Notes

Preface

1 . I am not suggesting that the Afro-Modernist epic is exclusively a male con-struct; on the contrary, a book on women writers’ participation in this genre is waiting to be written. Rather, I am arguing for the particularly strong connec-tion between these three writers (in fact a direct lineage from Tolson through Hughes to Baraka) and their epic poems, a connection that has not previously been recognized by scholars.

2 . In the anthology of twenty-first century women’s poetry she coedited with Claudia Rankine, Juliana Spahr defines “innovative poetry” as follows: “Innovative is a word that is as hard to define as lyric, but for the most part here it means the agrammatical modernist techniques such as fragmentation, parataxis, run-ons, interruption, and disjunction, and at the same time the avoidance of linear narrative development, of meditative confessionalism, and of singular voice” (2).

3 . I wish to thank Lyn Hejinian for a conversation at the Kelly Writers House at the University of Pennsylvania that aided me in clarifying my own thinking on this topic.

4 . Significantly, Cary Nelson finds Tolson’s Libretto for the Republic of Liberia (1953) to be one of the last great texts of American modernism. Nelson marks the end of American modernism with the publication of Robert Lowell’s Life Studies (1959), a collection that moves autobiography to the forefront (101).

1 Modern, Modernist, Afro-Modernist: Melvin B. Tolson in the 1930s and 1940s

1 . In Crossroads Modernism (2002), Edward M. Pavli ć distinguishes between European and American modernist influenced “Afro-modernism” and “diasporic modernism,” seeing the former as more solitary and the latter as more communal. In addition, he describes Afro-modernism as, for example, “foregrounding vertical processes,” while diasporic modernism “emphasizes

190 ● Notes

bringing modernist insights into contact with horizontal social and cultural milieux” (5–6).

2 . A work of more sweeping scope was on Tolson’s mind in his conception of Harlem Gallery as a grand epic in five books representing the black diaspora. The intended sequence was as follows: Book I: The Curator , Book II: Egypt Land, Book III: The Red Sea, Book IV: The Wilderness , and Book V, The Promised Land . Though portions of a possible Book II are in Tolson’s papers in the Library of Congress, he only lived to complete the first book.

3 . See Farnsworth’s 1979 debut of A Gallery of Harlem Portraits from University of Missouri Press 273–275.

4 . To elaborate, Nielsen writes: “Certainly Tolson has been flogged for his later style, and the terms of the critical argument over his corpus seem to have been set by the authors of the prefaces to his two last books, Allen Tate and Karl Shapiro. Just as Shapiro’s preface was a response as much to Tate’s as to Tolson’s verses, critics who have come at Tolson afterwards, Black and White alike, have raged and ranged between the Scylla and Charybdis of Shapiro’s two most provocative praises of Tolson’s poems: that they were ‘outpounding Pound’ (12), and that in them ‘Tolson writes and thinks in Negro’ (13). Indeed, many of Tolson’s earliest reviewers and critics seem to have been as exercised, either favorably or negatively, by Shapiro as by Tolson. This is certainly the case in Sarah Webster Fabio’s 1966 essay ‘Who Speaks Negro?’ and Josephine Jacobsen, reviewing Harlem Gallery for the Baltimore Evening Sun , spends roughly half of her print space arguing with Shapiro” (241–242).

5 . Greenwood Press published The Harlem Group of Negro Writers in 2001. 6 . For a detailed discussion of the periodization of early twentieth-century

African American poetry, see James Smethurst’s “Introduction” to The New Red Negro .

7 . Nielsen places Tolson’s modernist emergence chronologically later in his per-suasive account of Tolson’s portrayal of the Africanist roots of modernism in Libretto for the Republic of Liberia : “The ‘suddenness’ of Tolson’s stylis-tic transformation is of course belied by those poems published between the appearance of Rendezvous with America and Libretto for the Republic of Liberia ” (242).

8 . Notable exceptions to this neglect include Keith D. Leonard’s Fettered Genius: The African American Bardic Poet From Slavery to Civil Rights (2006) and James Smethurst’s The New Red Negro: The Literary Left And African American Poetry (1999).

9 . Tolson’s naming of Hughes as “the poet of Lenox Avenue” is indicative that Tolson based the character of Hideho Heights (“the vagabond bard of Lenox Avenue”) from the later Harlem Gallery at least in part on Hughes. In addi-tion, the name of the poet is most certainly borrowed from one of Tolson’s star debate students, R. Henri Heights III (Farnsworth 104).

10 . Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989. 11 . Tolson also corresponded with Chicago Renaissance writer Theodore Dreiser.

Notes ● 191

12 . Later, in Tendencies in Modern American Poetry (1917), Amy Lowell lists the six rules as part of a larger essay.

13 . The long poem titles in this sentence are in quotation marks, distinguishing them from the section titles. Each section contains multiple poems.

14 . Page numbers for all the poems collected in Rendezvous With America (1944) are taken from “Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of Melvin B. Tolson (1999).

15 . In “Characteristics of Negro Expression,” (1934) Zora Neale Hurston calls this use of “verbal nouns” one of “the Negro’s greatest contributions to the lan-guage” (1021).

16 . Of Tolson’s World War II sonnets, Mootry writes: “Creative practice unites hyperbolic conventions of American folktales with contemporary propagandist mass-art techniques.” She sees the sonnets as equivalent to “poster art” (134).

17 . This review is cited by Farnsworth as February 24, 1945, a date taken from a hand-dated clipping in Tolson’s archives.

18 . B é rub é cites the influence of Robert A. Davis, whose review of “Dark Symphony” appeared in the Chicago Sunday Bee of September 21, 1941. Citing Tolson’s “use of well worn allusions” that are “coupled with the obvious fault of redundance,” he suggested that some sections were “far short of what the author is capable of and intends” (qtd. in B é rub é 169). Davis contrasts the poem’s “perfect” first six lines with its next six, protesting that “it is almost sacrilege to follow such magnificent lines with others as f lat and Pollyannaish” as these (qtd. in B é rub é 169):

Men black and strong For Justice and Democracy have stood, Steeled in the faith that Right Will conquer Wrong, And Time will usher in one brotherhood.

B é rub é notes that “Davis’s objection is well taken, and apparently Tolson thought so too” (169). The revised stanza that appears in the book Rendezvous with America is as follows:

Waifs of the auction block, Men black and strong The juggernauts of despotism withstood, Loin-girt with faith that worms Equate the wrong And dust is purged to create brotherhood. (169)

19 . The other artists and scientists are somewhat more quiet; in this stanza they “teach,” “lead,” and “create.”

20 . In “Count Us In,” Sterling A. Brown writes: “Against the medical authorities who stated there was no such thing as Negro blood, that the blood from the veins of whites and Negroes could not be told apart, the Red Cross officially sided with [Mississippi Congressman John Rankin] who saw in the proposal that Negroes too might contribute much needed blood, a communist plot to ‘mongrelize America’.” (qtd. in Thomas 109).

192 ● Notes

2 A Poem for the Futurafrique: Tolson’s Libretto for the Republic of Liberia

1 . See, for example, Hughes’s poem “Prelude to Our Age: A Negro History Poem” (1951) in which Hughes finds it impossible to imagine the future.

2 . Farnsworth notes that he could find no instances of Tolson’s writing about his experiences at the inauguration (218), but suggests that Melvin, Jr.’s mem-ory of his father visiting him on a stopover in Paris confirms that a trip took place (220). In any case, this trip would have taken place after Tolson’s book appeared.

3 . All line numbers for Libretto are taken from the original 1953 Twayne edition; the text is not paginated.

4 . Stanley is most well-known as the rescuer of Dr. David Livingstone in 1871, greeting the lost explorer with the famous words: “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” (“Henry Stanley”).

5 . Maria K. Mootry finds this same formal structure in one of Tolson’s war son-nets in Rendezvous With America (1944): “’The Braggart’ while rather simple in its structure of a tale within a tale and its use of character, dialogue, and concluding homily, achieves perhaps inadvertent complexity in its reversal of call-and-response patterns in the premodernist, black oral tradition” (138).

6 . John Cullen Gruesser suggests that Tolson is also punning on the “foot” in “footnote”: “with the words ‘bunioned,’ ‘pedant,’ and ‘ladder,’ thereby contrast-ing a plodding, earth-bound approach to life with the high-flying and mercu-rial sparrow (Liberia).” (124).

7 . “Selah,” a Hebrew word that is repeated throughout the Psalms , is thought to have a range of meanings, both liturgical and musical. It may indicate, for example, a pause for meditation, or a musical instruction. See the Babylon Hebrew-English, English-Hebrew Dictionary (2012).

8 . This poem is discussed in further detail in chapter 3 . 9 . “Tolson’s difficulties send the reader not to dictionaries, atlases, and encyclo-

pedias (as Dudley Randall has asserted) but to primary texts, as do the notes in Eliot’s ‘Waste Land’.” (Woodson 34).

10 . In his “Review of Libretto for the Republic of Liberia ,” J. Saunders Redding finds that Tolson’s use of endnotes indicates “that the poet found his talents unequal to the full requirements of the particular necessary communication” (2).

11 . See: Ramona Lowe, “Poem ‘Rendezvous With America’ Wins Fame For Melvin Tolson,” The Chicago Defender April 28, 1945 National Edition: 18. Print.

12 . Tolson’s son, Melvin, Jr., concurs with Farnsworth: “The original sponsor of Liberia, the American Colonization Society, had also founded Lincoln University, of which [Tolson’s] friend and schoolmate Horace Mann Bond had recently become president” (398).

13 . Espoused by influential persons, the colonization movement became quite pop-ular. The ACS was founded in Washington, DC, in December 1816–January 1817 and “by 1833, there were 97 local colonization societies in the North and 136 in the South” (Cain 10).

Notes ● 193

14 . For a discussion of various responses to the situation in Liberia in the early part of the twentieth century, including critiques written by African American intel-lectuals, see Hart 166–167.

15 . In 2006, the BBC reported: “The country’s most recent troubles can be traced back to the 1980 coup in which a group of army officers of indigenous tribal origin led by Samuel Doe seized power. Doe forged closer ties with the United States, visiting President Reagan in Washington, and received substantial amounts of aid in return for exclusive trade agreements. His authoritarian regime banned newspapers and political parties, and held staged elections. Civil war broke out in 1989. In September 1990, Doe was overthrown and brutally executed by forces loyal to rebel faction leader Yornie Johnson. The war dragged on until 1996, and a year later warlord Charles Taylor . . . was elected president. His autocratic rule saw opposition leaders targeted for assassination. War broke out again in 1999. Taylor was eventually ousted in 2003, and exiled to Nigeria” (“Liberia at-a-Glance”).

16 . Taylor is charged with “instigating murder, mutilation, rape and sexual slavery during intertwined wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone that claimed more than 250,000 victims from 1989 to 2003” (“Charles G. Taylor”).

17 . Over the summer of 2010, Taylor’s trial was highlighted on the international stage with testimonies by actress Mia Farrow and model Naomi Campbell con-cerning Taylor’s possession of the so-called blood diamonds he allegedly used to obtain weapons (Simons and Cowell).

18 . B é rub é argues that Tolson “was convinced that he had broken into the mar-moreal halls, that he had achieved an unprecedented academic recognition of African-American poetry by means of the approbation of a major critic” (141).

19 . The 1953 edition of Libretto has no page numbers. 20 . Also writing for Phylon in a review of Harlem Gallery in 1965, Dolphin G.

Thompson labels the lack of positive attention to Libretto a result of “artistic jealousy and shame.”

