Measuring motivation in the classroom - CORE
353
MEASURING MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM by RICHARD WILLIAM KIECK THESIS submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR EDUCATIONIS in TEACHING STUDIES in the FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING at the RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY PROMOTER : PROF J STRAUSS SEPTEMBER 1996
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Transcript of Measuring motivation in the classroom - CORE
MEASURING MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM
by
RICHARD WILLIAM KIECK
THESIS
submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
DOCTOR EDUCATIONIS
in
TEACHING STUDIES
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
PROMOTER : PROF J STRAUSS
SEPTEMBER 1996
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere appreciation and grateful acknowledgement is made to s
Prof. J. Strauss for his valuable guidance and advice.
a Mrs E. M. Phillips for her skilful assistance with the proofreading.
THIS STUDY IS DEDICATED TO MY MOTHER IN APPRECIATION FOR ALL HER
ENCOURAGEMENT AND PATIENCE THROUGH THE YEARS.
(i)
OPSOMMING Die meting van motivering in die klaskamer
deur Richard William Kieck
Opvoedkundiges coos Lindhart (1983), Meerkotter (1980) en Purkey (1970) was tot onlangs die mening toegedaan dat 'n leerling se motivering om te leer, uit die sillabusinhoud self ontspring. Hierdie mening vind weerklank by die van die Hurnaniste wat — op grond van die model wat hulle oor leer ontwikkel het — as pleitbesorgers beskou kan word vir die teorie dat die bron van motivering in die mens se natuurlike, inherente begeerte gelee is om sy of haar milieu en werklikheid te beheers.
Hoewel laasgenoemde beskouing geldig is en 'n belangrike rol by die motivering van elke leerling speel, ontstaan daar tog vrae rondom die onderwyser se aandeel in en verantwoordelikheid ten opsigte van motiveringshandelinge, byvoorbeeld: Watter tipe handelinge van die onderwyser behoort die kind te motiveer? Hoe word waardes aan abstrakte handelinge binne 'n empiriese werklikheid toegeken? Hoe lyk motiveringshandelinge en -vaardighede en hoe kan hulle uitgevoer en aangeleer of geslyp word?
Die gebrek aan antwoorde op en oplossings vir hierdie en ander knelpunte en kwelvrae kan waarskynlik aangevoer word as die cede waarom soveel leerlinge tans as Of onderpresteerders of druipelinge ge'identifiseer word. In 'n poging om antwoorde op hierdie vrae en vraagstukke te vind, is die onderhawige studie enersyds aan 'n deurtastende studie van voormelde probleme en andersyds aan 'n grondige literatuurstudle van die onderskeie bestaande benaderings tot motivering gewy. Hierbenewens is gepoog om, met behulp van verskeie meetinstrumentformate, motiveringshandelinge in kategoriee te verdeel en te beskryf ten einde 'n statisties verantwoordbare rangskikking tot stand te bring. Gemelde kategoriee is hierna op hul beurt ten opsigte van onderrighandelinge in die klaskamer in 'n meetinstrument omskep en met soortgelyke erkende skale vergelyk. Die resultate wat 'n toetsbattery in die verband gelewer het, het bewys dat die meetinstrument geldig en betroubaar is. Die Korrelasie van 80% wat tussen die resultate van die meetinstrument en die van die leerlinge se vraelyste blootgele is, toon vender aan dat leerlinge se motiveringsvlak wel akkuraat in die klaskamer gemeet kan word.
Die hoofdoel van die meetinstrument is om die onderwyser se aandag op motivering binne 'n didaktiese perspektief te vestig ten einde die motiveringsklimaat waarin leerlinge moet leer en presteer, te kan beheer, Ten einde die motiveringsklimaat in 'n klaskamer te kan beheer, moet die onderwyser egter kennis dra van die aard sowel as die invloed van al daardie abstrakte elemente wat 'n uitwerking op die leerlinge se emosies en gevoelswereld mag he.
Die meetinstrument bestaan uit drie kategoried, naamlik die onderwyser, die leerling en die orngewing, wat saam die behaviouristiese invloede op die leerling se motiveringsvlak bepaal. Die komplekse aard van menslike mothering bemoeilik ester die toepassing van die rneetinstrument in '19 groot mate.
Die waardevolle inligting wat ondanks voormelde struikelblokke met behulp van hierdie -meetinstrument ingewin kan word, stet onderwysers in staat orn die motiveringskragte binne hul onderwysstrategie so aan to pas dat 'n geborge didaktiese kli ►aat binne die klaskamer geskep en gehandhaaf kan word.
649:V*WL.
(iii)
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL ORIENTATION
1.1. Introduction 1.
1.2. Present motivational aspects 2.
1.3. Problem identification 9.
1.4. Aim 9.
1.5. Programme 11.
1.6. Summary 13.
CHAPTER 2 PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION
2.1. Introduction 15.
2.2. Prerequisites for a theory on motivation 15.
2.3. Perspectives on motivation 17.
2.3.1. Psychological perspective 17.
2.3.1.1. Humanist perspective 21.
2.3.1.1.1. Sensory-motor phase 25.
2.3.1.1.2. Preconceptual phase 27.
2.3.1.1.3. Intuitive phase 28.
2.3.1.1.4. Concrete thought phase 29.
2.3.1.1.5. The Phase of Formal thought Operations 30.
2.3.1.1.6. The Brunner approach to Humanism 30.
2.3.1.1.7. General Aspects of Humanist optimal development 31.
2.3.1.1.8. The Rogers self-concept theory 36.
2.3.1.1.9. The Rogers model and pupil motivation 38.
2.3.1.2. Behaviourist perspective 39.
2.3.1.2.1. S-R Psychology and Learning .. 41.
(iv)
2.3.1.2.2. Comparison of humanist and behaviourist perspectives in human motivation
43.
2.3.1.3. Child development in the primary and secondary school phase 47.
2.3.1.3.1. Introduction 47.
2.3.1.3.2. Primary school phase 47.
2.3.1.3.2.1. Physical development 48.
2.3.1.3.2.2. Motor development 49.
2.3.1.3.2.3. Body image 50.
2.3.1.3.2.4. Sexual identity 50.
2.3.1.3.2.5. Cognitive development 50.
2.3.1.3.2.6. Memory in human development 52.
2.3.1.3.2.7. Language development 56.
2.3.1.3.2.8. Social development 57.
2.3.1.3.2.9. Play and the child 58.
2.3.1.3.2.10.School influence 61.
2.3.1.3.2.11.The educator's role 64.
2.3.1.3.3. Secondary school phase 65.
2.3.1.3.3.1. Physical and psychological development 70.
2.3.1.3.3.2. Cognitive development 73.
2.3.1.3.3.3. Emotional development 75.
2.3.1.3.3.4. Socialization in developing a value system 76.
2.3.1.3.3.5. Social qualities of the educator 78.
2.3.1.3.3.6. The peer group 80.
2.3.1.3.3.7. Adolescent morality 83.
(v )
2.3.1.3.4. Human emotions in the classroom 85.
2.3.1.3.5. Attitude and motivation 95.
2.3.1.3.5.1. Attitude and the forces responsible for its formation 95.
2.3.2. Educational perspective 101.
2.3.2.1. Didactical perspective 104.
2.3.3. The educational situation as a point of departure for a model of motivation.105.
2.3.4. Categories of Kieck (1993) 106.
2.4. Summary 106.
CHAPTER 3 FOUNDATIONS OF A MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
3.1. Introduction 108.
3.2. Origin of the Kieck (1993) Model 108.
3.3. Kieck Didactical motivation measurement scale 115.
3.3.1. Composition of a diagnostic instrument
3.3.2. User application
3.3.3. Criteria for a valid scale 119.
3.3.4. The measuring instrument 121.
3.3.4.1. Category I : The Teacher
3.3.4.1.1. Personality and behaviour.
3.3.4.1.2. Appearance & body movement
3.3.4.1.3. Body language
3.3.4.1.4. Teacher comments
3.3.4.1.5. Voice
3.3.4.1.6. Questioning technique
(vi)
3.3.4.1.7. Teacher focus 129.
3.3.4.1.8. Teacher answers 129.
3.3.4.1.9. Evaluation 130.
3.3.4.1.10 Activity management 131.
3.3.4.1.11 Transmission 131.
3.3.4.1.12 Manipulation of pupil attention 132.
3.3.4.1.13 Personal habits 133.
3.3.4.2. Category II : The Child 133.
3.3.4.2.1. Pupil questions 134.
3.3.4.2.2. Pupil responses and participation 135.
3.3.4.2.3. Pupil activity 136.
3.3.4.2.4. Group formation and interaction 137.
3.3.4.2.5. Pupil attention 138.
3.3.4.2.6. Pupil answers 139.
3.3.4.2.7. Body language 140.
3.3.4.3. Category III : The Physical environment 141.
3.3.4.3.1. Media 142.
3.3.4.3.2. Furniture arrangement 142.
3.3.4.3.3. Didactical initiation 143.
3.3.4.3.4. Surrounding visibility 144.
3.3.4.3.5. Facilities and equipment 145.
3.4. Summary 146.
3.5. Steps involved in scale construction 146.
3.6. Weakness of the measuring instrument 148.
3.7. Test administration 150.
3.8. Using the measuring instrument 151.
3.9. Perspectives on scale reliability, validity and objectivity 153.
3.10 Criticism of motivation measurement scale 156.
3.10.1. Cumbersome size 159.
3.10.2. Ease of use 159.
3.10.3. Complexity 160.
3.10.4. Repetition 161.
3.10.4.1. Personality and behaviour 167.
3.10.4.2. Body movement 167.
3.10.4.3. Media usage 168.
3.10.4.4. Bold answers 168.
3.10.4.5. Fighting 168.
3.10.5. Vagueness 169.
3.10.6. Scope 170.
3.10.7. Operator education 171.
3.10.8. Scoring system 172.
3.10.9. Scale operator subjectivity 173.
3.10.10 Inference level of scale category operation 174.
3.11. Criteria for a measuring instrument 175.
3.11.1. Identification criteria 175.
3.11.1.1. Clear title 176.
3.11.1.2. Brief description 176.
3.11.1.3. Scale in context 176.
3.11.1.4. Clear definitions 176.
3.11.1.5. Integral aspects as examples 177.
3.11.1.6. Inappropriate scale use 177.
3.11.2. Validity criteria 177.
3.11.2.1. Clear scale definitions 177.
3.11.2.2. Accommodation of relevant behaviour 177.
3.11.2.3. Inappropriate behaviour 178.
3.11.2.4. Representative categories 178.
3.11.2.5. Training on scale 178.
3.11.2.6. Free of inference 178.
3.11.2.7. Degree of user inference 179.
3.11.2.8. Nature - of inference 179.
3.11.2.9. Statistical record of inference.179.
3.11.2.10 Artificial influences 179.
3.11.2.11 Accommodation of scale operator 180.
3.11.2.12 Environmental results 180.
3.11.2.13 Scale reliability 181.
3.11.2.14 Content validity 181.
3.11.2.15 Empirically determined quantity 181.
3.11.2.16 Valid face value 182.
3.11.3. Practical scale application 182.
3.11.3.1. Category - goal compliance 182.
3.11.3.2. User-friendly codes 182.
3.11.3.3. Operator training 183.
3.11.3.4. Equipment availability 183.
3.11.3.5. Operational procedures 183.
3.11.3.6. Units of measurement 183.
3.11.3.7. Method of data analysis 183.
3.11.3.8. Projected costs 184.
3.12. Summary 184.
CHAPTER 4 DEVELOPING A MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE
4.1. Introduction
4.2. The nature of motivation measurement
186.
186.
4.3. Measurement and representation of psychological characteristics in the classroom
212.
4.4. Perspectives on training scale construction . 220.
4.4.1. Principles in developing a measuring instrument 221.
4.4.2. The value of the measuring instrument 226.
4.4.3. Steps in scale construction 229.
4.4.4. Objective tests 231.
4.4.5. Prerequisites for valid scale items 232.
4.4.6. Aspects of performance measurement 235.
4.5. Perspectives on training scale implementation 240.
4.5.1. Application of an in-service measuring instrument 242.
4.5.2. The value of clinical classroom analysis 245.
4.5.3. Staff development and in-service education 248.
4.5.4. Characteristics of effective staff development programmes 249.
4.6. Arrangement of motivation scale categories 251.
4.7. Summary 252.
(x )
CHAPTER 5 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
•
5.1. Introduction 253.
5.2. Perspectives on the analysis of assimilated data 253.
5.2.1. Arrangement of proposed motivation measurement instrument 254.
5.2.1.1. User-friendly scale 254.
5.2.1.2. Supported scale 254.
5.2.1.3. Cumbersome scale 254.
5.2.1.4. Correlation of scales 255.
5.2.2. Comparison of Motivation Measuring Instruments 255.
5.2.2.1. Direct measuring instruments ....165.
5.2.2.1.1. Meerkotter (1980) intrinsic motivation measuring instrument256.
5.2.2.1.2. Maarschalk (1977) heuristic interaction analysis measuring instrument 257.
5.2.2.1.3. Proposed motivation measurement scale 259.
5.2.3. Indirect measuring instruments 259.
5.2.3.1. Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II scale 259.
5.2.3.2. Pupil questionnaire 260.
5.3. Statistical analysis of assimilated data 261.
5.3.1. Goosen 1995 Scale Intrinsic Section LEMOSS II vs Meerkotter Intrinsic Motivation Measurement Scale
261.
5.3.2. Scale A2 - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale. vs Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II Extrinsic Section scale .... 262.
5.3.3. Scale A2 - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale. vs Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II Intrinsic Section Scale .... 262.
5.3.4. Scale A2 - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale. vs Maarschalk (1977) Heurostentic Scale 262.
5.3.5. Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II Extrinsic Section Scale vs Maarschalk (1977) Heurostentic Scale
263.
5.3.6. Scale A2 - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale. vs Meerkotter (1980) Intrinsic Motivation Measurement Scale.263.
5.3.7. Pupil questionnaire vs Scale A2 - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale..264.
5.4. Summary 267.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
6.1. Summary 269.
6.2. Recommendations 273.
6.3. Conclusions 277.
6.4. Concluding remarks 278.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 282.
LIST OF FIGURES :
Figure 1. Maslow scale of human motives 27.
Figure 2.1. Rogers emotional arena 86.
Figure 2.2. Plutchik model of human emotion 87.
Figure 2.3. Cognitive and emotional influence on surroundings 97.
Figure 2.4. Model of resistance to attitude change 99.
Figure 2.5.
Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.4.
Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.2.
Model of graded resistance to attitude change 100.
Bieck (1993) model of the educational situation 110.
Motivating forces model 110.
Demotivating forces model 111.
Contexts of human motivation measurement scale 162.
Denova (1979) sequence of training activities 228.
Getzels-Guba levels of social interaction . 252.
LIST OF TABLES :
Table 2.1. Humanist model of cognitive development .... 32.
Table 2.2. Primary school child development 48.
Table 2.3. Adolescent development 69.
Table 2.4. Physical characteristics of adolescent development according to Wagman (1977) 70.
Table 2.5. Weiner (1974) success - failure attribution process 92.
Table 3.1. Smith (1992) Motivations values table 165.
Table 4.1. Denova (1979) Values of a testing mechanism 226.
LIST OF GRAPHS :
Graph 2.1. Adolescent growth 172.
Graph 5.1. Comparative analysis of motivation measuring instruments 266.
APPENDIX :
LIST OF SCALES
Scale Al Kieck (1993) motivation measuring scale 290.
Scale A2 Proposed motivation measurement scale 295.
Scale A3 Proposed mirror motivation measurement scale 307
Scale A4 Meerkotter (1980) motivation measuring scale 314.
Scale A5 Maarschalk (1977) heuristic scale 318.
Scale A6 Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II scale 321.
Scale A7 Pupil motivation questionnaire 327.
APPENDIX
LIST OF FIGURES :
Figure Al 317.
Figure A2 320.
Figure A3 325.
Figure A4 326.
Figure A5 332.
Chapter 1
GENERAL ORIENTATION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
In South Africa at present, there is little in the way of a
formal motivational template, structure, or training for
educators to didactically motivate their pupils in the
classroom. The acknowledgement of the formal role of a
teacher's 'motivation-inducing' actions in the didactical
situation, has endured limited focus to date. Too often in
the past, educators such as Meerkotter (1980), numerous
'humanists', and various existing models of didactical
educational situations, ascribe the source and forces of
motivation to the inherent qualities and characteristics of
the syllabus content, as proposed by Purkey (1970:12).
Although this study acknowledges the validity and role of
'content-based motivation' to motivate the pupil, it should
not be at the cost of 'ignoring' the implementation of a
formal teacher-initiated motivation strateov within any
didactical situation.
1.2. PRESENT MOTIVATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SITUATION.
Educators in classrooms at present do not use any existing
'external (behaviourist) motivation strategy' as a useful or
successful tool in order to motivate pupils.
Opie (1993:07) states :
" Those who observe teachers in action
are familiar with the effect that a
teacher's enthusiasm, or the lack of
it has on the motivation of the
pupils, "
He expands on this point of view and quotes William James
who stated that it was useless for a dull and devitalized
teacher to exhort her pupils to wake up and take interest,
if she did not take it upon herself to motivate by example.
Riley (1990:01) shares this point of view pertaining to
educating a successful New South Africa.
3
According to him, success will depend in a major way on the
education of its people :
II
There is a continuing need to motivate
our scholars to step onto the exciting
technology career ladder early in their
school lives, and then progress onwards
to the Technikons and Universities .
Kieck (1993:02) describes the resulting implications of
the situation expressed by Opie (1993:07) :
11
The basic problem in most classrooms
is that most of the pupils are not
motivated enough to produce work to
fulfill their full potential. II
He states that walking along any school corridor past a
number of classrooms, one will see that apart from a few
enthusiastic pupils, most are there only because they have
to be and not because they want to be. This is not an ideal
situation and therefore this problem must be addressed. He
proposes further that this is true across the full spectrum
of all the Education Departments in the Republic of South
Africa.
4
It is therefore logical to assume that only motivated pupils
can produce a sustained output of a high enough quality,
which would enable them to compete at an international
level.
Rapopart (1989:139), investigating the success of Japanese
schools, states :
" Japanese children may be no smarter
than those elsewhere, but they
undoubtedly work harder, They spend
more time in school than do Americans,
and they have more homework. They
memorize more too.
One might ask: " What is the secret of the Japanese pupils'
success ? " One can reason, therefore, that it would be
impossible to achieve better results of a sustained nature
if their pupils were not motivated. Aldridge .(1989:134)
acknowledges the vital variable of motivation in learning
and concludes that :
" Many children are led incorrectly to
believe that they lack the ability
to learn science or maths (or any
other subject for that matter), as
they compare their achievements
with those of more experienced and
advantaged peers. /I
5
Rogers (1983:301) describes the negative or demotivating:
perceptions which directly and indirectly crystallize in the
minds and hearts of pupils who sit in classrooms.
He empathizes that the classroom ordeal begins every
school-going day, in which his educational career teaches
him that :
There is no place for his restless physical
energy in the school room.
One conforms or faces the unpleasant
consequences.
Submission to rules is very important.
Making a mistake is very bad.
The punishment for a mistake is humiliation.
Spontaneous interest does not belong in school.
Teacher and disciplinarian are one and the same.
School on the whole is an unpleasant experience.
As the years continue, Rogers proposes that pupils learn
further that :
Most text books are boring.
It is not safe to differ with the teacher.
There are many ways to get by without studying.
It is okay to cheat.
Daydreams and fantasy can make the day pass more
quickly.
6
To study hard and get good grades is behaviour
scorned by one's peers.
Most of the learning relevant to his life takes
place outside of school.
Original ideas have no place in school.
Exams and grades are the most important aspects
of education.
Most teachers are impersonal and boring in class.
From the above, it is obvious that matriculation becomes
desirable as a release from boredom, constriction and
coercion. It is therefore vital that the negative picture
painted serves as a challenge for educators to motivate
their pupils away from these intimidating and serious
follies.
A second perspective pertaining to the absence of a formal
extrinsic motivational strategy by teachers, is that where
teachers are motivating their pupils, it occurs informally
and intuitively without a template structure. This prevents
motivation from being monitored, evaluated and adjusted in
order to manipulate or motivate disinterested or
'frightened' pupils.
This situation should place an important burden on
tertiary educational institutions to focus more on formal
motivational aspects in their training curricula.
7
Little or no motivational diagnostic measurement scales
exist, albeit for numerous valid reasons. Student teachers
as well as their more experienced colleagues in the
classroom simply ignore, or are unaware of, the missed
opportunities to 'actively' motivate their pupils. In order
to motivate pupils, teachers must be 'formally' aware of,
and consciously take the responsibility for, motivating
their pupils in order for them to transcend their mediocre
efforts (Bieck 1993:129).
Mc Greal (1983:149) is of the opinion that there is
no area in education that has more potential impact
on the improvement of instruction and hence on the
improvement in schools than a successful teacher
supervision/evaluation system. In this case it could be
used to monitor and measure the degree of pupil motivation
occurring in any classroom.
Mc Greal states further that in many respects it is
an idea whose time has come. The procedures (measurement
scales) described and discussed in this study could offer
schools a relatively inexpensive way to work towards
improving the manner in which pupils are motivated and
hence their results. Therefore by building a supervision/
evaluation system that capitalizes on existing staff, and by
taking advantage of these measurement scales, one could
enhance the quality of motivational instruction.
8
The absence of motivation of pupils in the classroom is not
entirely the fault of the teacher or the training
institutions, but rather the result of an ethos laid down by
outdated traditional models of the didactical educational
situation, such as the Langeveld Model in Smith (1988:12);
these models do not accommodate the active, conscious role
of the teacher in motivating his pupils. Motivation at
present usually occurs as a fortunate 'spin-off" or
accident.
Educationalists must change or become aware of other
perspectives. Walker and Adelman (1975:37)
describe the existing ethos of focusing on current
didactical models of teaching in the classroom :
" Almost as important as observation
per se is the requirement of keeping
an open mind about what we see. Our
way of looking at classrooms should
not be unnecessarily restricted to
prior assumptions about what should
be going on there, nor even.... by
the seemingly logical link between
the abstract process of teaching
and learning. In short we must be
prepared and willing to give up many
of our comfortable beliefs about what
classroom life is all about. I/
9
Kieck (1993) addresses some of these aspects identified in
Walker and Adelman (1975), by redefining the didactical
situation, in order to acknowledge the valid existence of a
motivation scale, as well as to propose an acceptable,
dynamic alternative which accommodates different models of
the education situation, each with their own psychological
school of thought.
1.3. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
The situation described in the introduction illustrates
that no formal measuring instrument containing a successful
diagnostic template exists in order to measure the
motivational effects created by the teacher in the
classroom.
1.4. AIM
The aim of this investigation is to edit, prune or graft
an existing motivation measurement scale proposed by
Kieck (1993:121a), in order to make it more accurate, less
subjective and more user-friendly. This process should
therefore make it more accessible for students at training
institutions and teachers in 'in-service 'training
programmes.
10
The aspects being addressed include :
those classroom activities (whether personal,
behavioural or environmental) that influence a pupil's
motivation.
using the categorized elements together with additional
psychological principles as foundations defined in this
study to develop a template for a motivation
measurement model for the classroom situation (micro
teaching).
developing a scale with a different arrangement or
format in order to measure the aspects identified,
analysed and categorized above.
testing the new proposed scale statistically in
order to see whether it is possible to incorporate it
in secondary or tertiary institution educational
training programmes, in order to ' educate ' the
teacher in the classroom to motivate his pupils.
11
1.5. PROGRAMME
The approach of this study is to build on a pilot
investigation done by Kieck (1993:130) who, after arriving
statistically at a validated motivational measurement
scale, states :
Conclusions drawn from the results
of this study show that they are
valid, reliable and objective,
ensuring that this scale is an
effective training instrument, not
withstanding the fact that a
certain amount of refinement
pertaining to the ease-of-use
(mechanical practicality) and
overlapping is required.
The content of this study consists of six chapters which
deal with the following aspects :
Chapter 1
Chapter one outlines the context and
evolutionary investigative rationale based
on previous research by Kieck (1993).
Chapter 2.
Chapter two formulates the basic
definitions together with their inherent
12
psychological foundations as described in
the growth and developmental phases of the
primary and high school child. Subscribing
to the view of Opie (1993) and Aldridge-
(1989), the aim of this chapter is to
expand on the Kieck (1993) study by
explaining the content of the educational
categories that he defines. In other
words, to define the fundamental
psychological constructs, which form the
subconscious alphabet of the language
of motivated participation at work during
the primary and high school years.
Chanter a
Chapter three focuses on the model of the
didactical educational environment.
Chapter 1
This chapter proposes new motivation
measurement scale formats, with the aim of
developing an improved, less cumbersome
alternative to measure the didactical
environment in the classroom.
Chapters one to three adopt the format of a literature study
with proposed amendments and an evolutionary development in
approach and theoretical implementation.
13
Chapter four facilitates the synthesis of new developments
to be incorporated in amended versions of the scale.
Chapter a
Chapter five, using the same video tape of
five different lessons recorded in the
Bieck (1993) study, statistically
determines the validity of the amended
scale formats with a view to correlating
how effective they are in measuring
perceived pupil motivation during a lesson.
Chanter a
Chapter six includes conclusions,
recommendations and guidelines for
further research.
1.6. SUMMARY
The context of this investigation as set out above, is to
amend and improve an existing didactical motivation
measurement scale. By using this amended motivation
measurement scale on a regular basis, it is hoped that any
educator undergoing measurement can focus on the results
obtained and then integrate an 'emotive awareness' or
motivation element in his teaching strategy.
14
The following chapter defines the context of human
motivation and the dynamic psychological forces at work in
determining their effect and resultant influence on human
behaviour and willingness to learn.
Chapter 2
PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION
2.1. INTRODUCTION
In order for an educator to be able to effectively employ
motivation as a tool forming a comprehensive and successful
teaching strategy, he must first be aware of the 'abstract'
yet powerful influence that it exerts in simultaneous
psychological and educational contexts.
This is not as straightforward as it might appear, since
specific behavioural practices and teacher activities can
serve as a reflection of, or window into, the hidden or
abstract problems, particularly regarding the
interpretations of fundamental definitions and conceptual
schemes regarding the different aspects of theories
pertaining to the term MOTIVATION .
2.2. PREREQUISITES FOR A THEORY ON ASPECTS OF MOTIVATION
According to Allport (1961:122), behaviour is motivated ky
contemporary motives - where a motive must exist in the
present moment. Fast motives therefore form part of the
present motive and do not contribute to present behaviour.
16
He is also of the opinion that a motivation theory must
accommodate a wide variety of motives, the motivational
cognitive process of people must be acknowledged and a
motivation theory must accommodate the concrete
existence and thereby the unique character of human
motives.
Ball (1977:2) on the other hand reminds one of the
problematic aspects that must be kept in mind when
exploring the concept of motivation. Motivation is a
hypothetical construct and psychologists therefore
infer certain conclusions from aspects of behaviour.
Educators can overuse the term motivation as an
explanation of certain behavioural practices whereby
large leaps to conclusions pertaining to this
practice are taken for granted. Ball (1977:3) states
that motivation is but one set of elements in a
multitude of factors and processes that determine
behaviour. Therefore, no current theory can provide a
full picture of motivation in education.
Finally one is reminded that when motivating a child to
produce certain results, values are involved, aad where
teachers try la change children, so that the children
will grow up to help change the society, controversy la
almost bound to occur
17
2..3. PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION
Motivation, being a process used by so many people in
different contexts, can mean different things to different
people, according to their own contextual circumstances.
Various perspectives on motivation and its context of
influence follow, namely social, educational and
psychological development.
2.3.1. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The simplest (widest) or most fundamental view of
motivation according to Stowell (1961:502) and Webster
(1965:339) can be found in the etymological derivation
of the term from the old French word motif which in turn
is derived from the lower Latin motivus - moving, and from
the Latin motus - moving past and movere - to move.
The term motive / motivation is defined as a prompting
from within, an idea, reason or other force leading to
action; the purpose or intention underlying an action or
statement. Chaplin (1976:326) supports this viewpoint
and defines motive / motivation as a state of tension
within an individual which arouses, maintains and directs
behaviour towards a goal and the conscious reason which
the individual gives for his behaviour.
18
Lindhart, Barnard and Longman (1983:134) maintain that one
can speak of two types of motivation : extrinsic
motivation, which comes from the outside (environment and
teacher), and intrinsic motivation, which comes from
within the student. Extrinsic motivation is also known as
' the carrot and the stick ', or reward and punishment
motivation. Students are motivated to study by positive
rewards such as praise, high marks or school prizes, or
alternatively they are threatened with punishment if they
do not work. Therefore some students are motivated by the
idea of success, while others are motivated merely to
avoid failure and punishment, and many are not motivated
at all.
Intrinsic motivation is a kind of inner drive which urges
the student on to higher effort and achievement. This
student works for his own goals; these are his personal
needs. Lindhart (1983 :134) proposes :
" Motivation is the mother of drive
and the daughter of need,
Regarding Lindhart's view in classifying the two
types of motivation as expressed in the paragraphs above,
it is important that one becomes aware of two major
approaches while describing and conceptualizing a
definition of the term MOTIVATION, that is,
19
there are two approaches according to Coleman in Yelon
and Weinstein (1977:296) where the 'push' and 'pull'
concepts of motivation are suggested. In the 'push'
approach the individual is self-motivated, pushed from :
within ; in the 'pull' viewpoint, motivation is seen as
stemming from the individual's desire to obtain an
external reward.
At the present moment, the debate amongst educationalists
and psychologists pertaining to the most efficient
technique to motivate pupils in the classroom continues.
With the above in mind, Weiner (1980:257) states that
consistent with the data questioning the positive effects
of reward, there is an increasing body of literature
documenting that children with initial interest in a task
(intrinsic motivation) lose some of that interest when an
external reward (extrinsic motivation) is promised for
performing the task. Stated in a different manner, when a
goal becomes construed only as means to an end, then that
goal loses some of its value.
Young (1961:171) summarizes the argument aptly by stating
that intrinsic motivation is present in activities that
are valued for their own sake and that appear to be
self-sustained. The fundamental problems centering around
intrinsic motivation are problems of value interest. The
problems of extrinsic motivation are related to incentives
and the way they influence performance.
20
This debate tends to polarize the two different
approaches. Educationalists should, however, not perceive
these two views as opposing one another; rather that
extrinsic motivation 'evolves' into intrinsic motivation
as the child gains more enthusiasm and confidence and
belief in himself, which in turn feeds an 'own'
intrinsic drive (motivation) to attain a perceived goal.
