More than meat: diversity in caprine harvesting strategies and the emergence of complex production...

More than meat: diversity in caprineharvesting strategies and the emergence ofcomplex production systems during the LatePre-Pottery Neolithic B

Cheryl A. Makarewicz

This paper examines the diversity of goat and sheep husbandry practices in southern Jordan

during the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (Late PPNB), immediately following the domestication of

these animals. Although the predominant view is one of sheep and goat husbandry as a relatively

simple affair focused on the production of meat through the slaughter of young adult animals,

results presented here reveal a multi-faceted system that included use of specialized harvesting

strategies, direct manipulation of the caprine diet through provisioning, and the disarticulation of

herds. The management strategies used by herders differed between Late PPNB settlements and

were variously tuned for the production of dairy, meat, ‘tender meat’, and possibly surplus animals

but overall adhered to strategies designed for risk reduction. Such complexity in pastoralist

behaviour, and particularly the possibility of surplus production, suggests that a re-evaluation of

the role of caprine husbandry in Late PPNB economic and social structures is necessary.

Keywords: animal husbandry practices, sheep and goat management systems, harvesting, zooarchaeology, Neolithic

Introduction

Domestic plant and animal technologies were primary

features of early Neolithic subsistence systems, provid-

ing households and communities with a ready and

steady source of food products throughout the year. In

the southern Levant, the exploitation of domesticates

eclipsed the use of wild plant and animal resources

during the Late PPNB (c. 7250–6700 cal BC), when

domestic animal herding first coalesced with barley and

wheat agriculture to create what later became the

foundational blocks of agro-pastoralist subsistence

economies (Horwitz et al. 1999; Kuijt and Goring-

Morris 2002). For the first time in the region, sheep and

goat herds became a central and ubiquitous component

of Late PPNB subsistence systems, and these flocks

provisioned people with a regular source of meat

(Becker 2004; Horwitz et al. 1999; Makarewicz 2009).

Yet, despite the newly salient role of combined sheep

and goat herding in PPNB subsistence systems,

surprisingly little is known about the character and

range of animal husbandry practices used to manage

caprine herds during the Late PPNB. For the most part,

archaeologists have been content to characterize Late

PPNB caprine husbandry as a relatively unsophisti-

cated endeavour that consisted primarily of a simple

strategy narrowly focused on the slaughter of juvenile

animals in order to produce a renewable source of meat

(Bar-Yosef 2000; von den Driesch and Wodtke 1997).

Instead, it is likely that novel and complex food

production strategies — including those related to

livestock herding — were developed during the Late

PPNB in order to mitigate the effects of new resource

pressure on wild and domestic foodstuffs, as well as

emergent social stresses, associated with the prolif-

eration of large settlements within a relatively small

region, hypothesized increases in population (Kuijt

2008), increased territorialization and possibly the

advent of land tenure (Goring-Morris and Belfer-

Cohen 2008). Rather than repetitively following a

concretized configuration of static subsistence strate-

gies, which would have required deep negotiation of

newly pressured and contested spaces and resources,

Cheryl A. Makarewicz, Institute for Prehistoric and ProtohistoricArchaeology, Christian Albrechts University, Johanna-Mestorf Strasse 2–6, Kiel 24118, Germany; email: [email protected]

�Council for British Research in the Levant 2013Published by Maney

236 Levant 2013 VOL 45 NO 2 DOI 10.1179/0075891413Z.00000000027

Late PPNB herders looked for new ways to squeeze

more out of existing resources and exploit new

resource patches and environments. In addition to

developing new animal husbandry practices that

widened herd access to graze, herders could diversify

and enhance food production, beyond the subsistence

base, by developing management strategies that

focused on accessing different types and qualities of

ante-mortem products from animals. By developing

management practices that focused on these issues,

herders could diversify and enhance food production

beyond the subsistence base.

Here, the range and diversity in sheep and goat

management strategies used by herders in an increas-

ingly crowded and built Late PPNB environment are

examined through an evaluation of taxonomic,

ageing, and biometrical data obtained from faunal

assemblages recovered from several major settlements

located in central and southern Jordan. These

zooarchaeological data provide important insights

into herd demographic composition and timing of

animal slaughter, both critical facets of animal

management systems that can be readily manipulated

by herders to achieve certain production goals, and to

tune herds to specific environmental and graze

conditions. In addition, light stable isotopic data,

which provides information on animal diet, are

examined in order to better understand the role, if

any, of fodder provisioning in Late PPNB herding

systems. Husbandry practices, such as foddering,

expand the accessibility of quality graze to animals

outside of periods of natural availability, and through

foddering, herders can maintain and increase animal

health and production.

Through detailed documentation of caprine herd-

ing strategies in use during the Late PPNB, it is

possible to build a finely textured understanding of

how households and communities manipulated and

extracted resources from their animal subsistence

base and, in turn, investigate how variation in caprine

management practices may have contributed to

broader Pre-Pottery Neolithic social and economic

transformations.

The Late PPNB

At approximately 7200 cal BC, a constellation of

exceptionally large and architecturally dense settle-

ments appeared throughout southern Jordan, herald-

ing the emergence of new social and economic

systems, subsistence technologies, and landscape

organization in the region (Fig. 1). Small settlements

containing circular architecture, typical for Middle

PPNB sites located within the Irano-Turanian zone

of southern Jordan, gave way to large (.10 ha),

agglutinative settlements characterized by two-

storey, neatly coursed, dressed stone architecture.

In the Mediterranean zone of central Jordan, where

the Middle PPNB was expressed quite differently

compared to the south, largely single-storey, isolated

rectilinear structures gave way to a denser arrange-

Figure 1 Map of Jordan indicating the location of Late PPNB sites mentioned in the text

Makarewicz More than meat

Levant 2013 VOL 45 NO 2 237

ment of two-storey architecture during the Late

PPNB, as seen at ‘Ain Ghazal and possibly Wadi

Shu’eib. These large settlements may have served as

central places through which people, ideas, technol-

ogy, and material goods flowed, although it remains

to be established whether these settlements were

organized hierarchically as suggested by Gebel

(2004) and Bienert (2004).

The reasons for the apparently rapid coalescence

and proliferation of large Late PPNB settlements to

the east of the Jordan Valley are poorly understood.

Based on burial densities and estimated site areas, it is

likely that Late PPNB population levels were higher

than Middle PPNB ones (Bocquet-Appel 2002; Eshed

et al. 2004; Kuijt 2008). However, the reasons why

populations increased remains under debate. Some

resource stress models suggest that the Mediterranean

zone west of the Jordan Valley had become depleted of

plant and animal resources by the end of the Middle

PPNB, causing entire communities to uproot and

migrate to central and southern Jordan (Gebel 2004;

Rollefson 2010). However, these models fail to consider

the possibility that a new system of landscape organi-

zation favouring local population aggregation in south-

ern Jordan emerged during the Late PPNB. New

excavations in the Galilee, coupled with new radio-

carbon determinations and lithic techno-typological

analyses focused on establishing the cultural-chronology

of sites in these regions, strongly suggest that the

Mediterranean region was not abandoned as previously

thought. Settlements dating to the Late PPNB, both

newly established communities and ones exhibiting

occupational continuity from the Middle PPNB, are

distributed across the entire region (Barzilai and Getzov

2011; Bocquentin et al. 2011; Khalaily et al. 2008;

Milevski et al. 2008). The Mediterranean zone clearly

remained an area of human occupation during the

entirety of the Late PPNB, and the higher carrying

capacity and regenerative capabilities of Mediterranean

ecosystems make it unlikely that the area suffered a

major decline in population levels.

In addition to the proliferation of Late PPNB

settlements in central and southern Jordan, the first

domestic livestock may have appeared in the eastern

steppes (or deserts) at this time, as there is robust

evidence for intensive caprine herding in the region

during the PPNC (Early Late Neolithic in the steppic

chronological sequence) (Fujii 2009; Garrard et al.

1994; Horwitz et al. 1999). Although inadequate

chronological resolution prevents us from determining

exactly how and if these two separate events were

related (e.g. did nascent herding activities in the Azraq

Basin coincide with, or follow, the emergence of large

Late PPNB settlements?), and the underlying factors

driving this settlement process remained debated, it is

evident that people depending on domestic animal

exploitation first expanded into desert areas during the

Late PPNB (Fujii 2009). What remains unknown,

however, is the degree to which these activities were

linked to large agglutinative settlements and the socio-

economic relationship that may have existed between

the two. What does seem likely, however, is that the

more extensive use of desert areas too marginal for

intensive agricultural activity and the explosion of

large-scale settlements east of the Jordan Valley are

indicative of new pressures placed on local plant and

animal resources.

The cultural changes associated with the Late

PPNB extended beyond shifts in settlement patterns

and architectural organization to include other

developments as well. The scale of storage increased

dramatically during the Late PPNB, and extensive

storage facilities were a ubiquitous feature of Late

PPNB settlements. Consisting of interior ground

floor rooms c. 1.5 sq m in size, these storage

installations were substantial, pre-planned invest-

ments that were incorporated into the very fabric of

domestic structures. Although it is unclear exactly

what was stored within these small spaces, e.g. food,

fuel, or other goods, the proliferation of such large

storage spaces suggests an improved ability to

produce food due to new technological developments

and/or an intentional intensification in plant cultiva-

tion and animal exploitation activities. Mortuary

practices also changed markedly, so that for the first

time, some personal adornments such as bracelets

and shell and stone beads were placed with the dead,

while skull removal and skull plastering, a common

practice during the Middle PPNB that promoted

social levelling, ceased (Kuijt and Goring-Morris

2002). These new mortuary practices may indicate a

transformation in social structure to emphasize

individual household action over community social

cohesion.

Late PPNB animal exploitation strategies

Underlying these pronounced shifts in Late PPNB

settlement patterns and social organization, and

perhaps even precipitating these transformations,

are significant changes in the plant and animal

exploitation strategies used by people inhabiting

these large communities in southern Jordan. There

is a major, perhaps even threshold-crossing, shift in

subsistence approaches from strategies defined by

light management of plants and animals and some

exploitation of wild resources, to strategies heavily


238 Levant 2013 VOL 45 NO 2

rooted in use-domesticated plants and animals (Kuijt

and Goring-Morris 2002). Cereal and legume agri-

culture, which included tending of domesticated

barley (Hordeum spontaneum), emmer wheat

(Triticum dicoccum), lentils (Lens culinaris), and pea

(Pisum sativum) emerged as the dominant mode of

plant exploitation, although gathering of wild cereals,

legumes, fruits, and nuts remained important plant

exploitation strategies (Makarewicz et al. 2006; Neef

2004; White and Wolff 2012).