Tolson demonstrated a superb poetic talent in Rendezvous with America , his first book. A second work, The Libretto for the Republic of Liberia , struck with a hurricane force in the citadel of letters, and it was promptly consigned to death in a conspiracy of silence. An African proverb says, “To die quickly saves the survivor pain and suffering.” Most poets and critics know Tolson but have exhibited artistic jealousy and shame. (Thompson 409)

21 . The other books reviewed in the article are The Art of Worldly Wisdom by Kenneth Rexroth; The Eye by Harvey Shapiro; Angel of Accidence by Peter Kane Dufault; Animal, Vegetable, Mineral by Babette Deutsch; The Toy Fair by Howard Moss; and The Land of Silence and Other Poems by May Sarton.

22 . Within the context of the discussion it is interesting to consider the notion of “purity” in all its forms: “pure nonsense,” “racial purity,” and so on. For Davis, who prefers “normal conversational speech,” the implication of nonsense being “pure” would not have occurred to him. For Tolson, poets function as purifiers

194 ● Notes

of language: “The poet is not only the purifier of language, as Eliot insists, but the poet is a sort of barometer in his society. The Latin word for poet is ‘seer,’ a ‘prophet’.” (“Interview” 191).

23 . Such consideration is absent in Ramazani’s account of Hughes’s transnation-ality in which he links Hughes with D. H. Lawrence through their common progenitor, Walt Whitman.

24 . Tolson also took care to distinguish himself from Stein:Listen, Black Boy. Did the High Priestess at 27 rue de Fleurus assert, “The Negro suffers from nothingness”? ( Harlem Gallery 264)

Tolson’s work continued throughout his life to be a rallying cry against Stein’s comment about the “nothingness” of Negro culture. In the 1965 interview, he asserts, “Gertrude Stein’s judgment that the Negro suffers from Nothingness revealed her profound ignorance of African cultures.” (“Interview” 185).

25 . See: Alec Marsh, Money and Modernity: Pound, Williams, and the Spirit of Jefferson (Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 1998). Print.

3 “In the Modern Vein”: Tolson’s Harlem Gallery

1 . Page numbers for Harlem Gallery are taken from the University Press of Virginia edition (1999).

2 . Joy Flasch cites this portion of the interview as follows: “Cut B, manuscript of tape made for University of Wisconsin educational radio station, May 23, 1965, p. 10.” It is unclear whether this is part of a larger interview conducted by M. W. King, part of which is included Herbert Hill’s Anger and Beyond . The interviews do, however, have the same date.

3 . Quoted in Nielsen: “Deterritorialization” 247. 4 . Tolson’s poem “E. &. O. E.” was published in Poetry 78 (September 1951).

The title is taken from the printer’s abbreviation for “errors and omissions excepted.”

5 . Nelson notes that “the brief excerpts from the poem that are attributed to Hideho Heights in ‘Chi’ are (except for the shift of one article from ‘the’ to ‘a’) verbally identical to Tolson’s ‘E. &. O. E.,’ while the line structure has been adapted to fit the odic prosody of Harlem Gallery.” (451–452)

6 . “In the majority of poetic genres, the unity of the language system and the unity (and uniqueness) of the poet’s individuality as reflected in his language and speech, which is directly realized in this unity, are indispensable prerequisites of poetic style. The novel, however, not only does not require these conditions but . . . even makes of the internal stratification of language, or its social hetero-glossia and the variety of individual voices in it, the prerequisite for authentic novelist prose” (Bakhtin 264).

7 . The interview took place at Langston University on March 10, 1965. Tolson was interviewed by M. W. King, a professor of English at Lincoln University (Jefferson City, Missouri).

Notes ● 195

4 Bound By Law—Langston Hughes in/and the 1950s

1 . Jean-Michel Rabat é describes “an ‘ethics of mourning’ identical with an accep-tance of loss in order to go beyond mere repetition. A ‘successful’ mourning is generally thought to lead to incorporation, which merely reproduces another transpersonal and translinguistic ‘phantom,’ as Abraham and Torok have argued. What occurs when mourning generates another text?” (13).

2 . In The Oxford English Dictionary online, the first definition of the noun form of prelude is, “A preliminary action, or condition, preceding and introducing one of more importance; an introduction, a preface; a precursor.”

3 . Westover argues that in “Prelude” and other poems, including “Drums” and “Danse Africaine,” “Hughes makes the drum his instrument for the recupera-tive work of memory,” (1215).

4 . For an illuminating discussion of the historical development of Afro-diasporic consciousness by participants in the Harlem Renaissance and the Afro-Cubanism ( afrocubanismo ) movement, and Hughes’s influence on both, see: Frank Guridy, “Feeling Diaspora in Harlem and Havana.” This essay shows “how Afro-diasporic connections can be established across cultural differences” illustrating “the process of diasporization, or the complex social, political, and cultural interactions between people of African descent across national, cultural, and linguistic boundaries that are based on a perceived commonality” (116).

5 . Begun by legal scholars in the 1970s, “critical race theory builds on the insights of two previous movements, critical legal studies and radical feminism . . . It also draws from certain European philosophers and theorists, such as Antonio Gramsci, Michel Foucalt, and Jacques Derrida, as well as from the American radical tradition exemplified by such figures as Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Du Bois, César Chávez, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Black Power and Chicano movements of the sixties and early seventies.” (Delgado and Stefancic, Critical Race 4–5).

6 . Hughes’s identification with African Americans is evident in his use of the pronouns “we” and “our” throughout the poem, naming America as “our land,” for example: “Meanwhile Jamestown links its chains / Between the Gold Coast and our land” (380).

7 . Renamed the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in 1972. 8 . Esther Sanchez-Pardo theorizes “cultures of the death drive” through a Kleinian

perspective. 9 . In The Philosophy of History (1837), Hegel writes: “At this point we leave Africa,

not to mention it again. For it is no historical part of the World; it has no move-ment or development to exhibit . . . . What we properly understand by Africa, is the Unhistorical, Undeveloped Spirit, still involved in the conditions of mere nature, and which had to be presented here only as on the threshold of the World’s History” (99).

10 . See also Rachel Blau DuPlessis’s reading of Wallace Stevens’s 1916 play Three Travelers Watch a Sunrise , in which the two black characters “only serve; they are completely silent or gestural” (DuPlessis 57).

196 ● Notes

11 . The five cases are as follows: Oliver Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, Kansas, et al.; Harry Briggs, Jr., et al. v. R.W. Elliott, et al.; Dorothy E. Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al.; Spottswood Thomas Bolling et al. v. C. Melvin Sharpe et al.; Francis B. Gebhart et al. v. Ethel Louise Belton et al ., (“Teaching With Documents”).

12 . In December 2010, the Memphis City School Board, whose schools have an 85 percent black student population, voted to surrender its charter, attempting to put into motion an eventual, forced consolidation with majority-white Shelby County Schools. “Memphis schools began integrating in 1961 without the vio-lence other Southern cities endured. White parents instead left the city for the suburbs or put their children in private schools, effectively re-segregating educa-tion into a mostly black city system and a largely white suburban system” (Sainz).

13 . Hughes announced the completion of the book, Montage of a Dream Deferred , in a letter to Arna Bontemps dated September 14, 1948 (Rampersad, Life Vol. II 151). It was published by Henry Holt in 1951.

5 Toward An Afro-Modernist Future: Langston’s Hughes’s ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR JAZZ

1 . Quotations and page numbers taken from the first edition of ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR JAZZ , New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1961.

2 . Patricia Jane Roylance explains: “As critics accused Longfellow of plagiariz-ing the Finnish epic Kalevala , they overwrote [“The Song of Hiawatha”’s] sig-nificant debt to aboriginal imagination. Though Longfellow himself resisted this trend toward cultural oversimplification and privileging Scandinavia over Native America, his poetry nonetheless participated in and even helped to encourage that practice” (436).

3 . King Leopold II’s agents terrorized the native Africans, chopping off the right hands of, or killing, men who failed to meet their quota for rubber production.

4 . The correct spelling is “Emeka.” Emeka’s full name was Nnaemeka Ndedi Azikiwe. He died on March 15, 2011.

5 . Fourteen-year-old Emmett Till of Chicago, Illinois, was murdered by white racists in Mississippi on August 28, 1955.

6 . Scott Saul repeats this error in Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties .

7 . Faubus called out the National Guard to block the admission of nine black pupils to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Eastland vig-orously supported school segregation in public schools in Mississippi, and John Patterson interfered with the Freedom Riders’ attempts to integrate buses and interstate transportation.

8 . An article by Obiwu, “The Pan-African Brotherhood of Langston Hughes and Nnamdi Azikiwe” (2007) begins to lay out details of Hughes and Azikiwe’s long friendship.

Notes ● 197

9 . “Test on Street Language Says It’s Not Grant in That Tomb,” New York Times April 17, 1983: 30. The eight McGraw-Hill employees who took the test all scored C’s and D’s.

10 . I thank Rachel Blau DuPlessis for her suggestions for elaboration on this metaphor.

11 . Nathaniel “Marvelous” Montague is an African American DJ and collector of African American historical artifacts. His on-air catchphrase “Burn, Baby! Burn!” was transformed into a slogan for the 1965 Watts uprising in Los Angeles. His life is the subject of autobiography written with journalist Bob Baker (Champaign: U of Illinois P, 2003).

12 . A transcription of this introduction is printed on the front flap of the reissued version of the book published in 2009. Although Hughes’s comments are in quotes, there is no citation of the source.

13 . In his introductory comments for the 2009 reissue of ASK YOUR MAMA , Arnold Rampersad also provides an account of Hughes beginning the composi-tion of the poem at Newport.

14 . Shulman also mentions Muriel Rukeyser’s use of documentary and Kenneth Fearing’s use of the movies.

15 . For a more detailed account of Hughes’s relationship with Taylor, see Bruce Kellner, “Working Friendship: A Harlem Renaissance Footnote,” The Lithographs of Prentiss Taylor: A Catalogue Raisonn é , New York : Fordham UP, 1996, 11–18. Print.

16 . All sources quoted here concerning Taylor and Hughes’s work together have been digitized from microfilm by the Archives of American Art. The physical location of the Hughes material in the Archive is as follows: Prentiss Taylor Papers Box 9, Reel 5921. The online summary of the Prentiss Taylor Papers, 1885–1991 is available at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/prentiss-taylor-papers-9232 . The original Hughes letters are housed at the Yale University Library.

6 Amiri Baraka’s Wise Why’s Y’s: Lineages of the Afro-Modernist Epic

1 . In an email, William J. Harris reveals that “(t)here was always music with the poems” but goes on to add that “(t)hey [the song titles] were handwritten and just looked like add-ons.” This statement raises additional interesting questions about what constitutes the “actual text” of “Wise Why’s Y’s.” The fact that Harris, in preparing his 1985 monograph, did not include the song titles and that Baraka published additional poems without the song titles printed on the page demonstrates that the shape of the poem, and the configuration of the page of the “score,” was still evolving (“Re : Wise”).

2 . The “Wise Why’s Y’s” typescript currently is located in Box J056 Folder 2, Amiri Baraka Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. Because this collection is currently being processed, the box and folder numbers

198 ● Notes

may change in the future. I offer special appreciation to Professor Brent Hayes Edwards and Archivist Susan G. Hamson for giving me access to these materials.

3 . Harris explains: “I start the first period with 1957, because it is the year that Baraka arrived in Greenwich Village. I begin the second with 1963, because that year marks the approximate beginning of his serious doubts about white bohemia. I start the third with 1965, since that was the year Malcolm X was killed, and marked the beginning of a period when Baraka declared his opposi-tion to white society and moved uptown to Harlem, where he declared himself a black cultural nationalist. I begin the last with 1974, because that is the year Baraka pronounced himself a Marxist-Leninist” ( Reader xv).

