22 Microliths and MortuaryPractices

New Perspectives on the Epipalaeolithic in Northern and Eastern Jordan

Lisa A. Maher

The Epipalaeolithic (EP) period (ca. 20,000–10,200 BP) in the southern Levant witnessed several critical changes in economy, technology, social organization, and ideology. The Late EP (Natufian) is often argued to represent the first appearance of socially complex hunter-gatherers on the basis of several interrelated features, including sedentism, architecture, a ubiquitous and diverse bone tool industry, flourishing artistic expression, intensified plant use, and the presence of burials with grave goods and in formal cemeteries (Belfer-Cohen and Bar-Yosef 2000). Despite statements about gradual development and long-term cultural change throughout the EP, emphasis is placed on supposed dramatic changes appearing suddenly in the late EP as a series of pre-conditions necessary to and setting the stage for the Neolithic (e.g., Belfer-Cohen & Bar-Yosef 2000, Byrd 2005). The perceived sudden appearance of social complexity in the Natufian period has created a dichotomy between simple, mobile pre-Natufian groups and complex, sedentary Natufian groups.

However, recent criticisms of this narrow trajectory for social, economic, and technological change in the EP challenge our current perceptions of the Natufian. For example, Boyd (2006) critically examines many of the lines of evidence used to define sedentism at Natufian sites and concludes than when individual lines of evidence (e.g., storage facilities, cemeteries, architecture, commensals) are scrutinized, the data are ambiguous. Research in northern and eastern Jordan is also challenging these views on the nature and timing of social complexity in the EP period. In fact, it is becoming increasingly clear that some of the traits traditionally considered to define complex Natufian groups actually make an earlier appearance amongst preceding non-Natufian groups.

The Middle Epipalaeolithic Site of ‘Uyun Al-Hammam, Northern Jordan

The site of `Uyun al-Hammam is situated at 200 m a.s.l. on an ancient river terrace in Wadi Ziqlab (Maher, in press). The EP deposits occur within a distinctive red, Pleistocene palaeosol and belong to the Geometric Kebaran (Middle EP) industry. Excavations in 2000–2005 exposed a large horizontal area to locate the site boundaries and potential activity areas and we also discovered human remains

in seven burials (figure 1). The site is c. 1500 m2 in size and extremely rich in chipped stone, ground stone, and faunal material. Approximately 64.5 m2 has been excavated over four years. Given the thickness (more than 1 m) and nature of the deposits, the site appears to have been occupied repeatedly, as a favoured locale. After occupation, it appears to have remained a special place on the landscape and used as a burial ground. Human remains from the Middle EP are extremely rare and the presence of such a large number of individuals at one location will enhance our understanding of past social, ideological, and mortuary practices. A preliminary summary of the graves excavated in 2005 is presented in table 1.

Figure 1. The excavated areas in 2005 were stepped into the terrace edge of `Uyun al-Hammam with a modern road cutting through the site visible in the foreground. The EP deposits are approximately 50–80 cm below the surface, in a dark, reddish Pleistocene palaeosol. Graves I–VII were found extending from the terrace edge and into the terrace for approximately 6 m.

A preliminary assessment of the skeletons’ morphological features, stratigraphic contexts, and association with only Geometric Kebaran artifacts strongly suggests that they all date to sometime within the Geometric Kebaran period. A radiocarbon sample from the pelvis of H1 (Grave I) produced a date of 12,625 ± 409 cal BC (TO-11704). Securely dating the other skeletons remains a high priority. Bone samples were taken from each skeleton for radiocarbon dating and the detailed analyses of all the human remains is ongoing. It is hoped that the analysis of these important finds will provide valuable insights into the age of the skeletons, as well as prehistoric behavior.

All of the burials were dug into pre-existing Geometric Kebaran deposits and the grave fill contained abundant chipped stone and fauna. No burial pit(s) are discernible and the grave fill appears no different from the surrounding EP-bearing soil. Consequently, grave goods were restricted to

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items in direct contact with the bones. In general, a familiar suite of artifacts was documented for the graves (see table 1). The graves show no obvious patterns in body position or orientation, although many of the burials are primary, extended interments of adult individuals (figure 2). Graves I, II, and VII exhibit stone inclusions above, below, or adjacent to the skeletons.

Table 1. Human remains from `Uyun al-Hammam recovered from 2005 excavations.

