NTC 406 Week 5 Learning Team Assignment Final Paper Cross-Layer or Hybrid Analysis and...

Running head: FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 1

Final Paper: Cross-Layer or Hybrid Analysis and Recommendations

FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 2

Final Paper: Cross-Layer or Hybrid Analysis and Recommendations

According to "Cat-5" (2014), "Cat-5, short for Category 5, network cabling that consists

of four twisted pairs of copper wire terminated by RJ45 connectors. Cat-5 cabling supports

frequencies up to 100 MHz and speeds up to 1000 Mbps. It can be used for ATM, token ring,

1000Base-T, 100Base-T, and 10Base-T networking. Computers hooked up to LAN s are

connected using Cat-5 cables, so if you're on a LAN, most likely the cable running out of the

back of your PC is Category 5. Cat-5 is based on the EIA/TIA 568 Commercial Building

Telecommunications Wiring Standard developed by the Electronics Industries Association as

requested by the Computer Communications Industry Association in 1985.”

In contrast to that are the electrical power lines. According to “Electrical Power lines”

(2014), “Power line networking uses power line communications (PLC) to connect computers

using existing power outlets in the home, essentially transforming every electrical outlet in the

building into a network connection. Power line networking is one of the cheapest forms of home

networking and has a low start-up cost and minimal IT workload.”

As we can see the startup cost and the workload and management for IT is leaned

towards the PLC which is easy to implement and maintain. However the standard used in

corporations are the Cat-5 network cabling. Even with the introduction of fiber optics the use of

Cat-5 and 6 cabling is crucial to the connectivity of businesses across this nation. Broadband

over power line uses high powered electrical lines.

Broadband over power line (BPL) is a service that allows communications data to be

transmitted over high powered electrical lines. BPL is often called Internet over power line

(IPL), power line communication (PLC), and sometimes power telecommunication (PLT). This


service utilizes a few VHF frequencies, medium wave, short wave, and low-band. BPL can

transmit data at speeds comparable to digital subscriber lines (DSL).

BPL, initially, was developed to secure Internet access to remote locations. This service

would allow Internet service providers (ISP) a cost effective method for reaching subscribers in

areas lacking in transmission mediums. By transmitting over already available high powered

electrical lines the ISP’s would be able to offer service to many more people without the burden

of installing other telecommunications mediums. The customer would need only a low cost

modem designed for BPL.

The technology has been around for while, but according to Margaret Rouse of

TechTarget.com, “has not been implemented in the United States on a broad scale because of

technical difficulties involving interference (Rouse, 2010).” The technical difficulties the author

is referencing are with short wave radio frequencies, VHF TV Channel interference, and even

Ham radio operators say that this type of technology interferes with their radio transmissions

which would be a big problem in case of emergencies. For the interference difficulties some

companies have found a method of reducing and in some cases eliminating that interference

issue. For every issue there is a solution.

As the electricity is carried into a home with the transmission signal, many tasks can still

be managed effectively. BPL is capable of handling data routing using Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol (DHCP), supporting security encryption for each transmission and

managing subscriber information. In addition, BPL modems use special silicon chipsets designed

to manage the workload by extracting the data from the electrical current coming in and to

combat against interference and noise, special modulation techniques and adaptive algorithms

are utilized.


The main goal of transmission over power lines is to utilize an existing infrastructure to

allow more users’ access to the Internet. In developed areas of the world power lines travel from

a power plant on high voltage lines to a secondary station where the power is reduced and then

sent to homes and businesses which make up the power grid. When discussing transmission over

power lines, it is the secondary station to homes that is the goal to transmit data.

One of the main concerns in transmitting over power lines is the noise level which can

fluctuate on these power lines. When the noise becomes to great it is tough to distinguish

between the noise and the data that is being sent over this type of medium. With the recent

developments in technology, information and communication technologies (ICTs) are becoming

more widespread and one of the basic building blocks of every humans life. Power line

communication (PLC) was never taken into account seriously because of its harsh

communication medium. However, with the development of more robust data transmission

schemes, communication over the power lines is becoming a strong alternative technology

because of the existence of the infrastructure and the ubiquity of the network.