4 . The final book version is abbreviated hereafter as Wise. 5 . No song is included in this publication of section 18. In the larger “Wise Why’s

Wise” typescript, Baraka has handwritten: “Ma Rainey / Explainin the Blues (T. Dorsey)” on a photocopy of page 109 from Forward , indicating how Baraka began to conceive of the poem as a multimedia jazz performance.

6 . These charges, which resurfaced in relation to Baraka’s removal from the posi-tion of Poet Laureate of New Jersey, do not escape his attention. New Jersey governor Jim McGreevey demanded that Baraka apologize for the content of “Somebody Blew Up America” and resign his position as poet laureate, and “when he refused to do either, the governor took the extraordinary step of abolishing the post.” (Campbell 139). The poem had been published widely on the Internet before Baraka was appointed. In a recent interview with James Campbell, Baraka expresses concern: “See, I have to carry that with me. Forty years from now, some fool will say, ‘Baraka, the anti-Semite’” (140). In an arti-cle updated in July 2003, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) asserts: “Amiri Baraka, the former Leroi Jones, has a long history of hostility to Jews and Jewish concerns” (“Amiri Baraka: In His Own Words”). The following lines in “Somebody Blew Up America” drew criticism from the ADL:

Who knew the World Trade Center was gonna get bombed Who told 4000 Israeli workers at the Twin Towers To stay away that day Why did Sharon stay away? (203)

Campbell comments: “The prominent theme of the poem is the ruthless instinct of the powerful for political advantage and the blindness of the public at large to ‘terrorists’ in their own midst” (138), of which the following stanza is illustrative:

Who killed the most niggers Who killed the most Jews Who killed the most Italians Who killed the most Irish Who killed the most Africans Who killed the most Japanese Who killed the most Latinos Who/Who/Who (200)

Notes ● 199

Campbell also notes that the poem is not literal (which readers might have guessed already); there were not 4,000 Israeli workers at the Twin Towers. The poem, which repeats the interrogative “Who” throughout, contains a num-ber of provocations, including those that condemn the perpetrators of the Holocaust:

Who put the Jews in ovens, and who helped them do it Who said “America First” and ok’d the yellow stars

WHO/ WHO/ (202) However, as William J. Harris and Aldon Lynn Nielsen note in their nuanced discussion, “Somebody Blew Off Baraka,” the four offending lines of the poem cited above are not easily explicated.

7 . I thank Robin Tremblay-McGaw for suggesting that I elaborate on this difference.

8 . James Smethurst also suggests a comparison between Paterson and Hughes’s Montage of a Dream Deferred (“Adventures” 159).

9 . Baraka had this poem printed privately in 1982, in pamphlet form, with a cover by painter Vincent Smith (Reader 302).

10 . Olson, “Projective Verse.”

Works Cited

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“The Artist: Tom Feelings.” The Middle Passage: Tom Feelings . n.d. Web. Aug. 25, 2013.

Baker, Houston A., Jr. Turning South Again: Re-thinking Modernism/Re-reading Booker T. Durham, NC: Duke UP, 2001. Print.

Bakhtin, M. M. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays . Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Ed. Michael Holquist. Austin: U of Texas P, 1981. Print.

Baraka, Amiri. “Amiri Baraka Analyzes How He Writes.” Interview by Kalamu ya Salaam. African American Review 37.2–3 (2003): 211–236. Print.

———. The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones . Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1997 . Print. ———. “Black Art.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris.

New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 219–220. Print. ———. Blues People . New York: Perennial, 2002. Print. ———. “Error Farce.” The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka. The LeRoi

Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 340–367. Print.

———. “Griot/Djali: Poetry, Music, History, Message.” Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond. Ed. Matthew Kopka and Iris Brooks. Roslyn, NY: Ellipsis Arts, 1996. 78–82. Print.

———. “How You Sound??” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 16–17. Print.

———. “In the Tradition.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 302–310. Print.

———. The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. Print.

———. “Somebody Blew Up America.” African American Review 37.2–3 (2003): 198–203. Print.

———. “What About Literature? W-15.” Southern Review 21 (1985): 801–804. Print.

202 ● Works Cited

———. “Why’s/Wise.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 480–493. Print.

Baraka, Amiri. Wise Why’s Y’s: The Griot’s Song Djeli Ya . Chicago: Third World Press, 1995. Print.

———. “Wise Why’s Y’s” typescript, Box J056 Folder 2, Amiri Baraka Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. Print.

———. “YYYYYYY (18).” Forward: Journal of Socialist Thought 18 (1985): 109–116. Print.

Baraka, Imamu Amiri. (LeRoi Jones), ed. The Moderns, An Anthology of New Writing in America . New York: Corinth Books, 1963. Print.

Bell, Jr. Derrick A. “ Brown v . Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma.” 93 Harv. L. Rev. 518 (1979–1980).

Berry, Faith. Langston Hughes, Before and Beyond Harlem . New York: Citadel Press, 1992. Print.

B é rub é , Michael. Marginal Forces/Cultural Centers: Tolson, Pynchon, and the Politics of the Canon. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1992. Print.

Bickham, Jack M. “Langston Poet May Signal New Era.” Sunday Oklahoman, May 23, 1965: 10. Print.

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Williams, William Carlos. Paterson . Ed. Christopher MacGowan. New York: New Direction, 1995. Print.

———. “To Elsie.” The Collected Poems of William Carlos Williams . Ed. A. Walton Litz and Christopher MacGowan. Vol. 1: 1909–1939. New York: New Directions, 1986. 217–221. Print.

212 ● Works Cited

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Woodson, Jon. “Melvin Tolson and the Art of Being Difficult.” Black American Poets Between Worlds: 1940–1960 . Ed. R. Baxter Miller. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1988. 19–42. Print.

Wormser, Richard. “Niagara Movement (1905–10).” The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—Jim Crow Stories—Niagara Movement. PBS. 2002. Web. Oct. 29, 2011.

Abbott, Robert S., 100Aberdeen, South Dakota, 146abolitionists, 48, 159About the House (Auden), 85absence, 105

see also nothingness, shadowacademia, 6–7, 13, 84, 180, 193n18

see also high modernismAccent (journal), 54Acheron, 77Achilles (Iliad), 164“Advertisement for the Waldorf

Astoria” (Hughes), 140, 143–4Aeneas (Aeneid), 88Aeneid (Virgil), 170Aesop, 99“A Few Don’ts By An Imagiste”

(Pound), 17Africa, 161, 163, 169, 194n24, 195n4,

196n3ASK YOUR MAMA and, 121, 124,

128, 135–6, 149“back to,” 170Baraka and, 157–9, 171, 176–8, 180,

184Belgium and, 40colonization and, 42dialect from, 55diaspora and, 37, 56, 68, 112–14,

174–5drums and, 130–1

education in, 43epic history and, 45European exploration of, 41folktales from, 79freedom struggles in, 134history and, 59Hughes and, 95–7, 103–6, 109Libretto for the Republic of Liberia

and, 53, 60–2masks and, 100modernity and, 127proverbs and, 67, 82, 84religions of, 126republics in, 46–7revolutions in, 140slavery and, 50Tolson and, 33–5, 72, 80, 86, 89Whitman and, 42–3see also diaspora, slavery

African American Review (journal), 151African Americans, 123, 130–1, 153,

156, 159, 193n18, 194n24archives for, 103Baraka and, 162, 169–70, 179,

183–4, 188contributions by, 102dialogism and, 81diaspora and, 96, 112–14economic opportunities of, 110Eliot and, 37epic and, 66

Index

214 ● Index

African Americans—Continuedessentialism and, 80eternal presence of, 96freedom for, 66griots and, 171, 173–4, 176–7, 181history and, 153Hughes and, 91–3, 97, 101, 104–5,

107, 111, 120Hughes identification with, 195n6identity and, 29, 40, 42intellectuals and, 193n14invisibility of, 100language and, 70–1, 85law and, 100, 108life of, 5literacy and, 99literature and, 4Modernism and, 75, 81, 95Montage and, 115–18Negro language and, 70Negro-ness and, 52nothingness and, 86poetry and, 6re-bop and, 115–17second-sight and, 100silence and, 98status of, 121study of, 56Tolson and, 59–61, 68, 70–1, 87–8viewpoint of, 88

“African China” (Tolson), 11Africanism, 94, 190n7Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect

(Turner), 55Afro-American (newspaper), 54, 99Afrocentrism, 96Afro-Cubanism, 195n4Afro-Cuban music, 113–14Afro-Modernism, 1–2, 7, 19, 25, 38, 42

Baraka and, 153–5, 165–6, 169–71, 175, 181, 184, 186–7

epic and, 189n1Harlem Gallery and, 85Hughes and, 92, 112–15, 120, 140,

147, 149

ideology and, 89innovations of, 180Tolson and, 29, 31, 46, 62–3, 66,

68, 74see also modernism

Aldington, Richard, 18Alexander the Great, 170Alfred A. Knopf (publishers), 130Alhambra, The, 75All Aboard (Tolson), 11Allen, Donald, 179Allies (World War II), 39, 46, 50allusion, 19, 22, 37, 77, 80, 86, 191n18

Hughes and, 135Tolson and, 24, 29, 42, 46, 53, 67, 71

“Alpha” (Tolson), 68American Colonization Society (ACS),

43, 48–9, 192n12–192n13American Negro Exposition (1947), 47American Quarterly (journal), 38Americas, 68, 135, 163anaphora, 24–5, 32, 101Andalusian folklore, 184Anderson, Margaret, 13Anderson, Marian, 26, 101Anderson, Sherwood, 13Anglo-American Tradition, 3, 45, 50,

54, 93see also England

Anglo-Saxons, 164Annie Allen (Brooks), 151Anti-Defamation League (ADL), 198n6Antioch Review (journal), 61anti-semitism, 27, 179, 198n6

see also Jewsapartheid, 120, 124

see also South AfricaAppleseed, Johnny, 25Aquinas, St. Thomas, 80Arabs, 96, 124archivalism, 37, 50, 98, 101–4, 182

law and, 105Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression

(Derrida), 103, 106Archive of American Art, 146

Index ● 215

Aristotle, 82Aristotelianism, 81Armstrong, Louis, 74, 88, 121art music, 114Ashmun, Jehudi, 44, 48Ashmun Institute, 48Asia, 33, 67–8, 80, 86, 108–9, 178, 180

diaspora and, 1, 97, 112“ASK YOUR MAMA” (Hughes), 121,

126ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR

JAZZ (Hughes), 46, 92, 110, 118–22, 141–2, 197n13

Baraka and, 151, 156, 187Christianity and, 123–6colonialism and, 135–6performance and, 130–4, 137precursors to, 143–7social poetry and, 147–9trope of, 138visual design of, 139–40

“A Song for Myself” (Tolson), 18assimilation, 35Atlanta University, 55Atlantic City, New Jersey, 148Atlantic Monthly (magazine), 30Atlantic Ocean, 159“At The Colonial Y They Are

Aesthetically & Culturally Deprived (Y’s Later) (31)” (Baraka), 153

Attucks, Crispus, 29, 101Auden, W. H., 85audience, 66authenticity, 194n6Autobiography of LeRoi Jones, The

(Baraka), 186automobiles, 39–40avant garde, 158, 180, 182–3Azikwe, Benjamin Nnamdi “Zik,” 126,

134–5, 196n8

Bach, J. S., 83–4, 117“back to Africa” movements, 48Bailey, Pearl Mae, 130

Baker, Bob, 197n11Baker, Houston A., Jr., 3, 59, 84, 92Baker, Josephine, 101Bakhtin, M. M., 80–1Balaam’s ass, 67bala (musical instrument), 172–3balafon (musical instrument), 172“Balancement” (Kandinsky), 140Baldwin, James, 141, 165ballads, 178Baltimore Afro-American (newspaper),