Extrinsic motivation therefore should be administered by
the teacher as a catalyst to start the process.
Psychologists express the view that motivation is the
foundation of human behaviour. Different psychological
schools of thought adopt one of two views when describing
the foundation of human behaviour. This foundation could
arise from within the individual as proposed by the
Humanist School, or as the response of an individual to
various external stimuli, as is believed by the
Behaviourist School.
21
2.3.1.1. HUMANIST PERSPECTIVE
The following definitions all subscribe to the HUMANIST
or 'internal - push' view of motivating behaviour,
except Galloway (1976:254) who acknowledges both
viewpoints mentioned above.
According to Maslow (Louw, Gerdes & Meyer, 1984:142),
all creatures share motives consisting of primitive
ones as well as sophisticated and complicated ones.
In 1943 he proposed a hierarchy consisting of an
increasing scale of motives (low to high) which can
spring from other things (sub-motives).
Maslow proposes that higher motives will appear only to
the degree that more basic ones have been satisfied.
Maslow also believes that the most highly evolved motive
in his hierarchy is that of selfactualization - which is
described as a desire to make the best of oneself - that
is, what we ourselves want to be.
Educators, therefore, have to learn which forces
and conditions to create and apply to make learning and
reinforcement more effective. As one can envisage,
this is very difficult to test empirically and
therefore requires a sound research design.
NEEDS OF SELFACTULALIZATION
NEEDS OF SELF-ESTEEM
NEEDS FOR BELONGING
AND LOVE
SAFETY NEEDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL
NEEDS
22
Fig.. 1
MASLOW'S SCALE OF HUMAN NEEDS OR MOTIVES
As can be seen in Maslow's theory, the traditional views
pertaining to motivation rely on internal states or
entities of an organism. That is, the source is to
instil a curiosity in the child which will serve as a
motive for satisfying it.
Freud (Louw, Gerdes & Meyer, 1984:110) states that the
individual is always in a state of unconscious
motivation (self-originated within the individual) thus
the teacher's task is to help the learners keep their
energies in check and to channel them in directions that
are logically and morally acceptable, by means of
educational discussions.
23
Montesori (Galloway, 1976:255) also subscribes to
the inborn nature of motivation, whereby natural
tendencies will lead the way towards their learning.
Piaget's theory of intellectual development of the child
as discussed in Piaget and Inhelder (1969) supports the
view that natural inborn curiosity will motivate
learning. Piaget's model is seen by the 'humanists' as
one of the most important theories explaining human
(child) development, and therefore requires focus as it
forms one of the cornerstones of the 'intrinsic '
-- internally derived - humanist motivation models.
He proposes that a human's intellectual or cognitive
functioning is a means of interacting with the
environment in order to survive, or master it by
cognitively solving problems.
In order to understand the Piaget model of human
development, one must first understand the definitions
of his basic concepts and terminology.
Using everyday language, Piaget (1969) states that a
person interacts with his surrounding reality in which
he has to solve numerous problems. These problems bring
about an unbalanced cognitive state, which is once again
restored by employing cognitive tasks in the form of
actions, ideas, or cognitive strategies.
24
Cognitive action is therefore initiated by a perceived
'unbalanced state', which must be counteracted by using
schemes' or 'operations' which operate in different
predetermined contexts.
Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) proposes that all
living organisms possess two basic tendencies, namely
organization and adaption. Human organization implies
that humans function in a 'holistic' manner, that is, as
a co-ordinated unit, employing the use of schemes and
concepts. Actaptation to one's environment, on the other
hand, consists of two complementary functions, namely
assimilation which implies gathering changes or
adaptions in a human's approach to the changing elements
in his surroundings, and accommodation which constitutes
the changes that occur within the individual himself in
order to function more effectively in his altered
environment. It is this aspect which reflects that
'learning' has occurred.
Piaget's theory also consists of a content, that is,
every cognitive action/operation such as perception and
problem-solving, takes on a specific form, according to
each unique situational context. This occurs within a
reference framework which offers structure where
adaption occurs as a result of incorporating objects or
events into a pre-existing cognitive scheme.
25
Cognitive Schemes in the Piaget model as described in
Louw et al.(1984:140) form the stepping stones/elements
of human cognitive development.
The Piaget cognitive schemes identified in
Louw et al. (1984:140) must be acknowledged, in order
to successfully interpret the various cognitive
activities/operations that occur in any child during the
learning process.
Engelbrecht, Kok and van Biljon (1982:143) also refer to
the Piaget model to explain cognitive development in the
child in the learning educational situation. They quote
Piaget by stating that a major watershed occurs in the
cognitive development of the child during the seventh
year.
Using the Piaget model in an educational context, the
cognitive (thought) processes of a child are divided
into a Sensory-motor Phase, a Preconceptual Phase, an
Intuitive Phase, a Concrete-thought Phase and finally
a Formal Operations Phase.
2.3.1.1.1. The Sensory-motor Phase
This phase stretches from birth to approximately the
second year.
26
This phase is characterized by the child exploring his
environment using his senses to which he responds using
his notory actions/operations in order to discover the
effect of his actions in his 'new world'. Due to the
fact that the child does not possess language (a set of
existing cognitive symbols to represent the reality of
his perceived environment), he is totally reliant on his
ability to perceptually construct his world and respond
using his motor abilities in order to manipulate his
environment.
The activity of any newborn is mainly an instinctive
reaction, such as sucking, gargling or
crying. During this stage the baby is totally
'egosentric' without a conscious grasp on the reality
that is his world. Via a spontaneous repetition to
internal or external stumuli he is able to gain a
limited vestige on the reality that surrounds him.
He constitutes this reality by assimilating
(adapting) to his surrounding environment in a
non-selective manner. These adaptions later develop
into deliberate operations in order to reach a goal. By
the inclusion of new experiences in relation to a
primitive framework of existing ones, and the
recognition of a past stimulus which leads to repetitive
behaviour, the child engages himself with the learning
process.
27
The repetitive operations/activities thus form
primitive 'schemes' using the process of
assimilation and accommodation described earlier.
At approximately one year of age, the child 'copies'
the activities of those around him, and thereby gains
his own system of primitive symbols to which he later
attributes words. Objects can then become constant;
first this applies to people, followed by inanimate
objects.
During the second year, his development allows him
through his language, actions and symbols to
understand the .consequences of his behaviour, even
before committing a certain act. The emphasis now
implies a shift from physical operation to cognitive
operation.
2.3.1.1.2. The Pzeconceptual Phase
This constitutes a child's development between the
second and fourth years. At this stage the child's
thought is not yet comprised of concepts, but rather
of preconcepts in which he is unable to attribute a
specific concept to a specific object. Nevertheless
he has a vague idea to which category, within his
own reference framework, a process or object belongs.
28
With the use of an improved vocabulary as a
communication tool, the developing child can focus
(accommodation) on the perceived demands placed on
him by his environment. Language, therefore,
exercises a regulatory function on his behaviour.
This stage is characterized by the child having an
imaginary and symbolic world which is revealed in his
play. The symbols are strictly his 'own', being
derived from personal experience. His world during
this stage is constituted by 'single' or central aspects
that grab his attention, at the cost of others, which
results in him only being able to relate to his world in
the form of limited single episodes.
2.3.1.1.3. The Intuitive Phase
This phase describes those processes occurring in the
child between the fourth and seventh years. During
this phase the child is able to define aspects and
processes according to a projected result. Only
single episodes can be processed or grasped, since he
is still incapable of comparative evaluation,
particularly pertaining to aspects such as distance,
time and speed.
29
Episodes experienced and processed by the child can
not be reversed while reasoning, which in Piaget's
view means that the child is incapable of
'conserving' his perceived reality.
2.3.1.1.4. The Concrete Thought Phase
(Entrance to Primary School)
At school the child increasingly employs the use of
cognitive or internal operations, related to an
existing framework, with which he continues to
construct his world. 'Conservation' plays an ever
increasing role, where this tool assists in the
construction process. Engelbrecht et al. (1982:146)
describe the conservation process of the child in
phases, where he is able to conserve the idea of
matter somewhere between the ages of seven to eight
years, mass between the ninth and eleventh year and
volume somewhere between the eleventh and twelfth
year.
The child during these phases uses three logical
thought strategies which assist learning at school.
These include classification, where objects
possessing similar characteristics are grouped
together in the child's mind, serial farmation where
he is able to arrange objects in a series according
to a specific criterion and amount (number).
30
2.3.1.1.5. The Phase Q1 Formal Thought Operations
This phase includes the pubescent and adolescent.
The child during this phase is capable of forming
hypotheses and predetermining outcomes using
'inductive' and 'deductive' thought, and is able to
generalize, no longer being burdened with concrete
thought mechanisms.
2.3.1.1.6. TUE ammu APPROACH TO HUMANISM
The Bruner approach to learning and human development
within the humanist framework as discussed in
Morris (1976:95) differs from Piaget in focusing on the
manner in which they manipulate the child. Brunner
suggests that young children first represent objects and
past events in terms of appropriate motor response.
Using the following example Bruner proposes to describe
a child's development. A baby drops a rattle through
the bars of his cage. He stops for a moment, brings his
hands up to his face, and observes his hand. Puzzled,
he lets his arm fall and shakes it as though the rattle
were still there - no sound. The baby looks at his hand
again, thereby representing the rattle. As far as the
baby is concerned, the rattle is not a plastic toy, but
a sound when shaking his hand.
31
If after a few months the rattle is taken away, the
baby tries to look for it. Bruner believes this action
to be the result of the baby's mental image of the
rattle.
With the above in mind, children eventually learn to
represent things with symbols.
Bruner's studies indicate that conceptual thinking and
language develop together. The child begins by using
words to stand for specific experiences. Once the child
has a grasp of words and some practice in applying words
to a variety of experiences, he or she begins to use
words in a symbolic way, to represent a large number of
images. The words begin to assume a meaning of their
own. At this point, the child can begin to manipulate
words without having to refer to experiences to perform
logical and abstract operations.
2.3.1.1.7. GENERAL ASPECTS az HUMANIST OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Within the humanist school of thought various humanists
share the same opinions pertaining to characteristics
of optimal human development. Louw et al.(1984:142)
defines optimally developed people as is illustrated in
Table 2.1.
32
Optimally developed people :
possess the ability to perceive reality and the social environment realistically.
can accept their own shortcomings and can laugh about them.
are able to focus on a task irrespective of their personal problems.
have good relations with various different types of people.
experience life to the full by being aware of all the options around them.
possess a realistic and systematic view of life and show empathy with other points of view.
TABLE 2.1. THE HUMANIST MODEL DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANS WHO DISPLAY OPTIMAL
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Rogers (Louw et al.,1984:142) is of the opinion that
an individual can only develop to his full potential
if he receives unconditional recognition during his
childhood, which implies that at least one adult
unconditionally accepts the developing child on his path
to becoming an independent adult.
Forming the foundation of existing educational models of
the classroom situation, Allport and Frankl
(Louw et al.,1984:143) state that an individual can
develop to his optimal potential, despite the lack of
fulfilling his needs or being recognized.
33
Allport, particularly in his theory of 'Proprial
Development' proposes that any individual possesses the
ability to formulate his own goals and thereby strive
for perfection in order to discover the meaning of his
existence.
Numerous 'behaviourists' would agree that if the
idealistic development described above held true, there
would be many more distinctions and fewer failures
sitting in our country's classrooms. In general,
criticism can be levelled at the humanist perspective
due to the fact that many of their conclusions are
derived from uncalibrated observations, which lead to
vague concepts which are empirically difficult to
verify.
Due to most humanists relying on Piaget's and Brunner's
Stage Theories to explain human development, Bower
(Morris, 1979:96) argues that development does not
always progress as neatly or as orderly as proposed.
Bower also states that developing children are prone to
fits and starts pertaining to the development of their
memories, in contrast to Piaget's outline.
Horn (Morris, 1976:96) supports Bower in that he is
of the opinion that much of the evidence that seems to
support the idea of development stages has been
misinterpreted.
34
He suggests that children are able to reach a later
stage of development without having gone through the
earlier stages.
In line with the approach of this study, perhaps it
would be better to examine Piaget's model as an ideal
rather than a real picture of cognitive development.
The interests and abilities of a particular child and
the demands of the environment may influence the
development of cognitive development, as a continuous,
developing process separated by rigid time frames.
Positive aspects of the humanist theories include the
attempt to describe or explain the 'whole' (gestalt)
person. They also attempt to accommodate and recognize
initiative and freedom of the individual during his
development. While the behaviourists place the focus on
the environment beyond the control of the individual to
explain influences on human development, the humanists
acknowledge the role of the individual himself, where
they are of the opinion that it forms a far better base
for education, according to Child (Louw, 1984:143).
All the above-mentioned approaches play a role in
motivating an individual. But the inherent weakness of
these views is that too much is left to chance;
they rely too heavily on the inherent aspects of the
syllabus content alone, to motivate or form a foundation
for a force of action in an individual.
35
According to Purkey (1970:12), humanists believe :
.....there is only one kind of
motivation, and that is the
personal , internal motivation
that each and every human being
has at all times, in all places,
and when engaged in any activity. /1
Yelon and Weinstein (1977:311) describe motivation as
a basic inherent drive towards competence and self-
fulfillment. They expand further by stating that the
inherent drive comes to school with the child and that
it is the teacher's job to take full advantage of this
natural urge facilitating the learning process.
According to the view of the behaviourist theory,
teachers should take advantage of this situation by
presenting material in ways that are meaningful to the
student, and where the teacher enhances the self-image
of the student, by providing opportunities for the
student to achieve.
Hamacheck (Yelon & Weinstein, 1977:312) supports the
above view and states :
" The emphasis is on motivating. students
by providing opportunities for personal
exploration and by allowing students to
discover meaning in their work. /I
36
2.3.1.1.8 THE ROGERS E-CONCEPT THEORY La ®. DEVELOPMENT
OF MK HUMANIST APPROACH
M011er (1984:85) proposes that the impact of the Rogers
approach is so profound that his views affecting modern
day psychology are second only to those of Freud.
Rogers (Morris 1979:386) together with Allport
(1961:22), reject the Freudian psychoanalytical
perspective which proposes that humans are motivated by
an unconscious biological energy or tension. Rogers
also holds the view that behaviour is the result of far
more than mere behavioural conditioning. It is rather
as a result of a desire for a higher maturity level in
his adult development, therefore directing his focus and
effort towards the future.
In contrast to behaviourist theories, Rogers and Allport
propose that human development is as a result of
subjective, personal experience. He proposes further
that a human is a psychophysical organism (body and
personality) which functions as a co-ordinated unit.
The accumulation of all the individual's experiences
forms his 'self-image'. This theory asserts that every
individual is the centre of his or her own private world
of experience.
37
According to Rogers (Morris, 1979:434) all infants
possess certain attributes : they all create their own
environment; they have an inborn tendency to protect
and maintain themselves; develop their capacities and
exercise this inborn tendency within their own world of
reality, where they form value judgements about their
experiences. As they mature, they gain an awareness of
being, and a 'conscious self'. As children develop,
they develop two kinds of values : values experienced
directly and values adopted from others but erroneously
perceived as their own.
The Rogers Theory (Moller, 1984:90) places a lot of
emphasis on human personality, which he associates
with an active growth rather than a compilation of
various static mechanisms. Rogers proposes that human
motivation is due to the desire to reach a higher
state of selfactualization, which can be represented
by a seed being planted which will grow and reach
maturity, provided that favourable environmental
conditions exist. The 'force' resulting in growth,
despite any setbacks, is what causes the seed (child)
to continue to develop. Rogers believes that every
person is endowed genetically with this inherent force
which directs and motivates him to strive and attain
adulthood.
38
This theory proposes that physiological and
psychological needs of a developing person are
subservient to selfactualization needs.
Selfactualization is therefore a natural process
occurring in every human who employs his characteristics
and potential in order to develop.
2.3.1.1.9. ma Emus tialm. AND PUPIL MOTIVATION
The Rogers view has certain implications on the
motivational effect of human behaviour. Amongst other
factors, selfactualization is not merely a psychic
entity, it is a 'whole' force which directs human
function. Selfactualization within an individual is
a continuous active growth in order to attain his full
potential which is not always a smooth process, as it
usually involves periods of intense stress and
discomfort. Selfactualization is a self-maintenance
process and therefore once a developmental step has been
recalled it is up to that individual to maintain it.
Any individual at a given moment is motivated by the
present, as this exercises a far greater influence than
episodes in his past. This is the cue for the educator
to manipulate this 'vacuum' and employ various teaching
strategies in motivating and exhorting his pupils to
attain better results.
39
According to Rogers (1962:416) all human motives are
subservient to selfactualization where he supports the
Maslow view that all other motives serve as
dynamic stepping stones for a person to reach and
maintain his full potential on becoming an independent
adult.
According to the humanist view, no matter what the mode
of presentation, students will be more motivated to
learn material which they see as meaningful. It is
therefore the teacher's task to demonstrate that the
material is meaningful.
Therefore the humanists believe that the students,
because they are self-motivated, can and should
determine the objectives of their own learning and the
activities used to reach those objectives.
2.3.1.2. BEHAVIOURIST PERSPECTIVE
Mdller (1984:59) is of the opinion that behaviouristF,
such as Tolman, Skinner and Hull manipulate the various
levels of Maslow's hierarchy to serve as motivation to
cause particular learning activities and actions,
therefore serving as motivational forces, whether
positive or negative, by means of a process of operative
conditioning and reinforcement.
40
Behaviourism is defined by Chaplin (1976:56) as a
theoretical point of view which holds that the subject
matter of psychology is behaviour without reference to
conscious or mental constructs. Although it is an old
point of view, behaviourism as a formal school of
psychology had its inception in the work of
John B. Watson, according to Morris (1979:09).
Watson (Chap--=-1in, 1976:56) defines psychology as a
purely objective experimental branch of natural science.
Its goal is the prediction and control of behaviour.
Watson's behaviourist view proposes :
The time seems to have come when
psychology must discard all
reference to consciousness,
when it need no longer delude
itself into thinking that it is
making mental states the object
of observation.
Thorndike, also a staunch behaviourist (Chaplin,
1976:56) stimulated a generation of followers in the
area of animal psychology.
41
Although Watson's behaviourism was the dominant
behaviouristic programme in psychology between 1919 and
the mid 1930's , when the schools (of psychology) as
such, disappeared, there were a number of prominent
psychologists whose general orientation was behaviourist
and who lent support to Watson. Holt (Chaplin, 1976:56)
contributed strong philosophical support to the movement
in his writings. In the same article it is mentioned
that Hunter contributed numerous methodological
procedures., making possible the investigation at the
higher mental processes in animals.
2.3.1.2.1. 5-R PSYCHOLOGY ala . LEARNING
Skinner took the helm over from Watson and developed
behaviourism further. His beliefs were similar to
Watson's, but he made the animal (human) an
active agent in the conditioning (learning) process
by adding reinforcement, or reward (motivation) to
stimulate learning. This type of learning was labelled
Stimulus - Response Psychology. The concept of
operative conditioning is manipulated by the educator in
order to develop the child and 'assist' him in moving
towards a predetermined goal, by manipulating his
surroundings.
42
Behaviourists thus believe that motivation, like
learning, is under the influence of conditioning
controlled by the given realities of . the environment.
They see behaviour as the result of association with
events that arouse emotion. Yelon and Weinstein
(1977:313) agree that behaviourists subscribe to the
fact that human beings are conditioned all the time,
their behaviours affected by emotion-producing events
and the resulting consequences.
Therefore teachers can deliberately control
circumstances and condition students to enjoy learning
and to want to learn. Behavioural psychologists believe
that the failure to learn is the result of an inadequate
programme, not the result of personal inadequacies in
the learner.
Galloway (1976:254), in contrast acknowledges the
merits of both views, and supports the idea that the
inner conditions are hypothesized to mediate between
phvsiolooical and environmental events and conditions on
the one hand and consequent behaviour on the other.
These physiological and environmental conditions produce
certain inner conditions which in turn ' motivate ' the
organism to behave in certain ways.
43
According to the above descriptions, motivation, from
the behaviourist perspective, means that the motivation
of an individual is dependent on external stimuli which,
by definition, makes it possible for a teacher to
manipulate the environment and therefore the state of
motivation of every child entrusted to his care.
The psychological perspective includes the forces at
work and the ability/possibility to manipulate them in
order to bring about a desired response from a target
group or individual.
2.3.1.2.2. COMPARISON OF HUMANIST taa BEHAVIOURIST
PERSPECTIVES In HUMAN MOTIVATION
The aspect of motivation as defined in the humanist and
behaviourist schools of psychology, is merely one small
component of both models which proposes to explain an
individual's perceived reality, as well as the forces
which exercise an influence on behaviour within
this framework. For this reason, in order to gain an
insight into these forces which affect human motivation,
one must understand how the various components of these
models affect a definition of motivation in an
educational context, as both these opposing views occupy
a valid position in explaining motives which govern
human behaviour.
44
Using arguments stated in Morris (1979:367) and
Louw et al.(1984:143), the humanists propose that
the behaviourist approach is a collection of elemental
factors which attempt to explain human behaviour,
rather than organic inherent laws which constitute more
than the sum of its components.
Further, the humanist view believes that the emphasis
on an individual's development must be future orientated
and not embedded in the past in order to define his
development.
Humanists ascribe to the belief that the Behaviourist
Model explaining human behaviour is nothing more
than a tension-releasing mechanism, as opposed to
their view which states that the human actually
increases his psychological (motivation) tension, in
order to develop and reach his perceived ideal or goal
(selfactualization).
Where the behaviourists focus on external environmental
forces to explain human motivation, the humanists
propose that forces at work within a person determine
his development, which implies that he has the
freedom of choice to limit the extent of the effect
of these forces. This could explain how many people
are successful despite numerous negative external
influences.
45
The behaviourist adopts the converse view, that despite
the existing internal potential of the human psyches,
they require external stimuli to motivate or unlock this
potential.
The humanist model accommodates the view of continuous
or further development, rather than mere adaption of
external social influences.
Pertaining to the above, logic would convey that the
'internal-intrinsic' self-motivation of the humanist
occupies a higher hierarchical position than would the
behaviourist approach. Nevertheless, in the
developing child moving through the various stages of
development, external guidance, structure and order must
be defined and transferred in order to unlock the
inherent potential defined in the humanist approach.
Both the humanist and behaviourist approaches must be
taken into account when developing a successful and
complete teaching strategy to educate and motivate
pupils. The stance adopted by this study supports the
'social learning theory' of Bandura as represented in
Morris (1979:176).
The social learning theory proposed by Bandura, combines
elements of traditional operant conditioning and
cognitive theory.
46
One of Bandura's main departures from
traditional learning theory is his emphasis on
observational learning - the ability to learn by
watching other people's behaviour, particularly if they
are successful motivators. Social learning theorists
also have a different view of reinforcement than those
of traditional learning proponents. They recognize
symbolic reinforcers such as attention and approval
(motivation), various reinforcers (whereby other people
being rewarded or punished encourage them to alter
their behaviour) and self-reinforcers (such as pride and
guilt).
47
2.3.1.3. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN ma PRIMARY Alia SECONDARY SCHOOL PHASES
2.3.1.3.1. INTRODUCTION
Any educator worth his salt must be knowledgeable
about his target audience, namely the development
characteristics of the growing child. This is not
only necessary, but vital if the educator is to have
any insight into which factors influence and motivate
the child. By acquiring this information an appropriate
teaching strategy can be implemented, taking the
relevant characteristics into account.
2.3.1.3.2. THE PRIMARY SCHOOL PHASE
This phase includes those developing children between
the sixth and twelfth years of age, where they enjoy a
relatively calm phase after the accelerated preceding
phase and before those which will follow during
adolescence.
The children in this phase begin their schooling where
their cognitive, social and personality aspects are
stimulated and developed. They also draw closer to
their peer groups in order to function in a social
arena. These aspects form the foundations of their
identity and therefore play a vital role in their future
success. These children are characterized by thinking
in concrete terms (Piaget).
48
Children develop their interests, attitudes, values,
self-concept and general abilities during this phase.
Focusing on Louw et al.(1984:284), O'Brien (Elliott,
1982:200) and Morgan, King and Robinson (1979:380),
the most apparent developments during this stage of
development are summarized in Table 2.2.
Continuous and refined motor movements develop.
Attainment of sexual identity.
Development of concrete thoughts.
Attainment of knowledge and scholastic skills.
Enhanced social interaction (school).
Greater self-knowledge as a result of participating in peer group activities.
Development of social observation.
Development of a primary morality.
TABLE 2.2. MILESTONES OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILD DEVELOPMENT
2.3.1.3.2.1. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Based on tables proposed in Lock (1972:35) and
Engelbrecht, Kok and van Biljon (1982:107), primary
school children on average grow between 5 to 8 cm
and increase in mass by between 1,5 to 2,75 kg per year.
During this stage, children continuously monitor and
compare their physical development in both a conscious
and subconscious manner.
49
Their general appearance, reveals the loss of baby fat
and accelerated growth of the extremities, as well as
the replacement of milk teeth by permanent teeth.
2.3.1.3.2.2. MOTOR DEVELOPMENT.
During this phase, a refinement in the co-ordination of
small and large muscle groups occurs. This muscle
development is necessary in order for the child to be
able to engage in activities such as reading, writing
and participation in sport.
Teachers motivating boys and girls during this
phase must be aware that boys between the ages of six to
twelve years perform better in tasks taxing strength and
physical power, where girls perform better at tasks
which require control and accuracy.
This situation implies that the female visual-motor
co-ordination develops much quicker than in males.
Young girls also participate more in group games and
therefore acquire more skills due to exposure to social
interaction and development.
Motor skills and their interaction with cognitive
ability develop dramatically during this stage.
50
2.3.1.3.2.3. BODY IMAGE
Due to the child's physical development, a specific body
image arises. Thus his body image is constituted not
only by subjective personal images but also as a result
of his perception of his motor skills in relation to his
• peer group.
2.3.1.3.2.4. SEXUAL IDENTITY
During this phase sexual identity becomes increasingly
defined in the child's own mind. This is manifested by
him adopting his appropriate role as a result of
the influence of the social environment and further
cognitive progress. This is attained by mimicking the
codes of conduct of adults within the norms of their
own particular cultural group. Masters and Wilkinson
(Louw et al.,1984:289) conclude that the seven or
eight year old possesses the same cognitive and social
definitions pertaining to sexual identity.
2.3.1.3.2.5. COGNITIVE =Emu=
With reference to the Piaget model described earlier in
this chapter, children in the preoperational phase are
able to understand many rules and to transcend space and
time in their thinking, but their thought tends to be
unsystematic and focused on only one event or dimension
at a time. These children are not able to 'conserve'.
51
During the primary school stage, that is the concrete
operations phase, they are able to understand in
rudimentary form a number of logical relationships.
They begin to use what they know in a flexible,
integrated form, which is combined into an organized`
system. Their thinking becomes naturally systematic
and less casual.
Conservation concepts are easily mastered by children in
this phase of cognitive development and they are able to
take into account all the changing dimensions at once.
The implications of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division make sense in relation to
one another. Primary school children are also able to
cognitively classify and set up hierarchical
arrangements by logically arranging them, referring to
more than a single dimension.
Despite development gained with regard to thinking in
concrete terms, primary school children are still
closely tied to their surroundings which include
objects and events. Educators must therefore use
concrete models in order to represent abstract concepts.
52
Cognitive development of the child affects and
influences his behaviour and enables him to better
control or manipulate his surroundings, particularly his
memory or the retention of experiences in his past. His
memory improves because he has developed and mastered
more sophisticated strategies, which the educator
can accelerate by motivating the child, or as a result
of the child diminishing tension.
2.3.1.3.2.6. tataai LE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Louw et al.(1984:299) stress the importance of memory
efficiency being linked to cognitive development and
maturation.
Memory is an active process that shifts, sorts and
recognizes information, stores it, and makes it
available to us for use at a later stage. The function
of memory is retention, or holding onto events and
information from the past. Keeping motivation in mind,
retention can be measured only through performance,
which is subject to anxiety, motivation or other
unrelated factors. Recall, recognition and savings are
three ways of measuring retention.
Recall involves the reproduction or repetition of
learned material. In serial recall children recall
material in a specific order (reciting a poem).
53
During free recall, children summon information in any
order.
In general, recognition performance is superior to
recall performance. One reason is that recognition
tests provide children with cues, while recall tests do
not. Multiple choice tests are an example of this type
of recognition memory.
When recall and recognition fail, relearning of material
may still be easier than the initial learning. The
'savings'.in time and effort needed to learn something
for a second time indicates retention (from the past).
Many theorists propose that memory functions or can be
classified as an information-processing system with
three levels, the sensory register, short-term memory,
and long-term memory. At each level, information
receives certain kinds of processing and is either
discarded or stored. The sensory register receives
impressions from' the external world and may be thought
of as the 'reception room' of memory. It has a huge
capacity, but its retention time is extremely brief and
only a portion of what enters it passes to the next
level which is the short-term memory.
The short-term memory is temporary, active, and
conscious.
53 b
In everyday terms, it is our attention span. It is
more selective and significantly more permanent than in
the sensory register.
Morris (1976:189) proposes that short-term memory can
hold onto only seven items at a time. Through the
process of 'chunking', information is organized into
meaningful units.
A verbally coded item can be held indefinitely in
short-term memory via elaborative or constructive
rehearsal. Long-term memory has a vast capacity for
information.
Retrieval is the process by which one draws upon
information in the memory. Retrieving an item from
long-term memory is a much more direct process than
retrieval from short-term memory. Craig (1983:51) is of
the opinion that there is empirical evidence that the
growing child's memory functions better if the
information that he is confronted with, is transferred
within a meaningful context.
Educators must be acutely aware that motivated
forgetting refers to the inability to remember things
that children do not want to remember.
54
Repression is one method in which children protect
themselves from remembering things that are painful.
Repression at its extreme can result in hysterical
amnesia. Organic amnesia is memory loss caused by
physiological factors such as injury or disease.
Young children are characteristically prone to
forgetting very quickly those aspects which do not
draw their intense fascination or attention.
Chaplin (1976:458) also defines memory in terms of
retention which he proposes is the persistence of a
learned act or experience during an interval of no
practice. The most widely used measures of retention
are recall, recognition, reproduction and relearning,
which have been discussed above.
The course of forgetting has been studied in terms of
both quantitative and qualitative changes. The
quantitative decay of retention depends upon the
conditions of original learning. Conditions favouring
.efficient learning (being motivated to learn), also
favour good retention. The nature of the materials
learned, particularly those perceived as meaningful,
lend themselves to good organization and are better
remembered.