Ungulate hunting and experimentation with goat

management, pursued during the Middle PPNB, gave

way to strategies focused on the use of domesticated

sheep and goats during the Late PPNB (Becker 2004;

Horwitz et al. 1999; Makarewicz 2009). The impor-

tance of caprine exploitation rose sharply during the

Late PPNB, so that for the first time intensive goat

and sheep herding became the dominant mode of

animal exploitation in the southern Levant (Horwitz

et al. 1999). On average, caprines comprise approxi-

mately 85% of animal remains recovered from Late

PPNB sites, compared to 45% during the preceding

Middle PPNB. Also for the first time during the Late

PPNB, morphologically domestic goats exhibiting

small body size and twisted horn-cores were herded,

as were a totally new animal technology, domestic

sheep, which were either intentionally imported or

rapidly diffused into the southern Levant from the

northern Levant (Horwitz and Ducos 1998). Nascent

management of cattle east of the Jordan Valley may

have also begun during the Late PPNB, although it

remains to be seen whether husbanded cattle derived

from local wild aurochs stocks or were imported from

the north (Becker 1991; Horwitz and Ducos 2005).

Hunting of wild game remained an important facet of

animal exploitation systems, and wild goats and

gazelle may have provided a fall-back food resource

that could be accessed by herders as they experi-

mented with developing new caprine herding strate-

gies (Makarewicz 2009). Pigs do not generally feature

in Late PPNB animal exploitation systems in south-

ern Jordan due to the absence of the well-watered

environments that they require.

The new reliance on goats and sheep during the

Late PPNB may have sparked new developments in

animal management systems that sought to enhance

the productive and reproductive potential of live-

stock. By diversifying animal husbandry practices,

herders could reduce their subsistence risk and even

increase the productive output of their animal herds

in an increasingly crowded and built environment.

Herders are involved in complex management deci-

sions that — if economically optimized — aim to

promote the long-term security of their animal herds,

while maintaining sufficient off-take of a variety of

ante- and postmortem animal products for their own

needs. Of course, environmental conditions or social

obligations may result in husbandry decisions that

are at odds with optimal herd management. In either

case, however, herders attempt to control herd

production and reproduction by applying and adjust-

ing the type, timing, and intensity of a series of

interlinked husbandry practices such as harvesting,

weaning, fodder provisioning, winter pasturage, and

mobility — all of which are detectable in the faunal

record through application of zooarchaeological and

isotopic analyses (Arbuckle et al. 2009; Balasse and

Tresset 2002; Makarewicz in press; 2009; Makarewicz

and Tuross 2006; 2009).

Zooarchaeological methodology

In order to establish the sheep and goat management

strategies in use at Late PPNB settlements east of the

Jordan Valley, sheep to goat ratios, animal age at

time of slaughter, and herd sex composition were

examined. These variables are a measure of herder

decisions regarding animal product production, herd

maintenance, and risk reduction since each taxon

exhibits different physiological, reproductive, and

productive qualities (Dahl and Hjort 1976; Redding

1981). Goats, for example, have a higher reproductive

rate, produce more milk, and adapt more easily to

marginal environmental conditions compared to

sheep, which produce fewer offspring and lower meat

and milk yields, but generate higher quality meat and

milk (Redding 1981).

The biological disparities between sheep and goats

means that strategies for herd security and produc-

tion will be different for each taxon. Consequently,

herders adjust the ratio of sheep to goat in their

flocks, and the timing of animal kill-off according to

local environmental conditions and their subsistence

needs. Models that take into consideration the

productive potential of caprines predict that survivor-

ship curves for goats will exhibit a younger kill-off

compared to curves calculated for sheep because of

the higher reproductive rate of goats (Redding 1981).

Along these lines, survivorship for a combined sheep/

goat category will indicate progressively younger kill-

off as the frequency of goat increases relative to

sheep.

In addition to baseline reproductive capacity, the

shape of survivorship curves is determined by the

production goals of herders, who accordingly slaugh-

ter sheep and goats through application of distinct

harvesting strategies, tuned for the production of



distinct ante- and post-mortem products. Payne’s

(1973) classic model derived from modern caprine

flocks optimized for the production of meat, milk and

wool predicts the intensive slaughter of juvenile males

if meat production is desired, kill-off of very young

male kids and lambs when maximizing dairy produc-

tion is the goal, and the general retention of both male

and female animals into later adulthood when fibre

production is the aim. However, herders frequently

may pursue several of these production goals simulta-

neously, or seek other production goals that do not

feature in Payne’s model, or consider other variables,

i.e. availability of fodder, pasture grounds, and labour,

that influence harvesting decisions. In addition,

herders may still achieve considerable production of

milk, meat, and/or wool even when not adhering to

optimizing harvesting strategies as described in

Payne’s model (Arbuckle et al. 2009; Makarewicz

2011; Vigne and Helmer 2007).

Additional models have been developed in an

attempt to isolate explicitly additional harvesting

strategies that herders may use for production goals

other than intensive milk, meat, and wool produc-

tion, including the ‘tender meat’ and ‘type B’ milk

models developed by Vigne and Helmer (2007). The

‘tender meat’ model indicates kill-off of young males

between the ages of 6–12 months. In contrast to the

classic ‘type A milk’ model as outlined by Payne, the

‘type B milk’ model is characterized by the delayed

kill-off of young animals throughout their first year.

This model predicts intense kill-off of young lambs

and kids between 6–12 months, and then again for

adult females between 2–4 years. Milk production

is probably one of the most challenging animal

exploitation strategies to identify in the zooarchaeo-

logical record, especially when herders are balanc-

ing multiple production goals. In addition to

taphonomic biases that may selectively destroy the

bones of young animals most likely to be culled as

part of a milk production strategy, there are a variety

of ways in which herders achieve milk production,

not all of which involve the slaughter of young

animals.

It is important to keep in mind that multiple

strategies with different production goals can pro-

duce similar mortality profiles, especially tender

meat, ‘type B milk’, and mixed meat and milk, as

herders balance between their subsistence goals,

social contexts, and environmental conditions

(Arbuckle et al. 2009). We should also remember

that the models described above provide a frame of

reference for interpreting production and manage-

ment goals from demographic data and should be

viewed as heuristic devices for understanding herder

decision-making in prehistory.

In this paper, new and previously published

taxonomic, age and biometric data sets for both

sheep and goats were (re)analysed in order to define

the range of variation in Late PPNB harvesting

practices, and to evaluate the role of animal age and

sex in shaping caprine kill-off strategies. Sheep and

goat bone and tooth specimens from each site were

separated according to criteria described in Table 1.

The relative frequency of taxa identified for each site

was calculated based on NISP (number of individual

specimens) (Table 2). Ageing data derived from the

state of epiphyseal fusion and tooth wear and data

are routinely used to construct survivorship curves,

which establish the intensity of animal slaughter at

particular ages and the production goals of herders

(Hesse 1984; Payne 1973). Here, survivorship curves

for goats, sheep, and a combined sheep/goat category

were calculated according to the state of long bone

epiphyseal fusion according to Zeder (2006) and

mandibular tooth eruption wear according to Payne

(1973) (Tables 3 and 4). Survivorship curves based on

eruption and tooth wear data and calculated for a

combined sheep/goat category were derived from

single teeth, partial and complete mandibular rows in

the case of ‘Ain Jammam, Basta, Ba’ja and es-Sifiya.

The published zooarchaeological literature for ‘Ain

Ghazal and Ba’ja does not indicate how mandibular

ageing data were collected (von den Driesch et al.

2004; Wasse 2002).

For survivorship curves calculated according to

state of epiphyseal fusion, in order to ensure that the

youngest infant animals were not allocated to older

fusion stages, all appendicular skeletal bone speci-

mens (except the radius) displaying unfused epiphyses

and belonging to infant-aged and neonatal animals

were excluded from demographic analyses. In order

to broadly establish the harvesting decisions of

herders regarding the very youngest animals, the

relative proportions of infant-aged bone specimens to

juvenile (unfused) and adult (fused) specimens were

instead calculated (Table 5; Fig. 2).

Species-specific survivorship curves calculated for

sheep and goat are likely systematically biased

towards older kill-off due to under-representation

of unfused skeletal parts (Munson 2000). This bias is

caused by a combination of density-dependent

destruction of more fragile immature bones and

difficulties in distinguishing between the unfused

bones of sheep and goats, especially in the distal

humerus, proximal humerus and distal femur. In

some cases, there is a ‘resurrection effect’ visible in



epiphyseal fusion-based survivorship curves (espe-

cially in Stage VI). This is largely due to density-

dependent attrition leading to under-representation

of more porous skeletal element portions, i.e. the

proximal humerus. In order to better interpret the

potential impact of this age-related identification bias

and density related attrition, a combined sheep/goat

curve is presented alongside species-specific curves.

Given these limitations in constructing species-

specific survivorship curves, it is important to

emphasize that percentage values calculated for

species-specific survivorship curves do not reflect the

actual percentage of the population that has survived

beyond a particular fusion stage but instead serve as a

qualitative value that provides a point of reference

against which the relative intensity of sheep and goat

slaughter can be compared on an intra-site basis.

Biometrical data obtained from appendicular

skeletal elements can be a useful way to distinguish

between male and females in sexually dimorphic taxa

such as goats and, to a lesser extent, sheep (Davis

2000; Hesse 1984; Zeder 2001). The degree to which

male and female survivorship is encouraged at certain

ages, while slaughter is promoted at other ages, also

relates to herder decisions regarding animal product

production, herd security, and the availability of

seasonally limited resources such as fodder and

winter pastures. Here, metrical data obtained from

both fused and unfused distal metacarpals and

metatarsals were used to estimate the demographic

composition of caprine herds, before and after the

critical age range of 18–30 months, when the

metapodials fuse and animals reach their optimal

maximum weight (Payne 1973). Inter-assemblage

comparison of caprine body size based on metapodial

measurements was achieved using the LSI method

(Meadow 1999). Log-transformed measurements are

Ta

ble

1L

ate

PP

NB

fau

na

la

ss

em

bla

ge

s(r

e)a

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lys

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en

tifi

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rite

ria

,re

co

ve

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eth

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,a

nd

rec

ov

ery

ind

ex

(Ma

ltb

y1

98

5)

Sit

eS

ieve

siz

eR

eco

very

Ind

ex

An

aly

sis

Sh

eep

/Go

at

Mo

rph

olo

gic

al

Cri

teri

aM

od

ern

Co

mp

ara

tive

Co

llecti

on

’Ain

Ghazal

1/4

inch

(6. 4

mm

)n/a

Kohle

r-R

olle

fson

1989;

von

den

Driesch

and

Wod

tke

1997;

Wasse

2002

Boessneck

1969;

Kra

tochvil

1969;

Pru

mm

eland

Frisch

1986;

Helm

er

and

Rochete

au

1994

Council

for

British

Researc

h,

Am

man

’Ain

Jam

mam

no

sie

ve

3. 6

9M

akare

wic

z2009

Boessneck

et

al.

1964;

Becker

2004

Zooarc

haeolo

gy

Lab

ora

tory

,H

arv

ard

Univ

ers

ity

Basta

60%

,5

mm

and

2m

m2. 3

9B

ecker

1991,

2004

Boessneck

et

al.

1964;

Kra

tochvil

1969;

Nod

dle

1978,

Payne

1969,

1985;

Pru

mm

eland

Frisch

1986;

Becker

2004

Council

for

British

Researc

h,

Am

man

Ba’ja

no

sie

ve

n/a

von

den

Driesch

et

al.