Grave Homo (H) Age Sex Position Type Description

I 1 Adult Indet. (F?) Semi-flexed Primary Articulated pelvis and lower limbs; mandible; associated with limestone pounder, flint tools (endscrapers, core, trapeze/rectangles), red ochre, Bos patella, worked horn core implement, canid skull

2 Adult Indet. n/a Secondary Isolated bones (mandible, tibia, clavicle, rib cage, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna)

3 Subadult Indet. n/a Secondary Proximal femoral fragment

II 4 Adolescent or gracile adult

Indet. Long bones aligned on flat rock above skull

Secondary Select long bones and cranium within stone-lined and stone-filled feature (undated, probably a pit); long bones lying on a large, flat rock under course of stone rubble inside the feature with skull directly below rock

III 5 Adult Indet. Extended with left arm over chest and right arm extended along right side

Primary Skeleton almost complete; missing some vertebrae, most of the pelvis, and hands and feet; fully erupted and worn lower M3; trapeze/rectangle directly underneath right humeral head; unworked cobble directly over missing pelvis; two angular, unworked cobbles over the face and at the back of the cranium; no discernible burial pit

IV 6 Adult Male (?) Extended with right arm flexed over lower torso, head turned to left shoulder

Primary Almost complete but fragmented skeleton; missing some vertebrae and hands and feet; no burial pit; two fragments of basalt groundstone vessels and flint endscraper over pelvis; distal phalange of a medium-sized mammal found in neck region

V 7 Adolescent or gracile adult

Indet. Bones roughly aligned with head to north, long bones to south

Secondary Part of cranium and some long bones accompanied by several long bones from a medium-sized mammal; highly fragmentary due to overlying Roman/Byzantine field wall; no burial pit

VI 8 Adult Indet. Extended or semi-flexed

Primary Articulated lower limbs extending from trench baulk; no burial pit; legs slightly deformed downslope post-depositionally

VII 9 Adult Female Extended, with head tilted forward and down

Primary Skeleton badly damaged by post-depositional disturbance; hands and feet missing; several large rocks associated with skeleton (one over the head, one below the right femur, and one inclined alongside the skull)

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Grave I was the most complicated grave excavated in 2005. Situated approximately 60 cm deep into the Geometric Kebaran horizons was the primary interment of an adult (H1) accompanied by groundstone and flint tools and animal bones. Isolated, disarticulated bones of at least one other adult (H2) and the femural fragment of a subadult (H3) suggest that either this primary interment disturbed an earlier grave(s) or partial skeletons from two other individuals were included with this interment as secondary burials. The articulated skeleton was damaged by erosion and road construction such that only the lower limbs and fragments of the pelvis survived. The upper portion of the body was missing, but two mandibles were found eroding out of the section adjacent to the pelvis. A minimum of three individuals are represented in this grave.

A thin, powdery, partial layer of red ochre was found underneath the human remains in Grave I. A large limestone pounder, a basalt pestle fragment, several trapeze/rectangles, endscrapers, cores, a possibly worked horn core, and a canid skull were found either in direct contact with the primary interment or within the same ochre-rich area in immediate proximity of the remains. The placement of a canid skull with H1 suggests a special animal–human relationship (e.g., pet or personal decoration), perhaps similar to that documented at Mallaha. A basalt cylindrical pestle and circular hand stone immediately overlying four endscrapers were found 50 cm away from the grave, but not in direct association. The discovery of seven human burials significantly increases the number of known human remains from the Middle EP. More importantly, the discovery highlights the importance of this site and others like it for our understanding of pre-Natufian mortuary practices. There are only a few other examples of burials from this time period and, in fact, this site is the first to document such a large number of EP human burials at one location prior to the Natufian. The use of the site for multiple interments attests to its social importance within the landscape.

Figure 2. The primary, extended burial of an adult in Grave IV (see table 2).

The Early and Middle Epipapaeolithic Site of Kharaneh IV

In the 1980’s Mujahed Muheisen conducted survey and excavation in eastern Jordan that contributed much to our knowledge of the prehistory of this area (Muheisen 1988). One of the sites investigated by Muheisen was the large, multi-phase site Kharaneh IV, situated 2 km southwest of Qasr Kharaneh (figure 3). The site extends over more than 21,000 m2 and exhibits the remains of hut structures,

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living floors, hearths, bone tools, groundstone, extremely dense faunal material and lithic tools and debitage, and two human burials (Muheisen 1988, Rolston 1982). The intensity of activity at the site has resulted in the creation of a small mound of occupational debris rising ~1.5 m above the surrounding landscape. Muheisen documented at least four occupation phases during the EP period (A and B are Early, and C and D are Middle EP) from excavations concentrated in two main areas: 12 m2 in the Middle EP deposits and 3 m2 to the east in Early EP deposits.