55
Pleasant elements which motivate children are more
easily remembered, while indifference or lack of
interest may make for rapid forgetting and poor
learning.
Qualitative changes are revealed as distractions in
memory, such as occur in rumours or in pictorial
materials which are transmitted from person to_person or
are recalled only at intervals by a single individual.
Details are either omitted or added, and sometimes
exaggerated.
Theories of forgetting expressed in Morris (1976:192)
have been formulated in terms of retroactive and
proactive inhibition effects, systematic distortions in
memory, and motivational factors.
Retroactive inhibition refers to a loss in retention as
the result of new learning which acts upon and inhibits
the traces of older learning, whereas Proactive
inhibition refers to similar inhibitory effects which
occur when the interpolated material is placed ahead of
the material to be learned. Systematic distortions in
memory are assumed to occur because of the selective
dropping of details and the tendency to accentuate
certain features or remembered events.
56
In general, such effects are presumed to follow the same
principles which account for good organization in
original perceptions. Motivated factors include
amnesia, which is the complete forgetting of one's
personal past, and repression, which is the forgetting
of material that is psychologically painful or
inconsistent with the child's evaluation of the self.
During the period in the child's development between
grade one and standard two, there is a definite
improvement and increase in creativity. This
creativity plays a vital role in enabling the child to
solve problems.
2.3.1.3.2.7. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Language development during this stage consists of the
child expanding and refining the basic language skills
that he already possesses. Therefore the vague
connection between language and cognitive development
continues to strengthen and develop further. This
development occurs at an astonishing rate and reveals
the child's grasp of underlying linguistic rules and
relationships.
57
2.3.1.3.2.8. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The social world of the primary school child becomes
much wider at school. This is also characterized by
friendships which become exclusively either male or
female, and more stable. Some children have many
friends while others become isolates. Best friends now
become central in children's lives.
The willingness to conform to group norms becomes very
strong. Games with rules during this stage of
development are very popular.
It is through social development, according to
Hetherington and Parke (1982:313), that a primary school
child acquires and forms his perceptions of his culture,
family and various other social entities that make up
his world. It is through the medium of socialization
that the child constitutes and develops his attitudes,
norms, values and approach to his learning.
Social development is enhanced by developing the child's
perception abilities which better enable him to
understand the ideas and feelings of those around him;
this supports the Bandura social learning theory
expressed earlier in this chapter.
58
2.3.1.3.2.9. FLAY ARa ME YOUNG CHILD
Engelbrecht, Kok and van Biljon (1982:115) state that
various types of play exist amongst children, and that
it is not always easy to identify which type of play
children are participating in at any given moment.
According to them, six types of play can be identified.
Illusiaaara Flay
This play is the manifestation of a child acting a role
in a fantasy containing a certain theme which uses
environmental reality for a backdrop, in order to create
his own reconstructed reality. This fantasy world can
be interrupted by an outside person (parent). This play
can continue for hours at a time but ends when the child
returns to reality.
.Competitive Flay
The nature of this play is to prove some or other aspect
to himself or his peers. The competitive arena could be
physical, intellectual or on a competence level. The
constitution of rules by the participants forms an
integral part of this type of play. Arguments and
dissension are common in this type of play if a
participant does not adhere to the rules. With adult
guidance, this type of play is usually more enjoyable
for children to participate in.
Senso-Patic Play
Usually small children engage in this type of play,
which involves pleasure derived from handling,
exploring and enjoying some or other formless material.
This material could take the form of sand, water, clay
or paint. These materials have almost no limitation in
senso-patic play and offer the child the opportunity to
develop his spatial orientation towards other objects as
well as his kinematic (physical) perception.
Group Play
This play can adopt various forms where competition
between groups, teams or sides exists. In order to
successfully participate in group play, children must
have mastered some skills of social interaction, which
would include self-control, a sense of fair play and
empathy. Leadership plays an important role where it
determines the nature, duration and the success of
this type of play.
Functional Play
This play entails using or manipulating the body in
order to execute various types of movements or to make
particular observations.
59
60
Children always have a need to move ('Have you got ants
in your pants ?'), through which they discover
co-ordination and refined body movements. This play
employs the use of physical action as well as the
intellect and appreciation of the aesthetic elements.
Therefore the discovery and manipulation of the physical
body forms an integral component of this type of play.
Constructional Flay
This play is characterized by creating or developing
something using various components. Educationally this
type of play is vital as it develops the child's
thoughts, feelings, creativity, motor abilities,
attitude towards work, as well as persistence.
From the above, it can be seen that each type of play
develops certain functions and qualities. These include
thoughts, feelings, will (drive), perceptual-motor
skills, normative values, aesthetic sensitivity, social
skills, physical power, and concentration and knowledge
about the child's own body and its limitations.
Play also enhances general knowledge and a child's
language ability. It is therefore through the medium of
play that a child discovers his world, where he soon
learns about the qualities and potentials of various
different objects.
61
By using this newly-gained knowledge, he is able to
explore, using his creative potential.
Engelbrecht et al.(1982:118) state that an integral part
of the success of the new primary school pupil, is
history of plentiful play. He states further that for
the duration of a child's progress through school play
is necessary, as it is only through play that certain
elements or skills can be learned by children. Play
forms a healthy balance and counteracts the pressures
of school work.
By using play in the world of the primary school child,
an educator can make the syllabus content fun,
interesting and thereby motivate the child to make
further discoveries in the formal educational situation.
Therefore under ideal conditions, if the educator is
successful, there should be a shift from 'extrinsic' to
'intrinsic' motivation.
2.3.1.3.2.10. SCHOOL INFLUENCE 01 ma YOUNG au=
The development of the young school going child is
undoubtedly influenced by the experiences that he
encounters. Erikson (1968:20) views the primary school
phase as a foundation period where the nature of the
child's experiences and feelings of productivity or
inferiority are established.
62
Van der Westhuizen and Schoeman (Louw et al.,1984:323)
state:
ti Wanneer kinders tydens hierdie
vroee skooljare ondersteuning
en aanmoediging van hul
onderwysers en ouers kry,
ontwikkel werkywer. "
Logic dictates that if children do not receive enough
encouragement, and are unable to handle the classroom
situation, they will develop serious inferiority
complexes.
The influence exerted on a child in the early school
years contributes directly to the formation of
self-image and feelings of self-esteem. This could be
both positive or negative. A negative self-image in
young children is extremely difficult to eliminate or
eradicate. Therefore a very close and trusting
relationship between the teacher and the child should
exist. Where success is attained under the teacher's
guidance, a positive self-image results, which at a
later stage serves as a foundation for further
motivation.
63
Van der Westhuizen and Schoeman
(Louw et al.,1984:324) support this view :
Wanneer kinders in '17 warm,
begrypende en aanvarende
atmosfeer 'n mate van outonomie
geniet, maar terselfdertyd
duidelik weet watter grense vir
hulle neergele is ... en dit
op 'n positiewe wyse bekragtig,
dra dit daartoe by dat sulke
kinders welslae op skool behaal.
Success at school is therefore positively linked with a
child's attitude towards it, together with all the
dynamic forces which assist him in compiling his view
or attitude.
Finally, a child's attitude towards school and the
classroom activities is affected by the nature and
manner in which the learning content is presented to
him. Uninteresting content presented in a dull
manner will do little to encourage (motivate) children
to produce motivated work of a high quality for a
sustained duration.
64
2.3.1.3.2.11. THE EDUCATOR'S BOLE
The educator exercises the most profound influence on
the school-going child. The educator's personality,
expectations and the manner of his or her interaction
with the child, by offering encouragement and rewards
for success, forms a vital investment in motivating the
child when difficulties or obstacles arise.
Covey (1994:69) holds a similar point of view :
The more authentic you become,
the more genuine in your expression,
particularly regarding personal
experiences and even self-doubts,
the more people can relate to your
expression and the safer it makes
them feel to express themselves.
That expression in turn feeds
back on the other person's spirit,
and genuine creative empathy takes
place, producing new insights
and learning and a sense of
excitement and adventure that
keeps the process going.
65
In summary, those aspects of an educator's endeavour
which affect the young primary school child, must be
executed in such a manner that they are perceived or
experienced in a positive light, due to the fact that he
or she serves as a role model with whom the children
identify, and whose characteristics the children are
able to copy. Those characteristics which the children
admire (positive or negative), will most likely be
incorporated in their own development, as they
dynamically interact and expand their horizons within a
social context.
2.3.1.3.3. THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PHASE
This stage of a child's development is characterized by
an accelerated development phase in many areas, which
in turn results in the manifestation of numerous
potentially confusing and conflicting attitudes which
are reflected in his behaviour. During this phase the
adolescent struggles to gain his 'own' identity in
becoming and being recognized as a socially acceptable
and independent adult within the norms and values of his
own society.
66
Adolescence, according to Stowell (1961:23), is a term
describing a stage/phase in a child's growth from
childhood to maturity, and gains its etymological
derivation from the Latin word 'adolescere', to grow up,
from 'ad-' and '-olescere', the frequentive form of
'olere', to grow, related to 'alere', to nourish.
Santrock (1983:1) and Morgan, King and Robinson
(1979:384) define adolescence as a rapid physical
transition from childhood to adulthood which occurs in
all normal human beings. According to them, adolescence
is defined as the period from the beginning of sexual
maturity (puberty) to the completion of growth.
The psychological significance of this transition and
the degree of stress which accompanies it differs from
one society to another. Stress is caused by conflict
within the developing adult. Adams (1980:33) quotes
Hall (1975) in describing the sentiment experienced in
developing adolescents :
The forces of sin and those
of virtue never struggle so
hotly for possession of the
youthful soul.
67
Thom (Louw et al.,1984:339) best describes the
chronological boundaries of adolescence, taking into
account the cultural context of a particular society,
as commencing between the eleventh and thirteenth year
and ending anywhere between the seventeenth and twenty-
first year.
From a psychological perspective, adolescence comes to
an end when adolescents are relatively aware of their
identity and are emotionally independent of their
parents, where they have developed their own value
system enabling them to engage in various adult
relationships whether of a plutonic or romantic nature.
In today's modern western culture, the borders
signalling the end of adolescence are extremely vague,
but when compared to an adult, an adolescent can be
described as being emotionally unsettled, sexually
promiscuous, more idealistic and more critical when
making moral judgements, and possessing less stability.
As Thom (Louw et al.,1984:341) states, research shows
that the average adolescent adopts his parent's attitude
or views with regard to ethics, religion and politics.
68
The same research indicates that the average
adolescent's attitude towards competition, maintenance
of law and order, education and social interaction, is
more often than not identical to that of his parents.
It is also important to note that definite differences
exist between rural and urban adolescents, as well as
adolescents coming from different socio-economic
groups.
In the same article Thom quotes numerous authorities on
adolescent development and identifies the stages or
tasks which an adolescent must accomplish in order to
attain adulthood. These tasks are summarized in
Table 2.3.
69
Acceptance of his changing physical appearance.
Developing a clear sexual identity.
Developing healthy heterosexual relationships.
Developing a strong emotional bond with another person.
Preparing for the responsibility of a marriage and family.
Gaining independence from parents and other adults.
Accepting himself as a person with values and adopting his own identity.
Developing socially acceptable behaviour.
Acceptance of and adaption to various groups.
Developing intellectual abilities facilitating adult behaviour and responsibilities.
Choice of a career.
Insurance and economic independence.
Developing a realistic view of life with an accompanying philosophy.
TABLE 2.3. ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT TASKS ACCORDING TO THOM
Elkind and Weiner (1978:526) describe three stages of
adolescence : Early adolescence which occurs during the
junior high school years (standards six and seven),
characterized by rapid growth and sexual maturation;
Middle adolescence comprising some of the senior high
school years, in which these children become
psychologically independent of their parents and engage
in heterosexual relationships; and finally Late
adolescence which commences in the last years of high
school and continues until a stable personal identity is
attained.
70
Affiliation to social roles, value systems and a
life-goal crystallizes during this phase of adolescent
development.
2.3.1.3.3.1. PHYSICAL plaa PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty is the phase that designates sexual maturation.
It is evidenced by outward and internal changes.
Universally, most adolescents (teenagers) undergo rapid
changes which include accelerated growth, hormone
changes, increased sexual focus, the development of
primary sexual characteristics (gonads) and secondary
characteristics (breast and hair formation).
(See Graph 2.1.)
The adolescent becomes acutely and consciously aware of
physical changes that his body is undergoing. This may
lead to feelings of awe, pride, joy, insecurity and
shyness. Wagman (1977:205) identifies a number of
physical characteristics which are summarized in
Table 2.4.
FEMALE MALE
Breast enlargement Pubic hair Rapid physical growth Gonad enlargement Menstruation Increased sebaceous gland activity Ovulation
Gonad enlargement Pubic hair Rapid physical growth Voice breaks Facial hair First ejaculation Noctural emissions
TABLE 2.4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO WAGMAN (1977)
71
Differences in sexual maturation between adolescent boys
and girls occur. Early or late maturity has a definite
influence on their self-image social adjustment as well
as their behaviour.
The culture and society in which the adolescent develops
and grows will also determine the nature of their
sexuality, as well as the amount of 'conflict', tension
and feelings of guilt that they experience. A certain
amount of confusion can also arise in the adolescent
where differences in existing traditional views
pertaining to sexuality, contrast with modern day
'enlightened' views.
ADOL HSCENT GROWTH PHYMCAL,
12
10 10
HEIGHT crn/year
5 10
15
A;3E IN YEARS
20
— Series A Series B
A: GIRLS B: BOYS
GRA IL3 N
73
2.3.1.3.3.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Primary school children are only capable of concrete
operations (thought), but adolescents are capable of
schematic, abstract and formal operational thoughts.
With these newly developed capabilities, he is able to
inquire, reason and question events, views and ideas,
or draw his own conclusions.
Adolescents also question more as their powers of logic
improve. With their newly developed cognitive abilities
they are prone to adopt strong views pertaining to
religion, politics and social issues, often opening
themselves to abuse.
With their strong views, adolescents are very aware of
the shortcomings in the real world. They tend to be
extremely idealistic, insensitive, impulsive and
superficial. Wisdom definitely comes with age. This
point of view is best summed up in the words found on a
car bumper sticker, which says :
" If you want to know anything about anything,
ask a teenager !! "
74
Engelbrecht et al.(1982:81) state that recent research
indicates that :
Dit wil voorkom asof die meer
vloeibare intelligensie wel
'n piek gedurende die adolesensie
bereik, maar dat die gekristaliseerde
intelligensie dwarsdeur die lewe
toeneem.
Cognitive development differs between developing boys
and girls. Boys, for example, show a better aptitude
with figures, technical and three-dimensional thought,
while girls excel with their verbal fluency and
memories. Boys who achieve good results, achieve in
those subjects in which they are interested, while girls
who achieve good results, tend to achieve good results
in all subjects.
According to Engelbrecht et al.(1982:83), research also
indicates that by attending school, a child's cognitive
development is stimulated provided that an appropriate
classroom climate or atmosphere prevails :
Dit wil voorkom asof die atmosfeer
of klimaat wat in die skool beers,
een van die belangrikste faktore
kan wees... Dit is hoe hulle
dit doen wat die grootste bydra tot
verstandelike ontwikkeling lewer.
75
Educators must bear in mind that personality factors
such as confidence, self-preservation, the will to
succeed and solve problems and the willingness to
compete, all exercise an influence on adolescent
development.
2.3.1.3.3.3. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
During adolescence heightened emotions make a
substantial contribution to behaviour. This increased
emotional ("affective- emotive") state, according to
Kok (1982:6), can be observed in characteristic nervous
habits (girls flicking hair), a general state of nervous
tension (dissatisfaction with life), a definite
alternation in mood (one moment happy and the next
sulking), moody temper outbursts, sudden arguments,
fault-finding and various incidents of daydreaming ,
including other forms of escape.
From the above, characteristic adolescent emotional
patterns, vacillating from one extreme to the other
can be recognized. These could include fear and
anxiety associated in a social context, anger and
frustration, usually as a result of conflict with
authority, and jealousy and admiration which is linked
to perceived status amongst peers.
76
If an educator is to be successful in reaching his
adolescent 'target group', he must be able to convince
his audience that he understands and accommodates their
attitudes, 'feelings' and values in such a manner that
he is able to convey a mature adult perspective by
example.
Covey (1994:193) aptly sums up the ethos expressed
above :
Really seeking to understand
another person is probably one
of the most important Emotional
Bank Account deposits you can
make, and it is the key to every
other deposit. What is important
to the other person must be as
important to you as the other
person is to you.
2.3.1.3.3.4. SOCIALIZATION DEVELOPING A. VALUE SYSTEM
During adolescence, young people gain an increasing
autonomy from their parents. Belkin (1977:173) is of
the opinion that the adolescent's peer group serves as a
test bed in order to develop adult behaviour and offers
the opportunity to relate to members of the opposite
sex.
77
The adolescent's awareness and development within a
social context results in him relinquishing the strong
bonds with his parents in order to become independent,
and thereby accept responsibility for his own
decisions. This situation occurs universally in all
cultures.
The developing adolescent yearns to be 'free' to
discover himself and break away from parental control;
that is, he wishes to choose his own clothes (identity)
and his own friends. This obviously results in periods
of parent-child conflict.
Belkin (1977:173) identifies certain implications with
regard to teaching adolescents. He states that values
are implicit in the teacher's classroom activities and
it is therefore their responsibility to see that in
whatever areas value clashes between teachers and
students occur, they should be brought to the surface
and discussed (social interaction). Pupils would then
be socializing and learning flexibility, resulting in
them eventually coming to respect the teacher and
recognize that there are no absolutely right or wrong
values, only ones that differ from each other.
78
Within a social context, the adolescent's immediate
family in modern day western culture is becoming
more isolated from the rest of society, as well as
between the individual members of the family group,
where he seldom sees his parents as role models due to
the heavy demands placed on them in modern day living.
This induces 'individualism', which contributes to the
adolescent having to achieve his goals on his own.
This results in a certain amount of stress for the
developing adolescent.
2.3.1.3.3.5. SOCIAL QUALITIES OF THE EDUCATOR
Rogers (1983:121) identifies qualities that can be
applied in a social context that facilitate learning.
The educator must be a 'real person', not presenting a
front or facade. Communication is enhanced by
prizing the pupil's feelings, opinions and personality
over and above the communication of unconditional
acceptance. Covey (1994:358) expresses the same
sentiments :
Seeking to understand requires
consideration; seeking to be
understood requires courage.
Win/Win requires a high
degree of both.
79
The educator should also communicate empathetic
understanding. Rogers (1983:125) explains this in the
following manner :
At least someone understands
how it feels and seems to be
me without wanting to analyze
or judge me. Now I can
blossom and grow and learn.
The educator must be willing to take risks by showing
his feelings as he experiences them, not distinguishing
them as judgements, or attributing them to other people.
This will avoid a pseudo-empathy.
The educator must communicate a feeling of trust, where
he trusts the capacity of the individual pupil for
developing his own potential; only then can he provide
many opportunities for the pupil and allow him to choose
his own way or direction in his learning.
80
The most important message for any educator in relation
to the importance of effective communication between
himself and the adolescent pupil, is best expressed by
Rogers (1983:130) :
I think that I am acutely aware of
the breakdown in communication that
does exist in our society from seeing
what happened in our class....
2.3.1.3.3.6. THE PEER GROUP
Elkind and Weiner (1978:571) are of the opinion that
as part of their social maturation, adolescents give
increased attention to peer group belongingness and to
their relationships with the opposite sex. Social
maturation influences how adolescents deal with their
needs for security, sexuality and intimacy, and how they
feel about their parents.
Because adolescents wish to be grown-up, they find it
difficult to rely entirely on their parents for
affection and esteem, and since they do not want to feel
overly dependent upon their parents, they look to their
peer group for acceptance. There is often a tug-of-war
between the effect of the parents versus the influence
of the values adopted by the peer group.
The importance of peers is unrivalled in terms of
helping young people hone their social skills and
experience the myriad dimensions of friendship.
Nielson (1987:403) states that apart from parental
influence, friends and peer interactions are a
prerequisite for normal adult development.
Nielson, in the same article, states that recent
research indicates that the varying degrees of peer
influence differs according to the type of issue
involved. It is important to note that
Elkind and Weiner (1978:572) suggest that the mounting
importance of peer group 'belongingness' is due to the
adolescent's needs for identification with a group and
to their striving for independence. Due to the pressure
of appearing confidently in total control with an 'own
identity', adolescents find it difficult to rely
on their parents for self-esteem, as mentioned above.
Nielson (1978:206) refers to results from a study which
suggest that adolescents who spend more time with their
peers, do not in general undermine their parents'
positions of influence.
During the adolescent phase, peer acceptance and
popularity come most readily to those who are physically
attractive, bright, talented, self-confident, energetic
and comfortable with interpersonal situations.
82
Conversely, those who are not attractive or bright, who
have doubts about their own self-worth, and who are
afraid of rejection by their peers are likely to act in
ways that make their fears come true. These people
invite rejection and ridicule by withdrawing from the
peer group activities, by being timid, nervous
ill-at-ease, by seeking attention through servility or
silliness, or by trying to hide their feelings of
inadequacy with sarcasm, bluster and bravado.
With the above in mind adolescents are nevertheless
influenced by their parents pertaining to matters
such as educational goals, vocational aspirations,
religous views, use of drugs, political and moral
issues. With social issues, however, the situation is
reversed, particularly with regard to views on
premarital sex, using dagga (grass), tobacco or alcohol,
clothing, hair styles and musical taste.
The ideal situation for educators therefore rests in the
approach that children are more likely to be influenced
by democratic teachers/educators who explain the reasons
underlying their rules and who respect their pupils'
ideas by encouraging honest, reciprocal communication,
than by implementing 'autocratic rule'.
83
2.3.1.3.3.7. ADOLESCENT MORALITY
Engelbrecht et al.(1982:93) are of the opinion that in
general, children adopt the norms and values of their
educators (parents and teachers). During the
self-identification phase of adolescent development, the
child becomes more objective as a result of interacting
more with his educators and his peers.
During early adolescence, when the adolescent begins in
earnest to think about society and its values, he
usually makes himself guilty of adopting and making
'sweeping statements' or generalizing, which manifests
itself in a very critical outlook on life and of those
in authority or in control. These strong, emotional
views usually recede as he becomes wiser and gains more
insight.
Educators must take note that it is only during late
adolescence that developing children reach a
synchronized physical, cognitive, emotional and
normative state, allowing them to adopt a true 'own'
outlook on life. Without this synchronized balance of
the various facets, moral development of the adolescent
can be an extremely painful experience, not only for
himself, but also for those around him.
84
Once the adolescent has gained more certainty about his
own norms and values, due to being less egocentric, and
knows who he is, he can drop all his defensive shields,
and be more able to accept authority. Educators must
always remember to take into account that authority and
discipline should be administered in a tactful manner
appealing to the adolescent's own normative value system
in order to bring about a lasting and effective change
in behaviour.
Kohlberg (Hopkins, 1983:175) expands on the work of
Piaget and identifies three development levels.
According to Kohlberg, young children tend to judge
moral issues in a personalistic or 'preconventional' way
where right actions are those that avoid punishment. At
the next stage, judgements are made on the basis of
expectations of others in the family or larger social
group, and this is referred to as the 'conventional'
level. The final level or 'postconventional'
(principle) level is reached when moral judgements
transcend the authority of persons or conformity to
groups. Kohlberg therefore proposes that these three
stages of moral judgement are correlated to cognitive
development.
85
In order for the educator to implement a successful
teaching strategy, which accommodates all those elements
which are integrally part of and characteristic of the
developing child, in this case both at primary and
secondary school level, he must be continuously aware
of, and familiar with, those forces exerting an
influence on his target group, namely the developing
child.
But this knowledge is of no use unless it is used in
order to develop counter strategies to avoid the
pitfalls of a mundane transfer of educational content.
This implies the implementation of an external
teacher-generated motivational strategy to awaken those
pupils with potential in order that they attain
'dormant' (internal) aspirations or goals.
The task of the wise educator is to 'push' the child in
the right direction, in such a manner that he believes
that he, himself is generating his own motivated energy
and drive towards pre-set goals.
2.3.1.3.4. HUMAN EMOTIONS Li TL CLASSROOM
Emotions are the 'feelings' which spontaneously arise
and manifest themselves during interpersonal
relationships.
LEARNER'S FOCUS FEEL= > CONTENT L > ACT ION A
RESPONDS TO RESPOMS %O GUIDES TEACHER' S
BEHAVIOUR. FEELINGS > COMM ) PROM=
DEVFIOPNENY
86
Rogers (1983:200) who agrees with numerous other
psychologists, states that in his proposed NCHE model of
representing interpersonal interaction in the classroom,
the terms of this model could be Quantified and analysed
scientifically, even though they are measuring the
intangible factor of feelings and emotions. This factor
supports or validates the ethos of this study, that is
to measure the unseen, intangible phenomenon of human
emotion. Figure 2.1. represents the ARENA in which
emotions operate in the classroom situation.
FIGURE 2.1. . THE ROGERS EMOTIONAL ARENA
TERROR
EXPECT; NCY
1GILANCE
sN-AfL MISS.
G
RPPIkEiiE45 ION SET
ACCEPTANCE
AMAZEMENT
ECSTASY
RAGE
HIGH ACTIVATION
LOW - ACTIVATION
87
With the emotive-social arena defined in Figure 2.1.,
Morris (1979:386) defines emotion as a complex affective
experience that involves diffuse physiological changes
and can be expressed overtly in characteristic behaviour
patterns.
The most widely accepted classification as described-by
Morris above is that three basic families of emotions
exist.
Plutchik (Morris, 1979:387) lists eight basic
emotions : destruction, reproduction, incorporation,
orientation, protection, deprivation, rejection and
exploration. (See Figure 2.2.)
P_UTCH EMCMONS
(1802) MO1: 0 THEM ENSITY
AN
Figure 2.2. Plutchik Emotional Wodel
88
In Figure 2.2., Plutchik's three-dimensional model of
emotions, Intensity is represented on the vertical
dimension, ranging from maximum at the top to a state
of deep sleep at the bottom. The model tapers inward at
the bottom to indicate that emotions are less
distinguishable at low intensities.
Research has shown that no single scheme for classifying
emotions is able to successfully account for the
complexity of our emotional experiences.
Morris (1979:413) identifies three dimensions of
emotion :
THE APPROACH\AVOIDANCE DIMENSION
This dimension differentiates emotions on the basis of
whether a person tends to move towards or away from the
object causing the emotion. Such emotions as love,
affection and pleasure enhance movement towards, while
fear and anxiety support avoidance.
TIC INTENSITY DIMENSION
The level of activation as indicated in Figure 2.2.
suggests that all behaviour lies along a continuum of
activity, from the low level of sleep to a height of
excitement, and that the only way to distinguish one
emotion from another is by its intensity.
89
THE PLEASANT\UNPLEASANT DIMENSION
This is the most obvious emotion and very simple to
ascertain. People are usually aware of whether they
either like or dislike whatever they are responding to.
Even with mixed feelings, it is quite easy to separate
them and describe each of them as being pleasant or
unpleasant.
Emotion begins with the registration of an external
stimulus in the reticular activating system, whose
function is arousal. The hypothalamus is also
important in the differentiation process, in activating
the endocrine system, and as a pathway to and from the
cortex (conscious thought), which interprets the
incoming messages and organizes them into systematic
reactions. The exact nature of the conversion of the
physiological into a psychological state is not yet
clear, although there are some theories.
The James-Lange theory (Morris, 1979:393) suggests
that emotion is as a result of a visceral stimulus.
The perception of a stimulus causes the body to undergo
certain physiological changes and these changes are the
cause of emotions. In the same article, Morris
describes the Cannon-Bard theory which holds that
emotions and bodily responses occur simultaneously, not
one after another.
90
When a stimulus is perceived, nerve impulses pass
through the thalamus, where they split, some going to
the cortex (where the conscious stimulus is perceived
and experienced) and some to the muscles and viscera.
Out of the two previously mentioned theories the
Cognitive theory proposes that emotion results from the
interaction of cognitive and physiological processes.
Most emotional states are quite diffuse, and many
emotions are accompanied by essentially the same
physiological reaction. According to the cognitive
theorists, our interpretation is affected by events and
people in the environment, by memories of past
experiences, and by one's disposition to look for and
respond to certain stimuli, within a cultural context.
Evidence indicates that the capacity to respond
emotionally to a given stimulus increases with age.
As one becomes more sophisticated emotionally, both the
range of one's emotions and the manner of stimuli that
triggers them, increase. Which stimuli produce which
emotions is often learned either through direct or
indirect experience or by invitation.
It is therefore the educator's task in many cases to
'unlearn' or 'recondition' a positive 'mind-set' in the
child, that is, motivating a child's predisposed
emotions positively towards the possible negative
outcomes of the classroom educational situation.
91
Weiner (1974:55) tabulates those factors which actively
(extrinsically and intrinsically) influence human
motivation by allocating various elements which
influence the 'motivation environment', which are
revealed when the child attributes 'reasons' (forces)
for adopting a particular emotional 'motivational set'.
(See Table 2.5.)
92
ANTECEDENTS CAUSAL CATEGORIES CAUSAL DIMENSIONS
Specific Cues
Past outcome history Social norms Performance peak Pattern of performance Persistence of behaviour Task characteristics Randomness of outcome Incentive performance
Ability Locus of covariation
Effort control Task difficulty Intra- Luck personal
Causal Schemata
Mood stability Fatigue Intention-
Necessary schema
Illness ality Sufficient schema Inter-
personal stability
Individual Predispositions
Achievement-related needs
Reinforcement rates
Reinforcement schedules
Social feedback
TABLE 2.5. THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS FOR SUCCESS AND FAILURE ACCORDING TO WEINER (1974:55)
From Table 2.5. Weiner (1974:54) contends that causal
ascriptions for success and failure (which inherently
reflect the state and foundation of emotion and
motivation) include ability, effort, task difficulty and
luck, as well as less common ascriptions of mood,
fatigue and illness.
93
These causes may be subsumed within two primary and two
secondary dimensions, respectively labeled locus of
control (internal versus external), intrapersonal
stability (fixed versus variable), perceived voluntary
control (intentional versus unintentional) and
interpersonal stability (fixed versus variable).
. The determinants of causal ascriptions are, in part,
specific cues such as past outcome history, social
norms, pattern of performance, stimulus characteristics
of the task, randomness of outcome and so forth.
In addition, causal schemata pertaining to a
differentiation between necessary and sufficient
causality and individual dispositions in
achievement-related needs influence causal ascriptions.