2004

el-H

em

meh

2m

m1. 6

Makare

wic

z,

this

stu

dy

Becker

2004;

Boessneck

et

al.

1964;

Zed

er

and

Lap

ham

2010,

Zed

er

and

Pila

ar

2010

Zooarc

haeolo

gy

Lab

ora

tory

,H

arv

ard

Univ

ers

ity

Wad

iS

hu’e

ib1/4

inch

(6. 4

mm

)1. 8

Makare

wic

z,

this

stu

dy

Becker

2004;

Boessneck

et

al.

1964

Council

for

British

Researc

h,

Am

man

es-S

ifiy

a?

2. 8

Makare

wic

z,

this

stu

dy

Becker

2004;

Boessneck

et

al.

1964;

Zed

er

and

Lap

ham

2010;

Zed

er

and

Pila

ar

2010

Council

for

British

Researc

h,

Am

man

Tif’d

an

1/4

inch

(6. 4

mm

)n/a

Tw

iss

2007

Boessneck

et

al.

1964

Table 2 Relative proportion of infant, juvenile, and adultaged bone specimens recovered from Late PPNBsettlements. The number of juvenile and adultbones specimens equals the total number ofunfused and fused appendicular elementspresented in Table 4, respectively

NISP Infant Juvenile Adult Total

Wadi Shu’eib 4 15 47 66es-Sifiya 62 269 473 804el-Hemmeh 122 389 386 897Basta 175 1038 1339 2552’Ain Jammam 32 279 441 752

%NISP

Wadi Shu’eib 6.1 22.7 71.2es-Sifiya 7.7 33.5 58.8el-Hemmeh 13.6 43.4 43Basta 6.8 40.6 52.5’Ain Jammam 4 37.1 58.6



compared with those from a standard animal, a

female Ovis orientalis and the averaged measurements

of male and female Capra aegagrus, presented by

Uerpmann and Uerpmann (1994).

Previously published metacarpal and metatarsal

proximal and distal breadth data from Basta, Ba’ja,

and Tif’dan were used to document the size, age and

sex of animals harvested. Since specimens from Basta

and Ba’ja were measured before Zeder’s (2001) work

indicating that the unfused bones of juvenile males

are larger than the fused bones of females in all but

the youngest animals, only data from fused distal

metapodials were available for analysis. Despite the

absence of this valuable data set, it is still possible to

isolate distinct kill-off patterns for male and female

animals, i.e. the fused bones of small females will

dominate the metrical distribution when the harvesting

strategy focuses on the removal of young males

(Arbuckle, this volume).

Due to the high fragmentation and overall smaller

size of the faunal assemblages from el-Hemmeh, ‘Ain

Jammam, and es-Sifiya, the number of fused and

unfused metapodials producing distal breadth mea-

surements was generally low and certainly too few to

generate meaningful metrical distributions. In order

to amplify metapodial sample size, metrical data

from the metacarpus and metatarsus DVM (antero-

posterior diameter of the verticilus of the medial

condyle) and DVL (antero-posterior diameter of the

verticilus of the lateral condyle) were taken (Davis

2000). In modern wild sheep and goats from the Near

East and in PPNB caprines from southern Jordan,

there is small but consistent metrical offset of 0.2 to

0.4 mm between the DVM and DVL, with the lateral

condyle generally exhibiting a larger overall size

(Makarewicz and Arbuckle, unpublished data). Since

measurements from individual bone specimens are

grouped in intervals of 0?5 mm in order to generate

Table 3 Relative abundance of major animal taxa exploited and goat:sheep ratio at Late PPNB settlements located inJordan based on NISP (Number of Individual Specimens). p5species present in assemblage at an abundance ofless than 1%. ‘Ain Ghazal from Wasse (2002) based on analysis of specimens recovered between the 1983 and1995 seasons. (Faunal analyses of material from 1982–89 (Kohler-Rollefson et al. 1993) and 1995–97 (von denDriesch and Wodtke 1997) indicate similar relative abundances.) Wadi Shu’eib from Makarewicz (forthcoming),es-Sifiya from Makarewicz (this study), el-Hemmeh from Makarewicz (this study), ‘Ain Jammam from Makarewicz(2009), Basta from Becker (2004), Ba’ja from von den Driesch et al. (2004), and Tel Tif’dan from Twiss (2007).1adjusted NISP according to Wasse (2002). 2Analysis of small mammals from el-Hemmeh are ongoing

’Ain Ghazal Wadi Shu’eib es-Sifiya el-Hemmeh ’Ain Jammam Basta Ba’ja Tel Tif’dan

%NISP NISP1

%NISP NISP

%NISP NISP

%NISP NISP2

%NISP NISP

%NISP NISP

%NISP NISP

%NISP NISP

Ovis/Capra 29.2 182 32.4 47 44.9 880 50.8 941 35.5 587 84.2 17141 78.0 4205 38.2 1486Capra sp. 22.2 138.5 20.7 30 29.8 585 23.9 442 26.1 435 – – 8.2 442 38.9 1515Ovis sp. 18.2 113.5 4.1 6 10.7 211 13.9 257 19.4 328 – – 2.7 146 1.3 46Gazella sp. 12.5 78 4.1 6 4.8 94 5.7 105 8.3 138 8.7 1769 3.4 181 p 32Sus sp. 11.4 71 16.6 24 1.7 33 p 4 0 5 0.2 40 p 8 p 9

Bos sp. 4.0 25 6.9 10 3.2 64 13.0 24 5.4 89 3.2 649 1.1 59 17.9 697Equus sp. 2.6 16 3.4 5 p 16 p 2 1.1 14 2.1 431 1.9 102 p 20

Cervus sp. p – – – p 1 – – – – – 13 – – – –Dama sp. – – p – – – – – p 1 – p – – – –Capreolus sp. – – p – p 2 p 3 p 7 – – – – – –

Canis sp. p – p 1 p 5 1 p 5 p – p 3 p 3Vulpes sp. p – 4.4 6 2.5 50 p p 1.3 23 p – 1.9 100 p 34Panthera pardus – – – – – – – – – – – – p 11 – –Felis sp. p – p 1 p 6 p p 1 p – p 29 – –Martes foina – – – – – – – – – – – – p 9 – –Carnivore p – – – – – p 2 0 – 0.2 31 p 29 p 4

Lepus sp. p – – – – – p p – 8 1.3 274 p 8 p 13Erinaceus sp. p – – – – – – – 0 – p 1 – – – –Meles sp. p – – – – – – – – – p – p 3 – –Procavia sp. – – – – – – – – – 1 – – p 31 – –Testudo sp. p – – – – 1 2.8 52 0 1 – – p 2 – –Fish – – – – – – – – 2.9 44 – – – – – –Aves p – 6.2 9 p 12 p 18 p 6 p – p 23 p 32

Total NISP 624 145 1,960 1,851 1,693 20,349 5,391 3,891

Capra: Ovis 1.2 : 1 5: 1 2.8:1 1.7 : 1 1.3 : 1 2.3 : 1 3 : 1 33 : 1



Table 4 Late PPNB epiphyseal fusion data for goat, sheep, and a combined sheep/goat category according to Zeder(2006). The bone specimens listed under ‘sheep/goat’ do not include specimens identified as either ‘sheep’ or‘goat’. Fu5 fused, Un5unfused.

Age at Fusion Fusion Stage

Capra sp.

9Ain Jammam Basta el-Hemmeh Wadi Shu’eib es-Sifiya Tel Tif’dan

Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un

0–6 mo. I Atlas ? ? – – – – – – 4 – – –Px Radius 10 1 23 – 6 – 2 – 13 – – –

6–12 mo. II Ds Humerus 33 3 43 – 12 – 2 – 40 – 112 1Scapula 29 6 25 – 25 4 – – 22 4 8 –Acetabulum 8 1 48 3 13 5 2 – 17 1 20 –

12–18 mo. III Ph1 39 14 71 – 44 22 3 1 26 4 157 11Ph2 15 n/a n/a 41 6 3 – 6 1 101 8

18–30 mo. IV MC 10 12 33 14 8 16 2 – 52 34 55 28MT 21 14 26 10 18 19 4 1 47 21 55 34MP – – 2 1 – – 1 – 6 11Ds Tibia 13 5 36 15 9 4 2 1 28 1 16 1

30–48 mo. V Calcaneum 5 8 27 20 5 7 – – 5 2 18 12Px Femur 6 6 13 1 4 2 2 – 4 4 17 2Ds Femur 4 4 5 1 2 5 – – 3 5 – –Ds Radius 5 5 18 15 4 9 – – 8 4 24 35Px Tibia 3 1 6 2 2 2 – – 0 4 – –

.48 mo. VI Px Humerus 3 3 0 1 3 – – – 2 0 1 –


Ovis sp.

9Ain Jammam 9Basta el-Hemmeh Wadi Shu’eib es-Sifiya Tel Tif’dan

Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un

0–6 mo. I Atlas – – – – – – – – – – – –Px Radius 13 – 7 – 8 – – – 7 – – –

6–12 mo. II Ds Humerus 17 2 40 – 9 1 1 – 29 11 –Scapula 22 7 24 – 9 – – – 10 2 1 –Acetabulum 15 3 21 2 13 8 – – 14 2 – –

12–18 mo. III Ph1 18 7 33 – 11 16 – – 1 1 3 –Ph2 13 2 n/a n/a 16 8 – – – – 2 –

18–30 mo. IV MC 21 6 20 3 4 17 1 3 20 19 5 2MT 12 6 21 2 4 9 1 – 9 5 – –MP – – – – 2 1 – – – – – –Ds Tibia 7 2 15 – 3 5 – – 12 2 5 –

30–48 mo. V Calcaneum 5 4 12 11 3 6 – – – – – –Px Femur 11 11 6 – 6 3 – – 5 3 – –Ds Femur 4 3 2 – – 3 – – 1 2 1 –Ds Radius 2 5 3 – – 2 – – 5 1 1 –Px Tibia 2 – 2 – 1 – – – – – – –

.48 mo. VI Px Humerus 5 1 – 2 1 2 – – 1 1 – –


Ovis/Capra

9Ain Ghazal* 9Ain Jammam Basta el-Hemmeh Wadi Shu’eib es-Sifiya Tel Tif’dan

Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un

0–6 mo. I Atlas – – – – – – – – 5 – – –Px Radius 5 7 108 11 5 8 3 – 7 7 – –

6–12 mo. II Ds Humerus 7 6 110 34 12 13 3 1 13 2 41 19Scapula 37 7 6 3 41 72 4 1 – – 6 – 15 12Acetabulum 28 19 63 69 8 5 1 – 14 2 78 28



histograms, this slight metrical difference has a

negligible impact on metrical distribution shape.