In light of the considerable size of the site, renewed work is necessary in order to more fully understand the nature of the site and its unique features and to conserve the important EP remains. Work at the site was renewed in 2006, beginning with a brief survey to relocate Muheisen’s old excavation trenches and to remap the mound and its associated features (Maher et al., in press). The fence that once protected the site has recently been damaged and tire tracks can clearly be seen on the site’s surface. Muheisen’s excavation trenches have been heavily eroded and today are visible only as slumped areas on the site’s surface, though hearth remains, lithics, and fauna are visible in the old sections.

Figure 3. A view southwest across the surface of the Epipalaeolithic site of Kharaneh IV. The entire surface of this small mound exhibits an extremely dense concentration of artifacts (darker colour in foreground). Muheisen’s (1988) excavations recorded a 1.5–2 m depth of dense occupational debris spanning the Early and Middle EP.

The two burials documented by Muheisen (1988) from Phase B are both single, primary, extended interments of adult males (Muheisen 1988, Rolston 1982). Both individuals were discovered underneath living floors within or adjacent to hut structures. One of the individuals was buried with two gazelle horn cores placed immediately above its skull. The intentional placement of animal remains in Early and Middle EP human burials like those seen at Natufian sites (Byrd & Monahan 1995) is rare. This burial and the canid skull and horn-core tool in Grave I at `Uyun al-Hammam bring to light the importance of human–animal social relationships prior to the Natufian.

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Kharaneh IV reveals a prolonged history of human settlement in the region. The on-site burial of individuals attests to the ideological importance attached to this place by past groups and may represent a process of ‘marking out’ special places in the landscape. EP sites containing such a wide diversity of features and high density of artifacts remain extremely rare in Jordan. Consequently, Kharaneh IV, like ̀ Uyun al-Hammam, has the potential to provide us with crucial data on prehistoric technology, sedentism, architecture, economy, and mortuary practices over time.

Early and Middle Epipalaeolithic Mortuary Practices

Despite several decades of research, there are very few Early and Middle EP sites in the Levant containing human burials (table 2) and little is known about mortuary practices, treatment of the dead, and general health during this period, particularly in comparison with the hundreds of indi-viduals known from Natufian cemeteries.

Site Time Period Description Reference

Ein Gev I Kebaran Almost complete woman buried in shallow pit under hut floor; tightly flexed; heavily damaged; gracile cranium and skeleton

Arensburg and Bar-Yosef 1973

Ohalo II Early Kebaran Robust male 35–40 yrs old in shallow pit burial; semi-flexed with hands crossed over chest and legs folded behind; head elevated on 3 stones; hammerstone between legs; incised bone fragment behind head; isolated remains of another adult and child nearby

Nadel 1994

Kharaneh IV Kebaran (?) Phase B; primary extended adult male skeleton under a living floor; evidence of severe bone infection

Rolston 1982

Kharaneh IV Kebaran (?) Phase B: primary extended adult male skeleton under a living floor; evidence of a severe underbite and arthritis

Rolston 1982

Neve David Geometric Kebaran

Fragmentary burial of adult male flexed on right side in a shallow pit marked by several large stones; broken bowl behind head, milling stone between legs; stone slabs and a breached mortar over the skull; missing ribs, vertebrae and teeth; 12.6–13.4 uncal BP; second partial burial largely destroyed (?)

Kaufman and Ronen 1987

Qadish Valley Geometric Kebaran

Articulated partial skeleton (lower limbs and one foot) of adult, probably male, buried in well-defined pit; accompanied by 2 polished pebbles near patella, shell beads, trapeze/rectangles

Garrard and Yazbeck 2003

Wadi Mataha Geometric Kebaran

Robust skeleton of adult male with head trauma buried face down in shallow pit; small stature with significant morphological asymmetry; no burial pit; associated with breached mortar and large blade