These linkages are reflected in Table 2.5. There is
also evidence that reinforcement schedules and
reinforcement rates are used to infer causation and
that direct information from others influences beliefs
about causality.
These are the forces which contribute and influence the
motivational mind-set via the emotions of the child.
It is therefore imperative that the teacher be
aware of the 'emotional mind-set' of the child, in order
to effectively manipulate the variables which contribute
to the formation of a 'motivational attitude', which in
turn arises from a reflective ascription process
as a child analyses his past performance.
94
Finally Morris (1979:402) is of the opinion that
emotions function in people's lives in several ways.
Experiments have shown that when emotions are changed,
attitudes and beliefs may also change. Emotions can-be
either disruptive or adaptive. Emotions, on the other
hand, can also organize and direct behaviour just as
motives can. Emotions can provide strong motivation to
approach or avoid things/situations.
As can be found in chapter three of this study, verbal
reports on emotion do not always give a complete picture
of what a person is feeling because they may be unable
or unwilling to report their emotions accurately.
On the other hand, non-verbal communication includes
facial expressions, (eye) pupil size, position, posture,
distance between people, explicit acts and gestures.
Merhabian (1971:64) supports this view and states that
body language can also expose one's innermost thoughts
and convictions. In many cases, non-verbal
communication contradicts a person's verbal message.
Many facial expressions do not appear to be learned and
many are universal . Argyle's (1975:211) view supports
this approach and states that the face is the most
important area of non-verbal signalling. Although each
culture has its own distinct vocabulary of facial
expressions and gestures, most people have only minor
difficulty in recognizing many emotions when they are
non-verbally displayed.
95
2.3.1.3.5. ATTITUDE Ana MOTIVATION
One cannot ignore the fact that attitudes play a major
role when someone forms an opinion or makes a decision
2.3.1.3.5.1. ATTITUDE AND THE FORCES RESPONSIBLE
FOR ITS FORMATION
It is important to understand the context of
motivational activities by the teacher (educator).
What the teacher is in fact doing when he motivates a
pupil in his classroom, amounts to no less than an
attempt at changing or modifying the attitude/s of a
pupil, in order that he (the pupil) might be more
successful in reaching a prescribed goal, be it for a
lesson, a term, a year or in attaining adulthood.
Johnstone and Reid (1981:206) agree that knowledge is
important, but only as far as it can be appreciated
and used. In order to understand how a motivational
process is successful, one must understand the
definition of an attitude - that is, the
psychological and emotional construct which is to be
altered by a motivational process.
96
Thurstone (Johnstone & Reid, 1981:206) defines an attitude as :
It .... the effect for or against a psychological object. "
Allport (Johnstone & Reid, 1981:206) defines an
attitude as a mental and neutral state of readiness
to respond, organized through experience, exerting a-
direct and/or dynamic influence on behaviour.
Morris (1976:577) proposes in his definition that an
attitude is made up of three components : beliefs,
feelings and a tendency to behave in certain ways.
Individuals have a tendency to strive for
consistency among the three components mentioned
above.
Attitudes are acquired according to Morris in the
same article, through associations with family, peer
groups and other groups, especially reference groups.
Some are formally taught as part of the education
process and others are learned informally by
identification and modeling. Attitudes can be changed,
in one of three ways, namely by changing the belief, the
emotion or the behavioural component of the attitude.
Johnstone and Reid (1981:207) subscribe to the view
that irrespective of the psychological school of thought
(behavioural, cognitive/humanist), most definitions
of an attitude include a knowledge component
(cognitive), a feeling component (affective) and a
tendency-towards-action component (conative).
PERCEPTION & LEARNING
ORGANIZATION OF COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE ELEMENTS INFLUENCING
OR TENDING TO INFLUENCE
PERSONALITY ---> GENERAL BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS <--- SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
PERSONALITY
t SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
97
These three elements are strongly interconnected,
where Figure 2.3. represents the possible relationship
between the three components and their relationship
to other influences.
FIGURE 2.7.. THE INFLUENCE OF COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS ON AN INDIVIDUAL'S SURROUNDINGS
It is important to note that the emphasis on one of
the three aspects which make up an attitude can make
that aspect the dominant one in formulating the
attitude. Therefore several variables are important
in describing an attitude. For instance, the
proportion of cognitive and affective elements, the
type of relationship between cognitive and affective
elements, the individual involved and the
circumstances which could affect the conative
outcomes, all have an interwoven part to play.
98
In changing an attitude motivating an individual
Johnstone and Reid (1981:209) mention limitations or
obstacles that have to be overcome in order to be
successful. These elements amongst others are that -
attitude change usually occurs in small steps. The
effective processes which change an attitude, are
based on an 'intra' (internal) activity or cognitive
input by the individual. They are also of the
opinion that the extent of the intra-activity
(cognition) by the individual is not easily defined,
but can be controlled to some extent by the
individual.
There seems to be several spectra of attitudes, some
of which are amenable to change easily by means
of internal cognitive processes, while others are
little affected or not at all, by the internal
processes. Finally, when cognitively orientated
attitudes change, the changes seem to be stable with
time.
Therefore with respect to the forces operating when
attitudes are being changed, Johnstone and Reid
(1981:210) summarize the process of changing an
attitude as follows :
ATTITUDE PLAIN
BARR ER CREATED BY ATTITUDE CORPUS
99
Every person possesses an inbuilt apparently
self-contained, attitude corpus (rational).
This develops a system of belief and behaviour,
and arises from childhood influences, social
upbringing, and deep-seated cultural influences.
This corpus is frequently derived from a limited
cognitive base, for example, personal morality,
political state and religious belief.
One's attitude may have been derived emotionally
rather than having been worked out logically on
the basis of an assessment of data and evidence.
Our attitude corpus provides a protective
framework that allows us to make sense of our
world, and produces an internal consistency and
security. (See Fig 2.2.)
OUTSIDE COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE INFLUENCES
Fig. 2.4. A MODEL OF RESISTANCE TO ATTITUDE CHANGE
100
One's attitude corpus provides a necessary
protection against the insistent battering of
cognitive and affective elements, and only
rarely will any element surmount the barrier and
affect our previously held attitudes.
4. In Figure 2.5. which follows, one can see that
cognitive aspects of our attitude corpus offer
less resistance (a lower barrier) to external
influences than do the highly emotive affectual
personal aspects of our attitudes.
ATTITUDE PLAIN
COGNITIVE PERSONAL
BARRIER CREATED BY ATTITUDE CORPUS
OUTSIDE COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE INFLUENCES
FIG 2.5. A MODEL OF A GRADED RESISTANCE TO ATTITUDE CHANGE
101
5. If the external influences can create a
disturbance between the cognitive and personal
aspects of one's attitude corpus, it creates a
turmoil of dissonance (cognitive dissonance) of
which attitude change is one possible way to
release the tension caused. Another way is by
compartmentalization or rationalization.
2.3.2. EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
The term motivation, used in the educational context,
gains far more inherent elements (forces) , which exist
in a relationship between a teacher and a child, than
would first be envisaged in a superficial appraisal of
the term.
Psychological aspects (implications) cannot be
disassociated as suggested by Ball (1977:02), who
maintains that motivation is a psychological process
involved in arousing, directing and maintaining
behaviour. This therefore suggests external variants,
which act on a child's motivation, the most important
being the teacher and the external environment of the
educational situation as is found in the classroom
situation.
102
The teacher motivates the child within the framework of
the educational situation where they are both creatively
involved in the design of a new reality according to
Van Zyl (Smith, 1988:11). Education according to
' Gunter (Smith, 1988:15) implies the guidance of a child
towards adulthood, who cannot reach it without the
support and motivation of an adult (teacher).
Motivation according to Lindhart (1983:134) is what
makes people want to do something even when it is very
difficult, or tiring, or boring. It is a student's
motivation as well as his natural intelligence, which
decides how well he does at school.
Most people have a goal or an aim that they want to
reach, and so they are motivated to do a great many
things in order to reach that goal. Duminy (Lindhart,
1983:134) states that to arouse and maintain the will to
learn is a basic concern of the school and an essential
part of a teacher's work.
School children who are not motivated usually have a
number of reasons for their lack of interest. Some
reasons are physical. They may be tired or hungry or
unwell. Children bring their problems to school in the
same way that adults bring their worries to work.
103
Teachers are always dealing with the whole person : the
child cannot leave his anxieties at the doorstep when he
leaves home in the morning. Garbers (1980:76) supports
this view, in particular when pupils are motivated to
leave school before they have matriculated.
Another reason for lack of motivation is the inability
of a child to relate what he is doing in the classroom
to his expected role in the future.
Yet another reason, the focus of this investigation, is
the lack of motivation due to the quality of teaching,
or, when teaching is of a high standard and the marks
remain low, teachers are not reaching the child
effectively. Students are not motivated if they are not
stimulated. If the lesson is dull, the student is not
involved. He is passive because nothing is required of
him, except to listen, and so he becomes inattentive.
Maarschalk (1977:58) supports the view that the best,
and most lasting learning, is learning by discovery, as
the child has to 'internalize' and put the operation or
task into his own reference framework, thus making him
part of the process of learning while 'actively' taking
part.
104
The writer proposes that the student learns by finding
new knowledge rather than by being given it.
Discussion, group activities and the appearance of new
and stimulating teaching aids should create interest,
and learning will take place.
2.3.2 . 1 . DIDACTICAL EERSEECITYE.
Foremost in a teacher's actions and activities relating
to the motivational approach in his methodology, in
guiding and instructing the child, in order that he will
transcend childhood and reach adulthood, is the
relationship that must exist between them. It is this
relationship according to Smith (1988:01) which
determines the nature, direction and extent of the
forces which act on the pupils placed in a teacher's
care.
Motivation is therefore a handy process or instrument
(tool) that the educator employs, to facilitate an
easier path for the child to reach his goal of
independent adulthood.
This process is therefore used by educators and
psychologists who belong to different schools of
psychological thought, responsible for bringing about
certain behaviour in individuals.
1 05
Motivation in terms of this study comprises the
strategies and techniaues, whether of an
'affective'(emotive) or behavioural (conditioning)
nature that a teacher employs to awaken the child to
produce from within and creatively develop his
potential, thus attaining the pre-set goals
that educationalists strive for in educating the
developing child for tomorrow's world.
2.3.3. THE EDUCATIONAL SITUATION AS POINT OF DEPARTURE
FOR A MODEL OF MOTIVATION
Kieck (1993:19) structures the concept of motivation by
identifying and formulating different perspectives
within an educational context. But it would be a futile
exercise if he did not place his proposed model and
resulting motivation measuring instrument into
an existing framework of the historic and current
definitions of the education situation, as found in any
formal classroom situation.
Using the Langeveld Model as a foundation in order to
comply with the essential parameters of the educational
situation, thereby validating it, together with his
proposed model, Kieck (1993:25) nominates/defines his
diagnostic or descriptive categories which form the
foundation of his measuring instrument. It is therefore
imperative that this study takes cognisance of the
categories identified.
106
2.34. CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION IN THE KIECK (1993)
EDUCATIONAL SITUATION
The realities of the educational situation consists of
various fundamental foundations to which the situation
in the classroom can be reduced, from which certain
categories - the focus of this investigation can be
derived.
The categories mentioned below are derived from the
Langeveld Model (Smith, 1988:10) and the
contextual model proposed in this study, to form a whole
- a totality of elements and situations forming
the contextual framework in which education occurs.
The three categories which can be visibly observed in
the classroom include the teacher, the pupil, and the
classroom environment.
2.4. SUMMARY
When working with the complex nature of those elements
which play an essential role in motivating human
behaviour, even though they are abstract, not directly
visible, intangible, multifaceted and complex, but
fundamentally part of the foundation of our very
conscious and unconscious perceived state of existence,
the educator must be aware of their existence.
107
To successfully harness, manipulate (motivate
extrinsically or intrinsically) and direct developing
young minds to a state of crystallized confidence with
an adequate self-identity, in order to achieve and
produce a permanently self-motivated, independent
individual, who produces work of a lasting high
standard, the educator must be intimately familiar with,
and aware of, the characteristics and developmental
phases of his target group, whether at primary or
secondary school level.
The following chapter incorporates the categories
identified in the educational situation, in order to
validate and determine the nature and extent of their
influence within the context of including them in a
measuring instrument.
Chapter 3
FOUNDATIONS OF A MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of conscious active teacher participation
in motivating his pupils operates within the didactical
environment. It is therefore imperative that the
educational situation in which these forces act,
be defined.
3.2. THE ORIGIN OF THE KIECK (1993) MODEL OF THE DIDACTICAL SITUATION
Kieck (1993) states that for too long the forces motivating
pupils in the classroom have been 'explained' or left to the
inherent characteristics of the syllabus content.
In order to accommodate and empirically measure these
aspects of the educational situation which motivate pupils,
Kieck (1993:21) redefines the education situation within a
motivation context.
In his proposal he states :
The proposed model also contains
the categories consisting of the
child, the teacher, the goal,
the content, the method, the
environmental context, but in
addition, includes a pragmatic
graduated resistance to
environmental forces or influence,
which must be included, if they
are going to exercise any influence
within the framework of the
categories of the educational situation, "
Within this context, he synthesizes a new approach,
manipulating and incorporating aspects of the Johnstone and
Reid model (1981:205) on attitude change, together with
categories defined in the Langeveld Model of the education
situation. (See figures 3.1 - 3.3 )
109
. ■
TEACHER & CHILD
IN EQUILIBRIUM GOAL
MOTIVATING FORCES
EASIER GOAL DOUW44LL)
<---FORCE
TEACHER & CHILD SYLLA
FORCE ===>
STARTING SITUATION GOAL
•POSITION OF APEX AT A NEUTRAL BALANCED SITUATION
CONTEXTUAL MOTIVATING
FORCES
CONTEXTUAL DEHOTIVATING FORCES
GRADUATED RESISTANCE
I PERS CORPUS COG CORPUS COG CORPU ERS ORPUS
TO EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL ENVIRONNENTAICONTEXTUAL FORCES
Figure 3.1. NIECE (1993) MODEL OF THE EDUCATIONAL SITUATION
STARTING SITUATION
PERS CORPUS COG CORPUS COG CORPUS
PERS CORPUS
Figure : 3.2. NIECE (1993) MOTIVATING FORCE MODEL
STARTING SITUATION
TEACHER & CHILD
IN EQUILIBRIUM GOAL
MOTIVATING FORCES .
PERS CORPUS COG CORPUS COG CORPUS
GOAL (UPHILL)
PERS CORPUS
111
Figure 3.3. KIECK (1993) MOTIVATING FORCE MODEL
The figures 3.1 - 3.3 represent a dynamic situation which is
in a continual state of change where each change, within a
category, acts as a 'homeostatic ' stimulus for a teacher to
motivate his pupils.
The amalgamation of the categories of the teacher, the
child and the environment which form the arena in which
motivational forces act, provides the opportunity for them
to be measured. Stated in different terms, the abstract
forces exercising an influence on the child and the
teacher in the classroom can therefore be identified,
reduced to an empirical (measurable) entity, so that a
value can be attached and the realm of their influence
determined.
112
While Kieck (1993) in translation of his summary
acknowledges the view of Meerkotter (1980), who subscribes
to the school of thought that a pupil's motivation is
sourced in the work content itself, he is of the opinion
that educators rely too heavily on this approach when
implementing a teaching strategy, at a cost to the quality
of sustained motivated pupil output.
At present there is an evolutionary change in attitude
towards how the developing role of a teacher's involvement
in the educational situation is viewed. Educators who adopt
a similar view to Kieck (1993), and whose independent
conclusions pertain to the role of the teacher in the
classroom, include Steyn (1993:106) who states :
The South African education system
is currently in a process of
extensive reform. A reform period
is perhaps the best time for a
revolution a revolution that could
make a school a place wher,=, teachers
want to teach and students want to
learn. 1 1
Steyn continues and states that research indicates that a
favourable school environment positively influences
students' learning outcomes.
113
From existing literature and current school practices in the
world (especially in the United States of America) it is
evident that Invitational Education offers a promising
strategy that addresses the school environment as a whole.
Goss (1993:07) quotes Opie (1993) and comments that pupil
enthusiasm and motivation is the key to success. Pertaining
to the role of the teacher, in engendering enthusiasm (thus
motivating pupils), Goss agrees with Opie (1993) and states
the following :
Those who observe teachers in action
are familiar with the effect that a
teacher's enthusiasm, or lack of it
has on the motivation of pupils.
Goss (1993:7) states further :
/1
Feedback by an observer on the pupils'
responses during a'lesson can form
a useful starting point for discussion
with a teacher. Reference can be
made to the influence of various
actions of the teacher. /1
114
Tanner (Goss, 1993:07) also shares the same point of view
expressed above, and suggests that enthusiastic teaching can
be developed by devoting attention to a number of
dimension, some of which are being energetic, speaking
fluently, the use of expressive speech (rarying pitch and
volume), using appropriate hand gestures and facial
expressions, maintaining eye contact with pupils,
communicating a sense of excitement about the subject
matter, asking varied questions which invite pupil
participation, finding imaginative ways of explaining
ideas and the use of effective praise encouragement.
These elements listed above are vital, but the obvious
question arises : How does one ascertain which dimensions
are required if no instrument exists in order to measure
their effect ? This question validates the necessity for
the proposal of a resultant motivation measurement scale in
the classroom education situation.
It is hoped that the proposed motivation measurement scale,
which follows in chapter four, can address the questions
that Goss (1993:07) asks :
Can enthusiasm be taught ?
115
Further important questions which should be asked, include :
Which teacher motivation-inducing
operations need to be diagnosed,
measured and addressed ? Also,
can teachers be trained to motivate
pupils in the classroom ?
Kieck (1993:121a) proposes an answer to the question above
by stating that this is possible using a measurement scale
which has proved to be statistically valid although a lot
more research is required, forming the focus of this
investigation.
3.3 THE DIDACTICAL MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE PROPOSED BY KIECK
The didactical motivation measurement scale proposed,
attempts to measure the motivation (enthusiasm-inducing
dimensions and elements) that a teacher exercises over his
pupils.
The scale mentioned above was designed to measure observable
teacher behaviour in the education situation. It is
structured as follows : There are three categories
of observable characteristics, namely, the teacher, the
child and the environment.
116
Each of these categories contain a number of visual or
auditory elements which exercise an influence on the
'emotional ' climate of the pupils in the classroom.
3.3.1. The composition at a diagnostic measurino instrument
Before the elements of a diagnostic scale can be
reduced, arranged and identified, certain vital
fundamental characteristics must first be
highlighted and placed into the context of the
didactical educational situation being measured in
the classroom.
The proposed diagnostic measuring scale, is
nothing more than a measuring instrument.
It will quantitatively (numerically) measure any
observable change in behaviour brought about by
the positive or negative influences exerted by the
teacher, other pupils or the physical environment.
The scale operator can either measure the
classroom situation directly or indirectly, by
viewing a video tape of the lesson, which has
certain advantages over and above the direct
observation method.
117
3.3.2. The user application of the proposed scale
This scale is primarily designed to measure the
'motivating' effects of the teacher on pupils.
This scale, if successful, can assist the teacher
by informing him of problem areas with regard to
his teaching strategies. It can also identify and
measure how pupils react to him, thereby enabling
all the relevant management staff to stay informed
as to the general 'attitude' (motivation climate)
not only in the classroom, but also in the school
as a whole. This measuring instrument could also
possibly be implemented as an in-service training
instrument. If successful in this sphere, it
could also serve as a training instrument in
microteaching at tertiary education training
institutions.
The quantitative measurement of a teacher's
progress forms the essence of this diagnostic
scale, to determine how successful a teacher is
in motivating pupils to reach the pre-set
educational goal.
Gresse (1975:235) is of the opinion that
there are additional advantages in developing
and using an instrument for cognitive analysis.
118
Some of these include changing targeted teacher
behaviour such as certain activities or
operations. Contextual, objective observation is
also possible, where the scale allows the obseTver
to view the teacher in a logical, structured
manner with specific goals in mind.
Measuring scales implement the-theory-in-action,
while enhancing the professional development of
those who practise the 'art' of educating
children. Measuring scales can also facilitate
the very important aspect of providing
opportunities to measure operational objectives in
lesson structure and management. These objectives
in turn create further opportunities for
formative experiences for both the teacher and
the pupil in retrospect, when they are analysed.
Finally the teacher can also be actively involved
in his own professional development of a unique
('own') teaching style, making him sensitive to,
and aware of, his cognitive interaction and
motivation which operates in his classroom within
the framework of the didactical educational
situation.
119
Once the advantages of the use of a scale have
been identified, as is the case above, the
operator cannot blindly implement or operate the
scale and obtain a valid set of results, unless
certain minimum contextual factors which exercise
an influence on the results, are accounted for.
3.3.3. Criteria for the valid use of the motivation measuring scale
In order for any measurement scale to be effective
in measuring whatever it is designed to measure,
it must operate within certain boundaries.
These include factors such as VALIDITY which
propose that a scale must measure exactly what it
was designed to measure.
RELIABILITY also plays an important role, where a
scale that measures the same or different groups
within the same context, must produce an identical
set of results within certain limitations of
variance.
A measuring scale must also be PERTINENT,
as the results should be representative of the
aspect being measured, that is, the scale should
not be measuring one aspect and describing
another.
120
If this is the case ambiguity exists
and an incongruent, false set of results will be
used to describe the measured situation.
A measuring instrument should also be
COMPREHENSIVE in that it covers all the aspects
pertaining to an issue, thereby producing a
realistic picture of the set of operations being
measured.
A scale is only able to measure if it is able
to DISCRIMINATE between the elements of the aspect
being measured. Strong and weak, as well as good
and bad elements, apart from being separated due
to differences in their quality, should be
measured in an OBJECTIVE manner, which facilitates
CONTINUITY and provides the opportunity for the
manipulation and development on an ongoing basis
of the aspect/s under focus, eventually resulting
in a change in behaviour.
Finally a scale is only useful or pragmatic if it
facilitates an ordered, balanced, systematic
classification of those aspects of an
educator's opportunities in the classroom.
121
A scale's usefulness is also determined by its
ease of use pertaining to its operation, the
degree of inherent organization, the ease of
administration with regard to the elements it
intends to measure and the ease with which the
results can be interpreted, evaluated and applied.
3.3.4. The measurino instrument
In paragraph 2.3. the factors exercising an
influence in the design and implementation of
a measurement scale in the context of the
didactical situation were identified. With
these factors in mind, the three categories being
measured in this study include the teacher, the
child and the physical environment. (See Scale
4.1.)
3.3.4.1. CATEGORY I : THE TEACHER
The teacher exercises the greatest
influence in the didactical 'atmosphere'.
Therefore it is this category which
exercises the greatest influence on the
educational situation. It consists of
fourteen elements each comprising a number
of constituent characteristics, some
behavioural, and others descriptive in
nature :
122
3.3.4.1.1. PERSONALITY ma BEHAVIOUR
This is where the pupil experiences
the teacher as either a calm or
anxious person. The child will
readily notice if the teacher
in the class is friendly, warm,
understanding and empathetic.
Brophy and Kher (Feldman, 1986:260)
propose that if the teacher
understands his pupils and places
himself in their position, while at
the same time communicating this to
them by indicating that he identifies
with how they are feeling, it will
possibly motivate the pupils, making
them accept the teacher, being
convinced that the teacher
understands them and knows how they
'feel', allowing them to try without
fear of judgement or ridicule.
On the other hand, if the teacher
tends to convey an irritable,
impatient impression, the child will
be demotivated and intimidated,
123
resulting in him not being able to
venture a contribution with any
degree of conviction or self -
confidence for fear of ridicule from
his peers or the teacher concerned.
If the teacher appears to be distant
or cold, he is in fact stating that
he does not wish to communicate or be
personally involved with his pupils'
progress.
Those teachers who come across too
confident or aggressive, will also
, scare off' any possible advances
from the pupils and the quality of
interaction between them may be
diminished. If the teacher projects
a lax, uninvolved or indifferent
frame of mind, the pupils will
not be motivated to produce to their
full potential, due to the impression
that the teacher is apparently
disinterested in their efforts.
124
3.3.4.1.2. APPEARANCE AND BODY MOVEMENT
The physical image of the teacher
conveys to the child the manifestation of
his personality, values and attitude,
according to Insel and Jacobson (Nielson,
1987:1). To place this in perspective,
think of the effect that a traffic
officer's uniform has in conveying his
authority. In this light, if the teacher
comes across as being neat and tidy, he
will immediately command an inherent
respect, even if the child is
'anti-establishment'.
This fits the profile of a person that a
child would want to emulate, thereby
attaining the same perceived status that
the pupils attribute to him. If the
teacher's clothes are worn in a sloppy,
shabby manner, the pupils in his class will
adopt a superior or judgemental frame of
mind, where they will subconsciously 'feel'
superior to him Kieck (1993:28). This will
result in the pupils not having any respect
for the teacher, especially if they reside
in an area which enjoys a high socio-
economic level.
125
If any individual has to decide whether a
particular person is a hesitant or
indecisive person, he will most probably
make his judgement according to the manner
in which the person moves (his deportment),
if he does not have access to more
revealing information pertaining to that
person. Therefore if a teacher's movements
are assertive and executed with a degree of
self-confidence, the pupils will identify
with, 'trust' and accept the teacher's
authority, especially where the teacher's
non-verbal behaviour reinforces his verbal
statements by the use of his hands. On the
other hand, should the general body image
disagree with the verbal communication, a
'dissonance' might arise in the child, due
to conflicting messages, one being
verbal and the other non-verbal.
3.3.4.1.3 BODY LANGUAGE
People interpret body posture and movement
when deciding on the nature of the person
interacting with them, in this case the
teacher. Rosenveld and Civikly (1976:120)
support this view.
126
Positive teacher movements will be
perceived when he faces the class, uses his
posture, limbs or facial expressions to
support his verbal messages.
A teacher who folds his arms and leans
backwards while speaking to the class,
according to Merhabian (1972:16), is
actually stating non-verbally that he is
'closed' to input from his pupils. A
teacher who sits behind his desk very
often displays a lack of confidence in what
he is doing.
3.3.4.1.4. TEACHER COMMENTS
One reads in the Bible that the tongue
can be a very sharp instrument and
must be used wisely. It is a powerful
tool, but if used in a destructive manner,
it could have far-reaching implications
with regard to the trust that the pupils
will have in the teacher concerned.
Teacher comments set the 'emotional' tone
or climate of the class. In so doing, the
framework of interaction is defined.
127
Positive comments could be encouraging and
empathetic, communicating to the pupil
that the teacher identifies with him.
Positive comments motivate pupils by
setting an emotional climate for them to
operate in with a higher degree of self-
confidence.
Structural and contextual (management)
comments about procedures to be followed
give the pupils direction. This will
enhance motivation, due to them feeling
didactically safe.
Destructive comments undermine the pupils'
confidence in themselves and in the
teacher, according to Candry and Chambers
(Feldman, 1986:262). Therefore sarcastic,
personal or insulting comments from the
teacher should be avoided at all costs.
3.3.4.1.5 VOICE
According to Trager (Knapp, 1972:150) the
intelligent use of the voice by varying the
volume, projection and tone will highlight
key aspects, or words, which assists the
pupil in making mental imprints, thereby
improving his memory (retention).
128
Where a voice is monotonous and soft, too
much effort is required by the listeners,
who will lose interest and enthusiasm.
3.3.4.1.6. QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
Any effective teaching strategy
must include regular, contextual, inviting
or challenging questions which prompt
(motivate) the pupils' responses. This
implies active continuous cognitive
interaction. Questions should be directed
at individuals, but not at the expense of
excluding other pupils in the classroom.
Kissock and Iyortsuun (1982:109) suggest
that all questions should involve all
pupils in the classroom situation.
Teachers who ask few questions during a
lesson do not motivate the pupils to
participate. They will therefore
become bored or perceive the lesson to be
impersonal. Where questions are
non-contextual they can misdirect a
pupil's attention and cause him confusion.
129
3.3.4.1.7. TEACHER FOCUS
According to Dittman and Llewellyn
(Argyle, 1975:161) the object of a
teacher's visual focus or direction of
concentration, if executed in a panoramic
view, allows all the pupils to feel
included. If a teacher repeatedly focuses
on one or two'pupils in particular, for
any reasonable period of time, the other
pupils in the class will subconsciously
perceive themselves to be excluded from
the lesson.
3.3.4.1.8. TEACHER ANSWERS
The manner in which a pupil's questions
are answered can have a profound effect on
the emotional climate of the rest of the
class. Should the teacher answer promptly
and confirm with the pupil that he has
grasped the answer correctly, not only the
individual pupil will gain confidence ,
but his peers will benefit as well. This
generates confidence, trust and motivates
pupils to try.
130
If the converse is the case, where the
answer is delayed, forgotten or
incorrectly answered, and the class
becomes aware of this, a negative,
destructive atmosphere takes root.
Confusion results creating an atmosphere
where the pupils will never spontaneously
offer any answer for fear of ridicule.
3.3.4.1.9 EVALUATION
Evaluation not only informs the teacher
as to the progress of his pupils, but also
structures the lesson and creates an
opportunity for the pupils to measure
their own progress, creating a didactical
safety which includes an inherent
motivational element. This can be
attained with regular, consistent drill
and repetition, interspersed with
challenging invitations, where pupils may
attempt more difficult tasks within the
appropriate climate.
131
3.3.4.1.10. ACTIVITY MANAGEMENT
This vast aspect is a field of study on
its own, and not in the main focus of this
measuring instrument. It is, however, a
major component in forming the motivational
climate by defining the climate (context)
in which motivational forces are allowed to
operate. Motivation is much better
guaranteed if the teacher is prepared,
organized, systematic, and where
aims and goals are clearly defined. This
facilitates a lesson which flows,
particularly where time management, pupil
activity and discipline is instrumental in
motivating the pupils to progress within a
structured situation, in which they feel
didactically safe.
3.3.4.1.11. TRANSMISSION
This is the 'art' of communicating
the syllabus content of the lesson to the
pupils, whereby they are able to make the
syllabus content their own, and attach
meaning to it.
132
This process should be enjoyable, exciting,
varied (using different media and pupil
activities) and entertaining. If these
factors are present, the pupils should be
motivated to 'actively' participate in the
lesson.
A monotonous, boring transmission is
usually associated with the content, where
it should in fact, be the teacher's
responsibility, as he is not successful in
motivating the pupils 'through' the
content.
3.3.4.1.12 MANIPULATION OF pupil. ATTENTION
This encompasses the process of gaining
and maintaining pupil attention and
activity. The teacher should therefore be
managing the level of pupil interest by
continuously measuring it (using feedback
from the class) and adapting his
transmission strategy accordingly.