53, 123Baltimore Evening Sun (newspaper), 86,

190n4Bamako, Mali, 176Bamana people, 174Banneker, Benjamin, 101Bantus, 57, 79Baraka, Amiri (LeRoi Jones), 173–5,

178, 184–8, 189n1, 197n1, 198n3

Blues People, 71, 114, 167–9diaspora and, 154–5, 157, 162, 170–1,

173–5, 187Hughes and, 149papers of, 152Suso and, 171–2, 174, 176–7Tolson and, 1, 7, 61whiteness and, 168Wise Why’s Y’s, 151–3, 158–61,

163–7, 179–83bardic traditions, 60Barrios, Pilar, 114Beats, 154–5Beatty, Talley, 13be-bop, 111, 114–16, 137, 166, 168

see also jazzBechet, Sidney, 152Belafonte, Harry, 131Belgium, 40, 124Bell, Benjamin, 62Bell, Daniel, 108Bellow, Saul, 65Benin, 39Berry, Faith, 15, 113–14

216 ● Index

Bérubé, Michael, 2, 67, 72–4, 93, 184, 191n18, 193n18

Tolson and, 30, 45, 50–3, 59–61Bess Hokin Prize, 42Bethune, Mary McLeod, 101, 128Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud),

105Bharatas, 165Bible, The, 67, 86Bickham, Jack M., 87–8Big Sea, The (Hughes), 114, 143“Big-Timer, The” (Hughes), 144Billboard (magazine), 141Billetteri, Carla, 181“Billie’s Bounce” (Parker), 166–7Bill of Rights, 30

see also specific amendments“BIRD IN ORBIT” (Hughes), 121,

126“Black America Volume 1: The Buffalo

Soldiers” (Montague), 141“Black Art” (Baraka), 181Black Arts Movement, 6, 35, 61, 154,

162, 179Black Bourgeoisie (Frazier), 77Black Bourgeoisie (Harlem Gallery), 72,

76, 78–9“Black Clown, The” (Hughes), 144Black Codes, 153“BLACK DADA NIHILISMUS”

(Baraka), 163Black Dispatch (newspaper), 47blackface, 106Black Faculty and Staff Association

(SUNY Stony Brook), 152Black Gazette (newspaper), 58Blacklisting, 6Black Metropolis (Clayton), 13Black Mountain poets, 186black nationalism, 154–5, 181–2, 198n3

see also African Americans, diasporablackness, 58–9, 61, 70, 96, 106

absence and, 105Christ and, 125definition of, 184

Black on Black : Twentieth-Century African American Writing About Africa (Gruesser), 59

Black Orchid Suite (Harlem Gallery), 73Black Pace Setters, The (Montague), 141Black Power Movement, 142, 195n5Blacks, see African AmericansBlack Samson, 26Black Verse, The (Hughes), 141Blakeley, Art, 115blood, 33, 191n20Blue Ark, 157, 173Blue Note (record label), 157–8blues, 10–11, 16, 81, 131, 137, 148,

198n5Baraka and, 157, 167, 169, 173, 176vernacular and, 141

“BLUES IN STEREO” (Hughes), 121, 125, 139

Blues People (Baraka), 71, 114, 153, 159, 163, 167–9

Boas, Franz, 25Bodenheim, Maxwell, 17body, 93–4Bola Boa Enterprises, Inc. (Harlem

Gallery), 78Bollingen Prize, 50Bond, Horace Mann, 47–8, 192n12Bontemps, Arna, 95Book of American Negro Poetry, The

(Johnson), 177, 184Boone, Daniel, 25“#20 Borders (Incest) Obsession”

(Baraka), 159Boris Godunov (Pushkin), 97bourgeoisie, 70, 77–9Boyd, Marion, 107Braden, Carl and Anne, 122“Braggart, The” (Tolson), 192n5Brandeis, Louis, 25Bread Loaf Fellowship, 66break (jazz term), 187“Bridge, The” (Crane), 56, 62British Broadcasting Company (BBC),

124, 193n15

Index ● 217

“Broke” (Hughes), 144Brooks, Gwendolyn, 13, 60, 84–5, 151Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 35“Brothers” (Hughes), 115Brown, Cynthia Stokes, 122Brown, Oscar, Jr., 13Brown, Pearly, 152Brown, Sterling, 8, 23, 153, 191n20Brown vs the Board of Education

(Supreme Court decision), 107–8Brumidi, Constantino, 26Buddha Records, 132, 141–2Buffalo, New York, 124Bula Matadi (ocean liner), 39–40Bunche, Ralph, 128, 135Buñuel, Luis, 184Bunyan, Paul, 25Buridan’s ass, 67–8Burke, Arthur, 22–3BYG Actuel (record label), 157

Caesar, Julius, 19, 170Caesarism, 170Cahier d’un retour au pays natal

(Césaire), 38Cain, William E., 49cakewalk, 178California, 49call and response, 175, 192n5Calmore, John, 96Campbell, James, 186, 198n6, 199n6Campbell, Naomi, 193n17Campus Exchange Forum (SUNY

Stony Brook), 152Cane (Toomer), 46canon, 7, 17–18, 23, 57, 59, 61, 180

Hughes and, 112, 147modernism and, 45

Cansler, Ronald Lee, 58–9Cantos (Pound), 38, 66, 155capitalism, 31, 78, 182, 184Caribbean, 43, 120, 122, 135Carnegie Hall, 130, 142Cartesianism, 42Caruso, Enrico, 26

Carver, George Washington, 101Castro, Fidel, 128, 134–5cataloging technique, 15, 32Catlett, Elizabeth, 13“Caviar and Cabbage” (Tolson

column), 2, 34censorship, 148Central High School (Little Rock,

Arkansas), 196n7Césaire, Aimé, 38, 126–7

Chang and Eng (“Ti”), 42“Characteristics of Negro Expression”

(Hurston), 191n15Charles, Ray, 71Charon, 77Charybdis, 42, 80, 190n4Chavez, César, 195n5“Chiaroscuro” (Tolson), 11–13Chicago, Illinois, 12–13, 15–16, 47,

112, 184free verse and, 17

Chicago Defender (newspaper), 23, 100, 134, 141

Chicago Public Library, 13Chicago Renaissance, 12–13, 15–16,

190n11“Chicago” (Sandburg), 13Chicago School, 12, 112Chicano movement, 195n5“Chi” (Tolson), 73, 194n5Christianity, 39, 48, 78, 86, 123–6,

144, 159chronotypes, 80Ciardi, Jon, 55, 66citizenship, 50, 60, 93, 108–10, 167, 170City Council of Newport, Rhode

Island, 141civil rights movement, 115, 135, 140, 142Civil War (United States), 108, 152Clark, William J., 146Clark Atlanta University, 55class, 16, 77–8classical literature, 10, 59, 86, 95–6,

155, 159, 174see also epic, Homer

218 ● Index

classical music, 73Claudius (Hamlet), 100Clayton, Horace R., 13Cleveland, Ohio, 113Cluny Abbey, France, 127cocoa trade, 135Cocteau, Jean, 65Cold War, 108, 123Cole, Nat King, 13Coleman, Ornette, 129collage, 19Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, The

(Hughes), 91, 132, 145collectivity, 155, 164–5, 168–70,

181, 187Hughes and, 91–2, 112, 114

colloquiaisms, 183colonialism, 49–50, 105, 126, 135–7,

159, 173, 192n13decolonization and, 1, 17, 42Europe and, 42, 48France and, 127see also Africa, diaspora

Color (Cullen), 23“COLORED HOUR” (Hughes), 133“Colored Soldier, The” (Hughes), 144Coltrane, John, 115, 167–9, 183Columbia University, 4, 9, 152common speech, 17

see also vernacularCommunism, 108, 122–3, 154

Seventh Congress of the Communist International and, 15

see also Marxismcompositional structures, 81Congo, Democratic Republic of, 40, 124Congo River, 112Conrad, Joseph, 62consciousness, 95–7, 105, 114, 162“Consider Me” (Hughes), 110Convention relating to the Status of

Stateless Persons, 109Cornhuskers, The (Sandburg), 15Cortor, Eldzier, 13counterpoint, 22, 26

Count of Monte Cristo, The (Dumas), 97“Count Us In” (Brown), 191n20Crane, Hart, 54, 56, 62, 66, 88cream metaphor, 82–4credit, 63“Creole Love Call” (jazz standard), 152Crisis (newspaper), 12, 22–3, 91, 99,

107, 114–15, 146critical legal studies, 195n5critical race theory, 92, 96, 107–8, 195n5critical theory, 96Crossroads Modernism (Pavlić), 189n1Cuba, 114, 134–5, 148Cubism, 10Cullen, Countee, 4, 23, 100“CULTURAL EXCHANGE”

(Hughes), 119–22, 132–3performance and, 130–1, 134–7

Cuney, Waring, 57Curator, The (Harlem Gallery), 69–72,

74–5, 78–80, 82–3, 88Cyprus, 95

Dadaism, 10, 154, 182Daily Oklahoman (newspaper), 87Dakar, Senegal, 126, 176Dalí, Salvador, 184Damas, Léon Gontran, 127“Danse Africaine” (Hughes), 91, 195n3Dante Alighieri, 66Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in

America (Emanuel and Gross), 22“Dark Symphony” (Tolson), 18, 22,

29–30, 47, 191n18“Dark Youth” (Hughes), 144, 146Darrow, Clarence, 9“DAT” (Baraka), 156–7“Date Line” (Pound), 178Daumier, Honoré, 76Davis, Arthur P., 57–8, 193n22Davis, Miles, 115, 151Davis, Robert A., 191n18Davis, Sammy, Jr., 131Dawson, William I., 101Day of the Barricades (May 12, 1588), 67

Index ● 219

Dead Lecturer, The (Baraka), 186death, 104–5, 195n8

democracy and, 34“#19 Death Parallels” (Baraka), 160Decker Press, 51deferral metaphor, 107, 115–17, 132,

136, 139see also Hughes, Montage of

a Dream Deferred“Deferred” (Hughes), 117Delancey, Mary Rose, 86Delaware, 107Delgado, Richard, 92Dell, FLoyd, 13democracy, 30–2, 102–3, 106, 123

death and, 34Derrida, Jacques, 100, 103–4, 106,

195n5Destination Out (Moncur), 157destructionism, 184“DEUCE” (Baraka), 156–7dialect, 63, 106, 128, 195n4Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language,

and Twentieth Century Literature, The (North), 106

dialogism, 81“Diamond Canady” (Tolson), 12–13diaspora, 1, 6, 24, 189n1

America and, 42Baraka and, 154–5, 157, 162, 170–1,

173–5, 187consciousness and, 95–6epic and, 45Hughes and, 92, 99, 106, 112–14, 119,

124, 126, 128, 130–1, 136–7, 149identity and, 35, 43self and, 180, 184study of, 55Tolson and, 37, 56, 66, 68unity of, 97see also Africa

diatonic musical scale, 38Dickinson, Emily, 20, 23Dimaggio, Joe, 25Diop, Alioune, 126–7

Discourse on Colonialism (Césaire), 126dislocation, 67–8Division of Negro Literature (New York

Public Library), 103Dixie, 133Djali (poet-singer), 174–5, 178Dodd, Mead, and Co. (publisher), 18Dodds, “Baby,” 152Doe, Samuel, 193n15Do-Re-Mi diatonic musical scale, 38Dorsey, Tommy, 198n5“Do” (Tolson), 40–1double consciousness, 101double talking tradition, 71–2

voice and, 153Douglass, Frederick, 26, 48, 98–9, 165,

195n5dozens, 13, 80–2, 84, 120, 133–4, 137–9Dr. Obi Nkomo (Harlem Gallery), 69,

79–82, 84Drake, St. Clair, 13“Dream Boogie: Variation” (Hughes),

117“Dream Boogie” (Hughes), 91, 116Dred Scott Decision, 108Dreiser, Theodore, 13, 190n11Drew, Charles Richard, 101Druid Theatre Company of Galway, 186drums, 94, 120, 128, 130–1, 157, 195n3“Drums” Hughes, 195n3Du Bois, Shirley Graham, 135, 195n5Du Bois, W. E. B., 4, 29–30, 54–5, 67,