Stock et al. 2005

`Uyun al-Hammam

Geometric Kebaran

Graves I–VII detailed above in Table 1. Maher 2006

All of the known burials are from Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran habitation sites within the Mediterranean core zone, except Kharaneh IV which is tied to a nearby Pleistocene freshwater lake in Azraq. Early and Middle EP burials are mainly single primary interments, sometimes accompanied elsewhere on-site with isolated bones and teeth of other individuals. The age and sex of the skeletons is predominately adult and male. Determining the significance of grave goods associated with the skeletons is difficult as most burials are dug into artifact-bearing deposits and, in most cases, burial pits are indiscernible. However, it does appear that some of the skeletons are

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Table 2. Early and Middle EP human remains from the Levant.

clearly associated with objects, including flint and groundstone, while others are not. The Qadish Valley burial included a few shell beads and two polished stones that may have been grave goods (Garrard and Yazbeck 2003). Interestingly, large cobbles or stones are often found underneath, on top, or adjacent to bodies, such as at Ohalo II (Nadel 1994), Neve David (Kaufman and Ronen 1987), and `Uyun al-Hammam (Maher, in press).

The low number of known Early and Middle EP burials may lie with the actual burial practices themselves. Burial pits are often undetectable and Nadel (Nadel 1994) argues that this is indicative of a tradition of burying the dead in shallow pits near the ground surface, making them highly susceptible to erosion. The partial or complete erosion of these burials may also explain the presence of isolated human bones found at many sites also containing articulated remains (Nadel 1994). Any off-site burials lacking grave goods to identify them as EP (e.g., microliths) would go largely undetected. This reinforces Nadel’s (1994) assertion that it is not the ephemeral nature of early sites that leads to the invisibility of burials, but rather the burial practices themselves that lead to poor preservation.

Discussion: Continuity over Time

Current work at ̀ Uyun al-Hammam and Kharaneh IV is providing us with the important opportunity to explore whether Natufian-like mortuary practices in the Early and Middle EP represent local occurrences or evidence of more widespread, fundamental shifts in human behavior. Both sites document a considerable density and diversity of artifacts, long-term and repeated occupation, architectural remains (huts and floors at Kharaneh IV), and several human burials with grave goods. Taken together with burial data from other Early and Middle EP sites (table 2), it is clear that the practices we see in the Natufian do have deeper chronological roots. These findings highlight the importance of excavating Early and Middle EP sites in Jordan as they are proving to be central to current debates about the origins of social complexity and burial grounds in the EP period. The burials at ̀ Uyun al-Hammam and Kharaneh IV highlight continuity in EP mortuary practices over time, a trend that will continue as more Early and Middle EP sites are investigated to the same extent as Natufian ones. Perhaps the most salient feature regarding Natufian mortuary practices is the presence of cemeteries – special places marked onto the landscape and into social memory. Increasingly, it seems clear that the presence of what are often termed “complex” burial customs and even burial grounds occur prior to the Natufian. Burials with gazelle horn cores, red ochre, and showing special human-animal relationships were thought to first appear within Natufian cemeteries. Now, their repeated appearance at Early and Middle EP sites supports the idea of local continuity in these practices as “traditions” (see Byrd & Monahan 1995). The number of individuals and nature of burial contexts at `Uyun al-Hammam and, to some extent, Kharaneh IV, suggest these sites may have served as dedicated burial grounds. At least, we should be better prepared to look for the mortuary practices formerly used to characterize Natufian cemeteries at these Early and Middle EP sites.

References

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Belfer-Cohen, A., and O. Bar-Yosef (2000) Early Sedentism in the Near East: A Bumpy Ride to Village Life. In Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation: Fundamental Issues in Archaeology, edited by I. Kuijt (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers): 19-37.

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Boyd, B. (2006) On sedentism in the Later Epipalaeolithic (Natufian) Levant. World Prehistory 38: 164-178.Byrd, B. (2005) Reassessing the Emergence of Village Life in the Near East. Journal of Archaeological Science

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Anthropological Archaeology 14: 251-287.Garrard, A., and C. Yazbeck (2003) Qadisha valley prehistoric project (Northern Lebanon). Summary of first two

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Nadel, D. (1994) Levantine Upper Palaeolithic - Early Epipalaeolithic Burial Customs: Ohalo II as a Case Study. Paléorient 20: 113-121.

Rolston, S. L. (1982) Two prehistoric burials from Kharaneh. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 26: 221-222.

Stock, J. T., S.K. Pfeiffer, M. Chazan, and J. Janetski (2005) F-81 Skeleton from Wadi Mataha, Jordan, and its Bearing on Human Variability in the Epipalaeolithic of the Levant. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 126: 453-465.

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