In order to establish reliable communication systems operating on power line networks

(PLNs), characteristics of power line channels have to be investigated very carefully.

Unpredictable characteristics of PLNs seriously affect the performance of communication

systems. Similar to the other communication channels, PLC environment is affected by noise,

attenuation, and multipath type of channel distortions. The level of noise in PLNs is much higher

than any other type of communication networks. Furthermore, the frequency dependent

attenuation characteristics of power lines and multipath stemming from impedance miss-matches

are the other distortion factors which have to be investigated in order to establish a reliable PLC

system (Celebi, 2010). A few of the challenges that affect PLC are:


Malfunctions of electrical equipment

Causes interference to important radio services

All users share the same physical address; allows data sniffing

There are several issues that can occur with the use of electrical power lines to transmit data,

voice, or video. The general problems are with the signal because of attenuation, delay distortion,

and noise, which cause signal degradation, and distortion. With attenuation the signal loses

energy over longer distances and different frequencies lose energy at different amounts, which

make the signal distorted. The delay distortion problem is due to the different frequencies

propagating at varying speeds in the wire. As a result signals are distorted over a long distance.

In addition, noise issues occur from thermal noise in the wire, spikes in power, and

interference caused by other wires. All of these cause distortion of the information but only part

of the issues involved with transmitting over electrical power lines. The other issues involved in

using electrical power lines to transmit data, voice, or video is the congestion that you can

expect. For example electromagnetic interference can cause network congestion due to its

interference with the detection of data packets.

In fact, the Siemon Company, who are industry leaders specializing in the manufacture

and innovation of high quality, high-performance network cabling and data center infrastructure

solutions, states in a white paper on the company’s website that “In data communication,

excessive electromagnetic interference (EMI) hinders the ability of remote receivers to

successfully detect data packets. The end result is increased errors, network traffic due to packet

retransmissions, and network congestion (Siemon Company, 2014).”


So this is a major issue that can cause network congestion. Another issue due to the use

of electrical power lines is the aggressive retransmission protocols that may be used to offset

packet loss can cause massive delays and congestion. These are just a few of the issues that can

occur with the use of electrical power lines to transmit data, voice, or video communications.

QoS is critical for network congestion management since it provides prioritization of the

network and enables the management of applications performance on the network. It is needed to

support end-to-end performance needs of applications consisting of concepts, policies, and

mechanisms. The recommended metrics for voice would include:

Voice and Video Streaming

Latency – is the time the packet takes to get from the source to its

destination is should be 150 milliseconds or less.

Jitter – the difference in the time of packets arriving to the destination that

can be caused by network congestions. Should not vary more than 30

milliseconds between packets

Packet Loss – Packets loss while traversing the network due to congestion

should not be greater than 1% of the total packets transmitted.

Priority bandwidth should be guaranteed 17- 106 kb/s for each voice call

Minimum priority bandwidth should be 20% of the video stream size.


Data

Since various applications have unique traffic characteristics, data must be

classified in priority models with applications with similar characteristics grouped

together.

Mission critical priority

Applications that have high usage with vary levels of bandwidth demands

Transactional priority

Interactive traffic; preferred data services

Best effort priority

Internet, email

Layer 1 of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. The physical layer, the lowest

layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw

bit stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional

interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers; handling

processes of such common functions as signal processing, timing, and encoding. When dealing

with power line communication (PLC) there are a number of circumstances that will disrupt a

signal. Frequency, location, time, and different types of devices attached to it.

Frequencies between 10 kHz and 200 kHz are more prone to interference. PLC

generally will operate at between 24 kHz to 500 kHz. The higher frequencies will interfere with

radio signals as power lines are solid copper wiring, this disruption will cause problems for

people who use short wave radios.