74, 135Hughes and, 98, 123–4veil metaphor of, 100

Dudziak, Mary, 108Dumas, Alexandre, 97–8Dunbar, Paul Laurence, 71, 101,

121, 145Dun Dun (drum), 158Dunham, Katherine, 13Du Plessis, Rachel Blau, 195n10, 197n10Dusk of Dawn, an Essay towards an

Autobiography of a Race Concept (Du Bois), 29, 67

220 ● Index

“E. & O. E.” (Tolson), 42, 73–6, 194n4–n5

Earnest, Ernest, 9East Africa, 48Eastland, James O., 122–4, 133,

196n7Ebony (magazine), 13, 58École Normale Supérieure, 127economics, 110, 125–6, 142education, 45, 196n7, 196n12

Africa and, 43Edwards, Brent Hayes, 96, 127Egypt, 66, 95, 135, 173Eliot, T. S., 1, 132, 154, 181, 185,

192n9, 194n22African Americans and, 8, 37idiom of, 76modernism and, 16, 20, 38, 56–7Tolson and, 3, 41, 62, 65–6, 68,

72, 88Ellington, Duke, 152Ellison, Ralph, 34emancipation, 48–9Emanuel, James A., 22empire, 41, 169–70Encyclopedia of Chicago, 13Encyclopedia of the Chicago Literary

Renaissance, 13endnotes device, see notes deviceEngels, Friedrich, 168England, 60, 105–6, 128, 135, 180, 185

see also Anglo-American Traditionenjambment, 12, 18, 113epic, 63, 66, 92, 95, 99, 111–12, 120

Afro-Modernism and, 37, 153, 155, 169–71, 175, 181, 186–7

America and, 25Baraka and, 153, 157, 159, 164–6,

172, 177–8empire and, 169–70historical function of, 45Hughes and, 137, 140–1, 149imagination and, 42industrialism and, 31social poetry and, 147

Tolson and, 1, 6, 9, 12, 26, 46, 59see also Afro-Modernism, classical

literature, Homerepistemology, 42Eremboi, 95Esperanto, 57essentialism, 80, 128“Eta” (Tolson), 79“Etchings” (Tolson), 11eternal presence, 96Ethiopia, 94–5, 99Euphrates, 112Eurocentrism, 105Europe, 1, 3, 178–81, 183, 189n1

Afro-Modernism and, 62, 68, 85, 89, 120

art music from, 114colonization by, 48–9exploration by, 41Hughes and, 97, 123, 135metropolises of, 127philosophy from, 195n5Tolson and, 40–3, 53, 59, 80

Evening Star (newspaper), 39, 47Evolution (Moncur), 157Exposure of the American Colonization

Society (Garrison), 49

Fabio, Sarah Webster, 58–9, 61, 70–1, 84, 190n4

“Façade” (Sitwell), 88Farnsworth, Robert M., 11, 20, 30, 34,

47, 192n2, 192n12Farrow, Mia, 193n17Fascism, 31, 46“Fa” (Tolson), 43–4Faubus, Orville, 133–4, 196n7Fearing, Kenneth, 197n14“Feeling Diaspora in Harlem and

Havana” (Guridy), 195n4Feelings, Tom, 160–1feminism, 195n5Fettered Genius: The African American

Bardic Poet From Slavery to Civil Rights (Leonard), 190n8

Index ● 221

“FI’” (Baraka), 156–7, 159Fierefiz (Parzival), 39–40Fifteenth Amendment, 108Fifth Amendment, 122Fine Clothes to The Jew (Hughes), 23Firestone Company, 39Fisk University, 56Flint, F. S., 16, 113“FO’” (Baraka), 156–9folklore, 79, 191n16

Andalusia and, 184folk songs, 148Folkways Records, 126footnotes device, see notes deviceFormalism, 57Fort Sumter, South Carolina, 27Fortune, T. Thomas, 100Fort Wayne News and Sentinel

(newspaper), 86Forward: Journal of Socialist Thought

(journal), 152, 161Foucault, Michel, 195n5Fourteenth Amendment, 108France, 67, 99, 135, 144

colonies of, 127Frazier, E. Franklin, 77, 100freedom, 91

movement and, 109Freedom Riders, 196n7Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to

Jazz and Africa (Monson), 114–15free verse, 10, 12–13, 16–18, 20,

112, 180Freud, Sigmund, 65, 104–6Frost, Robert, 13, 88“Fugitive Poems” (Tolson), 76Fulani people, 173Fulbe people, 174Futurafrique, 37–9Futurism, 10, 38

Gallery of Harlem Portraits, A (Tolson), 8–11, 15–16, 18, 20, 69, 73, 87

free verse and, 12–13Galway, Ireland, 186

Gambia, The, 171, 173–4Gardner, J. W., 95Garrison, William Lloyd, 49–50Garvey, Marcus, 48Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 100, 137gender, 106Generación del 27, 184genocide, 153, 159

see also slaverygenre, 194n6Georgia, 55Germany, 50, 164Ghana, 134–5, 161Gillespie, Dizzy, 113Giovanni, Nikki, 180Glass, Philip, 174globalism, 96–7“Go Down Moses” (spiritual), 30Gold Coast, 135Golden Stair Press, 144–7“Goodbye Christ” (Hughes), 123“Good Gray Bard in Timbuktu

chanted, The” (Tolson), 42–3“Good Morning, Revolution”

(Hughes), 6gospel, 115“GOSPEL CHA-CHA” (Hughes),

121, 125Goya, Francisco, 67Gramsci, Antonio, 195n5Grapes of Wrath, The (Steinbeck), 30Graziosi, Barbara, 172Great Depression, The, 6, 87Great Ideas, 89Great Migration, 153, 159“Great White World” (expression), 68,

70, 89Greek literature, 59, 172, 174–6

archivalism and, 103–4Green Door (book store), 184–5Greensboro News (newspaper), 140Greenwich Village, New York, 180,

198n3“Griot/Djali: Poetry, Music, History,

Message” (Baraka), 175

222 ● Index

griots, 59, 94, 155, 161, 171–4Baraka and, 175–8, 181terms for, 174see also oral traditions

Gropper, William, 77Gross, Theodore L., 22group dynamics, 104–5Group Psychology and the Analysis of the

Ego (Freud), 104–5Gruesser, John Cullen, 46, 59, 192n6Guinea, 128, 134–5Guinea-Bissau, 173–4Gullah peoples, 55Guridy, Frank, 114, 195n4Gypsies, 159Gypsy Ballads, The (Lorca), 114

Hague, The, 50Haitian Revolution, 101Hale, Thomas A., 173–4, 176Hamlet (Hamlet), 70, 77

father of, 100hard bop, 114–15

see also jazzHarlem, New York, 4, 9–10, 148, 184,

198n3Chicago Renaissance and, 13Hughes and, 67, 77, 87, 111–12, 114Sugar Hill section of, 78see also Harlem Gallery, Harlem

RenaissanceHarlem Gallery: Book I, The Curator

(Tolson), 35, 63, 65–8, 190n4, 190n9, 194n5

Baraka and, 151Bérubé and, 50, 52, 72–3blackness and, 60–1bourgeosie and, 76, 79Imagism and, 16, 18intended sequence of, 190n2modernism and, 1–3, 10, 28–9reviews of, 84–9, 193n20vernacular and, 81–2

“Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of Melvin B. Tolson (Tolson), 3, 59, 76

Harlem Group of Negro Writers, The (Tolson), 2, 4, 38

“Harlem” (Hughes), 91“Harlem (2)” (Hughes), 117Harlem Renaissance, 3–7, 15–16, 112,

134, 195n4Harlem Renaissance in Black and White,

The (Hutchinson), 15Harlem Vignettes (Harlem Gallery), 73Harris, William J., 152, 154–5, 197n1,

198n3, 199n6Baraka and, 166, 178, 180, 182–4

Harvard Law Review (journal), 108Harvard Law School, 162Hastie, William H., 101Hausa people, 174Havana, Cuba, 114H. D. (Hilda Doolittle), 17–18Hecht, Ben, 13Hector (Iliad), 169Hegel, G. W. F., 105, 195n9Hegelianism, 160, 168Heights, R. Henri, III, 190n9Hellenes, 76Henry, John, 25, 74Henry, Patrick, 29Heraclitus, 65“Hesitation Blues” (traditional), 131, 136Hideho Heights (Harlem Gallery),

72–6, 81–2, 190n9, 194n5hierarchy, 110high modernism, 7–8, 17, 45, 80, 93, 179

see also academia, ModernismHilyer, Robert, 23Hipnosis (Moncur), 158“Hipnosis” (Moncur), 157history, 153–4, 156, 159, 170

Africans and, 59allusions from, 67Baraka and, 173–4, 176, 178–80, 188epic’s function in, 45Eurocentrism and, 105Hughes and, 60, 92, 94, 100–101,

103–4, 108, 112making of, 181–2

Index ● 223

nationhood and, 93oral traditions and, 59paralysis and, 132spiral of, 153, 160see also diaspora, epic, slavery

Hitler, Adolph, 159Holocaust, 159, 199n6homecoming, 170home (jazz term), 187Homer, 59, 82, 94–5, 99, 164

epic and, 170, 172, 186Hopkins, Lightnin’, 152horizontal audience, 66“HORN OF PLENTY” (Hughes), 121,

125, 138Hotel Viking, 142House Un-American Activities

Committee (HUAC), 122–3Howard University, 57“How You Sound??” (Baraka), 179, 184Hughes, Langston, 1, 189n1, 190n9,

192n1, 194n23, 195n4, 195n6Afro-Modernism and, 112–15anthology by, 57ASK YOUR MAMA and, 118–22,

127–8, 138–40, 144–8Azikwe and, 196n8Baraka and, 149, 151, 156, 169, 177,

184, 186–8blues and, 10Christianity and, 123–6citizenship and, 108–10collectivity and, 91–2colonialism and, 135–6“CULTURAL EXCHANGE” and,

130–3death and, 104–5democracy and, 102–3diaspora and, 96–7, 112–14Douglass and, 98–9dozens and, 133–4, 137–9juxtaposition and, 143Montage of a Dream Deferred and,

115–18Newport Jazz Festival and, 141–2

performance and, 134–7“Prelude to Our Age” and, 101,

106–7, 110–11shadow and, 93–5, 99, 102, 106

Hugo, Victor, 66humanism, 127Human Rights Commission (United

Nations), 109Hurston, Zora Neale, 8, 20, 191n15Hutchinson, George, 15Hyde Park School, 107

IBM, 130identitarian stasis, 93identity, 81, 88, 96–7

African Americans and, 29, 40, 42America and, 34Baraka and, 153, 155, 170–1, 174,

178diaspora and, 24, 35, 43essentialism and, 128Hughes and, 119, 128, 130–1Law of Synthetic Identity and, 42nationhood and, 103splitting of, 74–5Tolson and, 18, 20, 38, 56, 60, 73see also Africa, African Americans,

diasporaideology, 19idiom, 188“Idols of the Tribe, The” (Tolson), 18,

32, 35Iliad (Homer), 82, 95, 169, 172Imagism, 12, 17–18, 113

manifestoes of, 16“Imagisme” (Flint), 16imagistes, des (Pound), 16“Im Blau” (Kandinsky), 140impotence, 110improvisation, 156, 163“In a Station of the Metro” (Pound), 12Indies, 69individuality, 194n6industrialism, 5, 28

epic and, 31

224 ● Index

Inkwell Press, 140innovative poetry, 189n2interstate commerce clause, 102intertextuality, 71In the Tradition (Baraka), 185“Inventory at Mid-Century: A Review

of Literature of the Negro for 1950” (Locke), 55

“In Your Face Test of No Certain Skills, The” (student-designed test), 137

Ireland, 185–6“IS IT TRUE?” (Hughes), 121, 126Israelis, 198n6, 199n6Israelites, 67