Analytical caveats

Demographic and biometric analyses are powerful

ways to uncover prehistoric animal management

strategies related to harvesting and animal product

production. It is, however, important to bear in mind

that central and southern Jordanian Late PPNB

faunal assemblages were formed in part through

hunting and herding activities, based on the exploita-

tion of three separate goat species: the domestic goat

(Capra hircus), the bezoar (C. aegagrus), and the ibex

(C. ibex). Unfortunately, these species are difficult, if

not nearly impossible, to distinguish from each other

morphologically in the appendicular skeleton. While

metrical determinations can help distinguish between

wild and domesticated animals to a certain extent,

there is marked variation in body size of early

Holocene southern Levantine wild goats (both bezoar

and ibex) that makes it difficult to definitively

separate domesticated goats from wild ones on

metrical grounds. For example, relatively small wild

animals, similar in size to Early Bronze Age

domesticates, are present at Wadi Faynan 16

(PPNA) and Wadi Mataha (Natufian), while very

large animals with body sizes exceeding that of wild

bezoar standards (see Uerpmann and Uerpmann

1994) are present at Basta and Beidha (PPNB)

(Baadsgaard 2000; Becker 2004; Carruthers 2002;

Makarewicz and Arbuckle, unpublished data).

Until the range of metrical variation in wild goat

species across different southern Levantine biomes

can be better established, goat survivorship curves

calculated for Late PPNB assemblages in this region

represent a mixture of specimens from domestic and

some wild goats and, consequently, reflect a conflation

of different exploitation strategies. It remains to be seen

exactly how wild goats were exploited during the Late

PPNB. These animals may have been hunted year-

round or on a seasonal basis, hunted through use of an

optimal acquisition strategy that focused on prime-

aged adults or via a less-restricted hunting strategy that

targeted both juvenile and adult animals. Alternatively,

morphologically wild animals may have been managed

in some way, as part of local domestication trajectories

that began in the southern Levant during the Middle

PPNB (Hecker 1982; Horwitz 2003; Makarewicz and

Tuross 2012). However, isolating how wild goats were

exploited during the Late PPNB requires a deeper

understanding of goat exploitation strategies for the

earlier PPN, particularly in southern Jordan, than is

currently available.

In addition to the analytical challenges that arise

when faced with the presence of three distinct, but

difficult to distinguish, goat species in the region,

there is a more intractable problem associated with

recovery bias when dealing with many Late PPNB

assemblages. Several faunal assemblages recovered

from Late PPNB sites suffer from significant recovery

bias due to a lack of systematic sieving of cultural

deposits removed during excavation or sieving using

screens with large mesh spacing (Table 1). It is well

known that faunal assemblages recovered without use

of a systematic sieving protocol, or with large meshed

sieves, are negatively impacted, and skeletal parts

belonging to the smaller, unfused bones of infant and

juvenile aged animals will be severely under-represented


Ovis/Capra

9Ain Ghazal* 9Ain Jammam Basta el-Hemmeh Wadi Shu’eib es-Sifiya Tel Tif’dan

Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un Fu Un

12–18 mo. III Ph1 n/a n/a 7 4 107 122 26 22 4 1 4 10 30 23Ph2 n/a n/a 6 1 22 17 2 – 0 3 31 18

18–30 mo. IV MC n/a n/a – – 34 52 0 8 1 – 2 9 11 10MT n/a n/a – – 4 8 1 4 4 – 1 1 7 7MP 45.5 20.5 2 11 – – 1 38 – 1 4 19 10 38Ds Tibia 34 9 3 6 62 60 7 5 1 2 13 17 80 19

30–48 mo. V Calcaneum n/a n/a 9 16 21 42 3 13 – 1 6 5 14 19Px Femur n/a n/a 1 13 67 121 20 3 – 2 7 32 77Ds Femur n/a n/a 5 19 31 99 2 17 – 1 4 29 41 78Ds Radius 8 10 3 4 41 88 8 – 1 2 16 8 40Px Tibia n/a n/a 1 8 39 108 4 13 – – 3 12 7 40

.48 mo. VI Px Humerus n/a n/a 3 6 31 49 3 14 – 1 – 7 14 25

Table 4 Continued



Ta

ble

5M

ort

ality

an

ds

urv

ivo

rsh

ipd

ata

for

sh

ee

p/g

oa

tb

as

ed

on

too

thw

ea

ra

cc

ord

ing

toP

ay

ne

(19

73

)

’Ain

Gh

aza

les-S

ifiy

ael-

Hem

meh

Basta

Ba’ja

’Ain

Jam

mam

MW

SA

ge

% Surv

ivo

r-sh

ip

% mo

rta-

lity

Sp

ecim

en

co

un

t

% Surv

ivo

r-sh

ip

% mo

rta-

lity

Sp

ecim

en

co

un

t

% Surv

ivo

r-sh

ip

% mort

a-

lity

Sp

ecim

en

co

un

t

% Surv

ivo

r-sh

ip

% mo

rta-

lity

Sp

ecim

en

co

un

t

% Surv

ivo

r-sh

ip

% mo

rta-

lity

Sp

ecim

en

co

un

t

% Surv

ivo

r-sh

ip

% mo

rta-

lity

Sp

ecim

en

co

un

t

A0–2

mo.

98. 5

1. 5

195. 6

4. 4

598. 4

1. 6

196. 9

3. 1

4100

00

96. 3

3. 7

2B

2–6

mo.

98. 5

00

94. 7

0. 9

195. 3

3. 1

290. 1

6. 9

998. 7

1. 3

194. 4

1. 9

1C

6–12

mo.

78. 5

20. 0

13

80. 5

14. 2

16

75

20. 3

13

73. 9

16. 2

21

88. 8

10. 0

879. 6

14. 8

8D

1–2

yrs

.52. 3

26. 2

17

67. 2

13. 3

15

54. 7

20. 3

13

58. 5

15. 4

20

63. 8

25. 0

20

48. 1

31. 5

17

E2–3

yrs

.38. 5

13. 8

932. 7

34. 5

39

34. 4

20. 3

13

46. 2

12. 3

16

––

na

40. 7

7. 4

4F

3–4

yrs

.4. 7

33. 8

22

23. 0

9. 7

11

23. 5

10. 9

738. 5

7. 7

10

5. 0

58. 8

47*

20. 3

20. 4

11

G4–6

yrs

.3. 1

1. 5

115. 9

7. 1

812. 6

10. 9

710

28. 5

37

05

47. 3

13. 0

7H

6–8

yrs

.1. 6

1. 5

10. 9

15. 0

17

6. 3

6. 3

42. 3

7. 7

10

00

7. 3

00

I8–12

yrs

.0

1. 5

10

0. 9

10

6. 3

40

2. 3

30

00

7. 4

4n

65

113

64

130

80

54

’Ain

Gh

aza

les-S

ifiy

ael-

Hem

meh

MW

SA

ge

%S

urv

ivo

rsh

ip%

mo

rtalit

yS

pecim

en

co

un

t%

Su

rviv

ors

hip

%m

ort

alit

yS

pecim

en

co

un

t%

Su

rviv

ors

hip

%m

ort

alit

yS

pecim

en

co

un

t

A0–2

mo.

98. 5

1. 5

195. 6

4. 4

598. 4

1. 6

1B

2–6

mo.

98. 5

00

94. 7

0. 9

195. 3

3. 1

2C

6–12

mo.

78. 5

20. 0

13

80. 5

14. 2

16

75

20. 3

13

D1–2

yrs

.52. 3

26. 2

17

67. 2

13. 3

15

54. 7

20. 3

13

E2–3

yrs

.38. 5

13. 8

932. 7

34. 5

39

34. 4

20. 3

13

F3–4

yrs

.4. 7

33. 8

22

23. 0

9. 7

11

23. 5

10. 9

7G

4–6

yrs

.3. 1

1. 5

115. 9

7. 1

812. 6

10. 9

7H

6–8

yrs

.1. 6

1. 5

10. 9

15. 0

17

6. 3

6. 3

4I

8–12

yrs

.0

1. 5

10

0. 9

10

6. 3

4n

65

113

64

Basta

Ba’ja

’Ain

Jam

mam

MW

SA

ge

%S

urv

ivo

rsh

ip%

mo

rtalit

yS

pecim

en

co

un

t%

Su

rviv

ors

hip

%m

ort

alit

yS

pecim

en

co

un

t%

Su

rviv

ors

hip

%m

ort

alit

yS

pecim

en

co

un

t

A0–2

mo.

96. 9

3. 1

4100

00

96. 3

3. 7

2B

2–6

mo.

90. 1

6. 9

998. 7

1. 3

194. 4

1. 9

1C

6–12

mo.

73. 9

16. 2

21

88. 8

10. 0

879. 6

14. 8

8D

1–2

yrs

.58. 5

15. 4

20

63. 8

25. 0

20

48. 1

31. 5

17

E2–3

yrs

.46. 2

12. 3

16

––

na

40. 7

7. 4

4F

3–4

yrs

.38. 5

7. 7

10

5. 0

58. 8

47*

20. 3

20. 4

11

G4–6

yrs

.10

28. 5

37

05

47. 3

13. 0

7H

6–8

yrs

.2. 3

7. 7

10

00

7. 3

00

I8–12

yrs

.0

2. 3

30

00

7. 4

4n

130

80

54



(Payne 1975). Consequently, young animals are

probably under-represented in several of the Late

PPNB faunal assemblages analysed here, and some

survivorship curves generated from epiphyseal fusion

and tooth wear and eruption data are artificially

skewed towards older kill-off. Along these lines,

previous work claiming that the predominance of

young adult caprine kill-off at Late PPNB settlement

reflects strategies for meat production may well have

drawn upon evidence that, while thought to reflect

herder harvesting choices, may be at least partially an

artefact of excavation methodology.

Sites and data

The sites investigated in this paper include Late

PPNB settlements located in central and southern

Jordan (Fig. 1). In order to examine hypothesized

variation in caprine management systems within this

region over a relatively constrained cultural-chron-

ological period, ageing and measurement data from

published and new data sets are analysed.

‘Ain Ghazal

‘Ain Ghazal is a large, multi-period Pre-Pottery

Neolithic site which reached its greatest expanse

during the Late PPNB when it extended to 14 ha.

Located on the edge of a Mediterranean ecotone,

‘Ain Ghazal is nestled within the broad slopes of the

Wadi Zarqa. The architectural layout and style of

‘Ain Ghazal share some similarities with the more

southern Late PPNB settlements. However there are

important differences, in particular the presence of

apsidal buildings and circular ‘temples’, suggesting

that ‘Ain Ghazal may have existed slightly outside the

Late PPNB interaction sphere as manifested in

southern Jordan.

Animal exploitation at ‘Ain Ghazal focused pre-

dominantly on caprine herding, with goats only slightly

outnumbering sheep (1.2:1) (Wasse 2002). Morpho-

logical analyses of goat horn cores indicates that wild

bezoar were very occasionally exploited during the Late

PPNB (Wasse 2002). In contrast to most other

contemporary settlements in the region, suid (pig)

exploitation and the hunting of wild ungulates, such

as gazelle and equids, made a significant contribution to

the overall animal-based portion of the subsistence

economy at ‘Ain Ghazal (Table 2).

A histogram of LSI values calculated from

metapodials provides additional, if somewhat ambig-

uous information, on goat exploitation at ‘Ain

Ghazal (Fig. 3). A clear biomodal distribution is

visible, with the peak on the left representing small-

bodied domestic females. The peak on the right likely

represents larger-bodied adult males which dominate

the assemblage, although it is possible that wild

female goats are also represented here. The single

outlier value is likely from a large male wild goat. For

sheep, a biomodal distribution is visible, suggesting

the presence of male and females, but low sample

sizes caution against over-interpretation (Fig. 4).