The location at where PLC is used can cause some problems as well. Older wiring can

disrupt signals, so in areas that have older building this can be an issue. Surges in power through

the power lines can also cause interference; areas that are susceptible to power surges may be an

issue. Location and time are connected because some geographic areas will be prone to

disruption at certain times. When power is used more by homes and businesses it can create a

power surge creating disruptions in transmissions. Different types of devices will run at different

frequencies. These frequencies can disrupt communications over power lines.

Layer 2 of the OSI reference model is the data link layer. The data link layer provides

error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing

layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. The data link layer is

sub-divided into two sub-layers; media access control (MAC) and logical link layer (LLC). The

LLC pertains to error and flow controls. The MAC provides a media conflict approach.

The MAC sub-layer deals with collision detection. This is not a suitable protocol

because the noise in the power lines will be interpreted as collisions. If a token ring

configuration was utilized it would provide a much more stable platform for PLC.

The LLC, with the error and flow control, has two categories of error control; ARQ and

FEC. Separate these two controls don’t provide the PLC with its intended throughput. But using

a hybrid configuration with both error controls working together it sustains a substantial platform

and provides the PLC with its intended throughput.

Layer 3 of the OSI reference model is the Network layer which controls the operation of

the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on network conditions,

priority of service, and other factors. It also implements and manages the various quality-of-


service (QoS) metrics. The network layer exchanges information with the upper and lower layers

by accepting service requests the transport layer and sending requests to the data link layer.

Broadband over Power Line (BPL) is capable of providing Internet and other services

such as VoIP and video using network layer equipment such as Injectors. Injectors are

interfacing components on the power line that connect between the Internet backbone and the

medium voltage power lines and are capable of “injecting” high frequency signals into the power

lines. Extractors are devices located on each transformer that already provide low voltage

electricity to homes in that area and are also capable of “extracting” the signal from the injector

device and provide interfacing between end-users and the power lines. Since signals propagate

on the power lines from about 1000 to 3000 feet, repeaters are installed over the lines to ensure

the signal are regenerated and amplified to avoid attenuation at the destination host.

Layer 4 of the OSI reference model is the Transport layer. The transport layer is what

enables end-to-end communication over any given network and TCP would most likely be

implemented within the end communication nodes, such as the residential home computer,

providing reliability, congestion control; flow control, and guaranteed packet delivery.

Connectionless UDP services are used for real time voice, audio and video applications. Using

this information on the OSI layers 1-4 gives a company several ways to optimize the network’s

performance with transporting multimedia data.

Optimize performance for multimedia in BPL from the use of Orthogonal Frequency

Division Multiplexing (OFDM). The definition of OFDM is to breakdown a high-speed serial

data stream into numerous parallel low-speed streams carried simultaneously over multiple

orthogonal sub channels (Al Mawali, 2011). OFDM is a method of digital modulation a signal is


split into several narrowband channels at different frequencies minimizing interference between

channels. It is a multi-carrier technique used in high-speed wireless applications. Interference

and attenuation causes less damage in OFDM than in single carrier systems. The sub-carriers in

OFDM can overlap each other requiring less bandwidth and improved performance. The

orthogonal property in the sub-carriers operating at different frequencies avoids interference to

each other.

The method for producing an OFDM is mapping the parallel streams into PSK or QAM

symbols then modulating sub-carriers using Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) then producing

an OFDM signal. A Cyclic Prefix (CP) of the same OFDM symbol is used as time guards to

protect the signal from interference of inter symbol interference (ISI) and inter carrier

interference (ICI). The CP is removed by the receiver before demodulation using FFT.

The modulated OFDM is an inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) of the QAM

symbols before OFDM modulator and is demodulated using discrete Fourier transform to

demodulate at the receiver end. These are implemented using the fast Fourier transform

(FFT/IFFT) algorithm (Al Mawali, 2011).

Adjusting network settings to optimal values has been shown to effectively address

network bottlenecks and improve overall network performance pertaining to the transport of

multimedia data. Just as adding additional hard drives can improve disk performance, adding

additional network cards can improve network performance. Replacing hubs with switches

would also improve the transportation of the multimedia data. Switches contain logic to directly

route traffic between the source and destination whereas hubs use a broadcast model to route

traffic. Therefore switches are more efficient and offer improved performance.


