Running head: FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 1
Final Paper: Cross-Layer or Hybrid Analysis and Recommendations
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 2
Final Paper: Cross-Layer or Hybrid Analysis and Recommendations
According to "Cat-5" (2014), "Cat-5, short for Category 5, network cabling that consists
of four twisted pairs of copper wire terminated by RJ45 connectors. Cat-5 cabling supports
frequencies up to 100 MHz and speeds up to 1000 Mbps. It can be used for ATM, token ring,
1000Base-T, 100Base-T, and 10Base-T networking. Computers hooked up to LAN s are
connected using Cat-5 cables, so if you're on a LAN, most likely the cable running out of the
back of your PC is Category 5. Cat-5 is based on the EIA/TIA 568 Commercial Building
Telecommunications Wiring Standard developed by the Electronics Industries Association as
requested by the Computer Communications Industry Association in 1985.”
In contrast to that are the electrical power lines. According to “Electrical Power lines”
(2014), “Power line networking uses power line communications (PLC) to connect computers
using existing power outlets in the home, essentially transforming every electrical outlet in the
building into a network connection. Power line networking is one of the cheapest forms of home
networking and has a low start-up cost and minimal IT workload.”
As we can see the startup cost and the workload and management for IT is leaned
towards the PLC which is easy to implement and maintain. However the standard used in
corporations are the Cat-5 network cabling. Even with the introduction of fiber optics the use of
Cat-5 and 6 cabling is crucial to the connectivity of businesses across this nation. Broadband
over power line uses high powered electrical lines.
Broadband over power line (BPL) is a service that allows communications data to be
transmitted over high powered electrical lines. BPL is often called Internet over power line
(IPL), power line communication (PLC), and sometimes power telecommunication (PLT). This
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 3
service utilizes a few VHF frequencies, medium wave, short wave, and low-band. BPL can
transmit data at speeds comparable to digital subscriber lines (DSL).
BPL, initially, was developed to secure Internet access to remote locations. This service
would allow Internet service providers (ISP) a cost effective method for reaching subscribers in
areas lacking in transmission mediums. By transmitting over already available high powered
electrical lines the ISP’s would be able to offer service to many more people without the burden
of installing other telecommunications mediums. The customer would need only a low cost
modem designed for BPL.
The technology has been around for while, but according to Margaret Rouse of
TechTarget.com, “has not been implemented in the United States on a broad scale because of
technical difficulties involving interference (Rouse, 2010).” The technical difficulties the author
is referencing are with short wave radio frequencies, VHF TV Channel interference, and even
Ham radio operators say that this type of technology interferes with their radio transmissions
which would be a big problem in case of emergencies. For the interference difficulties some
companies have found a method of reducing and in some cases eliminating that interference
issue. For every issue there is a solution.
As the electricity is carried into a home with the transmission signal, many tasks can still
be managed effectively. BPL is capable of handling data routing using Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP), supporting security encryption for each transmission and
managing subscriber information. In addition, BPL modems use special silicon chipsets designed
to manage the workload by extracting the data from the electrical current coming in and to
combat against interference and noise, special modulation techniques and adaptive algorithms
are utilized.
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The main goal of transmission over power lines is to utilize an existing infrastructure to
allow more users’ access to the Internet. In developed areas of the world power lines travel from
a power plant on high voltage lines to a secondary station where the power is reduced and then
sent to homes and businesses which make up the power grid. When discussing transmission over
power lines, it is the secondary station to homes that is the goal to transmit data.
One of the main concerns in transmitting over power lines is the noise level which can
fluctuate on these power lines. When the noise becomes to great it is tough to distinguish
between the noise and the data that is being sent over this type of medium. With the recent
developments in technology, information and communication technologies (ICTs) are becoming
more widespread and one of the basic building blocks of every humans life. Power line
communication (PLC) was never taken into account seriously because of its harsh
communication medium. However, with the development of more robust data transmission
schemes, communication over the power lines is becoming a strong alternative technology
because of the existence of the infrastructure and the ubiquity of the network.