Jackson, Laura Riding, 105Jackson, Mahalia, 71Jacobsen, Josephine, 86–7, 190n4Jali Kunda: Griots of West African &

Beyond (Kopka and Brooks), 173–5

James, Jesse, 25“Jam Session” (Hughes), 118jam sessions, 111–12, 115Japan, 148Jařab, Josef, 68, 73Jasper, John, 125jazz, 72–3, 113–15, 117, 122, 198n5

Baraka and, 153–5, 157, 163, 167–9, 175, 182–3, 187–8

Hughes and, 137, 140, 142, 146see also be-bop, specific musicians

Jazz Messengers (band), 115“JAZZTET MUTED” (Hughes), 121,

129Jazz Workshop, The, 115Jesus Christ, 34, 79, 126, 144

blackness and, 125Jet (magazine), 51Jews, 30, 66, 85, 159

culture of, 86see also anti-semitism

Jim Crow laws, 126, 130, 133–5, 142

Hughes and, 93, 102, 105, 107, 109–11, 120, 122

Liberia and, 47Tolson and, 9, 23, 31see also race

“Jimmy’s Blues” (Moncur), 157John Laugart (Harlem Gallery), 72,

76–9Johnson, Charles Spurgeon, 101Johnson, Elijah, 43Johnson, Fenton, 154, 179, 184Johnson, James Weldon, 4, 177–8,

184Johnson, John H., 13Johnson, Lamont, 158Johnson, Lyndon B., 129Johnson, Yornie, 193n15Jones, Casey, 25Jones, LeRoi, see BarakaJones, Meta DuEwa, 137, 175Jones, “Papa” Jo, 152Journey Back, The (Baker), 59Joyce, James, 3, 18, 183, 185“Juke Box Love Song” (Hughes), 91juxtaposition, 143

Kalaidjian, Walter B., 6Kalevala (Finnish epic), 196n2Kandinsky, Wassily, 140Kansas, 107Kansas City Star (newspaper), 72, 88“Kappa” (Tolson), 78–9Karpman, Laura, 142Kemp, Roy Z., 140Kentucky, 49Kentucky State College, 8, 62Kenya, 135Kenyatta, Jomo, 128, 135Kenyon Review (journal), 54Khassonké region (The Gambia), 174Kiel, Daniel, 107Kim, Daniel Won-Gu, 134Kind of Blue (Davis), 151King, M. W., 17

Index ● 225

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 88, 107, 128, 135, 141, 195n5

Kingston, Jamaica, 126Kleinianism, 195n8kleos (praising famous deeds), 174Komunyakka, Yusef, 113kora (musical instrument), 172Ku Klux Klan, 27, 132

labor organizing, 32La Guardia, Fiorello, 25Langston College, 4, 65, 179Lardner, Ring, 13Latin America, 114, 120, 137Laveau, Marie, 125law, 98, 104, 108–9

apartheid and, 124archivalism and, 105inclusion and, 102see also Jim Crow laws

Law of Synthetic Identity, 42Lawrence, D. H., 18, 194n23layout, 29, 40, 144

centering and, 26, 28, 40, 67left-flush margins and, 26

Leninism, 155, 198n3Lenox Avenue, Harlem, 190n9Leonard, Keith D., 12, 42, 190n8Leontyne (“CULTURAL

EXCHANGE”), 121Léopold (King of Belgium), 40, 124,

196n3LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader, The

(Harris), 152, 154, 176, 178, 181, 186

Lewis, “Old” George, 152Lewis, Reginald, 162Liberia, 56, 60, 62, 85, 192n12,

193n14, 193n16Poet Laureate of, 46–50Tolson and, 35, 37–41, 43–4, 51, 54see also Libretto

Liberian Centennial Commission, 46–8, 50

Liberian Motors, 39Liberia Today (magazine), 39Library of Congress, 17, 39, 42, 47, 85,

190n2Libretto for the Republic of Liberia

(Tolson), 44–6, 48, 58, 66–7, 189n4, 190n7, 193n20

Allies and, 39Baraka and, 151, 181, 186–7Bérubé and, 2, 50–1, 53, 72critical responses to, 59–63diaspora and, 1, 35, 37Hughes and, 129modernism and, 25, 54–7singularity of, 38Tate preface to, 3Twayne edition of, 44Whitman and, 18, 42–3, 52, 56

Libya, 95lieder (songs), 120, 136, 189n1Life Studies (Lowell), 189n4Lincoln, Abraham, 25, 48, 101Lincoln Center, 186Lincoln University, 13, 134–5, 148,

192n12Tolson and, 44–5, 47–8, 57

Lincoln University Herald (newspaper), 48

Lincoln University Poets (Cuney, Hughes and Wright), 57

Lindsay, Vachel, 13, 15, 17, 88, 112lineage, 88, 149, 151, 154, 171, 184liner notes device

see also notes device“LINER NOTES” (Hughes), 121, 129liner notes technique, 122, 126, 129–30,

132, 144listing technique, 15, 23–4, 26, 101literacy, 98–9Little Eva Winn (“Diamond

Canady”), 13Little Review, The (journal), 17–18Little Rock, Arkansas, 196n7Livingstone, Dr. David, 192n4

226 ● Index

Locke, Alain, 4, 8–9, 55Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 121–2,

196n2Long Island, New York, 138Lopez, Ian F. Haney, 109Lorca, Frederico Garcia Lorca, 114,

179, 183–4Los Angeles, California, 197n11Louis, Joe, 25Love Supreme, A (Coltrane), 151Lowe, Ramona, 23Lowell, Amy, 10, 16–17, 191n12Lowell, Robert, 189n4Lucan, 170Lycée Louis Le Grand, 127lynching, 104“Lyrical Ballads” (Wordsworth), 55lyric poetry, 6, 15, 46, 56, 189n2

Hughes and, 91, 97, 111–12, 149

MacKail, J. W., 9Mackey, Nathaniel, 186Madhubuti, Haki, 180Madrid, Spain, 67Make It New (Pound), 17Malan, Daniel Francois, 124Malcolm X, 88, 179, 198n3Mali, 173–4Mallarmé, Stéphane, 157Mandinka people, 173–4Maninka people, 174, 177Man of Love, The (King), 141Maoism, 155Marginal Forces/Cultural Centers:

Tolson, Pynchon, and the Politics of the Canon (Bérubé), 2, 50

Marsh, Alec, 63Marx, Karl, 123, 168Marxism, 15, 155, 160, 168, 182, 198n3masculinity, 22, 25, 28–9, 189n1

emascualtion and, 110masks, 100–101Masters, Edgar Lee, 1, 9, 12–13,

15–18, 68, 112Maximus Poems, The (Olson), 181, 186–7

Maynor, Dorothy, 101McCall, Dan, 38, 41McCarthy, Joseph, 6, 120, 122McGraw-Hill (publishers), 137, 197n9McGreevey, James, 198n6McKay, Claude, 4, 100McLean, Jackie, 157–8McPherson, Aimee Semple, 148“Measure of Memory (The Navigator)”

(Baraka), 186Mein Kampf (Hitler), 32memory, 37, 103, 195n3Memphis, Tennessee, 107–8, 196n12Menelaos, King of Sparta, 95Mexico, 114Michelson, Albert, 25middle-class, 77–8Middle Generation, 6Middle Passage, 35, 39, 43, 60, 154,

159Middle Passage: White Ships/Black Cargo

(Feelings), 161–2Midwest Journal (journal), 11, 57Mills, Florence, 101Miner, Virginia Scott, 72, 88Mingus, Charles, 115, 141minstrelsy, 106Mississippi, 69–70, 130, 196n5Mississippi River, 112Mister Starks (Harlem Gallery), 72–3Mistral, Gabriel, 114“Mi” (Tolson), 43Modernism, 189n1–n2, 189n4, 190n7

Africa and, 127alternative aesthetics of, 114America and, 17Baraka and, 153, 155, 177–9, 183–4,

188blacks and, 81canonization and, 45Eliot and, 20endnotes and, 44Harlem Gallery and, 1–3, 10, 28–9,

66, 68, 71–3, 75–6, 84, 88high style of, 7–8, 17, 45, 80, 93, 179

Index ● 227

Hughes and, 92, 95, 105–6, 112, 130, 132

Irish and, 185Libretto and, 37–8, 50, 56–7, 59, 62–3methods of, 19notes and, 129prefaces and, 55Proletarianism and, 7serial and, 25Tolson and, 5, 10, 16, 18, 28, 32whites and, 3, 40, 54, 62see also Afro-Modernism

Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance (Baker), 3

Moncur, Grachan, III, 152, 157–8money, 63Monk, Thelonius, 154, 168Monroe, Harriet, 5, 13, 184Monrovia, 39Monson, Ingrid, 114–15Montage of a Dream Deferred (Hughes),

91, 110–14, 118, 129–30, 132, 143re-bop and, 115–17

Montague, Nathaniel, 141, 197n11Moors, 96, 99, 174Mootry, Maria K., 191n16, 192n5Morgan, Joyce, 157Morrisson, Mark, 17–18Morton, “Jelly Roll,” 66, 152, 175Moscow, USSR, 130Moten, Fred, 156, 160, 163, 187Motley, Willard, 13“Motto” (Hughes), 91“Mountain Climber, The” (Tolson), 19Mount Sinai, 78mourning, 195n1Mr. Auld (Narrative of the Life of

Frederick Douglass), 98Mr. Guy Delaporte III (Harlem

Gallery), 78–9mulitvocal experimentation, 19multimedia, 198n5Murat, Joachim, 67Murphy, Carl, 54Murray, Albert, 187

Murray, David, 152music, 153–4, 156, 169, 197n1

spiritual connection to, 168see also jazz

Nance, Ray, 13Narrative of the Life of Frederick

Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself (Douglass), 98

Nashville, 56Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 134–5Nation, The (magazine), 55National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 35, 65, 69, 107, 123

Legal Defense Fund of, 108National Guard, 142, 196n7nationalism, 154–5National Poetry Prize, 47National Urban League, 35nationhood, 25, 92–3, 110, 131

identity and, 103Native Americans, 109, 196n2Native Son (journal), 99Native Son (Wright), 31naturalization statute, 109Nazism, 32–3Négritude Movement, 126–7“Negro Artist and the Racial

Mountain, The” (Hughes), 91Negro Art Movement, 145Negro Digest (magazine), 84Negroes, see African Americans“Negro Mother, The” (Hughes), 144–5Negro Mother and Other Dramatic

Recitations, The (Hughes), 143, 147“Negro Poets Issue” (Voices), 11Negro quarter motif, 132, 136“Negro Scholar, The” (Tolson), 11“Negro Speaks of Rivers, The”

(Hughes), 6, 91, 112Negro World (newspaper), 58Nelson, Cary, 6, 180, 189n4, 194n5Nelson, Raymond, 2, 3, 68, 76, 78, 82“Neon Signs” (Hughes), 116

228 ● Index

Nestor (Iliad), 82New Africa (Moncur), 157New American Poetry, The, 1945–1960

(Allen), 179, 182, 187Newcomb, John Timberman, 5New Critics, 7New Jersey, 183, 198n6