With the above suggestions implemented the network’s performance will be greatly improved

and efficient to transport multimedia data.

Layer 5 of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model is the session layer. This layer

of the OSI model deals with synchronization or merger of data from the higher layers, it also

establishes and terminates connections between applications. Layer 5 ensures audio and video

synchronization when viewing this type of multimedia.

Layer 6 of the OSI model is the presentation layer; it is sometimes referred to as the

syntax layer. The presentation layer handles encryption across a network and the formatting of

data to ensure it can be read by the presentation layer.

Layer 7 of the OSI model is the application layer. This layer handles quality of service

(QOS), end-user processes, user authentication, and application services for e-mail, file transfers,

and any other network software services (Webopedia, 2014).

Telephony Protocol is the technologies that use the Internet Protocol's packet-switched

connections to exchange voice, fax, and other forms of information that have traditionally been

carried over the dedicated circuit-switched connections of the public switched telephone network

(PSTN) (Rouse, 2010). With protocol the calls travel as packets of data on shared lines. The

challenge in telephony is deliver the voice, fax, or even video packets in a reliable and

dependable manner to the user. Many of the service providers use a version of IP Telephony

these companies include AT&T, Verizon, and the cable company Time Warner. Currently

telephony is relatively unregulated unlike traditional phone services. VoIP is one of the tools

used in an effort to standardize IP Telephony. IP Telephony standards and protocols have the

capability to signal and are able to initiate multimedia communication. Telephony through IP is


an important part of the convergence of computers, telephones, and television into a single

integrated information environment (Rouse, 2010).

Now Videoconferencing protocols are similar to Telephony but while sharing similarities

the two protocols are different. With Video conferencing protocols data or information can be

run across two different networks a Packet Switched or Circuit Switched network. These

protocols are necessary to define common means for video encapsulation and for session

management. Encapsulation standards define how video and audio are captured, converted to

digital format and transmitted between endpoints (Trost, 2011). Both the Circuited and Packet

Switch Networks have the following characteristics:

Circuit Switched networks have-

Bandwidth is guaranteed through the network

Bandwidth is not shared once connection is established

Just like a phone call – you bring up a circuit through the network on demand

Information is sent as a single bit stream

Packet Switched networks have-

Bandwidth is NOT guaranteed

Bandwidth IS shared

Circuits are built as needed and are not available on demand

Information is sent after being broken down into packets


There are several types of network configuration for these protocols for example H.320,

H.323, and ITU H.264 for video. Other configurations of these protocols also include

G.711/G.722/G.729 for voice and H.239/T.120 for data such as screen sharing or Web

conferencing. These configurations and protocols are based on the idea of slicing individual

frames into layers, with each layer holding part of a single frame's image. The

Videoconferencing is an emerging tool for communication that saves time and money by

allowing communication between multiple locations and parties without traveling.

In the end both Telephony and Videoconferencing protocols have their place and are necessary

tools for communicating by voice or video.

Layer 7 represents the application layer and is the top layer for both the OSI model and

the TCP/IP model. The application layer is responsible for the interfacing between an application

the end-user implements on their communication device and the underlying network over which

the messages are transmitted. There are various protocols that are used to exchange the data

between the programs running on the source and the destination hosts. The applications that

incorporate the most functionality of the application layer happen to be the web browser and

email clients.

The source and destination devices use the application layer protocols to establish and

implement a session to communicate. The protocols on the source and destination hosts must

match. Next, the establishment of consistent rules for exchanging data between end-node

applications and services takes place. There are protocols that specify how the data inside each

message is structured and the type of message it is such as a request for services, ACK, data

message, status message, or error message.


The speed of a power line connection is said to reach 500 Mbps versus an Ethernet speed

which can vary depending on your connection speed from your ISP. Ethernet speeds can reach

speeds of up to 1 Gbps which is twice the speed of a power line transmission. For this reason the

performance of e-mail services, Website access, and Web services would be a little slower over a

power line transmission. However, if the Ethernet speed is equal to the speed of the power line

transmission, than the performance would be similar. The biggest difference between the two

would then be left to any interference that the power line connection may experience. Power line

transmissions can be less than ideal in some situations. Interference can cause unwanted speed

issues which are not as prevalent in Ethernet transmissions.