133
3.3.4.1.13. PERSONAL HABITS
These are the concrete, visual
manifestations communicated to the pupils
who interpret and classify them according
to their own reference framework of norms
and values. Once this process has
occurred in the pupil, a definite emotive
influence (attitude) would be adopted by
him, as it is impossible to adopt a
completely neutral stance in response to
any individual's personal habits. Some of
these habits might be irritating or
distracting, while others could be
amusing. The final effect is only
determined by each person's own frame
of reference.
3.3.4.2. CATEGORY II : THE CHILD
This category consists of seven elements. It
represents the mirror image (reflection)
of the pupil's responses to the advances of the
teacher. These responses therefore are the
concrete manifestations of the manner in which
they respond to the teacher. These elements
include :
134
3.3.4.2.1. PUPIL QUESTIONS
As has been previously been stated in
this study, in most cases it is the
confident or motivated pupil who does
not feel intimidated, who will
spontaneously ask questions. The
manner in which questions are asked
also directly or indirectly reveals
the motivation state of the person
asking the questions, if the statement
at the beginning of this paragraph
holds true.
If the teacher is questioned regularly
during the class, he can be assured
that he is motivating them adequately,
especially if a pupil asks more than
one question. Possible motivational
problems could exist where pupils fail
to ask questions, or ask them with
varying degrees of hesitation, due to
an inadequate 'classroom climate',
where they do not wish to indicate
that they have a problem, for fear of
ridicule or judgement from the teacher
or their peers, or both.
135
3.3.4.2.2. PUPIL REEDEESaa .hna PARTICIPATION
The degree of involvement and
participation in the activities of the
class is directly proportional to the
degree of motivation where
participation is spontaneous and not
coerced. Where the pupils respond
spontaneously or immediately in an
enthusiastic, confident and
self-assured manner, they reveal that
they are motivated.
Demotivated pupils or pupils who lack
motivation, project characteristically
lethargic, delayed or self-conscious
responses, where they have to be
coerced to participate.
Where reluctant pupils are coaxed to
respond, the tasks that are required
of them are only carried out in part,
or in some cases not at all.
136
This creates a negative tension, as
the teacher will then punish them for
not producing the required work, which
in turn will demotivate the pupil as
he does not wish to be confronted
and judged for his visible
transgressions.
3.3.4.2.3 PUPIL ACTIVITY
This aspect refers to the operations
that a pupil performs during any given
moment in a lesson. Depending on the
degree of complexity, they may be
relatively physically or cognitively
passive. Positive pupil activity is
characterized by performing tasks that
are to be evaluated as well as those
which stimulate curiosity and
interest. Negative pupil activity is
characterized by 'passive' involvement
for any sustained period of time in
which a certain degree of monotony
exists.
137
3.3.4.2.4. GROUP FORMATION AND INTERACTION
This element of Category II is very
complex, and involves a wide range of
simultaneous forces which exercise an
influence on a pupil in a classroom.
These forces may be positive or
negative. Positive forces could
include operations in which free group
formation is facilitated, where pupils
are able to make their own choice with
regard to who they wish to communicate
or study with, within the context of
the classroom lesson.
138
This is evident in the type of seating
arrangements, which in turn influences
communication and social interactions.
If 'free groups' are arranged in an
organized manner, pupils will more
likely be motivated to work. Where
groups display no interaction due to
aggressive incongruent 'clicks',
fighting or horseplay occurring, the
classroom management and discipline is
affected in .a negative manner,
inhibiting any motivational influences
while the pupils attend to the
syllabus content, trying to reach the
pre-set goal for the lesson.
3.3.4.2.5. PUPIL ATTENTION
When a teacher observes and becomes
aware of the degree of pupil attention
and cognitive arousal, it can serve as
a barometer to measure the degree of
their involvement and by implication
their levels of motivation. Keen,
enthusiastic and alert pupils are
motivated pupils, while those who
project a drowsy, apathetic or bored
image are demotivated pupils.
139
3.3.4.2.6. PUPIL ANSWERS
As is the case when measuring pupil
attention, the enthusiasm, rate and
manner in which pupils answer a
teachers questions, also serves to
measure the level of motivation.
Where pupils answer boldly,
spontaneously, enthusiastically or
competitively, they are 'motivated'
to communicate their ideas, as it is
important to them that their
contributions are heard and
acknowledged. The desire to share
their views serves as the visible
motivation for them to do so.
Reluctant, hesitant or timid answers
are characteristic of pupils who lack
didactical confidence, and who in
turn will experience a high level of
demotivating forces at work, where
they will not wish to have their
inadequacies exposed.
140
3.3.4.2.7. BODY LANGUAGE
As in the case with the body language
of the teacher mentioned above, the
pupils' body orientations also reveal
their state of motivation to
communicate and interact.
Enthusiastic, motivated pupils will
sit upright and move in a decisive,
confident manner. Pupils who lean,
hold their heads in their hands, or
adopt an aggressive body posture,
feel disinterested or intimidated
respectively, and will not be
motivated to involve themselves with
the syllabus content with any degree
of conviction or enthusiasm.
Pupils'facial expressions, as
portrayed in the measurement scale,
also serve as windows into their
personal attitudes which affects the
state of motivation of any individual.
In this table each facial expression
has been identified and its inherent
emotional constructs defined, where
positive and negative emotions (states
of motivation) are revealed.
141
3.3.4.3.. CATEGORY III : THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The physical surroundings that any individual
finds himself in produce an emotional
response in that individual. Therefore if the
surroundings produce a pleasurable or
comfortable response, logic would have it that
this would create a climate in which a person
could be easily motivated. The converse would
also hold true.
It is therefore in the interest of the pupils that
the physical environment be positively influenced
by creating a pleasant, uplifting and stimulating
environment.
The following aspects of the physical
environment exercise the greatest influence in
determining the emotional climate of the
individual operating within it. Some of these
aspects are under the direct control of the
teacher and others are subject to the classroom
design and are not under the control of the
teacher.
3.3.4.3.1. MEDIA
The most obvious and widely used media
'tool' manipulated by the teacher is
the directional and integrated use of
media. The more comprehensive the use of
the correct media, the more the various
senses of the recipient pupils are
stimulated, thereby exposing the individual
to increased opportunities to become
motivated.
There should therefore be a varied use of
the different media types to stimulate and
maintain interest, which in turn will
motivate pupils.
3.3.4.3.2. FURNITURE ARRANGEMENT
The various descriptions used in this
scale to represent the different values
for each element within this category
(physical environment) already have a
value attached to them. (See the scale)
By choosing the appropriate description
in each case, the scale operator will
automatically be attributing a pre-set
value to the scale.
142
143
Where furniture arrangement allows for
free interaction between the pupils and
the teacher while at the same time does
not obscure any media pertaining to the
lesson, pupils will experience a higher
degree of motivation, due to lower
resistance, enabling them to reach their
goal. The converse is also true, as extra
effort is required to reach the lesson
goal, allowing fatigue to set in, thereby
facilitating greater opportunities for a
pupil to become demotivated or
demoralized, as it is perceived that too
much effort is required.
3.3.4.3.3. DIDACTICAL zNVITATION
This refers to the 'general atmosphere'
created by the surrounding media, posters,
wall charts, models, demonstrations and
the like. If it is too intimidating,
confusing or boring, pupils will not
feel motivated to attempt any syllabus
content with any degree of vigour, as they
will be under the impression that the work
is beyond them. It is therefore obvious
that they would not wish to confront their
inadequacies as they perceive them.
144
On the other hand, if the physical
surroundings stimulate interest,
curiosity and invite the pupils by
challenging them within the framework
of their perceived capabilities, they will
transcend their environment by
enthusiastically mastering the perceived
goals inherent in the media. They will
hopefully be able to do this due to
the fact that they feel confident as well
as competent in being able to manipulate
the educational material concerned.
3.3.4.3.4. SURROUNDING VISIBILITY
This aspect, more often than not, is
beyond the direct control of the teacher.
It is usually primarily influenced by the
architectural design and vertical location
and lateral arrangement of the classroom
windows. Windows which are located high
up in the classroom, and offer no view of
the outside at all, could result in pupils
feeling claustrophobic and 'trapped',
even though this reduces outside
distraction and interruption.
145
On the other hand, a pupil's attention
could also be distracted if the window
offers a clear view of a noisy, busy
'bustle' outside. This situation would-
increase pupil resistance in gaining
attention as well as mastering the content.
This increase in resistance will negatively
influence their level of motivation.
The ideal situation should offer a limited
view with little or no activity outside,
set in tranquil surroundings, where
adequate plant growth filters out
excessive distracting noise.
3.3.4.3.5. FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
This aspect, not to be confused with
educational media, refers to the
facilities available for the pupils to
become actively involved (hands-on
activities) during a lesson.
An example of this aspect would be pupils
using microscopes during a Biology lesson,
where every pupil is offered the
simultaneous opportunity to become
'effectually' motivated and enthusiastic
while operating the equipment.
3.4. SUMMARY
The first, second and third categories have now been
defined in terms of operational observations
required of the scale operator; the degree of
variance in the form of a written template for each
element of each aspect constituting the three
categories has been set out in order to measure the
operations in the classroom. The functional use
(practical method of operation) and implementation of
the scale will be discussed further in this chapter.
3.5. STEPS INVOLVED ILL uaiiackla CONSTRUCTION
It is important to be aware of which factors played a
role in constructing the three categories comprising
the measuring instrument. One of the important steps
in the learning process according to Denova (1979:16)
is the periodic measurement of progress and the
evaluation of the results of a training programme.
In technical training, for example, this is done by
written tests, performance tests and observance of
practical exercise being accomplished by the trainee.
Most training is evaluated by performance or the
development of skills.
146
147
Tests are therefore given in order to measure the
trainee's achievement and understanding, to discover_
weakness in instruction, to diagnose trainee
difficulties, to determine the level of performance or
to give the trainee incentive.
Scale construction according to Denova (1979:17)
consists of operations designed in order to measure
the degree to which individuals have attained the
desired outcome of training activities.
The following factors are major steps in measurement
scale construction. The designer must determine the
scope of the scale. (Does the scale cover a lesson, a
unit, a phase, a specific job, or some other
measurable part of the training activities ?)
The composer of the scale must also determine what is
being measured. (What is the objective of the
training programme ? Does the test measure attitudes,
abilities, skills or mastery of principles/or
facts ?) Thereafter the test items should be
selected, as well as the technique to be used in the
measuring instrument while keeping the training
objective in mind. The following step is to choose
the length of the test in order for it to represent and
cover the instructional material adequately.
148
This relies on the designer choosing only the select
final items (reduction), or the most significant
portions which are arranged in a final form thereby
making it possible to prepare directions for operating
the test.
3.6. WEAKNESSES az THE. MEASURING INSTRUMENT
All the factors identified in the three categories
making up the measuring scale operate simultaneously,
and therefore exercise a collective or 'Gestalt'
influence in forming a pupil's attitude and therefore
the state of his cognitive and effectual motivation.
This presents certain problems for the scale
operator.
In the light of the above-mentioned paragraph, certain
problems and difficulties could arise when using the
scale, subject to the skill of the operator, the
personal convictions and degree of insight pertaining
to any one or more of the aspects under focus within
each category.
These factors in turn are dependent on whether the
operator interprets the elements of the categories
correctly, within the context of this study.
Subjective evaluations could also arise if the
scale operator does not strictly adhere to the
degrees of comparison built into the scale.
149
The scale measures a very wide range of
elements simultaneously, which could result in
confusion for the user, or the situation where he
forgets to attribute values to certain aspects in each
category of the scale. This can, however, be
eliminated by repeating certain sections of the video
tape.
It is vital that the camera operator has sound
knowledge of and insight into the measuring instrument
when recording the lesson onto video tape. This allows
the camera operator to focus on certain aspects, which
would otherwise go unnoticed, thereby not producing a
true value when applying the scale to the recorded
lesson.
User objectivity is difficult to determine, as the
foundation of attitude is translated into user
bias, even when using a descriptive (diagnostic)
scale of this nature.
The scale is also not easy to operate (mechanical
simplicity) until the operator becomes familiar in
manipulating the priority categories at any given
moment, in order to describe the current behavioural
effect of either the teacher or the child categories.
150
Certain elements of the various aspects of the three
categories overlap. The danger therefore exists that
the same aspect is being measured more than once.
This is in fact not the case, since the 'effectual
influence' on the state of motivation of the
individual being measured (either the teacher or the
child) is different, and they are each approached from
a different perspective.
3.7. TEST ADMINISTRATION
Certain weaknesses according to Denova (1979 :105)
can be partially or even totally eliminated by good
test administration. He proposes that a good test
consists not only of a set of well written items but
also of a set of well thought out procedures and
instructions that are clear to the scale operator.
Instructions are a very important part of the
measurement procedure. It is advisable to go through
a sample test item with the scale operators before
they begin.
The observation procedure should begin with the scale
observer arriving at the classroom well in advance to
make sure that the materials needed for the test are
at hand.
151
The video camera operator must ensure that the classroom
in which the video is to be taped is well lit and
ventilated. The 'roving video camera' should also be
ready to start recording immediately the class begins.
It is an added advantage if the camera operator
'blends in' with the children in the class by sitting
in the desks when taping the lesson. He should also
move freely and regularly change his position in
order to measure both teacher and pupil activity,
while avoid creating any unnecessary distractions.
3.8. USING THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
(PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS AND ORGANIZATION)
3.8.1. HOW TO USE THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
Before the measuring instrument can be used, a video
recording of the lesson must be made.
The scale operator should first familiarize himself
with the measuring instrument.
Thereafter, the observer must observe the lesson for
five minutes before filling in any of the values.
Each of the categories ( TEACHER, PUPILS AND THE
ENVIRONMENT) are awarded values next to the
appropriate aspect of that category using a five point
scale, which is calibrated as follows :
152
SCALE
1 3 4 5
NEVER ONLY ONCE OR EVERY NOW & MOST OF ALL OF
TWICE THEN THE TIME THE TIME
One will note that on the left hand side , next to each
aspect of each category, either a capital A or B
is present. The A designates that the value from the
scale is a positive value, and a B designates that the
value is a negative value. Therefore wherever an A
is present, the ascribed value is a positive one , and
where a B is present, it is a negative value.
If a certain aspect on the measuring instrument does
not exist in the lesson that is being evaluated, a
value of 1 (one) must be ascribed to it.( +1 if it is
an A and -1 if it is a B-value.)
The 1-values are only to be filled in at the end of
the evaluation process, as this saves time and assists
in keeping the evaluation process of the evaluator as
objective as possible.
The scale operator must adhere strictly to the scale
provided.
Once the scores have been attributed, those elements
with no values must receive a value of 1 (one).
Total the scores attained by attributing a positive
value wherever a capital A appears next to an
element, and subtract the value where a capital B is
found.
153
* The totals of the categories comprising the measuring
instrument can be summarized as follows :
TEACHER : X 252
PUPILS a X 123
ENVIRONMENT : X 25
TOTAL : X 400
* The scale operator must guard against the following :
The incorrect interpretation of the elements of
the categories due to preconceived bias.
Subjective evaluations which will arise if the
evaluator does not adhere to the scale provided.
Forgetting to subtract the values awarded a
B-value when totaling the scores attained.
3.9. PERSPECTIVES an zu MEASUREMENT SCALE RELIABILITY,
VALIDITY ala QBJECTIVITY.
In order for any measurement scale to be effective
in measuring whatever it was designed to measure,
it must operate within certain boundaries.
Vockell (1983:65) states that certain vital
aspects must be acknowledged when implementing
a measurement scale of one kind or another.
154
These include factors such as VALIDITY which proposes
that a scale must measure exactly what it was designed
to measure.
RELIABILITY also plays an important role, where a
scale that measures the same or different groups
within the same context, must produce an identical
set of results within certain limitations of
variance.
A measuring scale must also be PERTINENT,
as the results should be representative of the
aspect being measured, that is, the scale should not
be measuring one aspect and describing another.
If this is not the case ambiguity exists and an
incongruent, false set of results will be used to
describe the measured situation.
A measuring instrument should also be COMPREHENSIVE in
that it covers all the aspects pertaining to an issue,
thereby producing a realistic picture of the set of
operations being measured.
A scale is only able to measure if it is able to
DISCRIMINATE between the elements of the aspect
being measured.
155
Strong and weak, as well as good and bad elements,
apart from being separated due to differences in their
quality, should be measured in an OBJECTIVE manner,
which facilitates CONTINUITY and provides the
opportunity for the manipulation and development on an
ongoing basis of the aspect/s under focus, eventually
resulting in a change in behaviour.
Finally a scale is only useful or pragmatic if it
facilitates an ordered, balanced, systematic
classification of those aspects of an educator's
opportunities in the classroom.
A scale's usefulness is also determined by its ease of
use pertaining to its operation, the degree of
inherent organization, the ease of administration with
regard to the elements it intends to measure and the
ease with which the results can be interpreted,
evaluated and applied.
The Kieck (1993:122) motivation measuring instrument
produced the results mentioned above. (See Scale 3.1.)
MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE 3. i0
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3.10. CRITICISM OF THE MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE
The general approach and therefore the validity
of the motivation measurement scale in question
appears to be statistically validated by the high
correlation coefficient obtained between the
results of the scale and a questionnaire put to
the pupils as stated by Kieck (1993:127):
In the pretest phase, an 86Z
correlation was obtained ,
final test, testing a completely
new set of results, three years
later, using the same scale in
the same school, produced a
98;:: correlation,
The motivation measurement scale adopts a
'Gestalt' approach in attempting to measure
the 'total Teacher - Pupil interactive experience'
in terms of cause and effect pertaining to
classroom motivation.
This scale by way of its very approach, although
thorough, produces a unique set of obstacles
which in turn could possibly cause the scale
operator to lose sight of his goal or focus
on any particular element or aspect of a
category undergoing measurement.
157
The motivation measuring instrument falls within
the practice of 'situational analysis', which
Meerkotter (1980:76) defines as the analysis
of the learning experience within the
didactical situation by employing the use of a
categorical observation/measuring instrument.
Thus, using this technique, the sequential
occurrences occurring within a lesson can be
isolated, observed and quantified.
Herbert and Attridge (1975:01), after extensive
analysis using computers and other aids, concluded
that most observation or measuring instruments
neglect the methodological foundations on which
they were based.
They therefore formulated criteria which
Meerkotter (1980:82) again quotes as a template
for the construction of a successful or valid
measurement scale. Delmont and Hamilton
(in Maarschalk 1977:86) criticize didactical
interaction measuring instruments due to the fact
that they are of the opinion that most interaction
measuring instruments ignore the temporary time
and spatial (space) contexts in which results are
collected. They propose that data forming
the results is collected in too short a period,
which is not considered when drawing conclusions.
158
Secondly, interaction-analysis or measuring
instruments (scales) are usually concerned with
'overt' behaviour, while they should in fact be
concerned with the 'covert' cognitive operations.
The proposed scale suggests that by measuring the
'overt' aspects, they in turn serve as windows
into the 'covert' aspects.
Although the process of situational analysis
is not as objective or as 'exact' as the empirical
observation of the physical elements of our
constituent reality (including the interactions
which occur in the classroom), Maarschalk
(1977:81), identifies the following merits which
form an inherent part of any observation/
measuring instrument, namely :
Non-relevant and unimportant detail is
eliminated.
The focus is primarliy on the aspect
being measured.
The aspects under focus are isolated,
facilitating clear and objective
analysis.
159
Even though aspects of the Kieck 1993 motivation
measurement scale operation could cause confusion
or misdirected focus, it contains the following
characteristics which result in its successful
implementation to a greater or lesser degree
depending on the experience, skill, familiarity,
impartiality and insight of the operator :
3.10.1. Cumbersome size
Due to the motivation measurement scale measuring
three categories, namely the Teacher, the Child
and the Physical Classroom Environment
simultaneously, the physical size of the scale
creates the first obstacle for the scale operator.
In 'its present format the physical size of the
scale compels the scale operator to continuously
page backwards and forwards in order to locate a
particular aspect to be graded as it spontaneously
arises in the course of a lesson.
3.10.2. Ease af use
The conscious paging backwards and forwards in
order to locate an aspect in order to attribute a
value to it, results in rapid operator fatigue.
160
This leads to inefficient measurement, as possible
instances could arise where the scale operator is
too busy concentrating on finding an aspect on
the scale sheet, resulting in him missing a
current element to be measured.
3.10.3. Complexity
The subject of the measurement scale undergoing
measurement, is 'Human Motivation'. Because of
its complex nature, it dictates that an equally
complex measurement scale be devised in order to
accurately measure the numerous aspects requiring
simultaneous focus. It is obvious that the
thirteen elements of the 'Teacher' category, the
seven elements of the 'Child' category including
their facial expressions and the five elements of
the 'Classroom / Environmental' category are valid
inclusions of this scale, where Kieck (1993:127)
states :
The results conclusively support
the validity of the scale, in
accurately being able to determine
the degree of 'effectual motivation'
in classroom children being taught a
syllabus content, within the
educational situation, //
161
The implication of the complexity mentioned above
would therefore point to an improved format for
the motivation measurement scale being required,
as this leads to eliminating possible weaknesses
in the scale design,layout or format.
3.10.4. Repetition
Due to the multidimensional 'motivation levels'
determining human behaviour within any individual
at a given moment, according to Maslow's
hierarchy of human motives, as expressed in
Morris (1976:382), it is the responsibility of the
motivation measurement scale operator to
indirectly and continuously measure the
observable 'abstract motives' manifested in a
particular mode of behaviour. (See Figure 3.4.).
CONTEXTS OR LEUELS OF THE XXECX 1993 NOTXUATXON MEASUREMENT SCALE FORMAT
TEACHER CH X LD ENUXRON-
MENT CATEGORY
ELEMENT
ASPECTS
SELF- ACTUALIZATION
/ESTE= HEEDS
BELONSINCNESS HEEDS sLT HEEDS
TSYCHOLOGICAL HEEDS
THE MASLOM HXERARCHY OF HUNAN NOTEUES
ASPECTS SIMULTANEOUSLY MEASURING ANY OF THE ABOVE-MENTIONED MOTIVES OBEYING THE HASLOH LAW THAT A HIGHER ORDER MOTIVE CAN ONLY BE ATTAINED AFTER SATISFYING ONE IMMEDIATELY BLLOH IT PER SINGLE CONTEXT WHERE SEVERAL CONTEXTS ARE BEING MEASURED AT THE SAME TIME USING THE XIECX MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE
FIGURE 3=4. CONTEXTS OF HUMAN MOTXUATION ACCOMMODATED IN THE DIDACTICAL MOTXUATION MEASUREMENT SCALE
183
It is therefore possible that a scale operator
could be measuring the same motive as it is
reflected by different choices in the categories
of the motivation measurement scale option list.
This situation results in both a genuine
as well as a pseudo-repetition, in that the
same motives are measured in different behavioural
contexts.
Smith (Strydom, 1992:04) identifies key value
systems that subconsciously motivate a teacher's
or pupil's behaviour in the classroom :
'n Hens se waardesisteem weerspieel
die lewensomstandighede waarmee by
in sy daaglikse bestaan gekonfronteer
word.
Smith (Strydom, 1992:04) expands on this
concept, proposing that a person's basic views,
pertaining to existence, have their foundations
embedded in a complex hierarchy of twenty basic
value systems, which motivate a person's behaviour
or actions. (See Table 3.1.) Smith acknowledges
that these value systems (coping system-
strategies) are arranged on one of eight levels,
responsible for resultant behaviour, depending on
which level a person finds himself.
164
A person who finds himself on a low 'value' level
is unable to understand a person who identifies
with a higher or more advanced level of
'existence', pertaining to the hierarchical scale
of human values.
/ See Table 3.1.
165
Religious values - which are reflected by a person's attitude towards the practice of his religion, outlook on life (wereldbeskouing), as well as his value of his fellow human beings.
Relationships - a person's attitude towards his fellow man and the degree to which he will serve his fellow man.
Moral value - which determine one's sense of right and wrong, within the framework of a particular society's norms and values.
Aesthetic - those aspects influencing one's view with regard to appreciation of beauty, artistic elements, harmony and creativity.
Economic - usefulness, work, materialism, pertaining to the degree of possession or gain.
Cultural - traditions, new developments and conservation.
Political - the right to vote, freedom and equality.
Self-image - elements of self-fulfilment, and degrees of responsibility.
Motivation - degree of self-motivation, emotions and personal nature.
Career values - independence, status, respect and service.
Environmental values - conservation, respect and appreciation of nature.
Value of life - survival and sexuality.
Time and spatial orientation - One's orientation with regard to the past, present and the future.
TABLE 3.1. VALUES WHICH SERVE TO MOTIVATE BEHAVIOUR (SMITH, 1988)
These value systems, therefore, are in continual
operation as the teacher and pupils interact with
one another.
166
Although these aspects (values) can
not be measured directly, they are indirectly
measured by automatically being 'reduced' intq the
format of the diagnostic motivation measurement
scale.
If one extrapolates further the logical
functioning of the value systems mentioned above,
any single value or number of different
combinations of these values, simultaneously
exercise an influence in motivating a child in the
classroom.
These motives therefore, exercise a repetitive
influence which must be accommodated in the
design of a measurement scale, if its goal is
to measure human motivation with any degree of
accuracy or validity as it occurs in different
behavioural contexts in the classroom.
Focusing on the contents of the different menu
options in the three categories of the motivation
measurement scale, certain aspects are repeated.
167
These repetitions include the following :
3.10.4.1. personality and behaviour
In the TEACHER CATEGORY
under the element 'Personality and
Behaviour'the aspect of 'Empathy' also
appears in the'Comment' menu (See Scale
3.1.), but in a different context. This
might appear to be repetition, which is
not the case, due to both the 'Empathy'
options measuring different behavioural
contexts.
3.10.4.2. Body movement
Focusing on the 'Appearance &
Body Movement' and 'Reinforces the
Verbal' elements of the TEACHER CATEGORY,
they both appear to be measuring the same
aspect, while in reality they are not.
One might ask the question :
" How do they differ ? " This can best
be described by the following example.
The quality of 'dress' of a disciplined
and well-organized teacher could well
reinforce his requests to his pupils to
be neat and tidy in their work.
168
This scenario differs in context from
hand movements that might be made, in
order to support verbal activities when
stressing a particular point to a
classroom of pupils, even though this
activity constitutes body and appearance.
A third 'Reinforces the Verbal' option
under the PERSONAL HABITS element of the
TEACHER CATEGORY also appears to be a
repetition which is not strictly the
case.
3.10.4.3. Media usage
True repetition does occur with
'Media usage', which appears in the
MANAGEMENT, the TRANSMISSION and in the
MEDIA MENU options of the scale. Two of
these three options could be eliminated,
without invalidating the motivation
measurement scale.
3.10.4.4. aald answers
In the CHILD CATEGORY the aspect of BOLD
or BOLD ANSWERS appears in the menu
options of the 'Participation &
Responses' element as well as in the
'Pupil's Answers' element.
169
These responses are not necessarily the
same, due to the fact that a bold pupil
response to a teacher's initiation, need
not take the form of a verbal answer.
3.10.4.5. Fighting
The aspect of 'Fighting' in
the BODY LANGUAGE menu of the CHILD
CATEGORY is repeated in the GROUP
FORMATION & INTERACTION menu, which
implies that fighting in the BODY
LANGUAGE menu could be removed,
resulting in no loss of scale validity.
3.10.5. Vagueness
Vagueness of measuring either the 'elements' or
'aspects' found in the motivation measurement
scale can be defined as the scale operator
not knowing which aspect built into the scale to
attribute to a perceived behaviour or
characteristic.
This vagueness can be caused either by operator
ignorance or by the lack of insight due to being
unfamiliar with the scale.
170
The onus would then be placed on every motivation
measurement scale operator to familiarize himself
with the technical explanations as found in 3.3.1.
of this chapter.
With frequent use, the wide scope of the many
options found in the TEACHER, CHILD and
ENVIRONMENT categories becomes more familiar,
bringing with it a deeper insight and a more
comfortable operation.
3.10.6. Scope
The scope of the motivation measurement scale in
this context can be defined as the very wide
behaviour responses and environmental elements
comprising the classroom culture or atmosphere
which the scale operator must measure, in order
to deduce the quality of the 'total motivational
experience' of teacher, pupil and environmental
interaction within the didactical classroom.
Attempts to reduce the scope (range) and therefore
the size of the motivation measurement scale
would seriously affect its validity as vital
components of interaction, each reflecting their
unique combinations of motives, would be lost.
171
This situation would reduce scale accuracy in
determining the motivational impact of a teacher
on the child in the classroom environment.
The only logical and viable solution to this
problem while still maintaining scale validity,
would be to focus on scale format, that is,
a simplified, or more user-friendly layout.
3.10.7. Operator Education
It is vital to the motivation measurement scale
validity that the scale operator is thoroughly
familiar with its use, particularly in light of
the fact that he is simultaneously measuring three
categories, namely. the TEACHER, the CHILD and
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.
With the above in mind, a very clear, concise
and informative set of operative instructions
pertaining to scale use must be made available to
the operator. This will not only accelerate the
ease of use' factor, but also scale
familiarization, which in turn awakens and
enhances the insight and therefore the accuracy of
its implementation.
172
It stands to reason that those operators who
possess a well-developed short-term memory,
will greatly benefit the accuracy of the
motivation measurement scale. It is for this
reason that there is only a fikre minute
delay required when implementing the scale.
(See 3.8. in this chapter)
3.10.8. Scoring System and Mark Allocation
A five point scoring scale exists in the
motivation measurement scale, as
this arrangement not only produces a symmetrical
distribution of mark allocations, but also
provides the scale operator with a better choice.
This situation in turn results in more accurate
measurement, facilitating better degrees of
comparison pertaining to a particular aspect
under observation.
The verbal degrees of comparison represented by
the numbers of the five point scale are listed in
Scale 3.1. of this chapter.
By reducing the number of options in the scale
it would also reduce or substantially threaten
scale validity.
173
An unfortunate repercussion of the five point
scale being employed to quantify the degrees of
comparison of the three different categories,
results in the scale operator having to calculate
or work with awkward values or totals. This
problem is exacerbated by the scale operator
having to award a 1-mark value to each aspect
not observed during the lesson, in order to
eliminate any possible bias involuntarily
included in the design. It would therefore be
prudent to maintain the integral advantages
mentioned above of the present mark allocation
or scoring format.
3.10.9. Scale Operator Subjectivity
It is assumed that in the interest of validity and
a diagnosis producing a true reflection of
motivational interactions occurring in the
classroom, the motivation measurement scale
operator be as alert, knowledgeable and as honest
as possible in order to produce meaningful
results.