Survivorship curves based on mandibular tooth

wear for a combined caprine category indicate that

animals were slaughtered primarily as juveniles and

young adults, with kill-off taking place between 6–

12 months (with only 52% of animals reaching two

years in age) and 3–4 years, with very few animals

surviving beyond this age (Fig. 5). Epiphyseal fusion-

based survivorship curves, constructed from a small

published epiphyseal fusion data set based on a few

skeletal element categories (i.e. scapula, distal tibia,

distal metapodials, distal radius) from ‘Ain Ghazal,

indicate a focus on yearling kill-off with 84% of

caprines surviving past 6–12 months (Fig. 6). There is

a very moderate increase in the intensity of slaughter

of slightly older animals, with c. 73% of animals

having survived Stage IV (18–30 months). Species-

specific epiphyseal fusion data was not available for

‘Ain Ghazal.

The balanced ratio of sheep to goats at ‘Ain

Ghazal is likely due in part to the location of the

settlement in a productive environment more hospi-

table to supporting sheep herds but may also indicate

that higher potential productivity, rather than risk

reduction, was pursued by herders there. The

disparity between survivorship curves calculated

from epiphyseal fusion data and those generated

Figure 2 Relative proportion of infant-, juvenile- and

adultaged bone specimens in tripolar format.

Wadi Shu’eib (-6-); es-Sifiya (- %-); el-Hemmeh

(-e-); Basta (-n-); ‘Ain Jammam (-#-)



from mandibular tooth eruption and wear, is likely

due to a small epiphyseal fusion sample size and the

inclusion of only a few representative appendicular

skeletal element types for each fusion stage.

Consequently, the pattern of a yearling cull, followed

by high survivorship of older adult animals observed

in epiphyseal fusion-based survivorship curves,

should be viewed with caution.

Mandibular tooth wear survivorship curves also

hint at production goals that lie outside of maintain-

Figure 3 Distribution of LSI values for distal fused (black bars) and distal unfused (grey bars) metatarsals and metacar-

pals derived from proximal breadth (Bp) and distal breadth (Bd) measurements for goats from ‘Ain Ghazal

(n523) (from von den Driesch and Wodtke 1997); es-Sifiya (n539); el-Hemmeh (n526); Tel Tif’dan (n544) (from

Twiss 2003; 2007); Ba’ja (n521) (from von den Driesch et al. 2004); and Basta (n569) (from Becker 2004). ‘Ain

Jammam and Wadi Shu’eib are not depicted due to small sample size. LSI values are compared against the

standard animal reported in Uerpmann and Uerpmann (1994)



ing herd security. The moderate kill-off of very young

caprines taking place between 6–12 months and again

between 1 and 2 years, followed by another, slightly

more intensive cull of adults between 3–4 years in

age, is consistent with harvesting strategies focused

on the production of ‘tender meat’, mixed meat and

‘type B milk’. The tender meat of lambs is often

harvested in caprine herds containing a high propor-

tion of sheep, often to meet social demands. The

slaughter of young animals, especially males, before

their first winter may also have been part of a

harvesting strategy that sought to preserve restricted

fodder supplies for other, more productively valuable

animals.

Biometrical data provides some additional insight

into strategies relating to older animal slaughter. In

contrast to the expected pattern, adult males are

markedly better represented than adult females at

‘Ain Ghazal. This could indicate young female kill-

off accompanied by preservation of adult males, but

it is more likely that the low representation of females

indicates that some does were disarticulated from

primary herds as live animals. These animals, which

are frequently partitioned into separate flocks by

herders in order to provide reproductively and

productively valuable females with the choicest

pastures, may have been dislocated to specialized

female or nursery herds located some distance away

Figure 4 Distribution of LSI values for distal fused (black bars) and distal unfused (grey bars) metatarsals and metacar-

pals derived from proximal breadth (Bp) and distal breadth (Bd) measurements for sheep from ‘Ain Ghazal

(n56) (from von den Driesch and Wodtke 1997); es-Sifiya (n511); el-Hemmeh (n56); Ba’ja (n58) (from von den

Driesch et al. 2004); and Basta (n538) (from Becker 2004). ‘Ain Jammam, Wadi Shu’eib, and Tel Tif’dan are not

depicted due to small sample size. LSI values are compared against the standard animal reported in Uerpmann

and Uerpmann (1994)



from ‘Ain Ghazal, while males (and meat ‘on the hoof’)

were stored on site. Alternatively, females may have

been moved out of ‘Ain Ghazal as part of a broader

exchange system or to seed founder herds elsewhere.

Wadi Shu’eib

Wadi Shu’eib is a large multi-period PPN site

approximately 5–10 ha in size situated on the north

slope of the Shu’eib wadi system (Simmons et al.

2001). During the middle Holocene, the site was

situated within the dense and lush vegetation

supported by perennial springs scattered throughout

the wadi system, and broadly located within a

transitional steppe-woodland environment dominated

by Mediterranean woodland floras (Simmons et al.

2001). Caprine herding was the primary mode of

animal exploitation at Wadi Shu’eib, with goats

markedly more important than sheep with a ratio of

5:1 (Table 2). LSI distribution data suggests exploita-

tion of large-bodied wild goats, as well as managed

male and female animals, at Wadi Shu’eib (Fig. 3).

Unlike other Late PPNB settlements in the region, suid

exploitation played a major part in the animal-based

portion of the subsistence economy at the settlement

(Makarewicz forthcoming).

Epiphyseal fusion-based mortality curves indicate

high survivorship for infant aged animals, followed

by moderate kill-off of young sheep and goats with c.

86% of animals surviving beyond 12–18 months in

age (Fig. 6). Kill-off of juvenile animals was an

important harvesting strategy at Wadi Shu’eib, with

67% of caprines surviving beyond 18–30 months.

Due to small overall sample sizes, it was not possible

to calculate species-specific survivorship curves.

The predominance of goats relative to sheep at

Wadi Shu’eib is unexpected. The settlement is located

in a well-watered wadi system, moist enough to

support sizeable pig populations, and sheep would

have likely thrived in such an environment. Although

the small size of metrical and ageing data sets

prevents determination of the nature of caprine

exploitation strategies related to animal taxon or

sex, the overall harvesting strategy employed at Wadi

Shu’eib was a relatively conservative one and focused

on the optimal slaughter of young adult, probably

male, animals late in their second year, while

promoting the survivorship of older adult animals

(Makarewicz in press). High survivorship of caprines

from Wadi Shu’eib may have been encouraged by the

unusually wide availability and easy accessibility of

pigs, which were a rapidly renewable and abundant

meat source. The retention of older caprines may

relate to strategies focused on an alternative form of

risk reduction, where pigs are the primary meat

source while caprines, in addition to being exploited

for ante-mortem products, are saved as ‘meat on the

Figure 5 Survivorship curves based on mandibular tooth wear (loose teeth, partial and whole mandibles) for sheep/goats

from ‘Ain Ghazal (n565) (from Wasse 2002); es-Sifiya (n5113); el-Hemmeh (n564); Ba’ja (n580; *specimens

assigned to age category 2–4 years according to von den Driesch et al. 2004); Basta (n5130) (from Becker

2004); and ‘Ain Jammam (n554) (from Makarewicz 2009). Mandibular Wear Stage: A50–2 months, B52–

6 months, C56–12 months, D51–2 years, E52–3 years, F53–4 years, G54–6 years, H56–8 years, I58–10 years.

Survivorship curve for Wadi Shu’eib not calculated due to small sample size. Data are not available for Tel

Tif’dan due to poor preservation of teeth (Twiss 2007)



hoof’ until subsistence or social needs dictate. It is

important to keep in mind, however, that although

juvenile caprine survivorship appears to be somewhat

higher at Wadi Shu’eib relative to other Late PPNB

settlements, the overall sample sizes involved are

small.

es-Sifiya

Located on a flood plain terrace formation in the

Wadi Mu’jib, es-Sifiya is another large Late PPNB

settlement spreading over 10 ha in size. Situated at an

elevation of approximately 200 m a.s.l. with modern

day precipitation levels reaching only 200 m per

annum, the settlement was likely situated within an

Irano-Turanian phytogeographic zone during the

middle Holocene. Radiocarbon determinations

obtained from unidentified charcoal fragments sug-

gest that the settlement was occupied between 7060

and 6820 cal BC (Gorsdorf 2000; Mahasneh 1997).

Animal exploitation at es-Sifiya focused primarily

on caprine herding, although hunting of gazelle, suids

and bovines was regularly pursued (Table 2).

Morphological analyses of horn cores indicate that

both bezoar and ibex were exploited, and the

multimodal distribution of metapodial LSI values

suggests that both domestic and wild goats are

represented in the assemblage (Fig. 3). The peak on

the left represented by black bars represents adult

female goat domesticates, while the peak immediately

adjacent to the right, also represented by black bars,

likely represents adult male domesticates. Grey bars

(representing unfused specimens) that overlap with

the adult LSI values, likely represent juvenile male

domesticates. The two peaks on the far right side of

the histogram, which are clearly separated from those

peaks centred on lower LSI values, probably repre-

sent wild adult female and wild adult male goats. If

these data do indicate wild adult animals, it is

interesting to note as well the presence of wild,

Figure 6 Survivorship curves based on epiphyseal fusion for sheep/goats for ‘Ain Jammam (n5720) (from Makarewicz

2009); ‘Ain Ghazal (n5171?5; adjusted NISP) (from Wasse 2000); Basta (n52, 377) (from Becker 2004); es-Sifiya

(n5742); Wadi Shu’eib (n562); el-Hemmeh (n5775); and Tel Tif’dan (n51,1635) (from Twiss 2007). Fusion Stage

I50–6 months; II56–12 months; III512–18 months; IV518–30 months; V530–48 months; VI5.48 months, accord-

ing to Zeder (2006). Sheep/goat (-&-); goat (-#-); sheep (-m-)



juvenile males in the assemblage. For sheep, LSI

distribution of fused and unfused metapodial speci-

mens indicates a clear bimodal distribution, suggest-

ing the presence of both smaller-bodied adult females

and large-bodied adult males, as well as some male

juvenile animals (Fig. 4).

At es-Sifiya, goats were more important than sheep

(2?8 goats to 1 sheep). Survivorship curves based on

mandibular tooth wear and eruption generated for a

generalized sheep/goat category indicate a moderate

reduction of animals between 6–12 months in age,

with 80% of animals surviving past one year, and

continued moderate kill-off of yearlings. A much

more intensive kill-off is seen for animals between 2–

3 years in age, with only 33% of animals surviving

past 3 years in age (Fig. 5). Caprine survivorship

curves generated from epiphyseal fusion data, sug-

gests some slaughter of the very youngest animals,

although the intensity of slaughter is obscured

by a ‘rebound effect’ visible in Stage II (Fig. 6).