A couple of widely known protocols in use every day consist of the Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol (SMTP) and the Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP). SMTP runs over TCP and is

used in email and is responsible for the exchange of electronic mail data. This particular protocol

works with the mail reader software and mail daemons to transport data to its destination host. It

establishes a session between two mail daemons (or mail reader processes) and enables multiple

messages to go through from the server to the client.

HTTP is the protocol that enables web browsers to effectively communicate with the web

servers. This particular protocol sets the standard for a common language that every device on

the network must adapt in order to communicate with other hosts. There are several kinds of web

browsers such as Safari, Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome, and more. However each of

these web browser applications uses HTTP protocol to request and send information to and from

the network.

Generally the implementation of BPL will not affect the application layer structure and

processes of how the end devices will communicate. As long as the broadband connection is


physically established between the service provider and the end-user, the application layer will

continue to perform the processes associated with the tasks generated by the end user. There are

no recommendations for changes with networking over BPL.

Optimization considerations following Spain’s use of broadband over power line for data

sensors and communications. Large scale BPL networks are established using Medium Voltage

(MV) Transformer Stations (TS). A project established with smart grid applications for Smart

Broadband Power Line Topology Protocol (SBPL-ToP) to use BPL and the MV network as a

Field Area Network (FAN). This would establish the MV network as a mesh network similarly

used in wired and wireless technologies. The multiple nodes used as paths for transmission of

data to increase performance.

In Low Voltage (LV) networks multiple devices connected in the power line offer

multiple paths and can produce wireless connections at the access points. Connections made

within the entire network extend the range of wireless capabilities.

IP telephony (Internet Protocol telephony) is a general term for the technologies that use

the Internet Protocol's packet-switched connections to exchange voice, fax, and other forms of

information that have traditionally been carried over the dedicated circuit-switched connections

of the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Using the Internet, calls travel as packets of

data on shared lines, avoiding the tolls of the PSTN. The challenge in IP telephony is to deliver

the voice, fax, or video packets in a dependable flow to the user. Much of IP telephony focuses

on that challenge ("Ip Telephony (internet Protocol Telephony)", 2014).

IP telephony service providers include or soon will include local telephone companies,

long distance providers such as AT&T, cable TV companies, Internet service providers (ISPs),


and fixed service wireless operators. IP telephony services also affect vendors of traditional

handheld devices.

VoIP is an organized effort to standardize IP telephony. IP telephony is an important part

of the convergence of computers, telephones, and television into a single integrated information

environment ("Ip Telephony (internet Protocol Telephony)", 2014).

In order for it to be a success, video conferencing has to be built around standards so that

systems from different manufacturers can communicate with each other. There are a huge range

of standards within video conferencing and some of these we need to know about. H.320 is the

‘umbrella’ standard that dictates how video conference traffic runs over Circuit Switched

Networks which include ISDN networks. An umbrella standard is basically a group of standards

that when working together achieve the end goal. In this case, the H.320 standard is a group of

standards that govern all the parts of our video conference, for example how we compress our

video signal or how we display our video picture (Niccolini, 2005).

H.320 has a number of standards which are ‘required’ in order for a system to be

‘standards compliant’ and a number of standards that are ‘optional’. Since most of the ‘optional’

standards are later developments and improvements to the original ‘required’ standards they are

not really optional if you want to produce a market leading product. However it is essential that

the ‘required’ standards are also present so that new equipment can still communicate with old

equipment.

Even though it would seem that telephony and video conferencing are different the goal

of any administrator should be towards synergy of the two. Providing the user with a global

architecture derived from IP Telephony standards (H.323, SIP, ENUM, TRIP, etc.), enabling


video conferencing systems to be used on top of it seamlessly. Perfect videoconferencing

sessions are achieved when the technology is no longer noticeable (neither before nor during the

session); improvements in the architecture have to be as simple as making a PSTN phone call

(Niccolini, 2005).