The validity of the motivation measurement scale
is therefore at the mercy of the integrity of the
scale operator, even though a balancing mechanism
as mentioned in 3.10.8. has been incorporated
into the design of the scoring system.
174
3.10.10. Inference Level of. Scale Category Operation
Calitz (1978:180) states that most interaction-
analysis measuring instruments are comprised of a
systematic, ordered whole of observational
categories revealing a particular perspective of
the composer. The categories therefore form a new
'descriptive language' in an attempt to describe
the activities occurring in the classroom.
Simon and Boyer (Meerkotter 1980:78) state that
each observation system ideally has a category
which represents every behaviour that is observed,
and each behaviour fits into only one category.
Focusing on the constitution of the measurement
scale in question, it adopts an opposite view to
Simon and Boyer (Meerkotter, 1980:78), while at
the same time acknowledging the real danger that
the inference level of a graduational scale can
manipulate the validity of any aspect being
measured. Nevertheless, pupil motivation and
scale measurement of pupil motivation, as depicted
in the results quoted for the 1993 motivation
measurement scale, show an acceptable degree of
correlation (validity).
175
The pitfalls to be avoided in the implementation
of the proposed motivation measuring instrument
pertaining to an injudicious inference level
include :
The 'halo effect' which makes objective
observation difficult.
The tendency of scale operators to
attribute values in the centre of the
degree of variance, which tends to mask a
true result.
An oversympathetic or overgenerous mind-
set of the scale operator will lead to an
inaccurate portrayal of the observed
behaviour/events.
Different interpretations of key words or
values will differ from one observer to
another, resulting in inaccurate data.
3.11. CRITERIA FOR 6, MEASURING (OBSERVATION) INSTRUMENT
Meerkotter (1980:82) suggests three categories of
measurement scale classification.
3.11.1. Identification Criteria
Scale 3.1. should and does comply with the
following identification criteria :
176
3.11.1.1. Clear Title
Any measuring instrument should
possess a title which conveys a
clear idea of which aspects in the
classroom it was designed
to measure.
3.11.1.2. Brief Description
Apart from the title, any measuring
instrument should be preceded by a
brief description of its aims and
goal.
3.11.1.3. Scale la Context
The theoretical background of any
measuring scale should also be
discussed and placed in context.
3.11.1.4. Clear Definitions
The specific behaviour, target group
and particular content of the aspects
under focus should be clearly
defined.
177
a.11.1.5. Integral aspects as examples
Integral aspects of the defined
categories should be highlighted in
the form of examples which should
reflect the correct mode of
application.
3.11.1.6. Inappropriate Scale Use
Those instances where the
measurement scale should not be
used should also be highlighted.
3.11.2. Validity Criteria
3.11.2.1. Clear Scale Definitions
All terms or aspects that exercise a
profound influence on the accuracy
and correct interpretation and
execution when applying a specific
scale element, should be clearly
defined without any ambiguity.
3.11.2.2. Accommodation p. Relevant behaviour
Every possible type of behaviour
fitting into a particular category
of behaviour should be accommodated
or catered for.
178
3.11.2.3. Inappropriate Behaviour
Every measurement scale should
contain a facility that accommodates
behaviour that does not belong to
the subject of behaviour
investigation or measurement.
3.11.2.4. Representative Categories
The categories of a measurement
scale should be representative of
those dimensions of behaviour
undergoing measurement.
3.11.2.5. Training aa Scale
Measurement scale operators should
be - 'trained' in the use of the scale
in such a manner that they must be
able to correctly recognize and
attribute the correct values in the
appropriate categories of the
scale.
3.11.2.6. Free at Interence
A measurement scale should be free
of, or not facilitate, any inference
by the operator within the defined
complexity of its design.
179
3.11.2.7. Decree of User Inference
In those borderline instances where
observer inference could possibly
occur, the exact degree of inference
should be clearly defined or
specified.
3.11.2.8. Nature L Inference
The nature of inferences made in the
compilation of any data should be
carefully described in order to
maintain scale validity.
3.11.2.9. Statistical Record af Inference
Statistical processing of any
inferred results should be clearly
defined in order to maintain scale
validity.
3.11.2.10. Artificial Influences
Those aspects which determine the
context of the artificial situation
where a video camera is used to
record the behaviour of any lesson
in the classroom, should be
restricted, or accommodated in the
measurement scale in such a manner
as not to obscure or warp the
validity of the results.
180
This aspect is clearly eliminated if
video tapes which form the subject
of motivation measurement
Scale 3.1. are observed. Pupil
classroom behaviour is surprisingly
natural and unaffected.
3.11.2.11. Accommodation at Scale User
The presence of an observer in the
classroom, with his accompanying
influence, should be accommodated in
measurement scale design. It is for
this reason that Scale 3.1. proposes
that the camera operator (observer)
'blends in' with the class by moving
around the classroom and sitting or
standing amongst pupils, in order to
eliminate or keep to a minimum the
effect of the pupils being
constantly aware that they are being
observed or measured.
3.11.2.12.Environmental Results
The circumstances or environment in
which results were obtained with
scale implementation, must be
comprehensively portrayed.
181
The validity testing mechanism as
well as accompanying reasons for its
use should also be highlighted.
3.11.2.13.Scale Reliability
Reliability should also form a vital
component of any measuring device,
where discrimination should reveal
repeated valid, accurate results, as
opposed to data obtained from
incidental coincidences.
3.11.2.14.Content Validity
Content validity focuses on the
theoretical inclusion of any aspect
of a category, according to
fundamental definitions. Scale 3.1.
subscribes to this condition.
3.11.2.15.Empiricallv Determined Quantity
Constructional validity (categories,
including all aspects and individual
elements) must subscribe, as in the
case of Scale 3.1., to an
empirically determined quantity, in
order to attach a value which can be
statistically quantifiable.
182
3.11.2.16.Valid Face Value
Any measuring instrument should
possess a valid face value, which
proposes that it measures exactly
that which it was designed to
measure, excluding all other
behaviour or operations.
3.11.3. Practical Scale Application
If a measuring instrument is to be
successful, it should be 'user-friendly",
and be easily applied to measure those
aspects it was designed to quantify,
therefore :
3.11.3.1. Category - Goal Compliance
Each category of a measuring
instrument must comply with the
theoretical foundations of the aims
and goals responsible for its
design.
3.11.3.2. User-friendly Codes
Any category should contain user-
friendly codes which are easy to
learn, remember and implement.
183
3.11.3.3. Training for the measuring
instrument operator, the number of
observers and their necessary
qualifications, if any, must also be
clearly defined.
3.11.3.4. Equipment Availability
Equipment and apparatus necessary to
implement a measuring instrument
should be readily obtainable.
3.11.3.5. Operational Procedures
Procedures to be followed in the
implementation of a measuring
instrument coding should accompany
the measuring instrument.
3.11.3.6. Units gt Measurements
The units of measurement during the
coding of a lesson must be clearly
specified. In the implementation of
Scale 3.1. units of measurement are
reduced to the number of, or the
frequency of episodes.
3.11.3.7. Method of Data Analysis
The method of data analysis and
portrayal of results should be
clearly defined.
184
3.11.3.8. Projected Costs
It is finally also advisable to
reveal projected costs in the data
assimilation process in the
implementation of a measuring
instrument.
3.12. SUMMARY
The Motivation Measurement Scale now having
had its design and rationale defined, its theory behind
each category composition explained and its format
criticized, the emerging weak areas can undergo
streamlining and development by incorporating new ideas
or improvements, proposed in a different format in
chapter four which follows.
Chapter 4
DEVELOPING A MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the Kieck (1993) Motivation Measurement Scale,
mentioned in chapter three, this chapter focuses on the
variables that must be considered during the process of
compiling an improved, fundamentally correct (valid),
reliable, consistent and user-friendly motivation
measuring instrument.
4.2. THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT
Motivation, being an 'abstract' reality, which forms
an integral part of the human personality, by its very
nature, possesses difficult obstacles which must be
accommodated, when developing a measurement scale.
Wainer and Messick (1983:258) refer to the abstract
aspects which constitute the phenomenological
reality of psychological measurement (motivation
measurement) as Teleological Constructs. which are
those entities which are not in themselves directly
observable even though given a hypothetical locus in a
physical body; they must be inferred from observations
of an interaction.
186
All actions undertaken, although they appear to be
completely 'different', could have a common 'motivating
' force, where all these may be generally classified
under a particular label, for example, 'motivation'.
Inferences may also be made concerning the purpose for
which these characteristic interpersonal actions serve
the individual; that is, one may say of such a person
that he has a need to project himself in the classroom,
but is it important to note that the imputation of
purpose or motive is not as essential a requirement for
the prediction of behaviour, as is the systematic
description of the potential interactions an individual
is most likely to sustain.
The determination of needs characterizing an individual
can only be made from an examination in which he
engages. Needs may therefore be defined as a taxonomic
classification of the characteristic behaviours
manifested by individuals in their life transactions.
It is important to take note of any variability between
:how the image of an educator differs from his
perception as to how he comes across in the
classroom.
187
Therefore both the private (individual educator) and
the mutually shared phenomenological experience of
reality are of interest, each in their own right, but
in the final analysis, the inferences instructors make
as observers in which others participate, are the
ultimate source of a taxonomy of situational variables.
It is the observer who can describe the situational
climate, the permissible roles and relationships, by
his interpretations of events to which the participant
qua participant can only respond in terms of action
and/or ideological evaluation. The participants
themselves may consider these events to have different
significance, or may fail to give them any formal
recognition, reflecting a distinction between explicit
objectives, representing the stated purposes for which
given institutional events are organized, and implicit
objectives which are in fact served by institutional
events, regardless of the official interpretations.
This distinction has its direct parallel in individual
behavioural acts which may be interpreted differently
by the observer than by the actor, who may also ignore
or deny their significance.
Ebel (1979:364) describes the problem of measuring
psychological entities by stating that one of the
personality traits that most educators most often wish
to measure, is motivation.
188
They see some of their students studying hard and
others avoiding study as much as possible. They
explain the difference by stating that some students
are well motivated, while, others are poorly motivated.
Ebel (1979:364) continues and asks the question :
" But is motivation a cause, or
is it simply a description of
the observed result ? Is
motivation a mysterious spiritual
essence, or is it the result of
complex interaction of beliefs,
values, and choices ?
The key question that Ebel (1979:364) asks, is :
Can motivation be measured apart
from its manifestation in how hard
the student actually works at
learning ?
The question Ebel (1979:364) asks above lays down a
- challenge to educators. It is his opinion that
motivation is more a consequence than a cause, and that
it can never be 'measured' effectively using a
paper-and-pencil test.
139
The Kieck (1993) Motivation Measurement Scale
challenges this point of view. The statistical results
obtained by the use of his scale show that this scale,
unlike most others, measures the effect of educator
motivation immediately, as opposed to waiting for
results derived indirectly by evaluating pupil
performance. This suggests, therefore, that educator-
induced motivational influence on pupils can be
reduced and empirically quantified in order to
determine the nature and extent of its influence.
Some of the obstacles that a motivation measurement
scale must overcome in order to produce valid results
according to Ebel (1979:365) are as follows :
* Personality traits such as motivation are
difficult to define because they probably do
not exist as distinct entities.
* The essentially cognitive nature of the tasks
presented by paper-and-pencil tests, plus
their susceptibility to faking, makes them
poorly adapted to the measurement of personality
traits.
190
* Personality tests that seek to uncover basic
causes in maladjustments are likely to probe
'sensitive areas of concern, and thus are
likely to be resented, especially in those
educators who have been teaching for a
prolonged period of time, resulting in them
being rather set in their teaching and
accompanying motivational strategies.
As is stated in chapter two of this study, when dealing
with the aspect of motivation and the various forces
responsible for its formation within a pupil, no pupil
can experience a particular motivational effect
without including or referring to an attitude in his
existing reference framework.
Expressed in simple terms, a motivational stance
adopted by a child has its foundations embedded in
attitudes of various kinds.
Johnstone and Reid (1981:207) nominally classify
attitudes into some consisting of 'feelings' which
_are sometimes the results of conditioning, whether
positive or negative. Other attitudes are primarily
cognitive generalizations. These generalizations are
formulated on the 'bias' of a limited number of
observations or even from hearsay testimony.
191
Cognitive attitudes are closely related to knowledge.
The difference between them is how universally they are
accepted, or how easily they can be shown to be true.
What children believe is made up of their knowledge
and their attitudes. Those positions that most
informed individuals regard as true, constitute
knowledge. Those on which significant differences of
opinion exist are termed attitudes. Thus attitudes
(motivational outlooks) are personal beliefs.
Self-concepts are attitudes of a child toward him or
herself; interests of desire for certain activities;
ideals are attitudes of desire for the attainment of
certain goals; and values are attitudes of approval of
specific things or accomplishments.
With the above in mind, it could be said that in order
to measure motivation one is simultaneously measuring
an attitude. Attitudes (motivation) affect behaviour
and can thus be measured by observers making use of a
rating scale. The difficulties of finding qualified
observers and of finding sufficient relevant incidents
to observe, make measurement on direct observation
unattractive. Nevertheless, this seems to have been
accomplished by Kieck (1993:121).
192
Instruments used to measure attitudes are usually
referred to as attitude scales. Although many
elaborate techniques of scale construction have been
developed, including scalogram analysis (Guttman), or
the use of scaled statements (Thurstone) or scaled
responses (Linkert) according to Ebel (1979:369), only
the Thurstone and Linkert scales are widely used.
The Thurstone scale consists of a number of statements
which each carry an accorded value along an attitude
continuum, where judges have to then grade those
written statements ranging from those which represent
highly favourable attitudes, to those which represent
extremely unfavourable attitudes.
The Linkert technique mentioned above starts with a
set of statements, though usually not so many are
required. Further, instead of expressing a number of
different degrees of favourableness, each statement is
intended to be clearly favourable or unfavourable.
Neutral statements are avoided.
_Unlike the Thurstone and Linkert attitude scales
mentioned in Ebel (1979:370), which measure attitude
(motivation) after social interaction, the Kieck (1993)
scale uses incidents or episodes of frequency, in
order to measure and determine the global or whole
('gestalt') motivational effect and influence on the
child's motivational state.
193
Logan and Ferraro (1978:171) address the cognitive
humanist effects of motivation as a state of
'expectancy' within an individual, and 'habit' as the
behavioural aspect. With the above in mind, they
explore the approach of theoretisizing over a
particulated involvement of the expectancy/habit
aspects of human motivation in order to comment on a
theory of quantifying it. In short, how do these
opposing elements which drive motivation interact, and
how can they be quantified ? In the same
article, they quote Hull who deals explicitly with this
issue.
Hull (Logan & Ferraro, 1978:171) postulates that the
conditions of reinforcement affect incentive and that
incentive directly multiplies habit. Tolman's approach
(Logan & Ferraro, 1978:171) is somewhat less clear,
because he embeds expectancy and incentive in a
'gestalt' that is, in principle, an indivisible whole.
However, Tolman does identify the classes of
independent variables that enter into his theory, with
expectancy developing as a result of exposure to the
situation and incentive developing as a result of
reinforcement. Since both features must be present in
the gestalt for performance to occur, he is assuming
the essence of a multiplicative interaction.
194
Both Tolman and Hull (Logan & Ferraro, 1978:171)
postulate an incentive construct and combine it with
expectancy/habit processes in determining behaviour.
Taking the lead from both Tolman and Hull, incentive
theorists have tended to distinguish between two
sources of motivation : drive and incentive.
They make this distinction operationally : drive is
based on conditions of deprivation and incentive is
based on conditions of reinforcement. The issue at
hand is how these two presumed sources of motivation
interact in the ultimate determination of performance.
Logan and Ferraro (1978:173) state that Tolman and Hull
adopt a route where they keep drive and incentive
conceptually separate. Drive, according to Hull, was
need-push' to Tolman, and incentive to Hull was
valence to Tolman. These combined with habit in the
case of Hull, and expectancy in the case of Tolman, to
determine performance.
Elkind and Weiner (1978:526) contend that behaviour is
energized by either anticipation-arousal or by
sensitization-arousal (incentive and drive
respectively); this implies that they combine in
an additive fashion.
195
Therefore, there is a single generator of amplifier
elements for any system, the base rate of firing being
dependent on deprivation (drive), summating with
feedback consequences of the response (incentive).
Drive can also be used as a necessary, condition for
the increased activity of a 'go mechanism', resulting
from reinforcement.
Other psychologists who focus on the elements involved
in behavioural reinforcement, such as Johnstone and
Reid (1981:210), assume that drive and incentive are
separable and combine additively to determine attitude
and therefore the total motivation that energizes
habits.
The additive assumption has one very valuable feature:
it enables drive motivation to activate habits from the
beginning of a trial, and then incentive motivation is
contributed through the feedback mechanism. One price
of the gain is that incentive can also activate
habits in the absence of drive. Also on the negative
side, this assumption appears to restrict incentive
motivation to positive values; if one attempts to
treat (motivate) with punishment in terms of negative
-incentive, then the possibility would arise that the
net-incentive value of an alternative that is both
punishment and reinforcement, would be negative (one
would hardly want a negative source of motivation),
amplifying habit.
196
Further, the additive rule has no obvious bounds. In
this regard, in the same article, Spence (Johnstone &
Reid, 1981) bases his assumption on the best available
evidence about the results of factorial designs
involving variations in both deprivation conditions and
reinforcement conditions; the fact that there was no
statistical interaction between these variables,
suggests a simple additive combination rule. Were one
to pursue this argument, however, there is also
evidence that drive combines additively rather than
multiplicatively with habit; therefore, that component
of the equation is also open to question. The general
point is simply that it is not enough to postulate an
incentive construct; it must be combined in some way
with other constructs in the system in order to
generate behavioural predictions. This makes empirical
measurement an extremely difficult, if not impossible,
task. Simply stated, there must be an external
motivator.
Kieck (1993:129) differs strongly with Logan and
Ferraro (1978:178), where they state :
....quantification of incentive
motivation, and for that matter
any hypothetical construct, is to
say simply that quantification
cannot be done in terms of any
empirically defined scale of
measurement.
197
Adopting an opposing point of view, Kieck (1993:129)
states :
.... categories with their
characteristic elements :
including psychological, humanist,
behaviourist and educational
perspectives, can be reduced to
transform abstract classroom
operations into empirical forces,
in order to determine the exact
range of their influence using a
diagnostic scale. OR
The Logan and Ferraro (1978:178) argument continues,
and proposes that hypothetical constructs (for example,
motivation) are only anchored to empirical referents;
they are not defined operationally in empirical
language. Accordingly, they further suggest that it is
conventional for the quantitatively minded theorist to
adopt some arbitrary units, and then provide the
anchoring procedure for converting these hypothetical
numbers into ones that are operationally meaningful.
-Thus according to them, no hypothetical construct can
be measured directly; this fact consequently affects
issues involving interactions. Even probability of
response is an abstraction, because at any moment in
time a response, however defined, either occurs or does
not occur.
198
Kieck (1993), on the other hand, suggests that any
response to an educator's action influencing the
motivational environment, will result in an observable
response from the pupils, which is derived from
internal motives. Therefore pupil response is the
outward manifestation of internal (cognitive) and outer
(behavioural) operations. This implies that
motivational reinforcers (incentives) can be
empirically reduced and quantified.
As the argument develops further, Logan and Ferraro
(1978:178) state that the micro aspect of response
definition, is composed of familiar response
measures, such as speed and amplitude (or in the Kieck
(1993) Model in the form of frequency). These indices
tell us what the pupil did, but very little about the
strength of the incentive involved.
Nevertheless, the Kieck (1993) Measurement Model,
measuring teacher motivation, did achieve a high
correlation coefficient with how pupils experienced
motivational incentive, even if it did not define the
underlying motives resulting in pupils adopting a
particular motivational stance pertaining to the
educator's influence. Therefore his scale still
remains valid, in that it measures an educator's
ability (frequency) to influence, and thus his
motivational impact on the children who sit before him
in the classroom situation.
199
Thus frequency anchors the degree of motivational
impact from an educator in the classroom and beyond.
That is how often a particular element of the
motivation measurement scale is observed. When
conceptualizing any conditions of reinforcement in
terms of incentive (motivation), based jointly on the
amount, delay, and probability, it is possible to
provide a reasonable approximation to a quantification
of relative incentive value.
Whatever the method of quantification, one can best
grasp its importance by considering a more detailed
analysis of behaviour at a choice point. It is
important to recognize that a dynamic incentive theory
contends that the organism (educator or pupil) is
continually, moment by moment, deciding what to do next
on the basis of the relative incentive value
(motivational force) of the available alternatives.
Behaviour at a choice point is intended to make this
hypothetical activity more amenable to direct
observation.
-According to many behavioural scientists, the
difficulty is in quantifying an abstract construct
through the use of a model, measurung instrument or
theory in a programmatic form, which may involve
algebra, geometry, calculus, difference
equations, probability theory, finite mathematics, or
any other system including pure deductive logic.
200
This is an essential step, because meaningful
hypothetical constructs must be anchored to dependent
variables. The manner in which the purely theoretical
constructs, now embedded in a theoretical system, get
translated into observable performance, is the final
step in the design of a theory. In practice, some
theorists prefer to start with this terminal anchoring
operation and work back toward the initiating
antecedent conditions. The Kieck (1993) model was
formulated in this manner.
Withall (Amidon, 1967:47) postulates that the primary
motivation force of human behaviour is a 'drive'
towards selfactualization within the 'humanist'
approach. This 'drive' is influenced by a
need for self-consistency. Interaction occurs in terms
of an interactional frame of reference, self-directive
and private meanings in a social milieu. He maintains,
that learning (change in behaviour) is most
likely to occur when experiences are meaningful to
the learner, that is, are perceived by the learner
as pertinent to his needs and purposes, are consistent
with his personality organization, and are associated
with self-directive behaviour. Learning should occur
in a non-threatening situation, that is the learner is
free from a sense of personal threat, interacts with
others in a wholesome social milieu, and is helped to
evaluate himself on the basis of objective criteria.
201
Little objective evidence exists regarding
psychological atmospheres either in learning or other
situations. It was decided, therefore, by Withall
(Amidon, 1967:48) to attempt to develop a technique
to measure social-emotional climate in the classroom
through a categorization of verbal teacher statements.
Kieck (1993:121) uses a similar approach and is of the
opinion :
It seems reasonable to assume
that the teacher's behaviour
influences the conditions of
learning since she is placed
in the classroom by society to
manipulate the conditions so as
to facilitate learning.
The Kieck (1993:121) view of the teacher-induced
climate manipulation (motivation) in the classroom,
differs from the basic Withall approach (Amidon,
1967:48) in that Withall proposes that an educator's
verbal behaviour is a representative sample of his
total behaviour, whereas the Kieck (1993:121)
approach includes a far wider focus on additional
teacher/educator behaviour, in the 'Teacher' category
of his direct motivation measurement scale.
202
Further, the Kieck (1993:29) approach acknowledges that
verbal statements do not always ounport a pupil's
inner thoughts which reveal themselves in verbally
opposing body tones, movements, expressions or habits.
Withall (Amidon, 1967:49) recognizes the work of
Anderson and Brewer (1946) who conducted investigations
into the influence of teachers' classroom personalities
on children's behaviour, particularly at the primary
and elementary school levels. In order to obtain
objective measurements of teachers' classroom
personalities and concomitant children behaviour, they
developed 26 teacher-behaviour categories.
Kieck (1993:121) developed 13 elements within the
teacher category, each with their own repertoire of
aspects. Anderson and Brewer (Amidon, 1967:49)
identified 29 Children-behaviour categories whereas
Kieck (1993:121) defines 7 elements consisting of
several aspects each; by which both teacher and pupil
verbal and non-verbal behaviour might be categorized.
Anderson (Amidon, 1967:49) divides classroom
educator/teacher behaviours into two kinds: Integrative
teacher behaviour and dominative behaviour.
Integrative behaviour was that which expanded the
children's opportunities for self-directive and
co-operative behaviour with the teacher and their
peers.
203
Dominative behaviour tends to restrict children's
activities and to lead to distracted, aggressive,
non-cooperative conduct. Anderson demonstrated that
children's behaviours were consistent with the kind of
personality the teacher displayed in the classroom.
His studies further reveal that the main direction of
influence in the classroom is from the teacher to the
pupil. He demonstrated that reliable patterns of
teacher and pupil behaviour can be obtained in the
classroom through categorizations of their overt
behaviours.
Apart from all the theories pertaining to
socio-emotional climate, no clear-cut definition of the
concept can be cited. A definition proposed by
Withall (Amidon, 1967:49) states that the climate is
considered in this study to represent the emotional
tone which is a concomitant of interpersonal
interaction.
It is a general emotional factor which appears to be
present in interactions occurring between individuals
in face-to-face groups. It seems to have some
relationship to the degree of acceptance expressed by
members of a group and regarding each other's needs or
goals. Operationally defined it is considered to
influence :
* the inner world of every individual.
* the esprit de corps of a group.
204
the sense of meaningfulness of group
and individual goals and activities.
the objectivity with which a problem
is attacked.
the kind and extent of interpersonal
interaction in a group.
From Anderson's work pertaining to social-emotional
climate, Withall (Amidon, 1967:63) draws a number of
conclusions which include the idea that classroom
climate can be assessed and described, several
individuals can be trained to use the criteria of
the climate index (for example, the Scale proposed
by Kieck, 1993:121) and achieve an adequate measure
of agreement among one another in categorizing
statements. A valid measure of the social-
emotional climate of groups is obtainable through the
categorization of teacher statements, and within
the limits of behavioural and personality variations
the climate index produces a consistent pattern of
verbal behaviour for a given teacher from day to day.
Different patterns of verbal behaviour used by several
teachers can be identified. Statements categorized can
produce 'positive feelings' (the A-values found in the
elements of the Kieck (1993:121) Motivation Measurement
Scale) and tend to be similarly categorized by
impartial observers and are reacted to with 'positive
feelings' by the individuals to whom they are
addressed.
205
Statements categorized according to a climate index as
likely to produce 'negative feelings' (the B-values of
the Kieck (1993:121) Motivation Measurement Scale) tend
to be similarly categorized by impartial observers and
tend to be reacted to with 'negative feelings' by the
individuals to whom they are addressed.
Amidon (1967:63) highlights a number of implications
for further research, some of which Kieck (1993:121)
has addressed.
Amongst others, some of the implications include
research on the relationship between classroom
climate and the quality of learning that occurs in a
classroom, the extent of emotional classroom climate as
equated directly and indirectly to the personality of
the teacher/educator and the extent of 'peer group'
relationships which effect the classroom climate.
The Anderson (Amidon, 1967:64) approach represents
an attempt to develop a technique for the measurement
of social-emotional classroom climate. The ultimate
-aim of this is to achieve a fuller understanding and
control of motivation as a factor that influences
learning.
Hough (Amidon, 1967:375) proposes that ultimately
the effect of teacher/educator and student behaviour on
clearly defined learning outcomes must be measured.
206
It thus becomes evident that teachers must first be
able to clearly specify and measure the learning
outcomes of instruction. He continues that if such a
theory of instruction is to be developed, much more
needs to be known about the relationships that exist
between teacher and student behaviours and student
learning in typical classroom. situations.
In order to test hypotheses regarding the effect of
particular teacher and student behaviour on learning
outcomes in actual classroom settings, one needs a way
of precisely describing such behaviours. With the
development of observational systems, rudimentary and
primitive as they are at their present stage of
development, the instructional theorist is armed with
a tool for objectively describing the cause-act-effect
loop of teacher(educator)-pupil interaction in the
classroom. Classroom educator and child behaviours
which are theoretically associated with particular
learning outcomes, can at least be quantitatively
described as being present or absent from the
classroom, and the relative absence or presence of such
behaviours can then be related to student learning.
The possession of such observational tools should
provide the means for a significant breakthrough in the
development of a functional instructional theory.
207
From a behaviourist perspective, reinforcement
(operational conditioning or behaviour modification)
is an ideal tool for the educator to assist the child
in identifying his position relating to his degree of
progress on his selfactualization quest, in order to
alter the influence from an external (extrinsic) to a
self-driven internal (intrinsic) motivational attitude
when approaching his work, which is a small part of his
whole life philosophy.
Therefore an educator's behaviour does influence pupil
learning in many ways. The behaviours of some
educators are stimuli which elicit responses from
students, while other educators' behaviours are
reinforcers of pupil behaviour. Educator behaviours
are on occasion aversive stimuli which evoke respondent
types of behaviour in students, and such respondent
behaviours seem to interfere with verbal learning.
Educator behaviours do cause students to be either
active or passive, and thus largely determine both
-overt and covert involvement. Such educator and pupil
behaviours are easily identified on any matrix of an
Observational System for Instructional Analysis as
proposed by Hough (Amidon, 1967:377).
208
Identification of educator behaviour is possible,
therefore, because of principles of reinforcement
theory (conditioning), and due to an observation system
which is compatible to be combined in order to
illustrate how principles of learning can be translated
into instructional principles and described in a matrix
(measurement scale). This approach has its
foundations embedded in the work of Flanders (Amidon,
1967:377) in which he states that success in a scale
measuring educator initiation and measurable pupil
response, is reliant on the correct application of six
important principles :
A reinforcing stimulus is by definition a
reinforcer if it increases the probability that
the response for which it is intended as a
reinforcer will be made in the future, or if it
increases the rate of the response.
Stimuli are the cause of behaviour in at least
two senses of the word. In one sense they
elicit behaviour and in a second sense they
become the occasion for a behaviour emitted.
209
The reinforcement must be associated with the
behaviour for which it is intended as a
reinforcer, if the full effect of the
reinforcement is to be achieved in regard to
that behaviour.
In order for a reinforcement to be associated
with a particular behaviour, it should follow
that behaviour in close temporal contiguity.
Repetition of behaviour without reinforcement is
largely an inefficient and ineffective way to
learn.
For a stimulus to elicit a previously
reinforced behaviour, the stimulus must be
perceived by the target as being highly similar
or analogous to the stimulus which last
elicited that behaviour and/or the stimulus with
which that behaviour was originally paired.
The phenomenon of predictable cause-effect
relationships found between patterns of teacher
and pupil achievement is not enough. Once such
relationships have been clearly established, educators
must be trained to consistently exhibit this behaviour
in their classrooms.
210
In many cases, this will necessitate the retraining of
in-service classroom educators. The assumptions which
have been proved valid in the Kieck (1993:121)
Motivation Measurement Scale can be viewed as being as
relevant to the changing of teachers' behaviour as to
the changing of students' behaviour. Not only can
observational systems of the type be possibly useful as
a diagnostic tool, but they could equally be useful as
a feedback mechanism to aid educators (student
teachers) in relearning effective teacher/educator
behaviour.
