot be generalized all over the world. However, as seeking to maintain the pale skin tone is a very important culture- related characteristic, we could expect similar outcomes among Chinese and Japanese females. Therefore, the findings of this study could provide various references for designing gender-sensitive outdoor environments in these cultural con- texts, including the provision of plants and shelters and rele- vant materials, to provide thermal comfort and sunshine pro- tection accordingly.

Acknowledgement The authors would express a special thank for the sponsorship of the Headquarters of University Advancement at the National Cheng Kung University and Research Center for the Humanities and Social Sciences at the National Chung Hsing University.

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