Figure 7 Comparative survivorship curves based on epiphyseal fusion for sheep/goats, goats, and sheep: A. Wadi

Shu’eib (nsheep55, ngoat525 ); es-Sifiya (nsheep5152, ngoat5363); el-Hemmeh (nsheep5171, ngoat5300); ‘Ain

Jammam (nsheep5226, ngoat5287); Tel Tif’dan (nsheep531, ngoat5733); Basta (nsheep5226, ngoat5456). Fusion

Stage I50–6 months; II56–12 months; III512–18 months; IV518–30 months; V530–48 months; VI5.49 months

according to Zeder (2006)



Survivorship declines dramatically in fusion stage III,

with 66% of caprines surviving beyond 12–18 months

in age, although a ‘rebound effect’ obscures the pattern

somewhat. Survivorship drops markedly in older

animals, with only c. 34% of animals surviving past

30–48 months. Species-specific demographic profiles

indicate generally higher survivorship of goats over

sheep (Fig. 7). Young goats are largely retained with

87% surviving beyond 12–18 months, in contrast to

sheep, which exhibit markedly lower survivorship

beyond this age. Goats are steadily harvested as

juveniles and adult animals.

The higher abundance of goats relative to sheep

at es-Sifiya likely reflects, in part, an environmen-

tally based herding decision to maintain a higher

proportion of physiologically more robust goats in

flocks herded in a drier Irano-Turanian phytogeo-

graphic zone. The general focus on the moderate

slaughter of lambs, kids, and yearlings, and the

emphasis on adult animals aged 2–3 years, fits with

the expectations associated with tender meat and

‘type B milk’ production. There are clear differences

in the harvesting strategies applied to sheep and

goats at es-Sifiya. The higher survivorship of goats

over sheep, especially for young juvenile animals

(Fig. 7), suggests that yearling sheep were slaugh-

tered for their tender meat, while goats were

harvested for their meat as juveniles and young

adults, when it is was optimal to do so. Sex-specific

harvesting strategies enacted on goats are also

consistent with models for herd production and

herd security. Metrical data indicating low abun-

dance of large fused specimens (representing domes-

tic adult males), accompanied by large unfused

specimens (representing domestic juvenile males)

and abundant representation of small fused speci-

mens (adult females), provide additional, clear

evidence for the focused slaughter of goats during

their juvenile years while promoting adult female

survivorship (Fig. 3). The sheep metrical data,

hampered by small sample size, are more difficult

to interpret (Fig. 4). The presence of both female

and male adults, as well as young male sheep, hints

at some targeting harvesting of juvenile sheep as

strongly observed in goats.

el-Hemmeh

El-Hemmeh is a small (c. 2 ha) Late PPNB settlement

located on a dissected alluvial fan overlooking the

floodplain of the Wadi Hasa. The site is one of

several Late PPNB sites situated within the Wadi

Hasa, including Khirbet Hamman and Hamarash

located c. 10 km and 20 km downstream, respectively

(Petersen 2004). El-Hemmeh offers an opportunity to

examine caprine management strategies in use at a

smaller settlement that sits within the same broader

catchment area as larger sites. A single radiocarbon

determination from unidentified wood charcoal dates

occupation at el-Hemmeh to c. 7600 cal BC

(Makarewicz et al. 2006; Makarewicz and Austin

2006).

Animal exploitation at el-Hemmeh focused on

sheep and goat herding, with some contribution from

taurines and hunted gazelle to the overall subsistence

economy (Table 2; Makarewicz et al. 2006). Sheep

are somewhat less abundant than goats with a ratio

of 1:1?7. Log-transformed metrical data for metapo-

dials indicate a roughly bimodal distribution of values,

with the left peak clearly representing small-bodied

adult females, while the right peak, although spread

out, likely representing larger-bodied adult males

(Fig. 3). It is notable that, when compared to similar

metrical data from other Late PPNB settlements in the

region, the very largest-bodied goats are generally

missing from el-Hemmeh, suggesting that wild goat

bone specimens are minimally represented, if at all, in

the overall assemblage.

Survivorship curves constructed from mandibular

tooth wear data indicate marked kill-off of caprines

aged 6–12 months, with 75% surviving beyond one

year in age. This is followed by moderate but steady

slaughter of young animals aged 12–36 months, with

only 34% of animals surviving 3 years in age (Fig. 5).

Survivorship curves generated from epiphyseal fusion

data broadly agree with tooth wear-based curves.

Demographic profiles generated from fusion data

also indicate that a marked kill-off of infant-aged

animals was relatively high, with only c. 70% of

caprines surviving beyond 0–6 months in age (Fig. 6).

Young juveniles were slaughtered at relatively low

intensities with survivorship of c. 64% beyond 12–

18 months. The next episode of intensive slaughter

was concentrated on adult animals in their second

year, with only 32% of caprines surviving beyond 18–

30 months in age.

Species-specific survivorship curves indicate that

sheep from el-Hemmeh were slaughtered at higher

intensities relative to goats (Fig. 7). There is a very

slight difference in mortality between the youngest

kids and lambs but a more pronounced divergence in

kill-off of yearlings, with c. 75% goats surviving

beyond 12–18 months compared to 53% of sheep.

Survivorship of juvenile and young adult sheep

remains depressed, with 48% of goats surviving

beyond 18–30 months compared to 29% for sheep,

surviving beyond 18–30 months compared to 48% for



goats, although a later ‘rebound’ in older sheep may

indicate a less intense kill-off of this age cohort.

The slightly higher abundance of goats relative to

sheep at el-Hemmeh likely reflects herder decisions

related to production rather than environmental

constraints, as the wetland conditions at the bottom

of the Wadi Hasa would have supported sheep

(Contreras, personal communication). However, if

flocks were herded along a transhumance mobility

pattern out of the wadi bottom to the top of the

Kerak plateau, it may have been more beneficial to

populate herds with a slightly higher proportion of

more hardy goats rather than to focus heavily on

more productive sheep. Interestingly, the youngest

kill-off of caprines is visible at el-Hemmeh compared

to other Late PPNB assemblages examined here. The

strongly defined focus on the kill-off of lambs and

kids, especially in epiphyseal fusion-based survivor-

ship curves, suggests non-intensive milk production

was regularly pursued at el-Hemmeh. The moderate

kill of young yearlings is consistent with models for

mixed meat and milk production, while the more

intensive harvesting of young adult two year olds is

consistent with optimal meat production and herd

security.

The elevated survivorship of goats over sheep as

yearlings, juveniles, and young adults especially

suggests that goats served a more important role in

maintaining everyday subsistence, while sheep,

slaughtered using non-optimizing harvesting strate-

gies for meat production, may have been killed to

meet social demands. LSI values generated for

metapodials provide some additional information

on how goats were managed at el-Hemmeh (Fig. 3).

There appears to be a preference for young male kill-

off while adult female survivorship was promoted,

although the pattern is not strongly defined and the

absence of measurable, unfused metapodials in the

distal breadth dimension poses interpretative diffi-

culties. Examination of metrical data (DVM and

DVL) from fused and unfused specimens indicates

intensive kill-off of males younger than 18–

30 months in age (Fig. 8). Notably, the representa-

tion of adult female animals (indicated in the left

peak of the distribution) is relatively low, suggesting

that reproductively valuable females are absent from

the herd. This may reflect use of a husbandry practice

that breaks herds into separate flocks, with females

and possibly their offspring herded to pastures

located away from the site, or exchange of females

outside of the community.

Tel Tif’dan

Tel Tif’dan is a moderately sized Late PPNB

settlement located in the Wadi Fidan near the Wadi

Arabah. Occupation of the site, based on two

radiocarbon determinations, ranged from c. 7500 to

6700 cal BC (Levy et al. 2001). Palaeoenvironmental

reconstruction based on charcoal remains indicates

that the immediate surroundings contained steppic

vegetation, with some Mediterranean forest nearby,

characteristics of an Irano-Turanian phytogeographic

zone, with an estimated palaeoprecipitation rate of c.

200 mm per year (Colledge 2001; Hunt et al. 2004).

Goat herding served as the foundation of the

animal-based portion of the subsistence economy at

Tif’dan, with a minor contribution from sheep

herding, gazelle hunting and exploitation of taurines

(Twiss 2007; Table 2). Goats vastly outnumber sheep

(35:1). Analyses of horncore morphology suggests

little use of wild caprines (Twiss 2007), although the

LSI data contradict this finding somewhat (Fig. 3).

Figure 8 Distribution of DVM and DVL values for distal fused (black bars) and distal unfused (grey bars) metacarpals

and metatarsals for goats from el-Hemmeh and ‘Ain Jammam



LSI data for Tel Tif’dan goat metapodials indicates

a multi-modal distribution, suggesting that both

domesticate and wild animals were exploited

(Fig. 3). The peak on the left represents small-bodied,

adult female domesticates which dominate the

assemblage. It is likely that the next peak, represented

by LSI values ranging from 20?02 to z0?03, largely

represents larger-bodied male domesticates, although

it is possible that wild female goats are also

represented. The two peaks to the far right likely

represent wild female and male goats.

Tooth wear data were not available due to

extremely poor preservation of teeth (Twiss 2007).

Survivorship curves generated according to epiphy-

seal fusion data indicate use of a conservative

harvesting strategy at Tel Tif’dan, compared to other

Late PPNB sites in the region, with a moderate

retention of lambs and kids (Fig. 6). Kill-off was

concentrated on young animals, with c. 83% of

animals surviving beyond 6–12 months. Slightly

older animals were retained, with no decrease in

survivorship beyond 12–18 months. Kill-off of juve-

niles and younger adults was relatively intense, with

only 63% survivorship of caprines beyond 18–

30 months and then 35% surviving past four years.

Due to the relatively low relative abundance of sheep

present at Tel Tif’dan, it is difficult to elucidate

species-specific harvesting strategies in use at the site.

Goat survivorship for animals between 12–18 months

appears to have been somewhat higher than sheep of

the same age (Fig. 7).

The almost exclusive focus on goats over sheep at

Tel Tif’dan was probably heavily influenced by local

environmental conditions. Although the settlement

was situated within an Irano-Turanian zone during

the Late PPNB, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions

suggest that local precipitation levels were quite low

and not favourable to the keeping of large sheep

flocks. Previous analyses have interpreted caprine

exploitation at Tel Tif’dan as heavily focused on herd

security and the production of meat, while recogniz-

ing that other ante-mortem products, such as milk

and hair, may have been exploited (Twiss 2007).

While the intensive slaughter of adult caprines is

almost certainly indicative of a harvesting strategy

designed for meat production (although perhaps not

optimally so, perhaps indicating a more conservative

form of harvesting that placed greater emphasis on

risk reduction), the moderate slaughter of young

juveniles (mostly goats aged 6–12 months) combined

with the intensive harvesting of adults, but retention

of females well into adulthood (as indicated in body

size distribution data), is consistent with expectations

of models for meat and some milk exploitation. In

addition, by eliminating younger animals, herders at

Tif’dan could concentrate limited winter graze and

fodder supplies on core herd animals and, conse-

quently, increase overall herd stability through

maintenance of animal body condition. In addition,

the absence of a harvest of animals in fusion stage III

(12–18 months) at Tel Tif’dan is unusual and may

indicate spring-summer movement of this age cohort

away from the settlement to summer pasture

grounds. The lower survivorship of sheep of the

same age may indicate that the meat from yearling

sheep compensated for the absence of that obtained

from goats, although additional lines of evidence,

such as skeletal element distribution data, would be

needed to further investigate this possibility.