In order to establish reliable communication systems operating on power line networks
(PLNs), characteristics of power line channels have to be investigated very carefully.
Unpredictable characteristics of PLNs seriously affect the performance of communication
systems. Similar to the other communication channels, PLC environment is affected by noise,
attenuation, and multipath type of channel distortions. The level of noise in PLNs is much higher
than any other type of communication networks. Furthermore, the frequency dependent
attenuation characteristics of power lines and multipath stemming from impedance miss-matches
are the other distortion factors which have to be investigated in order to establish a reliable PLC
system (Celebi, 2010). A few of the challenges that affect PLC are:
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 5
Malfunctions of electrical equipment
Causes interference to important radio services
All users share the same physical address; allows data sniffing
There are several issues that can occur with the use of electrical power lines to transmit data,
voice, or video. The general problems are with the signal because of attenuation, delay distortion,
and noise, which cause signal degradation, and distortion. With attenuation the signal loses
energy over longer distances and different frequencies lose energy at different amounts, which
make the signal distorted. The delay distortion problem is due to the different frequencies
propagating at varying speeds in the wire. As a result signals are distorted over a long distance.
In addition, noise issues occur from thermal noise in the wire, spikes in power, and
interference caused by other wires. All of these cause distortion of the information but only part
of the issues involved with transmitting over electrical power lines. The other issues involved in
using electrical power lines to transmit data, voice, or video is the congestion that you can
expect. For example electromagnetic interference can cause network congestion due to its
interference with the detection of data packets.
In fact, the Siemon Company, who are industry leaders specializing in the manufacture
and innovation of high quality, high-performance network cabling and data center infrastructure
solutions, states in a white paper on the company’s website that “In data communication,
excessive electromagnetic interference (EMI) hinders the ability of remote receivers to
successfully detect data packets. The end result is increased errors, network traffic due to packet
retransmissions, and network congestion (Siemon Company, 2014).”
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 6
So this is a major issue that can cause network congestion. Another issue due to the use
of electrical power lines is the aggressive retransmission protocols that may be used to offset
packet loss can cause massive delays and congestion. These are just a few of the issues that can
occur with the use of electrical power lines to transmit data, voice, or video communications.
QoS is critical for network congestion management since it provides prioritization of the
network and enables the management of applications performance on the network. It is needed to
support end-to-end performance needs of applications consisting of concepts, policies, and
mechanisms. The recommended metrics for voice would include:
Voice and Video Streaming
Latency – is the time the packet takes to get from the source to its
destination is should be 150 milliseconds or less.
Jitter – the difference in the time of packets arriving to the destination that
can be caused by network congestions. Should not vary more than 30
milliseconds between packets
Packet Loss – Packets loss while traversing the network due to congestion
should not be greater than 1% of the total packets transmitted.
Priority bandwidth should be guaranteed 17- 106 kb/s for each voice call
Minimum priority bandwidth should be 20% of the video stream size.
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Data
Since various applications have unique traffic characteristics, data must be
classified in priority models with applications with similar characteristics grouped
together.
Mission critical priority
Applications that have high usage with vary levels of bandwidth demands
Transactional priority
Interactive traffic; preferred data services
Best effort priority
Internet, email
Layer 1 of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. The physical layer, the lowest
layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw
bit stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional
interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers; handling
processes of such common functions as signal processing, timing, and encoding. When dealing
with power line communication (PLC) there are a number of circumstances that will disrupt a
signal. Frequency, location, time, and different types of devices attached to it.
Frequencies between 10 kHz and 200 kHz are more prone to interference. PLC
generally will operate at between 24 kHz to 500 kHz. The higher frequencies will interfere with
radio signals as power lines are solid copper wiring, this disruption will cause problems for
people who use short wave radios.
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The location at where PLC is used can cause some problems as well. Older wiring can
disrupt signals, so in areas that have older building this can be an issue. Surges in power through
the power lines can also cause interference; areas that are susceptible to power surges may be an
issue. Location and time are connected because some geographic areas will be prone to
disruption at certain times. When power is used more by homes and businesses it can create a
power surge creating disruptions in transmissions. Different types of devices will run at different
frequencies. These frequencies can disrupt communications over power lines.