It is in the use of observational systems/scales that a
great potential lies should they prove to be
continually valid, as libraries are full of research
findings which have never found their way into
teacher/educator behaviour. If learning is behavioural
change, then it is behavioural change for both
educators and students alike, which must be explored
and dealt with.
Therefore, theory construction could be equated as a
conceptual maze with many choice points. No one has
yet found or probably ever will find the end of the
maze; nor has anyone yet reached a sub-goal that has
commanded agreement about the best part through the
maze to that point.
211.
Theorists have taken off in various directions,
attempting to cross one hurdle after another in the
hope that it will lead on to a fruitful path rather
than ending in a cul-de-sac. Fortunately, science,
including theoretical science, is public knowledge.
Contemporary theorists can build upon promising leads
from the past and attempt to avoid what proved to be
errors in earlier approaches.
Finally, it should be clear that theory construction
does not take place in isolation from the laboratory.
All theoretical notions derive from and ultimately
return to empirical knowledge. Logan and Ferraro
(1978:183) suggest that sub-goals may be thought of as
touchstones, because the theorist is being guided
through the conceptual maze by the facts. It is more
than just an analogy to characterize theory
construction in terms of the kind of dynamic incentive
theory that has been discussed above. The only
difference is that the existence of a reward at the end
of the maze is only an article of faith, because no one
has ever savoured that reward in more than a very
fractional form.
212
4.3. MEASUREMENT AND REPRESENTATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS LE THE CLASSROOM
People differ from one another, not only in relation to
their abilities and aptitudes, but also in their 'will'
to do something, that is, in the intensity and aualitv
of their motive.
Gannon (1977:225) expresses the necessity to be aware
of the power of motivating individuals, and states:
It
Management activities such
as planning, organizing and
decision-making are dormant
cocoons until the leader
triggers the power of
motivation in people and
guides them towards their
goals.
Marx (1981:193) very aptly states that motivation is
the spark that gives rise to, directs and determines
the success of human endeavour.
With the above in mind, any educator must be aware of
the various methods of motivating pupils, as well as
the influence of their 'unconscious' motivational
influence. Thus the necessity for a diagnostic
motivation measuring instrument becomes apparent..
213
The nature of the human personality pertaining to
induced motivation, according to Druker (Reddin,
1970:190), rests on the following principles of his
Z-Theory, which, in turn, act as prerequisites for a
motivational measurement scale:
Man has a 'free' will which he usually applies in
a positive manner.
Man is 'affected' by both positive and negative
experiences.
An idealistic and conducive work environment
motivates people.
Human 'reason' accommodates the ability
to allow him to be motivated.
Interdependence of man forms the foundation of '
any interaction.
Interaction (motivation) is a social operation.
The Motivation Measurement Scale that Kieck (1993:121)
proposes must be seen in the context that it is a
'frequency-based' Scale, that is, it is assumed that
positively orientated educator operations towards
pupils will result in a positive experience for them.
214
It is therefore important that any degree of
variance observed, that is, the differing amount of
motivational episodes caused by educator operation/
behaviour, and indicated by the scale operator
(observer), is accurately recorded on the matrix of the
Scale. Carroll (Wainer & Messick, 1983:257) warns
against the injudicious use of the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient in order to compare degrees of
compatibility, especially if the degrees of variance do
not discriminate the data effectively, due to the
ambiguity of the scale itself.
Carroll (Wainer & Messick, 1983:257) terms this
phenomenon as 5cedastic variance, which he
defines as the variance around true probabilities in
a series of trials (data). Thus the degree of
comparison for any scale must be clear, concise and
easily recognizable.
If the scale operator attributes a value to any of the
options forming any part of the three categories
defined in the Kieck (1993) Motivation Measurement
Scale, according to Carroll (Wainer & Messick,
1983:257), the effect of topastic variance must also be
eliminated, which can simply be defined as the
arbitrary guessing by the Motivation Measurement Scale
operator, who simply attributes values in certain
categories which in his eyes are vague.
215
Therefore the variances mentioned above could
easily arise when correlating the scale operator's
results with those reflected by the pupils who answered
their questionnaires. If not accommodated, this
situation would produce misleading results in factor
analysis and its representative conclusions of what
occurs in the classroom within a motivational context.
According to Cronbach and Gleser (1972:1) there are
mountains of psychological and educational literature
pertaining to 'reliability' of measures built on the
foundation of Spearman's 1904 paper. In nearly all
this literature, the observed score is seen as the sum
of a 'true score' and a purely random 'error', the
error being looked on as a sample from a single
undifferentiated distribution.
The behavioural scientist, like other investigators,
can learn far more by allocating variation to facets,
than by carrying out a conventional reliability
analysis. The principle methods for multifacet
analysis of error were presented rather fully to
behavioural scientists and educational researchers in
the work of Lindquist (Cronbach & Gleser, 1972:2).
Cronbach and Gleser (1972:2) state that they know of no
instance where multifacet techniques were used to
organize statistical evidence in a test manual, and
only rarely have they appeared in publications on
ratings and observation procedures.
216
The tester's neglect of mulifacet analysis to date,
probably reflects the fact that the design of
experiments branched off as a specialty in itself, with
the consequence that advances in variance analysis were
not brought forcefully to the attention of students of
behavioural measurement.
Concurrently with the multifacet conception of
measuring operations, a tradition of multivariate
analysis has evolved. In factor analysis, multiple
correlation, profile interpretation, and a number of
other techniques, conclusions are reached through the
simultaneous consideration of diverse measures. Better
information on true score can be obtained by combining
a direct observation on that variable with observations
on variables correlated with it than can be obtained
from the direct observation alone.
Cronbach and Gleser (1972:5) state :
It is expected that behavioural
scientists will drift away from
their present concern with
coefficients, toward the
reporting and interpreting of
components of variance
and covariance.
217
They maintain that this drift will bring their thinking
more nearly in line with the theory of error used in
other sciences, where correlation coefficients play
little or no part.
Pertaining to the aspect of correlating the results
obtained by the Kieck (1993:121) Scale and
questionnaires which pupils filled in, Thorndike (1947)
(Cronbach & Gleser, 1972:6) lists a number of
criticisms of comparing and correlating these two
sources of data/information (that is, 'variance'), in
this case, pertaining to the extent of educator
motivational inducement. These five categories of
variance include :
Lasting and general. For example, level of
ability and general test-taking ability.
Lasting but specific. For example, knowledge or
ignorance regarding a particular item that
appears in one test form.
Temporary but general. For example, buoyancy or
fatigue reflected in performance on every test
given a particular time.
Temporary and specific. For example, a mental
set that affects success in dealing with a
particular set of items.
218
5. Other, particularly chance success in guessing.
Temporary-general characteristics are significant for
the investigator who is studying response to immediate
conditions, but they are 'errors' for the investigator
who wants to know the subject's typical level of
response. Thus an evaluator may wish to detect how
much an adolescent is motivated or aroused by the
particular kind of stimulation that a particular
educator provides (as in the Kieck (1993:121) Scale).
This evaluator is interested in the subject's temporary
state. But a guidance counselor wants to measure the
same adolescent's everyday, typical interest or degree
of motivation to his studies in general. He regards
temporary departure from the student's norm as a source
of error, since he is interested in a characteristic
that transcends the stimulation of the moment. A
split-half analysis treats the temporary variation as
consistent information; the heightened interest raises
scores on both halves of the measure. Therefore, from
the viewpoint of the guidance counselor, the
split-half index of agreement is falsely encouraging.
One could find that the same test belongs to more than
one set of parallel tests and therefore it has more
than one reliability coefficient.
219
To expand on the angle or 'type' of information
required from a particular test, as mentioned above,
Bieck (1993:121) incorporates both aspects
(temporary and general), as the scale operator not only
wishes to measure the direct motivational influence,
but also, as part of the phenomenological reality,
has to measure the residual presence of any
historical motivational influence, which reflects a
change from measuring external 'push' educator-induced
motivation, evolving into an internal 'drive'
motivation. Chiefly the scale has been designed to
focus on measuring the direct or temporary motivational
inducement of the classroom educator. This forms the
main thrust of the Motivation Measurement Scale/s.
The very nature of the measurement subject, namely
motivation in a classroom climate, requires the
observer to observe all the pupils simultaneously -
this is impossible, unless on video tape where more
observations are possible, but the observer is still
limited by the frame of the camera's view chosen by
the camera operator. He may focus on one aspect at the
cost of others which also reflect a representative
influence. This situation will always remain an
obstacle.
220
4.4. PERSPECTIVES QE TRAINING SCALE CONSTRUCTION
A Motivation Measurement Training Scale is necessary in
order to be able to report on the effectiveness of
teacher instruction (motivation-inducing) activities,
as well as to diagnose any deficiencies which, in turn,
serve as material/data (goals) for implementing
training programmes in order to improve productivity
or efficiency.
Based on the comprehensive work of Denova (1979:1-111),
various steps are required. An effective evaluation
plan covers three major areas:
The assessment of the change in behaviour by
those individuals exposed to the training
situation or activities.
An analysis of whether or not the training
activities further the attainment of the goal
and objectives of teaching (instruction/
transfer) skills or strategies in the classroom.
An evaluation of training personnel, methods and
materials.
221
In addition, a follow-up serves as a means of improving
future instruction and, generally, uncovers any need
for remedial training management, using the
evaluation information to ensure that the intentions
are actually realized and that the desired effects are
achieved.
4.4.1. PRINCIPLES IN DEVELOPING A MEASURING INSTRUMENT
Denova (1979:02) states :
When the evaluation is systematic,
it is more defensible. The
evaluation programme must measure
a broad range of objectives by a
variety of techniques.
The first consideration must be to determine the
purpose for which training activities are
evaluated. A second reason for evaluation is, to
validate and classify any guessing. That is to
prove the hypotheses which form an integral part of
the measurement scale. The third reason is to
determine if educators in the classroom possess, or
are further developing particular didactical skills
(motivation induction), which result in enhanced
and lasting pupil output.
222
Therefore the purpose of evaluating teacher
activities in the classroom includes : checking the
effectiveness of the educator, validating
assumptions pertaining to motivational influence
occurring in the classroom, to providing
information for curricular revision at training
institutions, whether at a tertiary level or as
part of an in-service training programme,
improving teaching performance by appraising the
results, and finally offering data to management
in order to build a sound teaching staff that
produces results in accordance with educational
goals.
Before an adequate evaluation can be attempted,
there must be an understanding and agreement on
what the objectives are of the activities to be
evaluated.
The sequence to be followed in an evaluation plan
involves : determining the objectives of the
measuring instrument, a statement of the criteria
that will be accepted as evidence that the stated
objectives are being met (the categories, aspects
and elements as described in chapter three);
investigation for the presence and extent of the
criteria mentioned above, and a physical measuring
scale or process to determine if the objectives
have been met.
223
Determining the objectives involves careful
consideration. Stating objectives is a difficult
and time-consuming task. Yet without determining
and clarifying objectives for the measuring
activity, valid evaluation is not possible.
Training objectives should include goals such as
the basic knowledge required, basic skill
reflecting that the knowledge is mastered and
incorporated correctly, economic efficiency of
effort in relation to other didactical skill to be
exercised, and effectiveness.
Pertaining to the aspects of criteria mentioned
earlier in this chapter, many statements of
objectives are written for which criteria must be
established to be used as evidence relating to
those objectives.
The criteria chosen must be defined in measurable
terms, incorporating the aspects and elements that
comprise the Motivation Measurement Scale. A
fundamental measure of adjustment (learning) is
imperative. Since learning consists of changing
behaviour, the amount of change must be determined.
This includes the 'frequency' element found in the
Kieck (1993) Motivation Measurement Scale.
224
Any adequate teacher education evaluation /
measurement strategy should include
characteristics such as : incorporating the
evaluation as a sub-component in relation to other
didactical skills o f the broad array of educational
objectives; the measurement scale must be developed
to maaauma all areas covered pertaining to present
objectives and goals; the evaluation must focus aa
change in the observed educator's behaviour;
the measurement should be continuous; the results
of the measuring scale should serve as content tam.
developing an .improved curriculum; all educators/
students should have access to the opportunity for
developing didactical skills further.
Within the framework of the proposed motivation
measurement scale which follows later in this
chapter, Woodruff (Denova, 1979:05) lists ten
istructional and learning outcomes that any scale
should reflect, namely:
Skills Knowledge Concepts Applications Activities Appreciation Attitudes Interests Adjustments Understanding/insights
225
An important component of an evaluation scale is
that it rests on values such as the values of the
educator, values of the pupils, educational values
of the Education Department and values of the
occupation/profession.
Tangible results such as skills and knowledge must
be reflected in the outcome after the application
of any measurement scale. In contrast to many
other objective measurement scales, the motivation
measurement scale must succeed in reducing abstract
concepts such as concepts, understanding,
applications, appreciation, attitudes, interests
and adjustments to empirical values in order to
obtain valid results. This aspect offers a
challenge to those who strive for the 'truth', as
many psychologists have stated that the measurement
of abstract social aspects of human behaviour
requires vast research.
The direct and indirect uses of any measurement
scale should be validated provided that the
scale is able to measure strengths and weaknesses,
indicate which topics (aspects) require attention,
measure which aspects are already being implemented
effectively, measure change, act as a stimulus for
further investigation, measure individual abilities
of the subject, stimulate division and channel
226
thinking, determine the knowledge (awareness level)
of the individual and measure progress.
4.4.2. MI VALUE Q1 THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The measurement scale should furnish the
instructors or educators with information
pertaining to how the predetermined objectives have
or have not been met, as both the instructor and
the trainee (educator undergoing motivation
inducement evaluation) live by these objectives.
The value of a test/measuring instrument, according
to Denova (1979:08) and slightly amended is
summarized in Table 4.1.
The instructor is able to determine whether the subject has acquired the desired attitudes, knowledge or abilities.
The measuring instrument is able to serve as a diagnostic tool for both trainer and trainee (student teacher/educator in the classroom).
The instructor is able to determine or compare the effectiveness of different teacher strategies.
The scale should identify those educators who are experiencing problems pertaining to the implementation/execution/application of a particular didactical skill.
The scale is able to consistently certify the competence level of a trainee.
Table 4.1. DENOVA'S (1979) VALUES OF A TESTING MECHANISM
227
Any educator who has undergone value assessment by
an efficient and valuable training scale, should
derive benefits that include information pertaining
to his progress, his areas of weakness, the
influence of the focus of the measured entity in
directing and organizing his effort in the
future, his application of fundamental principles
to various problem situations, assisting him to
distinguish between the relevant and irrelevant
incentive to motivate and improvement in the
output. Value assessment illustrates whether or not
he has attained the objectives of that test.
In summary, the evaluation of a teaching/training/
measuring instrument is an absolute prerequisite
for effective staff/trainee development. Therefore
evaluation is necessary in order to determine the
effectiveness of the didactical skills or methods
used in the classroom, the most effective use of
the particular didactical skill and the change in
educator behaviour.
A test is a measuring instrument. The designer of
a measuring instrument (scale) must know what can
be measured as well as what is to be measured. An
application test can be used to measure the ability
of the trainee to recall ideas, recognize responses
in an appropriate situation, and apply principles
to the solution of problems.
EVALUATING THE TRAINING STAFF
EUALUMUE ACTIU372ES
EVALUATING THE TRAINING PROGRAMME
EVALUATING THE
LEARNERS
7MAINING PLANNING
INFORMATION BREAKDOWN
LEA=NING OUTLINES
METHOD EVALUATION DESIGN OF
SCHEDULING TRAINING
228
Any measurement scale formulating a diagnostic
device which determines a rate of progress, should
form part of a sequence of training activities_
Denova (1979:15) summarizes this sequence of
training activities in Figure 4'.1.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEFICIENCIES IDENTIFIED
POTENTIAL
REQUIRED TRAINING
TASH/DATA ANALYSIS
REPORTING
RESULTS
ESTABLISH
TRAINING
OBJECTIVES
DOING
THE
TRAINING
n I ci-a car. zta = IN M (0) IF °IC IR cea E INI
0.0 ET (0) IR 1:0 31 51,3 ca 0
M R,5 13J C ± *3) 7 S
229
4.4.3. STEPS h. SCALE/ INSTRUMENT CONSTRUCTION
The composer must first determine the scope of the
scale. The scale should cover all the observable
elements of the didactical skill undergoing
evaluation. The composer must determine what la to
Jae. measured. This must include the objective and
all its sub-components that exert an observable
influence on teaching outcomes pertaining to the
particular didactical skill undergoing measurement.
Test items must then be selected where the composer
must include all items that could affect the
outcome. The measuring technique must be
established (usually the duration of a lesson).
The instructor should select only those items of
the scale which can be validated. The compiler
must then arrange or group similar items or themes
together. Clear and concise operation instructions
are to be compiled and conveyed to the instructor
applying the measuring instrument. Thereafter, a
scoring device must be attributed to the data and
finally the measurement scale designer must
validate the aspects included in the scale by
testing it, using the following questions:
* Does the scale cover all relevant
aspects pertaining to the subject
process undergoing measurement ?
230
Does the scale operator understand the
language and interpretations of the
terms used by the scale designer ?
Does the scale test skill or ability ?
Are there sufficient test components in
order to substantiate reliability ?
Is potential guessing by the evaluating
operator eliminated ?
Do all components enjoy equal weighting
or emphasis ?
Is each item worded in a clear and
unambiguous manner ?
It is important that any measurement scale is
simple, easy to operate and yet simultaneously
allows for a wide range of factors that exert an
influence on the measured outcome. For this reason
any measurement scale should be kept objective if
it is to be valid.
Any scale that is composed of valid components
when applied in a diagnostic manner should include
operation instructions which require it to:
231
Select Identify Recognize Indicate Differentiate Describe Match Calculate
4.4.4. OBJECTIVE Tana
In an objective test, the scoring procedure can be
completely stated before the administration of any
results commences. This will result in it being
scored objectively. In addition, although not
always easy, the operators's errors in personal
judgement are eliminated. The rules for scoring
should also be absolutely clear.
Objective tests have the following advantages :
they do not require a long deliberation by the
operator before he indicates or attributes a value;
they are easy to score/grade within a given amount
of time; they can cover a greater scope of the
subject than can any other test method. Objective
tests also possess certain disadvantages and are
criticized on account of the fact that they provide
no opportunity to determine how well individuals
can organize their thoughts; they do not measure
the subject's critical/creative abilities,
and do not give the trainees any opportunity to
express themselves in writing.
232
4.4.5. PREREQUISITES EaR VALID TEST ITEMS
Including effective test items is one of the
instructor's most difficult tasks. Not only is the
actual writing of test items difficult, but the
following vital aspects must be taken into account,
according to Denova (1979:21):
Item construction requires considerable
time and effort, demanding mastery of
the subject matter.
The designer/composer must possess
the skill to visualize the classroom
situations for use in defining those
relevant aspects which should be
measured.
The designer must be aware of the value
of each item that is included in the
measurement scale.
Items that pinpoint small differences
between levels of achievement of
trainees must be included.
233
* The designer is required to understand
the individuals (student teachers/
classroom educators) for whom the test
is intended and understand how
the specific activities of the training
can be evaluated. Possible factors
such as physical facilities,
temperature, humidity, lighting, time
allowed and the time of day, which have
an effect on test reliability, must be
considered.
* A knowledge of the various techniques
of test item writing of the scale
is required of the operator.
The composition of good test items is a difficult ,
creative task. It is important for the scale
designer to remember that, in themselves, rules
do not guarantee good test items. A technically
correct item and a grammatically correct item may
not include an important idea for measuring
anything worthwhile.
234
Regardless of the test item type, and to increase
the chances of success in composing good items, the
following principles of construction should be
followed, according to Denova (1979:22):
Each item must measure a concept that
is important for the student teacher
(classroom educator) to know,
understand and be able to apply.
Each item must be included in such a
manner that most observers (scale
operators) with competence pertaining
to the subject matter will agree on
the correct response or degree of value
in a graded scale.
Each item must be stated in the
language of the subject matter
objectives being measured.
The wording of each item must be
simple, direct, and free of ambiguity.
As a whole, the test items must
present a situation that demands
knowledge of the job or the subject
matter.
235
In summary, any good test is valid, reliable and
mechanically simple (user-friendly). If measuring
scales are to be used for grading trainees, they
must also be discriminating, comprehensive, as
objective as possible, and cover a range of
difficulty/complexity. The most important
characteristic is validity.
4.4.6. ASPECTS az PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
Denova (1979:83) identifies several problems which
must be kept in mind by the scale designer,
relative to creating behavioural objectives for
performance evaluation. These include :
Identifying the specific desired
behaviour of the trainee (student
teacher).
Specifying the statements that describe
how the desired behaviour is to be
demonstrated.
Describing the desired behaviour/
didactical skills in a sufficiently
precise manner so that
misinterpretation is avoided.
236
Specifying or describing the conditions
under which the terminal behaviour is
to be demonstrated.
Identifying the criteria to be met for
an acceptable level of performance.
Agreeing through independent
observation on the minimal level of
acceptable behaviour.
Performance measurement scales can be designed for
different types of training or learning such as
manual akilla which include activities/operations
consisting of writing, typing, drilling, riveting,
operating looms, use of machines, tools and use of
media in the classroom. Mental skills can also be
measured and include operations such as speed-
reading, human relations (co-operation and
courtesy), didactical classroom operations/skills,
malfunction analysis, problem identification and
social adaption which includes didactical
flexibility (Maarschalk, 1977:56).
The primary advantage of performance evaluation is
that it is one of the best means of improving
trainee/learner ability (skill), because failures
can be objectively observed and used as the basis
for further practice.
237
Performance measuring instruments identify the weak
areas that require more practice, and take advantage of
particular laws of learning which include :
The LAIL al. ReAdlagas - People learn
best when they are ready to learn.
The Law. at Exercise - The things that
are repeated most often are the ones
remembered best; they form the basis of
practice and drill.
The LAE of Effect - Learning is
strengthened when it is accompanied
by a pleasant and satisfying feeling;
learning is weakened when it is
associated with unpleasantness.
The Laa at Primacy - First impressions
are often strong and unshakeable; this
means the instructor (scale operator)
must be right first time.
The LAIL of Xntensitv - A vivid,
dramatic, or exciting learning
experience teaches more than a routine
or boring one.
238
Good performance measuring instruments/evaluations
should contain no secrets as to what is to be
checked or inspected. The trainees and the
instructor must be in agreement , on what is wanted,
what qualities are to be judged, rated, or
inspected, frequency of performance, and what
standards are being used. Diagnosis by the scale
operator should be frequent without long delays.
When problems occur, they must be addressed
immediately so as to prevent further difficulties.
If any critique is accompanied by an analysis of
the reasons why, the trainee is helped more
effectively and enduringly. Therefore trainees
(student teachers/classroom educators) can often
profit from suggested improvements to other
trainees. This process is beneficial only after
the instructor has developed a group of fast
learners who can assist the slower ones.
According to Denova (1979:91) the advantages of
performance testing/ measurement include the fact
that it is based on the psychological principle of
learning by doing. Performance and repetition
increase skills ('practice makes perfect'); skills
bring satisfaction (the law of effect); performance
measurement (testing) allows for dramatic and vivid
demonstration (the law of intensity); evaluation
becomes more interesting and therefore increases
239
motivation (the law of readiness); it allows
student teachers (classroom educators) to progress
at a measurable and realistic pace; learning is
likely to be rapid and lasting because of mental
motor skill practice.
Supervision of performance assists the student
teacher (trainee) in acquiring correct
procedures (the law of primacy); it provides
excellent feedback for the instructor/scale
operator to evaluate trainee learning and
effectiveness of the instruction.
On the other hand, there are certain disadvantages
of performance evaluation: it is time-consuming and
difficult to apply with large groups when
individuals cannot see or cannot perform under
close supervision.
In summary, training institutions/instructors
should keep in mind when constructing or designing
development performance measuring instruments that
they should always motivate the trainees to do,
ensure that 'practice makes perfect', keep
achievement standards progressive, make or evaluate
in a realistic environment (in the classroom),
apply and test the material (behaviour-didactical
skill) as taught, and make each step move to the
next.
240
Simply stated by Denova (1979:111):
Evaluation is a wide range of
activities undertaken to
determine the worth of something.
The evaluation procedure should
be based on an identification
and appraisal.
4.5. EER.BEECII/Ea TBALELEI auLa itauhauman
The value of a training/diagnostic measurement scale,
or management training grid, being employed to measure
the didactical educational situation is aptly expressed
by Van der Westhuizen (1986:121):
Die waarde van die bestuursruite is
dat die menswaardigheid van elke
persoon en die belangrikheid van
die feit dat take verrig moet word,
met mekaar in ewewig gestel word.
Di* blyk ook duidelik dat vir
doeltreffende bestuur, mense en take
in ewewig met mekaar is, , en sodoende
kan doeltreffende opvoedende onderwys
verseker word. It
241
He states that measurement scales emphasize the
multiple intertwining of the human element with that
of the task at hand.
Van der Westhuizen (1986:124) comments that any
educator in the classroom must develop a
socio-educational management, which adopts a unique
style (approach), including aspects of motivation,
where no single facet is to be overemphasized,
resulting in a 'balanced' transmission and management
of all the cognitive, social and didactical operations
which simultaneously occur in any classroom.
From the above, one can deduce that an educator
is also a manager (managing the pupil's didactical
environment) which implies that he is busy with a
complex and integrated operation involving pupils,
personnel and colleagues. Of particular importance is
the fact that any classroom educational management
process is not merely a one-sided operation focusing
on either the pupil, the educator, or the facilities,
but rather a dynamic 'balance' of these elements, hence
the education categories described in chapter three of
this study.
242
Effective classroom management or transmission of
lesson content is therefore both task and h man
orientated, as proposed by Blake and Mouton (1978:10).
The task (goal) must be clearly defined, while the
recipients (the pupils) must be motivated. This
implies that the educator must take into account his
colleagues, pupils, managerial tasks, didactical
operations, equipment, aims and goals, the
given situation, rules and regulations, norms and
values, and educational instruction (transmission);
that is, every relevant aspect must be accommodated in
his teaching/managerial operations in order to
motivate or raise the duration and quality of pupil
involvement and their subsequent results
(productivity-output).
4.5.1. APPLICATION az LE inmaanuaz muillaisa mamma
Based on the comprehensive work of Sergiovanni and
Starratt (1983:249-335) the view at present,
pertaining to classroom educator evaluation, has
meant the rating, grading and classifying of
educators using a standardized instrument as a
yardstick. The instrument generally lists certain
traits of teachers assumed to be important, and
certain tasks considered to be crucial. The
evaluator/scale operator usually writes in
comments, whereafter the educator replies and they
both sign the sheet and it is filed.
243
The evaluation instrument is filled out after a
classroom observation of the educator, often
lasting the duration of a lesson. The observation
visit (inspection) is usually preceded by a
conference, which varies from a brief encounter to
a session where lesson plans, objectives and
teaching strategies are discussed. On the odd
occasion, a post-observation conference follows
during which comments and ratings are discussed and
negotiated.
According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (1983:250)
the classroom is the castle of the educator as a
professional, and classroom supervision is viewed
as threatening to, or usurping of, his authority.
This argument is an attractive crutch for those
principals or supervisors who feel awkward or
uncomfortable in dealing with the educational
evaluation of teaching activity within any school.
Teaching behaviour becomes more predictable and
reliable as teaching objectives and materials
become more detailed, structured and standardized
(didactical operations). Educators can therefore
be controlled by the objectives they pursue, the
materials they use, the curriculum they follow, the
assignments and tests they give, and the schedule
they follow.
244
Too often, educators perceive the technology of
classroom evaluation in a shroud of scientism.
In most cases, they believe this is contrary to
their approach, which proposes that educating
children is far more an artistic, than a scientific
enterprise. Yet every year, the principal or a
superintendent of education goes through the
motions of grading educators in their classrooms,
creating a doubtful system of supervision and
evaluation.
Classroom supervision/measurement and evaluation is
important and is needed and desired by educators
and the public alike. But the typical response to
this pressure - tightening up a set of procedures
with ideological and technical shortcomings - needs
to be revised. If more artistic (creative) or
interactive approaches to educator supervision or
measurement were to be adopted, consistent with
the values of human resources supervision,
educators in the classroom would be far more
receptive and feel less threatened by an evaluator
sitting in the classroom. Present methods have
value, provided that they are viewed in a more
modest and intelligent manner, and are utilized in
a discriminating mode which the educator fully
supports and understands.
245
4.5.2. THE VALUE az autnaL CLASSROOM ANALYSIS
Most of the literature on supervision and textbooks
on evaluation tend to emphasize either the
organizational or behavioural aspects of general
supervision/evaluation. The strong emphasis that
one finds in educational literature pertaining to
classroom interaction between an educator and his
pupils, appears to be focused on general aspects
which form the context of operations, rather than
on more detailed and specific clinical analysis.
Cogan (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1983:251) defines
general supervision (analysis) as out-of-class
supervision and clinical anaftgaigiga (analysis) as
that which occurs in the classroom.
The purpose of clinical evaluation is first to
develop and explicate a system of in-class
supervision that, in competent hands, will prove
powerful enough to give supervisors a reasonable
hope of accomplishing significant improvements in
an educator's classroom instruction, and second to
help correct the neglect of in-class or clinical
supervision and to establish it as a necessary
complement to general supervision.
246
Clinical analysis refers to face-to-face contact
with educators with the intent of improving
instruction and increasing professional growth.
Evaluation is a natural part of any educator's
professional life and occurs continuously.
Evaluation is valuing, and valuing is judging.
These elements form critical components of any
clinical diagnostic supervision or staff
development programme. According to
Sergiovanni and Starratt (1983:252), evaluation can
be formative which emphasizes on-going growth and
development, or annmatlya„ which has a certain
finality to it in which a statement of worth or a
judgement is made about the quality of an
educator's teaching.
Although summative evaluation is a legitimate and
important process in the larger picture of the
'whole' school, formative evaluation is intended to
increase the effectivness of on-going educational
programmes and didactical activity. Therefore
evaluation information is collected and used to
understand, correct and improve on-going activity,
which implies that clinical supervision/evaluation
should be formative evaluation.
247
A formative evaluation emphasis is entirely
consistent with holding educators accountable for
their didactical operations in the classroom.
Professional accountability is growth-orientate-d
and implies a commitment to consistent improvement.
Occupational accountability is not growth-
orientated, but merely seeks to meet some
predetermined standard.