When designing a hybrid network, such as a wired/wireless network, considerations must

be taken to achieve QoS and performance. The current issue with wireless networks and the use

of mobile computing is multimedia applications. The increase of audio and video applications

over wireless and mobile devices requires a new set of protocols in order to achieve QoS

techniques and to achieve the performance needed to run these types of applications as intended.

In a wired network loss is typically caused by excessive congestion, but in a wireless network

loss can be caused by corruption during transmission or from interference.

Main problems associated to deployment of cross-layer signaling over the network,

include security issues, problems with non-conformant routers, and processing efficiency.

Security considerations require the design of proper protective mechanism avoiding protocol

attacks attempted by non-friendly network nodes by providing incorrect cross-layer information

in order to trigger certain behavior. The second problem addresses misbehavior of network

routers. It is pointed out that, in 70% of the cases, IP packets with unknown options are dropped

in the network or by the receiver protocol stack. Finally, the problem with processing efficiency

is related to the additional costs of the routers’ hardware associated with cross-layer information

processing. While it is not an issue for the low-speed links, it becomes relevant for high speeds

where most of the routers perform simple decrement of the TTL field in order to maintain high

packet processing speed (Kliazovich, Granelli, n.d.).


Cloud computing on the hybrid network would hold a lot of good benefits and give

strong assistance in an ever changing marketplace. Margaret Rouse of TechTarget.com

describes cloud computing as a “general term for anything that involves delivering hosted

services over the Internet (Rouse, 2010).” The author goes on to say that the services are broadly

divided into three main sections and they are: Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), Platform-as-a-

Service (PaaS) and Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) (Rouse, Cloud Computing, 2010).

The name itself came from the cloud symbol in most flow charts and diagrams that

represent the Internet. Cloud has three specific characteristics that separate it from traditional

hosting services. First it is sold on-demand, typically by the minute or hour; second, it is elastic,

which means a user can have as much or as little as they need; third and finally, the service is

fully managed by a provider all that is need by the user is a computer and Internet access.

In a hybrid network cloud computing would be tailor made marriage of technology. Most

software development companies like IBM, Microsoft, and Cisco have developed a product for

all types of networks public, private, and hybrid. The hybrid network that is setup is combination

of an Ethernet based wireless and a wired network. This combination allows for security and

speed of wired with the flexibility and mobility of wireless.

A private cloud within the data center benefits are achieved from increased agility.

Business still maintains control of compliance and security measures. Better scale and

performance, reduced complexity, increased efficiencies, lower operating capital, and

environmental costs. Cost efficient methods to use, maintain, and upgrade. The cloud is available

at less expensive rates than purchasing individual licensing. Instead pay as you go for the

required service. Employees can access applications and services from an internet connection

anywhere in the world. Share projects between departments throughout the organization.


The service scaled as the business grows. The cloud provides almost unlimited storage. The

data stored in the cloud and the service providers are responsible for backup and recovery.

Automatic software integration services through the service provider. Services and applications

selected for the particular organization. Quick deployment once applications and services

decided. Applications are available in the cloud through an account and customized to an

organization. IT staff configures changes without modifying the hardware and software

infrastructure. Streamline processes in less time with less people. Improved flexibility changes in

business direction without a financial or staffing burden.

The cloud computing offers business flexibility and choice that will help the IT

department balance capital and operational expenses, make optimal use of in-house resources,

and improve responsiveness to ever changing business needs and requirements. It can be used for

the following:

Deliver business processes as complete applications through SaaS, like customer

relationship or human resource applications.

Assist in managing unpredictable peaks in demand through cloud bursting, for

example consumer facing web services that respond to seasonal peaks and

valleys.

Will make service available quickly for a specific period of time or to capitalize

on new business.

Using these services will help with doing business and competing in today’s increasingly

mobile and connected world and provides more opportunity to increase the company’s position

in the marketplace.


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NTC 406 Week 5 Learning Team Assignment Final Paper Cross-Layer or Hybrid Analysis and...

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