Layer 2 of the OSI reference model is the data link layer. The data link layer provides
error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing
layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. The data link layer is
sub-divided into two sub-layers; media access control (MAC) and logical link layer (LLC). The
LLC pertains to error and flow controls. The MAC provides a media conflict approach.
The MAC sub-layer deals with collision detection. This is not a suitable protocol
because the noise in the power lines will be interpreted as collisions. If a token ring
configuration was utilized it would provide a much more stable platform for PLC.
The LLC, with the error and flow control, has two categories of error control; ARQ and
FEC. Separate these two controls don’t provide the PLC with its intended throughput. But using
a hybrid configuration with both error controls working together it sustains a substantial platform
and provides the PLC with its intended throughput.
Layer 3 of the OSI reference model is the Network layer which controls the operation of
the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on network conditions,
priority of service, and other factors. It also implements and manages the various quality-of-
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 9
service (QoS) metrics. The network layer exchanges information with the upper and lower layers
by accepting service requests the transport layer and sending requests to the data link layer.
Broadband over Power Line (BPL) is capable of providing Internet and other services
such as VoIP and video using network layer equipment such as Injectors. Injectors are
interfacing components on the power line that connect between the Internet backbone and the
medium voltage power lines and are capable of “injecting” high frequency signals into the power
lines. Extractors are devices located on each transformer that already provide low voltage
electricity to homes in that area and are also capable of “extracting” the signal from the injector
device and provide interfacing between end-users and the power lines. Since signals propagate
on the power lines from about 1000 to 3000 feet, repeaters are installed over the lines to ensure
the signal are regenerated and amplified to avoid attenuation at the destination host.
Layer 4 of the OSI reference model is the Transport layer. The transport layer is what
enables end-to-end communication over any given network and TCP would most likely be
implemented within the end communication nodes, such as the residential home computer,
providing reliability, congestion control; flow control, and guaranteed packet delivery.
Connectionless UDP services are used for real time voice, audio and video applications. Using
this information on the OSI layers 1-4 gives a company several ways to optimize the network’s
performance with transporting multimedia data.
Optimize performance for multimedia in BPL from the use of Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM). The definition of OFDM is to breakdown a high-speed serial
data stream into numerous parallel low-speed streams carried simultaneously over multiple
orthogonal sub channels (Al Mawali, 2011). OFDM is a method of digital modulation a signal is
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 10
split into several narrowband channels at different frequencies minimizing interference between
channels. It is a multi-carrier technique used in high-speed wireless applications. Interference
and attenuation causes less damage in OFDM than in single carrier systems. The sub-carriers in
OFDM can overlap each other requiring less bandwidth and improved performance. The
orthogonal property in the sub-carriers operating at different frequencies avoids interference to
each other.
The method for producing an OFDM is mapping the parallel streams into PSK or QAM
symbols then modulating sub-carriers using Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) then producing
an OFDM signal. A Cyclic Prefix (CP) of the same OFDM symbol is used as time guards to
protect the signal from interference of inter symbol interference (ISI) and inter carrier
interference (ICI). The CP is removed by the receiver before demodulation using FFT.
The modulated OFDM is an inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) of the QAM
symbols before OFDM modulator and is demodulated using discrete Fourier transform to
demodulate at the receiver end. These are implemented using the fast Fourier transform
(FFT/IFFT) algorithm (Al Mawali, 2011).
Adjusting network settings to optimal values has been shown to effectively address
network bottlenecks and improve overall network performance pertaining to the transport of
multimedia data. Just as adding additional hard drives can improve disk performance, adding
additional network cards can improve network performance. Replacing hubs with switches
would also improve the transportation of the multimedia data. Switches contain logic to directly
route traffic between the source and destination whereas hubs use a broadcast model to route
traffic. Therefore switches are more efficient and offer improved performance.