Poet Laureate of, 154New Left, 155New Mexico, 49New Negro, The, 4, 7, 30–2, 42, 112New Negro Renaissance, 8, 13, 42Newport Jazz Festival, 141–2, 197n13New Red Negro, The: The Literary Left

and African American Poetry, 1930–1946 (Smethurst), 7, 143, 190n8

New York Amsterdam News (newspaper), 51

New York City, 4, 9–10, 16, 70, 184New York Public Library, 103, 142New York Times Book Review, 23, 56New York Times (newspaper), 54, 137Niagara Falls, 124Niagara Movement, 124Niamey, Niger, 176“Niam N’Goura, or raison d’ être”

(Diop), 127Nielsen, Aldon, 1–3, 17, 190n4, 190n7,

199n6Tolson and, 42–3, 45, 51, 60, 62, 72

Nietszche, Friedrich, 44Nigeria, 48, 135, 158, 193n15“Night in Tunisia, A” (Gillespie), 113“Nightmare Boogie” (Hughes), 117Nile River, 112“19th Century Moment—Y’s Up (27)”

(Baraka), 153Nkrumah, Kwame, 47, 128, 134–5Nobel Prize, 8, 55“Nobody Knows the Trouble I Seen”

(spiritual), 152, 162Norman, Jessye, 142North, Michael, 7, 106North Carolina, 99

Northerners, 142North Star, The (newspaper), 48Norton Anthology of African American

Literature, 91nostos (homecoming), 170notes device, 44–6, 53–5, 60, 129,

192n10see also liner notes device

nothingness, 86, 110–11, 194n24novels, 194n6Nubia, 95Nuremberg Trials, 50nyanyer (musical instrument), 172–3

objective correlative, 72Occum, Samson, 105octoroons, 69odes, 56“ODE TO DINAH” (Hughes), 121,

124, 138Odysseus (Odyssey), 164, 186Odyssey (Homer), 95, 169, 172“Of Men and Cities” (Tolson), 18,

21, 31Ogoun (Yoruban God), 125O’Hara, Frank, 183Olson, Charles, 179, 181, 183, 186–7One Step Beyond (Moncur), 157One-Way Ticket (Hughes), 115Opportunity (journal), 99, 114, 146oral traditions, 34, 161, 173, 175–7,

180, 192n5bardic traditions and, 60forms of poetry and, 13, 56, 74,

76, 94history and, 59oratory and, 11see also griots, vernacular

“Over There” (Hughes), 144overwriting, 103“O Vocables of Love” (Riding

Jackson), 105

paganism, 39Paine, Thomas, 25

Index ● 229

Palmer, Robert, 176Pan-African Airways, 39“Pan-African Brotherhood of Langston

Hughes and Nnamdi Azikiwe, The” (Obiwu), 196n8

Pan-Africanism, 97, 120, 126, 131, 135, 154

see also diasporaPanathenia festival, 172Paradise Lost (Milton), 170Pardo-Sanchez Esther, 195n8Paris, France, 126–8, 192n2Parker, Charlie, 126, 152, 166, 183Parks, Gordon, 13Parsifal (Parzival), 39–40Parzival (von Eschenbach), 39passing, 69“Pastels” (Tolson), 11“Paterson” (Williams), 56, 62–3, 181,

187patriarchy, 106Patroclus (Iliad), 164Patterson, John, 133, 196n7Pavlić, Edward M., 189n1Pearl Harbor, attack on, 27–8, 33Penelope (Odyssey), 164People, Yes, The (Sandburg), 15Perelman, Bob, 50performance, 130–3, 155–6, 164, 172,

175, 187, 198n5“CULTURAL EXCHANGE” and,

134–7see also jazz, oral traditions

Pharsalia (Lucan), 170Philadelphia Community College, 179Philosophy of History, The (Hegel), 195n9“Phi” (Tolson), 74Phoenicia, 95Phylon (journal), 21–2, 55, 72, 85, 99,

193n20Picasso, Pablo, 77pilgrims, 27, 31, 43, 60Pisan Cantos, The (Pound), 50Pittsburgh Courier (newspaper), 123Plato, 66

Playboy of the Western World, The (Synge), 185

Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts, 27“Poem” (Hughes), 135“Poet, The” (Tolson), 18–20Poetics (Aristotle), 82Poet Laureate of Liberia, 46–50, 58Poet Laureate of New Jersey, 154, 198n6Poetry and Poetics of Amiri Baraka: The

Jazz Aesthetic (Harris), 182Poetry (journal), 13, 42, 53–5, 113, 184

Imagism and, 16–17Modernism and, 5, 28, 63

“Poetry Today” (Taylor), 61Poitier, Sidney, 130–1politics, 155, 170polyphony, 10Pope, Alexander, 71Popular Front, 7, 15populism, 38, 66, 72, 76, 114, 147–8,

155Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog

(Thomas), 185Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

(Joyce), 185portraiture, 9–10Poseidon, 95post-bop, 137

see also jazz“Pot Belly Papa” (Harlem Gallery), 73Pound, Ezra, 1, 3, 12, 55, 65–6, 88,

190n4Baraka and, 154–5, 178–81, 183, 185Bollingen Prize and, 50Hughes and, 147Modernism and, 16–18, 38, 45

poverty, 124–5Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr., 101power, 16, 80, 100, 103, 110, 170praise, 173–4prefaces, 51–3, 190n4

Wordsworth and, 55“Preface” (Whitman), 21“PRE-HERE/ISTIC Sequence” (Baraka),

156–60

230 ● Index

“Prelude to Our Age: A Negro History Poem” (Hughes), 91–2, 96, 101, 106–8, 110–11, 131, 195n3

death and, 104–5democracy and, 102–3shadow and, 93–4, 99

Premier des Noirs, Le (airplane), 39Présence Africaine (journal), 126–7Price, Leontyne, 130–1“Primer for Today, A” (Tolson), 21primitveness, 106private and public, 74, 76, 104process artists, 154, 156projective verse, 179proletarianism, 5, 15–16, 38

Modernism and, 7propaganda, 74prose, 12, 40, 53, 81, 174–5, 194n6

Hughes and, 129–30, 144polyphony and, 10rhythm and, 18, 113Whitman and, 52

Proust, Marcel, 66Provençal ballads, 178proverbs, 15, 21, 43

Tolson and, 57, 67, 79, 82, 84Psalms (Bible), 192n7psychoanalysis, 104public and private, 74, 76, 104purity, 33, 193n22Pushkin, Aleksandr, 97–8

Quint, David, 169–70

Rabaté, Jean-Michel, 195n1race, 16, 33, 52, 62, 68–9

Baraka and, 168constructions of, 12, 66essentialism and, 80, 128Hughes and, 93, 105, 131identity and, 96metaphors for, 83racism and, 7, 25, 31, 111, 123, 184stereotyping and, 122

theorizing of, 69see also African Americans

Race Music: Black Cultures from Be-Bop to Hip Hop (Ramsey), 113

radicalism, 147ragtime music, 178railroad trope, 159Rainey, Lawrence, 16Rainey, Ma, 198n5Raleigh, Walter, 44Ramazani, Jahan, 60, 194n23Rampersad, Arnold, 91, 95, 112,

115–16, 137, 146, 197n13Ramsey, Guthrie, 113Randall, Dudley, 192n9Rankin, John, 123, 191n20Rankine, Claudia, 189n2R&B (Rhythm and Blues), 114Reagan, Ronald, 193n15re-bop, 115–17

see also jazz“Recent Verse” (Ciardi), 55Reconstruction, 153Red Cross, 33, 191n20Redding, J. Saunders, 53–4, 57, 192n10Reds, 128Reed, Brian M., 15Regents of the Gallery (Harlem

Gallery), 78–9Rendezvous with America (Tolson),

2, 27–8, 30–4, 190n7, 191n18, 192n5, 193n20

allusion and, 19high modernism and, 7–8identity and, 18, 29Libretto and, 25, 47, 61praise for, 23proverbs and, 67slavery and, 30

Rensselaer, C. Van, 48repetition, 11, 27, 137, 168, 175, 195n1Repression and Recovery (Nelson), 180“Re” (Tolson), 42–3“Retrospect” (Pound), 17

Index ● 231

“Return of the Native” (Baraka), 188revenge plots, 164–7reviewers, 50–4

Tolson and, 84–9“Review of Libretto for the Republic of

Liberia” (Redding), 192n10revolution, 101, 144rhapsodes, 172Rhapsody in Black and White (Harlem

Gallery), 73Richmond, Virginia, 125“RIDE, RED, RIDE” (Hughes), 121,

122Riding, Laura, 105rights, 98Rights of Man, The (Paine), 25Roach, Max, 141Robeson, Paul, 101Robinson, Earl, 22Robinson, Edwin Arlington, 13rockabilly, 128rock and roll music, 114, 128Rockefeller Fellowship, 4Rodman, Selden, 56–7Romance epics, 164Romans, 76Romantics, 17, 43Roosevelt, Franklin D., 34Rosenthal, M. L., 178–9Rosenwald, Julius, 25Rosenwald Foundation, 11, 146Roumaine, Jacques, 159Roylance, Patricia Jane, 196n2Rubicon, 19, 77Rukeyser, Muriel, 197n14Russia, 99Rutgers University, 185

Sahel, the, 176Salaam, Kalamu ya, 151, 155–6Salmagundi (journal), 178Sandburg, Carl, 1, 12–13, 15–18,

112, 115Sanders, Mark A., 7–8, 42

Sanders, Pharoah, 174Sankoré, University of, 43Sanskrit, 164–5Santa Claus, 122, 128Sarton, May, 55Saturday Review (magazine), 85Saul, Scott, 115, 141–2Savanna region, 176Scandinavia, 196n2Scanlon, Larry, 132, 137scat, 169Schomburg, Arturo Alfonso, 100, 103Schomburg Center for Research in

Black Culture, 102–3, 142school desegragation, 107–8Scottsboro Defense Fund, 147Scottsboro Limited

Four Poems and a Play in Verse (Hughes and Taylor), 147

Scylla and Charybdis, 42, 80, 190n4Sea Islands (South Carolina), 55“Second of May, The” (Goya), 67second-sight, 100–101segregation, 35, 120–4, 131–3, 136–7,

142, 196n7, 196n12schools and, 107–8

“Selah” passages (Tolson), 54, 63, 192n7Select Epigrams from the Greek

Anthology (MacKail), 9self-portraiture, 9Senegal, 96, 173–4, 176Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 126–7“separate but equal,” 107sermons, 148Seventh Congress of the Communist

International (1935), 15“SHADES OF PIGMEAT” (Hughes),

121, 124shadow, 93–5, 99, 102, 106Shakespeare, William, 8, 21–2Shapiro, Harvey, 55Shapiro, Karl, 3, 50–2, 70–1, 85–9,

190n4Sharon, Ariel, 198n6

232 ● Index

Shelby County Schools, 196n12“Shipwright, The” (Tolson), 31“SHOW FARE, PLEASE” (Hughes),

121, 129Shulman, Robert, 144Sidonians, 95Sidran, Ben, 158Sierra Leone, 55, 193n16signifying, 137silence, 98, 105–6“Silhouettes” (Tolson), 11Silver, Horace, 115Simple (Hughes character), 134sit-ins, 128Sitwell, Edith, 88Sixth Mt. Zion Baptist Church

(Richmond, Virginia), 125Slave Coast, 40slavery, 30, 39–40, 43, 49, 60–1, 68

Baraka and, 152–4, 158–61, 163–4, 167–8

effects of, 97, 166emancipation and, 48Hughes and, 93, 103, 109, 124,

133, 135Liberia and, 50narratives of, 98

Smethurst, James, 7, 123, 135, 142, 146–7

Smith, Bessie, 71, 183Smith, Hale, 142Smith, Henry Justin, 13Smith, Hughie Lee, 13Smith, Pine Top, 152Smith, Vincent, 160, 162Social Credit, 63social hierarchy, 83socialism, 144social poetry, 147–9Sollors, Werner, 155“Sol” (Tolson), 43“Somebody Blew Off Baraka” (Harris

and Nielsen), 199n6“Somebody Blew Up America”