Ba’ja

The site of Ba’ja is located on an intramontane

terrace deep within the sandstone formation of the

low mountains surrounding the Petra region. The site

is uniquely placed, hidden on the landscape and

reachable only through a narrow siq, which prevents

easy access to the settlement (Gebel and Beinert

1997). Restricted in size by its topographical

surround, Ba’ja is quite small (c. 1?5 ha) relative to

other Late PPNB settlements in the region but may

have served as a centre for specialized production and

distribution of sandstone rings (Gebel 2010; Gebel

and Beinert 1997). Based on determinations derived

from three juniper charcoal fragments, the occupa-

tional sequence at Ba’ja dates from 7500 cal BC to

6900 cal BC (Gebel 2013).

Previous work on the faunal remains from Ba’ja is

limited to the remains recovered from the 1997 season

(von den Driesch et al. 2004). Sheep and goats are the

most abundant taxa represented at Ba’ja, with goats

outnumbering sheep at a ratio of 3:1 (Table 2).

LSI transformed metapodial measurement data for

goats from Ba’ja are somewhat ambiguous (Fig. 3).

A histogram generated from LSI data indicates a

bimodal distribution, with the peak on the left likely

to represent small-bodied female domesticates, which

dominate the assemblage, while the peak on the right

represents either larger-bodied male domesticates or

wild female animals. No pattern is discernible in the

sheep LSI data (Fig. 4).

Mortality curves based on tooth wear for a

combined caprine category indicate a moderate kill-

off of animals aged 1 to 2 years, followed by a much

more intensive cull of animals slaughtered between

the ages of 3 and 4 years, with few animals surviving



beyond this age (Fig. 5). Caprine epiphyseal fusion

data is not available for Ba’ja.

In their analysis, von den Driesch et al. (2004)

argued that the combination of high adult kill-off and

high proportion of male pelvic remains indicated that

sheep and goats were managed primarily for their

meat, although they do not rule out the possibility

that caprines were also being exploited for ante-

mortem products. However, a reconsideration of the

survivorship data reveals a more complex picture.

The slaughter of young caprines aged 1–2 years at

Ba’ja is consistent with a harvesting strategy focused

on the slaughter of animals for their meat. Size

distribution data indicating a slight skew towards

small adult female goats, a pattern consistent with the

moderate focus on the slaughter of juvenile male

goats, also suggests meat production and herd

security. For sheep, the absence of any discernable

pattern for female- or male-based kill-off may either

reflect lower expression of sexual dimorphism in

sheep, a harvesting strategy focused on the exclusive

kill-off of either female or male animals, or a strategy

that evenly targets both males and females (Fig. 7).

The harvesting strategy enacted on older animals

at B’aja is more difficult to interpret, in part because

tooth wear data for some older animals was conflated

into a broader age category of 2–4 years, rather than

2–3 years and 3–4 years as broken down in Payne’s

(1973) schema. However, it is clear that harvesting of

adults took place at markedly higher intensities

relative to juveniles. This unusual pattern of high

adult kill-off may indicate that Ba’ja was being

externally provisioned, either with joints of meat or

live animals.

Although the kill-off pattern seen at Ba’ja does not

fit exactly with Stein’s (1987) model representing

‘producer’ and ‘consumer’ sites, which holds that

assemblages formed by consumers should contain

young, predominantly male animals aged between 1–

3 years while animals older than 3 years are absent

altogether, Stein’s model was developed to under-

stand how herds may have been managed to

provision villages in ancient market economies.

During the Neolithic, the criteria for entering animals

into exchange may have been different. In keeping

with an overall strategy of risk reduction, the

expectation is that herders from producing sites

would off-load their older, surplus animals only

when it became clear that these animals were no

longer needed for subsistence or herd regeneration. It

may be that the predominance of older adults at Ba’ja

reflects the use of animals acquired through exchange

from external sources, perhaps necessitated by the

location of Ba’ja in a locale unsuitable for the keeping

of large caprine herds. This may also explain the

absence of foddered animals at Ba’ja — animals no

longer needed for herd maintenance are often denied

fodder in order to concentrate this limited resource

into more productive ones.

The absence of foddering in Ba’ja goats is

suggested by the restricted range and low variability

in collagen carbon isotope values (d13Cmean5218?6¡

0?4ø; d13Crange5219?2ø to 217?9ø) which are

similar to that observed for co-occurring wild, territor-

Figure 9 Carbon (d13C) and nitrogen (d15N) isotopic values for goat collagens from Ba’ja (–&–) and Basta (– q –), and

gazelle collagens from Basta (– –)



ial gazelle from nearby Basta (d13Cmean5216?6¡

1?0ø; d13Crange5215?0ø to 218?3ø. Collagen was

not well preserved in Ba’ja gazelles). This, combined

with the relatively low carbon values exhibited by Ba’ja

goats, indicating a minimal input of C4 graze in the diet

in contrast to gazelle (which preferentially consume

graze) and some goats from Basta, which are mixed

feeders seasonally provisioned with C4 annuals or

water-stressed C3 graze or browse collected during the

dry season, strongly suggests that Ba’ja goat diet

reflects primarily natural inputs (Fig. 9; Makarewicz in

press; Makarewicz and Tuross 2012). Differences

between goats and gazelle nitrogen isotope values likely

reflect isotopic variation in the underlying floral biome

and physiological differences between the two taxa.

Goat herds likely freely grazed and browsed the

mountainous landscapes surrounding Ba’ja. Instead

of employing intensive fodder provisioning strategies

similar to those enacted seasonally on some goats at

Basta, it is likely herders at Ba’ja relied solely on

open-pasture resources for their animals year-round

and encouraged goat herds to freely graze and browse

in the mountainous pasture in the vicinity of the site.

Given the logistical difficulties of moving herds and

fodder into and out of the settlement, and the general

lack of space for keeping large numbers of animals

penned on-site, it is not entirely surprising that goats

at Ba’ja were not foddered. Moreover, these isotopic

data also suggest that herders did not maintain off-

site satellite herding camps stocked with fodder and

instead employed an extensive pasturage system year-

round. The absence of foddering seen in goats

exploited at Ba’ja (regardless if these animals were

herded by the inhabitants of Ba’ja or imported from

nearby communities) suggests that these animals were

at risk on a seasonal basis, and these animals did not

feature in broader management strategies concerned

with enhancing animal body condition.

Basta

The site of Basta is a large settlement located in the

rolling steppic hills that join the Petra mountains with

the deserts to the east. Extending over 10 ha, like

other Late PPNB sites, Basta is known for its densely

packed architecture and thickly plastered walls and

floors. Based on radiocarbon determinations

obtained from unidentified charcoal fragments, the

occupational sequence at Basta spans from 7550 cal

BC to 7050 cal BC (Gebel 2013; Nissen et al. 1987).

While animal exploitation at Basta focused on

caprine herding, gazelle and equid hunting together

made a significant contribution to the overall

subsistence economy (Becker 1991; Table 2). Goats

are more abundantly represented than sheep at a

ratio of 2?3:1 (Table 2). Previous analyses suggest

that domesticated sheep and goats at Basta were

exploited primarily for their meat and possibly for

some dairy (Becker 2004). Wild goats bezoar (C.

aegagrus) were also hunted (Becker 2004).

Comparison of LSI values for fused metacarpals

and metatarsals, which fuse between 18 and

30 months, provide insight into herd demography

after the age at which animals have reached their

optimal body weight while balancing for energetic

intake. The trimodal distribution observed in mea-

surement data for goats suggests a diverse array of

exploitation strategies (Fig. 3). The low peak on the

right likely represents hunted, large-bodied wild

animals, while the other two peaks probably repre-

sent smaller-bodied male and female domesticates.

The middle peak, which represents domesticated

males allowed to survive beyond the age of metapo-

dial fusion, clearly indicates strong young male kill-

off while a high proportion of females were preserved

well into adulthood. For sheep, a bimodal distribu-

tion is visible, suggesting that both female and male

animals survived well into adulthood (Fig. 4).

Survivorship curves generated from mandibular

tooth wear for a combined sheep/goat category

indicate a relatively steady reduction of juvenile and

adult animals with concentrated kill-off of animals

between 6 and 12 months, followed by a steady

reduction of animals, and followed again by a more

intense kill-off of older animals between 4 to 6 years

in age (Fig. 5). Survivorship curves calculated from

epiphyseal fusion data suggest the moderate-low

intensity slaughter of young animals up to 6 months

in age, the focused kill-off of yearlings with only 70%

of animals surviving 6–12 months in age, accompa-

nied by a pronounced harvest of adult caprines aged

30–48 months with only 37% surviving to this age

(Fig. 6).

Bearing in mind that sheep bone specimens are less

well represented than those belonging to goats,

species-specific survivorship curves demonstrate

higher survivorship of sheep over goats, indicating

that each species was managed using different

harvesting strategies at Basta (Fig. 7). In particular,

juvenile goats were slaughtered at higher intensities

relative to sheep, with 71% of goats surviving beyond

18–30 months compared to 92% for sheep. Intensive

harvesting of sheep was delayed until animals reached

adulthood, with 70% of animals surviving beyond

30–48 months.

Animal husbandry strategies employed at Basta

extended to include manipulation of the animal diet.



Wide carbon and nitrogen isotopic variation and high

d13C values visible in goats from Basta relative to co-

occurring gazelle suggests some goats, but not

necessarily all, were supplied with seasonally avail-

able C4 fodder or water-stressed C3 forage collected

during the summer months (Fig. 9; Makarewicz and

Tuross 2009; 2012). Through foddering, herders at

Basta could overcome periods of seasonally related

shortages in quality graze that would otherwise

negatively impact animal body condition, shorten

lactation duration, and increase mortality (Makarewicz

and Tuross 2006; 2009; 2012). Additional isotopic

analyses also indicate that the goats from Basta were

regularly moved to different pastures some distance, to

an area characterized by a wetter environment

(Makarewicz and Tuross 2012). The pattern of low

d18O and d15N values relative to gazelle, which

presumably were hunted within the vicinity of the

settlement, indicates that goats were ingesting forage

from outside the immediately available graze surround-

ing Basta (Makarewicz and Tuross 2012, Fig. 5).

The survivorship and body size distribution data

suggest that a complex harvesting system was in place

at Basta, one that took into account graze availability

and factors relating to risk reduction and perhaps

wealth accumulation. The intensive kill-off of year-

lings suggests that young caprines were slaughtered

before the winter months in order to conserve limited

fodder resources. The stable isotopic data, which

indicates that fodder was not necessarily applied to

all animals, further support this interpretation. The

intensive slaughter of older adult caprines may reflect

the slaughter of female animals whose progeny

production has dropped off.