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 11
With the above suggestions implemented the network’s performance will be greatly improved
and efficient to transport multimedia data.
Layer 5 of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model is the session layer. This layer
of the OSI model deals with synchronization or merger of data from the higher layers, it also
establishes and terminates connections between applications. Layer 5 ensures audio and video
synchronization when viewing this type of multimedia.
Layer 6 of the OSI model is the presentation layer; it is sometimes referred to as the
syntax layer. The presentation layer handles encryption across a network and the formatting of
data to ensure it can be read by the presentation layer.
Layer 7 of the OSI model is the application layer. This layer handles quality of service
(QOS), end-user processes, user authentication, and application services for e-mail, file transfers,
and any other network software services (Webopedia, 2014).
Telephony Protocol is the technologies that use the Internet Protocol's packet-switched
connections to exchange voice, fax, and other forms of information that have traditionally been
carried over the dedicated circuit-switched connections of the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) (Rouse, 2010). With protocol the calls travel as packets of data on shared lines. The
challenge in telephony is deliver the voice, fax, or even video packets in a reliable and
dependable manner to the user. Many of the service providers use a version of IP Telephony
these companies include AT&T, Verizon, and the cable company Time Warner. Currently
telephony is relatively unregulated unlike traditional phone services. VoIP is one of the tools
used in an effort to standardize IP Telephony. IP Telephony standards and protocols have the
capability to signal and are able to initiate multimedia communication. Telephony through IP is
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 12
an important part of the convergence of computers, telephones, and television into a single
integrated information environment (Rouse, 2010).
Now Videoconferencing protocols are similar to Telephony but while sharing similarities
the two protocols are different. With Video conferencing protocols data or information can be
run across two different networks a Packet Switched or Circuit Switched network. These
protocols are necessary to define common means for video encapsulation and for session
management. Encapsulation standards define how video and audio are captured, converted to
digital format and transmitted between endpoints (Trost, 2011). Both the Circuited and Packet
Switch Networks have the following characteristics:
Circuit Switched networks have-
Bandwidth is guaranteed through the network
Bandwidth is not shared once connection is established
Just like a phone call – you bring up a circuit through the network on demand
Information is sent as a single bit stream
Packet Switched networks have-
Bandwidth is NOT guaranteed
Bandwidth IS shared
Circuits are built as needed and are not available on demand
Information is sent after being broken down into packets
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There are several types of network configuration for these protocols for example H.320,
H.323, and ITU H.264 for video. Other configurations of these protocols also include
G.711/G.722/G.729 for voice and H.239/T.120 for data such as screen sharing or Web
conferencing. These configurations and protocols are based on the idea of slicing individual
frames into layers, with each layer holding part of a single frame's image. The
Videoconferencing is an emerging tool for communication that saves time and money by
allowing communication between multiple locations and parties without traveling.
In the end both Telephony and Videoconferencing protocols have their place and are necessary
tools for communicating by voice or video.
Layer 7 represents the application layer and is the top layer for both the OSI model and
the TCP/IP model. The application layer is responsible for the interfacing between an application
the end-user implements on their communication device and the underlying network over which
the messages are transmitted. There are various protocols that are used to exchange the data
between the programs running on the source and the destination hosts. The applications that
incorporate the most functionality of the application layer happen to be the web browser and
email clients.
The source and destination devices use the application layer protocols to establish and
implement a session to communicate. The protocols on the source and destination hosts must
match. Next, the establishment of consistent rules for exchanging data between end-node
applications and services takes place. There are protocols that specify how the data inside each
message is structured and the type of message it is such as a request for services, ACK, data
message, status message, or error message.
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The speed of a power line connection is said to reach 500 Mbps versus an Ethernet speed
which can vary depending on your connection speed from your ISP. Ethernet speeds can reach
speeds of up to 1 Gbps which is twice the speed of a power line transmission. For this reason the
performance of e-mail services, Website access, and Web services would be a little slower over a
power line transmission. However, if the Ethernet speed is equal to the speed of the power line
transmission, than the performance would be similar. The biggest difference between the two
would then be left to any interference that the power line connection may experience. Power line
transmissions can be less than ideal in some situations. Interference can cause unwanted speed
issues which are not as prevalent in Ethernet transmissions.