(Baraka), 198n6

Some Imagist Poets (Lowell), 16Some Other Stuff (Moncur), 157Songai (African kingdom), 43, 174“Song For Myself, A” (Tolson), 20–1, 23“Song of Hiawatha, The” (Longfellow),

121–2, 196n2Soninké, 174sonnets, 21–3, 191n16, 192n5“Sonnets” (Tolson), 18, 21–2sorrow songs, 30, 98, 159–60Soul Look Back in Wonder (Feelings), 161Soul’s Errand, The (Raleigh), 44South, the (United States), 33, 49, 54,

62, 146Hughes and, 120, 122, 124, 128,

132–4, 142South Africa, 48, 120, 124South Carolina, 55, 107, 113Southern Conference Education Fund

(SCEF), 122Southern Review (journal), 152Southern Road (Brown), 23Southern Tenant Farmers Union, 15“Space Spy” (Moncur), 157Spahr, Juliana, 189n2Spain, 96, 114, 184Spanish Civil War, 114Specters of Marx (Derrida), 100Spector, Robert Donald, 85–6spiral of history, 153, 160, 168, 177spirituals, 30, 72, 97–8, 148

Baraka and, 162, 168–9, 178, 184Spoon River Anthology (Masters),

9–10, 13Spring and All (Williams), 40St. Elizabeths Hospital, 147St. John, 81Stanley, Henry Morgan, 40, 192n4statelessness, 109–10status, 121Stein, Gertrude, 45, 62, 65, 86, 194n24Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), 45stereotypes, 122Stevens, Wallace, 195n10Stony Brook, New York, 152

Index ● 233

Story of the Negro, The (Bontemps), 95“Stray Document” (Pound), 17Struggle, The (Baldwin), 141style, 194n6Sudan, 95Sugar Hill, Harlem, 78sugar trade, 135Sumner, Charles, 108SUNY Stony Brook, 152Surrealism, 38, 182Suso, Foday Musa, 171–2, 174, 176–7Swahili, 178“Swing Low, Sweet Chariot”

(spiritual), 98swing music, 114, 169Synge, J. M., 185–6syntactical parallelism, 15

Taine, Hippolyte, 83Talmadge, Eugene, 134“Tapestries of Time” (Tolson), 18, 33taste, 70Tate, Allen, 3, 50–3, 62–3, 89, 190n4

preface by, 54–8Tax, Ervin, 51Taylor, Charles G., 50, 193n15–n17Taylor, John, 61Taylor, Prentiss, 144–7Teapot Dome scandal, 27tempo, 30tenant farmers, 15Tendencies in Modern American Poetry

(Lowell), 191n12Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 65Terence, 99“‘There Was Something I Wanted to

Tell You’ (33)” (Baraka), 153Third World, 108, 135, 155Third World Press, 152–3, 171Thirteenth Amendment, 108Thomas, Dylan, 185Thomas, Lorenzo, 33, 59–60, 96,

178, 184Thompson, Dolphin G., 85, 193n20Thorton, Willie Mae, 71

Three Musketeers, The (Dumas), 97Three Travelers Watch a Sunrise

(Stevens), 195n10Thus Spake Zarathustra (Nietszche), 44Tiajuana, Mexico, 9Till, Emmet, 126, 196n5Tillman, Nathaniel, 22Timbuktu, Mali, 43, 45“Ti” (Tolson), 42, 44, 51, 54, 63“To Elsie” (Williams), 40Tolson, Melvin B., 1, 4, 15, 19, 23–5,

33, 46allusion and, 42Baraka and, 151, 154, 169, 177, 179,

181, 184, 186–7critical neglect of, 45critical responses to, 59–63early work of, 16Fabio on, 58–9, 61, 70–1, 84formalism and, 57free verse and, 10, 12–13, 16–18, 20Harlem Gallery and, 8–11, 60, 65,

68, 71–3, 76, 79–80, 82–3Harlem Gallery intended sequence

and, 190n2Harlem Renaissance and, 3–7Hughes and, 113, 123, 129Liberian laureate and, 46–50Libretto for the Republic of Liberia

and, 38, 40–1, 45, 50, 53–6, 58Lincoln University and, 47Master’s degree of, 4, 8“Negro Poets Issue” and, 11obituary for, 51prefaces for, 50–4Twayne edition and, 44Whitman and, 42–3

Tolson, Melvin B., Jr., 38, 45, 192n12Tolson, Wiley Wilson, 87Toomer, Jean, 8, 34, 46Torre, Vincent, 140Toscanini, Arturo, 26totalitarianism, 184Tourè, Ahmed Sèkou, 128, 134–5Toussaint L’Ouverture, 101

234 ● Index

“Traitor to France, The” (Tolson), 22transformation, theory of, 184transnationality, 60, 114, 120, 134–5,

194n23Baraka and, 155, 170, 178

“TREY” (Baraka), 156–8trochaic tetrameter, 121Trojans, 170Truman, Harry S, 123Truth, Sojourner, 195n5Tubman, William V. S., 39Turner, Daniel C., 116Turner, Lorenzo D., 55Turning South Again (Baker), 92Tuskegee Institute, 101Twayne edition (Libretto for the

Republic of Liberia), 44, 51, 5312-bar blues, 120, 137, 166

see also bluestypography, 140, 180

Ulysses (Joyce), 185Ulysses (Tennyson), 65Unanism, 10Uncle Remus stories, 178Uncle Tom (Uncle Tom’s Cabin), 74, 83Un Coup de Dés (A Throw of the Dice)

(Mallarmé), 157Underground Railroad, 159underworld, 77, 159United Nations, 50, 110

human rights and, 109United Nations, Limited, The (train), 39United Negro Improvement

Association, 48United States, 5, 9, 15, 17, 189n1,

189n4, 193n15ASK YOUR MAMA and, 144–5, 147Baraka and, 178–81, 183–4, 188civil rights in, 140“CULTURAL EXCHANGE” and,

131, 135cultural importation and, 49diaspora and, 42, 106, 155

epic and, 25–6, 120“Great American poem” of, 85Harlem Gallery and, 80, 89history of, 103Hughes and, 98, 100–101, 104, 108,

110, 124, 126identity and, 24, 34idiom of, 183imperialism and, 41Jim Crow and, 111literature and, 4modernism and, 8, 17nationhood and, 92–3poetry and, 18pre-national period of, 105race theory and, 69racism and, 7segregation and, 35Tolson and, 21, 30, 38, 40, 48,

60–1, 72white supremacists and, 136

United States Air Force, 184United States Congress, 109, 122–3United States Constitution, 108United States Department of Housing

and Urban Development, 129United States Department of Justice,

108United States Department of State, 108United States Senate, 123United States Senate Committee on

Government Operations, 6United States Senate Internal Security

Subcommittee, 122–3United States Supreme Court, 102,

108–9Unity (journal), 152Université de Sorbonne, 126University of Chicago, 55University of Missouri Press, 11University of North Carolina, 148University Press of Virginia, 59, 76“Upsilon” (Tolson), 80–2utopianism, 38

Index ● 235

Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, 27Vanity Fair (magazine), 143Van Vechten, Carl, 144, 146Vaterrecht (patriarchal right), 106veil metaphor, 100–101verbal nouns, 20, 25, 41, 191n15vernacular, 153, 175

blues and, 141Hughes and, 146, 148Tolson and, 10, 13, 15–16, 60, 71, 80–2see also oral traditions

versification, 11Vers Libre Prize, 17vertical audience, 66Victorians, 17, 42–3Virgil, 88, 170Virginia, 49, 102, 107, 125Virgin Mary, 144visual design, 26, 139–40Voices (journal), 11Vollentine Elementary School, 107“voluntary Negroes” (expression), 69von Eschenbach, Wolfram, 39voodoo, 125voting rights, 92

“Wade in the Water” (sorrow song), 159“Wait” (Hughes), 143Walker, Margaret, 13, 165Walker, Rudy, 157Wall Street, New York, 27Washington, Booker T., 124Washington, D. C., 39, 49, 85, 107Washington Post (newspaper), 47Washington Tribune (newspaper), 2Waste Land, The (Eliot), 38, 53, 55–7,

62, 132, 192n9Watts uprising, 197n11Weary Blues, The (Hughes), 135, 148Weaver, Robert, 128West Africa, 35, 39–40, 49, 154–5,

171, 173–5Western civilization, 83, 86, 94–5, 183

philosophy and, 127

Westover, Jeff, 97, 195n3“What about Literature? W-15”

(Baraka), 152, 165Wheatley, Phyllis, 51, 71, 105, 180“When the Saints Go Marching In”

(spiritual), 122, 136White By Law (Haney), 109White House, 85whiteness, 26, 69–70, 84, 168, 178

parody of, 58whites, 33, 40, 101, 105–6, 141–2,

198n3avant-garde and, 182–3Baraka and, 180, 184curiousity of, 126Du Bois on, 100flight of, 107intellectual hegemony of, 45modernism and, 54, 62Modernists and, 3, 4non-white binary and, 109riot by, 141slavery and, 49social norms and, 83supremacist ideas and, 59–60, 135supremacy and, 136swing music and, 114

Whitman, Walt, 12, 16–18, 88, 194n23Africa and, 42–3anaphora and, 101Baraka and, 176–7Libretto and, 18, 42–3, 56prose and, 52Tolson and, 20–1, 23, 28, 32, 66

“Who Said: ‘This Is a White Man’s Country’?” (Tolson), 34

“Who Speaks Negro?” (Fabio), 70, 190n4

“Why Don’t You Fight? #37 (One Mo’ Time)” (Baraka), 168

Wiley College, 4, 65Wilkins, Rev. R., 152Williams, William Carlos, 40, 62, 179,

181, 183, 186–7

236 ● Index

Willis, Edwin, 123Winter Wheat Press, 147“Wise 1” (Baraka), 156, 160, 162, 166“Wise 2” (Baraka), 158, 164, 166“Wise 3” (Baraka), 157–8“Wise 4” (Baraka), 158, 167“Wise 6” (Baraka), 157“Wise 7” (Baraka), 167“Wise 18” (Baraka), 161“Wise One, The” (Coltrane), 169Wise Why’s Y’s: The Griot’s Song (Djeli Ya)

(Baraka), 151–5, 159–63, 173, 175, 182–5, 188

Blues People and, 71, 114, 167–9epic and, 164–6, 169–72, 186–7Europe and, 178–81Hughes and, 149Suso and, 171–2, 174, 176–7“TREY” and, 156–8

“Wise Why’s Y’s” (Baraka), 181, 186, 197n1, 198n5

Wolof people, 174women, 34, 189n2Wood, John, 123“Woodcuts for Americana” (Tolson),

18–19Woodson, Carter G., 100Woodson, Jon, 44

Wordsworth, William, 54working-class, 128World Trade Center, 198n6, 199n6World War II, 27, 32, 34–5, 47, 50,

179, 191n16Wright, Bruce, 57Wright, Richard, 13writing, 99

overwriting and, 103rights and, 98see also Afro-Modernism, epic,

Modernism

Xerxes, 170

Yerby, Frank, 13Young, Gerald, 107“Young Prostitute” (Hughes), 12, 113youth culture, 128“Y The Link Will Not Always Be

‘Missing’ #40” (Baraka), 169Yugen (journal), 179“YYYYYYY (18)” (Baraka), 161

“Zeta” (Tolson), 72, 77Zeus, 95Zulu Club (Harlem), 67, 73, 80Zulus, 79