The sharp divergence in harvesting strategies

applied to sheep and goats seen at Basta suggests

herders defined different subsistence and production

goals for each animal. For goats, the pronounced

harvest of juvenile and young adult goats fits well

with models for optimal meat off-take. The low

proportion of fused metapodial specimens represent-

ing male domesticates visible in LSI distribution

supports this finding and suggests that male goats

were slaughtered primarily during their first and

second years. However, for sheep, the retention of

juvenile and young adult animals, followed by an

intensive harvesting of adults, is more difficult to

explain. Although the ‘milk B’ model calls for the

slaughter of adult females when milk production

drops off, the low kill-off of infant-aged caprines

suggests that milk production was not heavily

pursued at Basta, or at least not at levels readily

detectable in survivorship curves. In addition, biome-

trical data indicate that both male and female animals

were surviving into adulthood relatively equally. As

an alternative explanation, sheep may have served as

a secondary meat source, one that was accessed only

if the meat supplied by goats was inadequate, and

served to reduce subsistence risks. In addition, the

longevity of sheep may indicate these animals

functioned as a form of storable live animal wealth

and were slaughtered only when social or political

needs dictated.

‘Ain Jammam

The settlement of ‘Ain Jamman is located near Ras

en-Naqb on a escarpment (c. 1600 m a.s.l.) over-

looking the low-lying (c. 800 m a.s.l.) Wadi Hisma

(Fino 2004). The chronological placement of ‘Ain

Jamman within the Late PPNB is difficult due to the

extremely large standard deviations seen in the two

radiocarbon dates obtained from the site (Rollefson

2005). Animal use at ‘Ain Jammam focused primarily

on sheep and goat herding, with goats slightly more

important than sheep (1?3 goats:1 sheep), but gazelle

hunting was also an important feature of the overall

animal exploitation system and provided herders with

a stable fall-back resource as they experimented with

new forms of caprine husbandry (Table 2;

Makarewicz 2009). Hunting of small game was also

pursued at ‘Ain Jammam, and aurochs and possibly

managed cattle were also exploited. Parrot fish from

the Red Sea were consumed at ‘Ain Jammam,

suggesting that smoked or salted fish were procured

via exchange or direct collection (Makarewicz 2009).

A single horn core attributed to C. ibex suggests at

least occasional exploitation of ibex at ‘Ain Jammam.

A trimodal distribution of LSI values generated from

the appendicular skeleton suggests wild goats com-

prise a very small proportion of the overall assem-

blage (Fig. 3; Makarewicz 2009). Metrical data (DVL

and DVM measurements) from metacarpals (less so

in the metatarsals) indicate a higher proportion of

smaller-bodied adult females (.24 months) relative

to larger-bodied adult males and a high proportion of

young (,24 months) males in the assemblage

(Fig. 8).

Survivorship curves calculated from tooth wear

data indicate intensive kill-off of caprines aged 6–

12 months, with only 48% of animals reaching 2

years in age (Fig. 5). Animal slaughter intensifies

again for animals 3–4 years in age, with only 20% of

herd animals reaching 4 years in age. Survivorship

curves generated from epiphyseal fusion data indicate

moderate kill-off of the youngest caprines, with 82%

surviving beyond 6 months (Fig. 6). Slaughter



intensity was relatively low for yearlings and juvenile

animals at ‘Ain Jammam. Kill-off focused on fully

grown adult animals, with only 38% of caprines

surviving beyond 30–48 months in age.

Differences in survivorship calculated for sheep

and goat indicate that different harvesting strategies

were in use for each taxon, with consistently higher

survivorship of juvenile and adult sheep relative to

goats (Fig. 7, Makarewicz 2009). Juvenile goats were

intensively harvested with only c. 57% of animals

surviving beyond 12–18 months compared to c. 78%

for sheep (Fig. 8). Sheep survivorship was promoted

well into young adulthood, followed by a pronounced

kill-off of mature adults.

There are some minor disparities between the

mandibular tooth wear and epiphyseal fusion survivor-

ship curves calculated for ‘Ain Jammam, particularly

in the youngest age categories due to small sample sizes

in the fusion stage I group, but the broad picture is the

same. The moderate kill-off of older kids/lambs aged

6–12 months, followed by intense culling of yearlings

and pronounced slaughter of adult animals (3–4 year

olds) suggests use of ‘type B milk’ and mixed meat and

milk harvesting strategies. Comparison of the DVL

and DVM measurements of fused and unfused

metacarpals and metatarsals suggests that young male

goats were a focus of slaughter. This, along with sex-

specific survivorship curves generated for both sheep

and goat indicating moderate kill-off of male kids/

lambs, may also indicate that tender meat may have

also been a production goal (Makarewicz 2009).

The same metrical data also suggests that, on

occasion, young female kids were slaughtered. Sex-

specific curves also hint at the kill-off of female

yearling goats, while female sheep were preserved as

juveniles and throughout adulthood (Makarewicz

2009). Since female goats generally do not begin to

produce offspring until their second year, it is

unusual that female goats would be slaughtered at

such a young age. This harvesting strategy may reflect

herder decisions to reduce surplus animals and

concentrate fodder stocks on older, reproductively

viable females.

Discussion

Goats were a central aspect of Late PPNB subsistence

and were exploited through application of a wide

variety of harvesting and dietary manipulation

strategies. The use of sex-based slaughtering strate-

gies at many sites reflects husbandry decisions that

were focused on the optimized production of meat

from older juvenile and adult animals, as well as the

extraction of tender meat from yearlings. Tender

meat is often required when social demands dictate

(Arbuckle et al. 2009; Russell 2012), and the frequent

use of this production strategy at many Late PPNB

settlements may indicate that it was socially advanta-

geous to do so, and served to increase social

negotiation between households during a period of

amplifying social differences.

The relatively high kill-off of lambs and kids

observed at several sites suggests milk production was

also part of Late PPNB sheep and goat production

systems. While recognizing that milk off-take may

have occurred on an irregular basis, previous research

has largely discounted the practice of dairying as a

consistent and widely practiced caprine exploitation

strategy (Becker 2004). Although additional biome-

trical analyses are needed in order to further support

their findings, Vigne and Helmer (2007) have argued

for milk exploitation at Middle PPNB Halula, citing

the high kill-off of very young lambs, and ‘type B

milk’ exploitation at Middle PPNB Aswad (i.e.

slaughter of a few lambs 2 to 6 months, followed by

intensive kill-off of animals 6–12 months in age,

followed by the moderate slaughter kill-off of older

females when their milk production decreases).

The absence of female adult goats in their

reproductive prime at some sites suggests the surplus

generation of female animals at producer sites and

may also indicate the emergence of nascent animal

exchange systems during the Late PPNB. Whether

based in subsistence concerns or socio-political

motivations, the exchange of live animals has

significant impacts on the economic and social

landscapes of both producers and consumers. The

high reproductive and productive potential of female

animals confers high value on these animals, offering

individuals who own an excess of female caprines the

opportunity to adjust their economic and social

positioning. Exchange of live animals may have been

an avenue through which widening social difference

manifested during the Late PPNB.

Sheep were preserved well into adulthood at some

settlements, a strategy that may reflect an alternative

form of subsistence risk reduction that is not

inconsistent with wealth accumulation. Domestic

animals are frequently imbued with different types

and gradations of value by the people who exploit

them and are a medium that can be transformed into

wealth and prestige (Russell 2012). Sheep, as a novel

technology that was rapidly introduced to the south-

ern Levant during the Late PPNB (Horwitz et al.

1999), were not as readily accessible as goats at many

settlements. The charismatic novelty and rarity of the

animal, combined with its enhanced productive



qualities of richer milk and more tender, flavourful

meat, may have encouraged herders to retain their

sheep as long as possible. As a reservoir of wealth,

sheep may have provided a mechanism through

which herders could negotiate social and political

landscapes.

Conclusion

Sheep and goat husbandry played a pivotal but

poorly understood role in Late PPNB communities

east of the Jordan Valley. Although previous research

has solidly documented the ubiquitous importance of

caprine herding at these settlements and has provided

some insights into the broad animal production goals

of Late PPNB herders, the species-specific analyses

presented here demonstrate a much more complex

and dynamic picture of pastoralist activity during the

Late PPNB. Rather than a one-dimensional sub-

sistence activity focused solely on meat production

through use of a single harvesting strategy focused on

the kill-off of adult animals, as has been previously

suggested (Becker 2004; Twiss 2007; von den Driesch

et al. 2004; von den Driesch and Wodtke 1997; Wasse

2002), sheep and goat husbandry practices appear to

have consisted of a diverse series of interlinked

strategies that permitted herders to extract a wider

variety and quantity of products, including milk,

from their animals. By using an array of strategies

applied at different intensities and timings to various

animal categories, herders could also glean more

from limited resources such as land, water, and graze

that were likely increasingly pressured and less

productive, due to the rise in domesticate animals

use and human population packing of the landscape

hypothesized for the Late PPNB.

No less significantly, zooarchaeological analyses

such as the ones presented here provide the detail

needed to isolate potential links between subsistence

and ‘subsistence-plus’ economic activity and Late

PPNB household and community social organiza-

tion. Current models conceptualize Late PPNB

society as one where households had begun to acquire

materials beyond what was required for subsistence

and emerge as significant controllers of wealth (Byrd

1994). Although these models imply that agricultural

products were the medium through which wealth was

accumulated, pointing to the large internal storage

features in which grain could be concealed in a

manner likely to discourage sharing, the shift in social

organization during the Late PPNB also coincides

with the first time that domestic animals dominate the

subsistence spectrum, suggesting that these processes

are linked. Livestock herds represent an element of

increased control over a resource and, in the case of

the Late PPNB, possibly ownership. Moreover, in

many pastoralist and agro-pastoralist societies,

domestic animals are a store of wealth, which can

be accrued in live animals or generated through the

raw and transformed forms of meat, milk, and fibre

they produce (Lemonnier 1993; Russell 2012), and

provide a point of entry into multiple economic,

social, and political systems widely accessible to

individual households. Through refined application

of various husbandry practices to their flocks, herders

can accumulate and unload wealth relatively rapidly.

Given that herders are not uniformly skilled at

maintaining and enhancing the productive and

reproductive capabilities of their herds, the potential

for wealth differential between herding households is

high. Although the relationship between wealth

accumulation and animal-based production during

the Late PPNB certainly needs further exploration,

the emergence of new and diverse domestic livestock

herding strategies hints at the intentional creation of

new production pathways that expanded the human

subsistence and wealth possibilities.

Acknowledgements

Support for analysis of zooarchaeological materials

from el-Hemmeh, ‘Ain Jammam, es-Sifiya, and Wadi

Shu’eib was provided by the American School

for Prehistoric Research, the Department of An-

thropology at Harvard University, the Archaeology

Center at Stanford University, and the Christian-

Albrechts University, Kiel. I would like to especially

thank Ben Arbuckle for his comments clarifying the

interpretation of survivorship curves. I would like to

thank Ines Reese for her assistance with the figures,

and Graham Philip for his patience. I would also

like to thank Bill Finlayson and three anonymous

reviewers, whose comments greatly improved the

quality of this paper.

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More than meat: diversity in caprine harvesting strategies and the emergence of complex production...

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