A couple of widely known protocols in use every day consist of the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and the Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP). SMTP runs over TCP and is
used in email and is responsible for the exchange of electronic mail data. This particular protocol
works with the mail reader software and mail daemons to transport data to its destination host. It
establishes a session between two mail daemons (or mail reader processes) and enables multiple
messages to go through from the server to the client.
HTTP is the protocol that enables web browsers to effectively communicate with the web
servers. This particular protocol sets the standard for a common language that every device on
the network must adapt in order to communicate with other hosts. There are several kinds of web
browsers such as Safari, Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome, and more. However each of
these web browser applications uses HTTP protocol to request and send information to and from
the network.
Generally the implementation of BPL will not affect the application layer structure and
processes of how the end devices will communicate. As long as the broadband connection is
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 15
physically established between the service provider and the end-user, the application layer will
continue to perform the processes associated with the tasks generated by the end user. There are
no recommendations for changes with networking over BPL.
Optimization considerations following Spain’s use of broadband over power line for data
sensors and communications. Large scale BPL networks are established using Medium Voltage
(MV) Transformer Stations (TS). A project established with smart grid applications for Smart
Broadband Power Line Topology Protocol (SBPL-ToP) to use BPL and the MV network as a
Field Area Network (FAN). This would establish the MV network as a mesh network similarly
used in wired and wireless technologies. The multiple nodes used as paths for transmission of
data to increase performance.
In Low Voltage (LV) networks multiple devices connected in the power line offer
multiple paths and can produce wireless connections at the access points. Connections made
within the entire network extend the range of wireless capabilities.
IP telephony (Internet Protocol telephony) is a general term for the technologies that use
the Internet Protocol's packet-switched connections to exchange voice, fax, and other forms of
information that have traditionally been carried over the dedicated circuit-switched connections
of the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Using the Internet, calls travel as packets of
data on shared lines, avoiding the tolls of the PSTN. The challenge in IP telephony is to deliver
the voice, fax, or video packets in a dependable flow to the user. Much of IP telephony focuses
on that challenge ("Ip Telephony (internet Protocol Telephony)", 2014).
IP telephony service providers include or soon will include local telephone companies,
long distance providers such as AT&T, cable TV companies, Internet service providers (ISPs),
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 16
and fixed service wireless operators. IP telephony services also affect vendors of traditional
handheld devices.
VoIP is an organized effort to standardize IP telephony. IP telephony is an important part
of the convergence of computers, telephones, and television into a single integrated information
environment ("Ip Telephony (internet Protocol Telephony)", 2014).
In order for it to be a success, video conferencing has to be built around standards so that
systems from different manufacturers can communicate with each other. There are a huge range
of standards within video conferencing and some of these we need to know about. H.320 is the
‘umbrella’ standard that dictates how video conference traffic runs over Circuit Switched
Networks which include ISDN networks. An umbrella standard is basically a group of standards
that when working together achieve the end goal. In this case, the H.320 standard is a group of
standards that govern all the parts of our video conference, for example how we compress our
video signal or how we display our video picture (Niccolini, 2005).
H.320 has a number of standards which are ‘required’ in order for a system to be
‘standards compliant’ and a number of standards that are ‘optional’. Since most of the ‘optional’
standards are later developments and improvements to the original ‘required’ standards they are
not really optional if you want to produce a market leading product. However it is essential that
the ‘required’ standards are also present so that new equipment can still communicate with old
equipment.
Even though it would seem that telephony and video conferencing are different the goal
of any administrator should be towards synergy of the two. Providing the user with a global
architecture derived from IP Telephony standards (H.323, SIP, ENUM, TRIP, etc.), enabling
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 17
video conferencing systems to be used on top of it seamlessly. Perfect videoconferencing
sessions are achieved when the technology is no longer noticeable (neither before nor during the
session); improvements in the architecture have to be as simple as making a PSTN phone call
(Niccolini, 2005).
When designing a hybrid network, such as a wired/wireless network, considerations must
be taken to achieve QoS and performance. The current issue with wireless networks and the use
of mobile computing is multimedia applications. The increase of audio and video applications
over wireless and mobile devices requires a new set of protocols in order to achieve QoS
techniques and to achieve the performance needed to run these types of applications as intended.
In a wired network loss is typically caused by excessive congestion, but in a wireless network
loss can be caused by corruption during transmission or from interference.
Main problems associated to deployment of cross-layer signaling over the network,
include security issues, problems with non-conformant routers, and processing efficiency.
Security considerations require the design of proper protective mechanism avoiding protocol
attacks attempted by non-friendly network nodes by providing incorrect cross-layer information
in order to trigger certain behavior. The second problem addresses misbehavior of network
routers. It is pointed out that, in 70% of the cases, IP packets with unknown options are dropped
in the network or by the receiver protocol stack. Finally, the problem with processing efficiency
is related to the additional costs of the routers’ hardware associated with cross-layer information
processing. While it is not an issue for the low-speed links, it becomes relevant for high speeds
where most of the routers perform simple decrement of the TTL field in order to maintain high
packet processing speed (Kliazovich, Granelli, n.d.).
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Cloud computing on the hybrid network would hold a lot of good benefits and give
strong assistance in an ever changing marketplace. Margaret Rouse of TechTarget.com
describes cloud computing as a “general term for anything that involves delivering hosted
services over the Internet (Rouse, 2010).” The author goes on to say that the services are broadly
divided into three main sections and they are: Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), Platform-as-a-
Service (PaaS) and Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) (Rouse, Cloud Computing, 2010).
The name itself came from the cloud symbol in most flow charts and diagrams that
represent the Internet. Cloud has three specific characteristics that separate it from traditional
hosting services. First it is sold on-demand, typically by the minute or hour; second, it is elastic,
which means a user can have as much or as little as they need; third and finally, the service is
fully managed by a provider all that is need by the user is a computer and Internet access.
In a hybrid network cloud computing would be tailor made marriage of technology. Most
software development companies like IBM, Microsoft, and Cisco have developed a product for
all types of networks public, private, and hybrid. The hybrid network that is setup is combination
of an Ethernet based wireless and a wired network. This combination allows for security and
speed of wired with the flexibility and mobility of wireless.
A private cloud within the data center benefits are achieved from increased agility.
Business still maintains control of compliance and security measures. Better scale and
performance, reduced complexity, increased efficiencies, lower operating capital, and
environmental costs. Cost efficient methods to use, maintain, and upgrade. The cloud is available
at less expensive rates than purchasing individual licensing. Instead pay as you go for the
required service. Employees can access applications and services from an internet connection
anywhere in the world. Share projects between departments throughout the organization.
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 19
The service scaled as the business grows. The cloud provides almost unlimited storage. The
data stored in the cloud and the service providers are responsible for backup and recovery.
Automatic software integration services through the service provider. Services and applications
selected for the particular organization. Quick deployment once applications and services
decided. Applications are available in the cloud through an account and customized to an
organization. IT staff configures changes without modifying the hardware and software
infrastructure. Streamline processes in less time with less people. Improved flexibility changes in
business direction without a financial or staffing burden.
The cloud computing offers business flexibility and choice that will help the IT
department balance capital and operational expenses, make optimal use of in-house resources,
and improve responsiveness to ever changing business needs and requirements. It can be used for
the following:
Deliver business processes as complete applications through SaaS, like customer
relationship or human resource applications.
Assist in managing unpredictable peaks in demand through cloud bursting, for
example consumer facing web services that respond to seasonal peaks and
valleys.
Will make service available quickly for a specific period of time or to capitalize
on new business.
Using these services will help with doing business and competing in today’s increasingly
mobile and connected world and provides more opportunity to increase the company’s position
in the marketplace.
FINAL PAPER: CROSS-LAYER OR HYBRID ANALYSIS AND 20
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