Practically speaking, if one was interested in
improving classroom instruction, one must start
with the teacher. Sustained changes in educator
behaviour and sustained improvements in classroom
functioning occur as a result of educators who are
committed to these changes. That being the case,
supervisors are forced to depend upon the willing
co-operation of educators. Thus the evaluator does
not change the educator, but merely assists him to
change, a condition more suited to formative
evaluation. Finally, the critical nature of staff
development needs in our rapidly evolving world
within the context of an information explosion,
dictates that if a school wishes to remain
competitive, it would be well-advised to adopt a
formatively orientated system of clinical
supervision.
248
4.5.3. alALE DEVELOPMENT IN -SERVICE EDUCATION
Though in-service education of educators has a long
history, present practices, according to
Sergiovanni and Starratt (1983:327), have numerous
shortcomings and have not been met with enthusiasm
by educators, the reason being that evaluation
programmes / procedures are often too formal and
bureaucratic.
Staff development according to Sergiovanni and
Starratt (1983:252), is defined as a growth-
orientated in-service activity in which any facet
of an educator's didactical operations that reveal
any eficiency, is corrected by implementing a set
of appropriate ideas, skills and methods. Staff
development does not assume a deficiency in an
educator, but rather assumes a need for people at
work to grow and develop on the job. Rather than
reduce the range of alternatives, staff development
works to increase the range.
Educator growth is less a function of polishing
existing teaching skills or keeping up with the
latest teaching developments and more a function of
an educator's changing as a person - of seeing or
developing his attitudes towards himself, the
school, the curriculum, and the pupils .
249
Therefore the distinction that Sergiovanni and
Starratt (1983:328) make between an in-service
education and staff development orientation is a
conceptual one designed to help supervisors/
evaluators gauge their own thinking and monitor
their own activities with better balance in the
hope that they might be more responsive to educator
needs. The in-service orientation is necessary at
times and seems best matched to formal intervention
strategies. The staff-development orientation
should receive major focus and seems best matched
to informal intervention strategies.
4.5.4. CHARACTERISTICS az EFFECTIVE STAFF-DEVELOPMENT
UMIlAtihR5.
According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (1983:335),
commenting on results derived from the Florida
State Department of Education pertaining to
staff-development programmes, a number of
characteristics came to light. These included the
situation where a greater degree of success was
attained in school-based programmes in which
educators participated as helpers to each other and
planners of in-service activities than in
programmes that relied on external personnel
without the assistance of the educators.
250
In-service education programmes that offered
different training experiences for individual
educators were more likely to accomplish their
objectives than programmes that offered
common/universal activities for all participants.
In-service training programmes that placed
educators in an active role were more successful
than programmes that placed educators in a
receptive role. In-service education programmes in
which educators shared and provided mutual
assistance to each other were more likely to
accomplish their objectives than those programmes
in which educators did separate work.
Educators were more likely to benefit from
in-service programmes in which they chose their own
goals and activities as contrasted with those
programmes in which goals and activities were
predetermined.
Therefore, in conclusion, pertaining to the ideas
expressed above, the importance given to educator
involvement in planning, differentiated experiences
for different educators, active roles, using ideas,
materials, and behaviour found in the actual
teaching situation, shows that educators derived
far more and thus were able to offer that much
more, to the benefit of increased didactical skills
made available to their pupils.
251
4.6. ARRANGEMENT OF MOTIVATION SCALE CATEGORIES
Using the Kieck (1993:121) Motivation Measurement
Scale (described in chapter three of this study) as
a foundation, two additional proposed Motivational
Measurement Scale arrangements (matrixes) are set
out in Motivation Measurement Scales Al - A3 which
follow in the appendix, represented by Scales A.1.
(original 1993 Scale), A.2.and A.3. (new arrangements).
Once the ease-of-use factors, represented in
different arrangements (layouts) of the various
categories of the education situation, have been
determined, used, and compared to one another, and
to the original Motivation Measurement Scale, the
effect of these arrangements can be statistically
verified (chapter five).
Thus the most efficient (easy-to-use) and valid
scale can then be chosen, which best fits the goal
of this study, namely designing a Motivation
Measurement Scale which accurately reflects the
types, modes and varying degrees of 'affectual'
influence (degree of motivation) of the educator on the
pupils who sit before him, within a 'behaviourist'
ideology. (See Scales Al - A3 in the appendix.)
252
4.7. SUMMARY
In summary, the proposed Scales Al to A3, representing
classroom motivational measurement, are attempting to
measure didactical operations which have their
foundations on two different levels, as defined by the
Getzels-Guba Model (Lipham & Hoeh, 1974:53-56), which
proposes that within any institution (classroom), there
is a dynamic interaction between two components of the
work situation, namely: the formal organizational
educational structure responsible for determining the
role that a pupil fulfils in order to attain the
predetermined goals set out by the education
department, and secondly, the factor of the individual
himself within the organization (classroom/school), who
possesses a certain unique personality, which is
inextricably linked to his ideals, emotions and
personal needs. These two factors interact as
displayed in Figure 4.2.
FORMAL ST UCTURE
(SCHOOL EXIUCATOR - ma=
INSTITUTION --I> ROLE LIPECTATIONS
SOCIAL
SYSTE1
OBSERVED
BEHAVIOUR
1> INDIVIDUAL --I> PERSONALITY NEEDS -J
PERSONAL LEUEL
(IDEOGRAPHIC DIPENSION - PUPIL)
FIGURE 4.2. GETZELS-GUBA MODEL OF LEVELS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN THE CLASSROOM
Chapter 5
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
5.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the statistical analysis of the results
obtained by the implementation of various motivation measurement
'instruments, in order to determine the best alternative as
proposed by the Motivation Measurement Scales Al to A3 described
in the previous chapter. This chapter also focuses on
comparative analysis of various measuring instruments,
in order to validate a new proposed motivation measurement scale.
5.2. PERSPECTIVES ON THE ANALYSIS OF ASSIMILATED DATA
The dual purpose of this chapter is first to determine which
arrangement option of the motivation measurement scales proposed
in chapter four (Scales Al, A2 or A3) best serves the
prerequisites of an efficient, accurate and user-friendly scale,
and second, to validate this option, by comparing it with
existing motivation measurement scales, measurement scales
at a similar nature.
254
5.2.1. Arrangement at the proposed Motivatio• Measurement
Instrument
The first step in determining which motivation measurement
scale best serves the purpose of this study, was to
compare the various proposed scale arrangements against
existing data, as compiled from video tapes with the
application of Scales Al, A2 and A3 as set out in
the appendix.
Using the results of a pupil questionnaire as a yardstick,
the three motivation measurement scale options were given
to twenty first time evaluators, who then implemented
them. The following results came to light :
5.2.1.1. The user-friendly scale proved to be
Scale A2 (See appendix).
5.2.1.2. Based on the overwhelming support by the
evaluators for Scale A2, it was decided to
adopt this arrangement as the motivation
measurement scale.
5.2.1.3. The motivation measurement scale arrangement, as
depicted in Scale A3 (See appendix), proved
to be cumbersome for the twenty evaluators to
implement when trying to keep track of a lesson.
255
5.2.1.4. When comparing Scale A2 to Al (the original
scale implemented in the Kieck 1993 study),
the Spearman correlation co-efficient revealed
an 89% correlation in the results between the
two, thus validating Scale A2 as an accurate
motivation measuring instrument, with regard to
the setting out or arrangement of the categories
on paper.
5.2.2. Comparison of Motivation Measurement instruments
This section of statistical analysis involved the
comparison of Motivation Measurement Scale A2 with
a number of other instruments which also measured pupil
motivation, or similar behaviour.
These scales/instruments were placed into two
distinct categories, namely : Direct measurement
instruments ' which measured the motivational climate
directly by attributing values to observed behaviour or
responses as they appeared on a video tape of the lesson,
and 'indirect measurement instruments ' which ascertained
the pupils' motivational climate in the classroom by
analysing questionnaires filled in by the pupils at the
conclusion of each lesson.
5.2.2.1. DIRECT MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
256
This category includes the Meerkotter (1980:90)
Measuring Instrument which measures content-based
pupil motivation and learner enthusiasm ; the
Maarschalk (1977:62) Heurostentic ' Measuring
Instrument and Motivation Measuring Scale A2
proposed in this study.
5.2.2.1.1. THE MEERKOTTER (1980) INTRINSIC MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The Meerkotter (1980) Measuring Instrument
divides the moments of classroom interaction
between the teacher and his pupils
into two specific categories, namely : Teacher
Actions and Pupil Responses. The format of the
scale is depicted in Scale A4 (See appendix).
The scale was implemented by observing video
tapes of seven different lessons, which
measured the motivational climate of 153 pupils,
where observers coded the lessons, classifying
the various episodes into various category
combinations within the framework of Scale A4, by
indicating the scores on a simple sequential
coding sheet (See Scale A4 and Figure Al in the
appendix).
257
It is important to note that for the purpose of
this study, the episodes, as they occurred
between the teacher and the pupils, were each
accorded an increasing hierarchical value
according to the categories described by
Meerkotter (1980:90) in Scale A4.
The Meerkotter (1980) Coding Sheet comprises
a format of a number of simple chronological
episodes each recording a didactical episode as
classified in Scale A4 (See Figure Al).
5.2.2.1.2. THE MAARSCHALK (1977) HEURISTIC INTERACTION ANALYSIS MEASURING INSTRUMENT
This measuring instrument measures the
fluctuations that occur within a teacher's
teaching strategies from a 'heurostentic'
perspective, where heurostentic measurement
as defined by Maarschalk (1977) measures the
style that a teacher uses to bridge
the gap between a pupil's ignorance and him
successfully mastering the syllabus content .
258
Heuristic endeavour, as reflected in a teacher's
teaching style, ranges within a spectrum where
on the one pole, the teacher supplies all the
content for a pupil to master, known as the
'ostensive' approach, and on the opposite
pole, a 'heuristic'approach, where the teacher
'cognitively manipulates' the pupil to 'discover'
or assists in bridging the 'gaps' ('soekontwerp')
in his knowledge.
The Maarschalk (1977) scale was also implemented
by observing video tapes of seven different
lessons, where observers coded them, classifying
the various episodes into one of eight different
categories as reflected in Scale A5 in the
appendix.
The Maarschalk Heurostentic Measurement Scale was
implemented once again, by observing video
tapes of seven different lessons, which measured
the motivational climate of 153 pupils, where
evaluators coded the lessons, classifying the
various didactical episodes into the nominated
categories of Scale A5, by indicating the scores
on a simple sequential coding sheet (See Figure
A2 in the appendix).
259
The Maarschalk Coding Sheet comprises
a format of a number of simple chronological
episodes each recording a didactical episode as
classified in Scale A5 (See Figure A2).
5.2.2.1.3. PROPOSED MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCALE
This scale also made use of comparing the
motivation) climate reflected in a pupil
questionnaire given to 153 pupils who
comprised the pupil body of the seven lessons
recorded on video tape (See Scale A2 in the
appendix).
5.2.3. Tim= MEASURING XNSTRUMENTS
Two instruments were included in this category of
measuring devices. The first instrument was the
Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II Motivational Strategy
Measurement Scale and the second, a Pupil Questionnaire.
5.2.3.1. T.H. mum (1995) LEMOSS IL MOTIVATIONALL
STRATEGY MEASUREMENT SCALE
Goosen (1995:69) evolved the Cognitive Learning and
Motivational Strategy Measuring Instrument from
a similar instrument devised by Geer (1993:131).
260
Two particular portions of the measuring instrument
have a strong bearing on the focus of the proposed
motivation measurement scale (See Scale A6 and
Figure A3 - Questions 18,19,20,21,39,40,41 and 42). The
first portion consists of the intrinsic motivation
measuring component, represented by questions 18,19,
39 and 40 , while the second extrinsic motivation
measuring component is represented by questions 20,21,
41 and 42. It is these two aspects of the Goosen (1995)
measuring instrument that are to be compared with the
other measuring devices (See Scale A6).
This scale was implemented after each lesson, where the
pupils in the class indicated their choices on the
Goosen (1995) LEMOSS questionnaire answer sheet
(See Figure A3).
Pupil scores were calculated and the scores reflected
on a score sheet (See Figure A4).
5.2.3.2 PUPIL QUESTIONNAIRE
This measuring instrument, used in the
Kieck (1993) study, served as the basis of
comparison for all the motivation measuring
instruments, as it indirectly (after analysis)
reveals the 'true' feelings (motivation) of
the pupils, pertaining to the various strategies
and operations employed by the teacher in the
classroom (See Scale A7 in the appendix).
261
5.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF ASSIMILATED DATA / RESULTS
Figure A5 summarizes the results obtained by applying the various
measuring instruments to each of seven different lessons
involving 153 pupils.
Using Figure A5 as a source of comparison for the various
options of motivation measurement in the classroom, the following
Pearson correlation co-efficient patterns come to light :
5.3.1. Goosen (1995) Intrinsic Section kEhQaa II Scale and
Meerkotter (1980) Intrinsic Motivation Measurement
Scale
Comparison of these two motivation measuring
instruments revealed a 60 % correlation factor,
suggesting, as with 5.3.7. which follows, that although
they both measure pupil motivation, extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation are two opposite poles on the
motivation spectrum, where successful extrinsic teacher
motivation evolves, orris translated by the teacher, into
an intrinsic motivation within each pupil. This, then,
serves as a proposal to explain the differences in the
results obtained.
5.3.2. Scale L.- Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale
and Goosen (1995) kmaaa II Scale (Extrinsic Section)
262
The Pearson correlation co-efficient revealed a 94 %
correlation between the Extrinsic Motivation Element
and the proposed Scale A2, which suggests that it is a
valid motivation measuring instrument.
5.3.3. Scale 2 - Proposed Motivation Measusrement Scale
nd Goosen (1995) kEdaaa IL Scale (Intrinsic
Section)
The Pearson correlation co-efficient revealed a 94 %
correlation between the Intrinsic Motivation Element
and proposed Scale A2, which suggests that it is a valid
motivation measuring instrument.
5.3.4. Scale AZ - Proposed Motivation Keasasmenent Scale
aad taamaahalk (1977) Meurostentic Scale
The Pearson correlation co-efficient revealed a 63 %
correlation between Scale A2 and the Maarschalk (1977)
Scale. Although this is a low correlation, Scale A2 does
not need to be rejected. The link between the two
scales arises due to the fact that the higher the
'heuristic' element, the higher the degree of intrinsic
motivation within a pupil, as he must possess a certain
degree of intrinsic motivation in order to work
independently, in order to attain a personal goal,
whether it be a short-term, or long - term one.
263
Scale A2 measures the degree of extrinsic motivation
initiated by the teacher, which does not necessarily
measure the degree of 'heuristic' endeavour or
direct intrinsic motivation revealed by work or
independent cognitive activity. This situation
is again repeated in the following comparison.
5.3.5. Goosen (1995) LEMOSS IL Scale (extrinsic) and Maarschalk (1977) Heurostentic Scale
The Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II Scale and the
Maarschalk (1977) Scale, also reveal a relatively small
degree of similarity when compared with one another. For
the same reason as with point 5.3.4. above, neither the
Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II, nor Scale A2, should be rejected.
The relative degree of similarity, in the case of the
Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II and Scale A2, being compared to
the Maarschalk (1977) Heurostentic Scale, should in fact
serve to validate both scales independently.
5.3.6. Scale AZ - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale
and Meerkotter (1980) Intrinsic Motivation
Measurement Scale
This comparison, using the Pearson correlation
co-efficient, revealed a 64 % correlation factor, once
again confirming a difference when measuring intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, where Scale A2 measured
extrinsic motivation and the Meerkotter Scale measured
intrinsic motivation.
264
5.3.7. Pupil Questionnaire - Scale AZ - Proposed Motivation Measurement Scale
Applying the Pearson correlation co-efficient between
these two scales, an 80 % correlation was obtained,
which suggests that the proposed motivation measurement
scale, Scale A2, is a valid scale to measure the degree
to which a teacher is able to extrinsically motivate his
pupils, as expressed by the pupils themselves.
Irrespective of which of the above scales are compared
with each other, even though they might indicate a high
degree of correlation, if they fail to reflect pupil
motivation extrinsically derived from the teacher they
would be irrelevant in supporting the aims of this
investigation.
The 'acid test', then, remains the degree to which the
teacher is able to extrinsically motivate pupils in the
classroom, which later translates into a more permanent
mind-set, consisting of an operational intrinsic
motivation evolving within each individual pupil.
The argument or debate around the calibration of the various
motivation measurement instruments could continue at length.
265
No matter which motivation measuring scale is subscribed to, on
close analysis of Graph 5.1. (See Graph 5.1.), it becomes
apparent, barring one or two exceptions, that the various
measuring instruments, irrespective of their calibration, show
similar patterns pertaining to the graphic representation of
- amplitude and slope of each measuring device. This suggests that
each of the measuring instruments, to a greater or lesser degree,
follow a 'validity pattern', amongst these, proposed Scale A2.
Bic Afr
KEY :
Maths Bic Accnts Science TecIll Dr
LESSONS 1 - 7
MOTIVATION MEASURING SCALES 181
96 —
91 —
86 —
81 —
76 —
71.— *
66 —
61 —
56 —
51 —
46 —
41 —
36 — ,?‘ /1"/-
31 —
26 —
21 —
16 —
11 —
266
Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II (Intrinsic) Goosen (1995) LEMOSS II (Extrinsic) Pupil (1993) Questionnaire Scale A2 (Proposed) Meerkotter (1980) Intrinsic Motivation DI
Measurement Scale Maarschalk (,1985) Heurostentic Scale
RAPH 5.1. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
5.4. SUMMARY
The results obtained in this chapter indicate that the
arrangement of the various categories of a motivation
.measuring instrument on paper exerts a profound influence on the
ease-of-use and thus indirectly on its accuracy.
From the results, Scale A2, with its circular patterned
arrangement of hierarchical options, depicting the frequency of
various teacher or pupil operations, best accommodates the
efficient and timeous point allocation for the scale operator.
No arrangement of the categories of the motivation measuring
instrument/scale on paper, could ever be free of disadvantages.
It is therefore concluded that the motivation measuring scale
arrangement which proved to be the easiest to operate, would
supply the most accurate information, due to the fact that less
didactical episodes would be inadvertently excluded by the
operator, who is busy with numerous simultaneous activities
during scale application.
The proposed scale, namely Scale A2, when compared to
established motivation measuring instruments, reveales that
within a broad band, it is a valid motivation measuring device,
provided that it is used to measure extrinsic, 'behavioural'
teacher operations, within the context of any classroom or
didactical environment.
267
268
Chapter six draws conclusions from the results obtained
in this chapter, while placing the results in the context of the
theme of motivation measurement as a whole.
Chapter 6
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
6.1. SUMMARY
Human motivation, which forms the foundation
of the manner in which children think, feel, dream,
behave, learn and socially interact with those
around them, is a very complex phenomenon. It
consists of continually evolving multi-dimensional
variables, which operate to form the 'Gestalt' of
one's behaviour at any given moment. It is within
this framework that a motivation measuring
instrument must measure and record those aspects
which influence motivation in the didactical
environment.
It is therefore imperative that an educator be
knowledgeable of which forces to implement or
manipulate while imparting a syllabus content, in
order to create a suitable motivational didactical
climate that extends beyond the classroom, to
become an 'inherent' element in determining pupil
behaviour within a permanent context, that
permeates all aspects of his psychological or
emotional make-up.
270
Human motivation is thus a complex entity.
The results of this study reveal that human
motivation can never be comprehensively
quantified.
Psychological foundations which form the platform
on which motivation theories are based, should not
be viewed in a polarized manner, but rather as a
continuum which has two ends. That is, where lower
hierarchical factors on an 'extrinsic' or
'behaviourist' level employed by a teacher,
initiate the pupil to advance or 'mature'
towards a higher level of cognitive and emotional
self-confidence, where he becomes enthusiastically
motivated via 'intrinsic' forces, to reach a
conscious goal in order to attain his personal
selfactualization. It therefore remains the
educator's didactical responsibility to utilize
motivational principles in accordance with the
'motivation maturity' of each target group
concerned.
271
The proposed scale has as one of its main
objectives, the task of drawing the educator's
attention to how he/she is coming across to his/her
pupils in the classroom, in order that he/she be
made aware of which elements within his/her
teaching strategy affect the emotional climate and
thus the motivation of the majority of his/her
pupils.
An educator can only adjust specific elements or
aspects of his teaching strategy if he is aware of
their existence as well as the extent of their
influence. The proposed motivation measuring
instrument attempts to identify or reduce an
abstract phenomenon to an empirical quantity to
which a measured value is attributed. This in turn
enables the educator being measured to receive
empirical information which taxinomically defines
the range of influence or effect of the various
elements within his teaching strategy from a
motivational or emotive perspective.
The proposed motivation measuring instrument has
been successful to a degree in drawing the
teacher's attention to the various motivational
aspects which form an inherent part of his teaching
strategy.
272
By its very nature, the motivation measuring scale
measures human behaviour on a wide front and is
therefore not an easy scale to operate.
Various arrangements of identical elements of the
motivation measuring scale categories had a
profound effect upon the focus and attention of
the scale operator. It therefore became
apparent that none of the proposed scale
arrangements were devoid of problems. The
resultant categorial arrangement of the motivation
measuring scale represents that arrangement which
is the most comfortable to operate in terms of its
layout, ease-of-use, element and aspect location
and arrangement of the degrees of frequency,
measuring the multi-dimensional motivational
aspects of any lesson.
The categorial design of the motivation measuring
instrument assists in maintaining a wide or
comprehensive focus on the teacher and
environmental categories as well as their influence
on the didactical motivational climate of the
pupil.
273
Each individual category of the motivation
measuring instrument only reveals limited
information about the didactical motivational
climate. The success of the scale only becomes
apparent once all three categories (teacher, child
and environment) are placed into context in
relation to one another. This information in turn
produces a summative value of all motivational
activities in operation within the didactical
environment as the child perceives it.
6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
Due to the complex nature of the multi-dimensional
variables which exert an influence on human
motivation, it is important to recognize that no
measuring instrument at present, could ever
comprehensively attempt to measure human
motivation in its entirety. The design of any
motivation measuring device is dependent on its
architect's perceptions and definitions of the
didactical environment. The results obtained when
using the proposed motivation measurement scale,
therefore, should be viewed within a behaviourist
perspective.
274
The proposed scale should not be employed to
measure intrinsic motivation in a direct manner,
although it does so indirectly, as an unavoidable
element of the psychological-historical reality,
which forms part of every didactical situation.
Intensive focus is required on evaluating
behaviourist principles in a didactical context.
From current literature available, too many
didactical operations or forces are left to the
intrinsic motivational merit of the syllabus
content.
This in turn has the result of intimidating a
sizeable percentage of the pupils sitting in the
classroom, who are not yet at a stage of
"motivational maturity",capable of realizing their
full potential.
In support of the previous paragraph, established
entrenched definitions of the educational
situation limit the possible effect of employing
behaviourist principles within the didactical
situation, as they are not accommodated in many
definitions of the educational situation.
275
More educators should challenge these traditional
points of view, in order for new ideas to transcend
outdated and inadequate doctrines of how to manage
the didactical environment of the pupil.
When using the proposed motivation measuring
instrument, it is advised that caution be exercised
by the scale operator, not to allow personal,
unconscious, subjective or historical factors to
warp his perceptions of the didactical situation.
He must therefore divorce any preconceived values
from his task at hand, in order to record an
accurate, unbiased result.
It is imperative within the dynamic multi-
dimensional arena of forces which influence
motivation in the classroom, that the external
didactical environment within the direct control of
the teacher, be kept as constant or stable as
possible, if statistically reliable results are to
be obtained. For example, from results obtained in
this study, a mere changing of seating arrangements
in a classroom exercises a profound effect on the
results.
276
Educationalists in the classroom at primary and
secondary school level should be exposed to
various didactical measuring instruments on a more
frequent basis. Educators expressed a resounding
enthusiasm for the proposed motivation measuring
scale once they were able to compare the
motivation scale results to their personal,
perceived influence.
Student teachers at tertiary level should be
trained to place a greater emphasis on didactical
motivational aspects, when researching and planning
a lesson, and to include a deliberate strategy when
implementing all the phases of a lesson.
An established motivation measurement norm, of both
an extrinsic or intrinsic nature, should be
established as a benchmark to which further
developments in'this area could be compared.
Should a motivation measurement norm be developed,
it could be the necessary key to unlock many
behaviourist models which explain how to manipulate
behaviour in the classroom.
277
At present, due to the uneven support by
educationalists in South Africa for the
intrinsic motivational measurement approach, there
is a great opportunity for further research in the
operational, behaviourist idiom, with the goal to
determine which aspects, if manipulated by the
teacher, accelerate the child's motivational
development towards an intrinsic mode of
selfactualization, within the didactical
environment.
6.3. CONCLUSIONS
Irrespective of the particular psychological
didactical stance adopted by an educator, he must
subscribe to certain key elements in his
professional conduct if his aim is to educate
the child. Therefore the mechanism and didactical
skills as well as the manner in which they are
implemented form a 'hidden curriculum' in which
they operate. It is within this context that
Willer (1979:51) states :
Vaardighede behels daardie
gedrag wat nie uitsluitlik
op kennis berus niel maar wat
sekere outomatisering besit
wat deb,- inoefening aangeleer
kan word. 4 4
278
The motivation measurement scale has been
successful in focusing on a 'direct' behaviourist
motivation measuring device to make educators aware
of the emotive influence that they exert in the
classroom and beyond. The science of diagnosing
and empirically quantifying the didactical
motivational state of pupils in the classroom,
requires further investigation, in particular
with regard to monitoring the transitional
emotive-cognitive evolution within an individual as
he matures towards an increased self-driven
'intrinsic' (content-based) motivational state.
6.4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Questions surrounding the valid existence of the
proposed motivation measurement scale to measure
classroom motivation, as with any didactical
entity, are -placed into perspective by
Miiller (1979:52) who states :
Houdings dui op relatief kon9* ,Rn*e
gedrag op die emosioneel-affektiewe
vial, waardeur die mens hom negatief,
pos.itief of neutraal stet teenoor
persone (self of ander), voorwerpe,
situasies en aktiwiteite.
279
Thus it is theoretically possible to
comprehensively accommodate an attitude or state of
- motivation, as described above, using the
categories, elements and aspects of the propose -d
motivation measuring scale. Whether it is
practically possible to implement theory as a
valid, reliable consistent and user-friendly
device, which accommodates a wide variety of
didactical environments, requires further
investigation, despite the valid results obtained
from the motivation measurement scale proposed in
this study.
Mc Greal (1983:149) is of the opinion that there is
no area in education that has more potential impact
on the improvement of instruction and hence on the
improvement in schools than a successful teacher
supervision or evaluation programme. The
procedures described in this study could offer
schools and training institutions a relatively
inexpensive way to work towards improving the
manner in which pupils are motivated to produce
better results.
280
It is therefore hoped that the correct
implementation of this training instrument
could in some small way eliminate the lack of
teacher-initiated motivation within a behaviourist
context, in the didactical situation.
The sentiment expressed by Jackson (Walker &
Adelman, 1975:37) best sums up the philosophical
approach of this study :
Almost as important as observation
per se is the requirement of
keeping an open mind about what
we see. Our way of looking at
classrooms should not be unnecessarily
restricted by prior assumptions about
what should be going on there, nor
even .... by the seemingly logical
link between the abstract processes
of teaching and learning. In short,
we must be prepared and willing to
give up many of our comfortable beliefs
about what classroom life is all about.
281
In conclusion, educators who manipulate the
- didactical motivational environment of the pupil
should remember the following quotation by Francis
(Bits & Pieces, 1993:3) :
You can buy people's time; you can buy
their physical presence at a given place;
you can even buy a measured number of their
skilled muscular motions per hour. But you
cannot buy enthusiasm...you cannot buy
loyalty... you cannot buy the devotion of
hearts, minds, or souls. You must earn
these.
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APPEMD X
290
MOTXUATION ME n UREMENT SCALE R.
(E TO USE OF THE FXUE-POINT SC AL E
i 2 3 4 5
HEUER ONLY ONCE OR
TWICE
HMV NUM & THEM
MOST OF THE TIME
ALL OF THE
TIME
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MOTXUATION MEASCREMENT SCALE Pan
XE TO USE OF THE F UE-POINT SCALE
i 2 3 4 5
NEVER ONLY ONCE OR
THICE
SE RV NM & THEN
MOST OF THE TIME
ALL OF THE
TIME
UER POOR
POOR GOOD UER GOOD
EXCELLENT
NONE UERY LITTLE SOME SUB° STANTIAL
COMPLETELY
296
MAC CONTENT
HER A SMIISS8ON TR
A EXCITING
A ENTERTAINING
A VARIED
B MONOTONOUS
TOTAL / 19
T HACHER ILE3 PURL A TENTllON & TEACHER HAOTS
B LOSES PUPILS' ATTENrio
B FAILS TO GAIN ATT- ENTION
A REINFORCING HABBI
A AMUSING HABITS
TOTAL / 16
A HOLDS PUPILS ATTEIV(3 - ' :
A GAINS PUPILS ATTENTION
B IRRITATING HABITS
B DESTRUCTIVE HABITS
A NEAT/TIDY A REINFORCES VERBA
B SLOPPY/SHABBY B INCONGRUENT- • TO VERBAL
297--
T ,ACHER PERSONALTY .& BEHAV11OUR
A EMPATHETIC A WARM
A SYMPATHETIC
A SELFDISOPLINED
B IRRITABLE
B ANXIOUS
B DISTANT
A FRIENDLY
A CALM .
B LAX
B AGGRESSIVE
B COLD
TOTAL / 24
APPS
TEACHER 2 R NCE & BODY MOVE A
A ASSURED/CONFIDENT A QUICK/ASSERTIVE
B SLOW B HESITANT
TOTAL / 16
298
TL-ACHER3 BODY .ANGUAGE
A SUPPORTS VERBAL
A USE OF HANDS
A GOOD POSTURE
B FACES BOARD
B FOLDED ARMS
A FACES CLASS
A MOVEMENT
B SITS BEHIND DESK
B STATIC-ONE PLACE
TOTAL / 21
TACHER4 TEACHER COMMENTS
A CONTEXTUAL A ENCOURAGING
A STRUCTURAL 3 A EMPATHETIC
B SARCASTIC B INSULTING
B PERSONAL B NON CONTEXTUAL
TOTAL / 16
299
1-iACHER & VIISUA. FOCUS
A PROJECTION
A VOLUME VARIATION
A TONE VARIATION
B VERY SOFT
B NO PROJECTION
A PLEASING TONE
A LOUD/AUDIBLE
A PANCtRAMICVIEW
B LOOKS AT ONE PUPIL
TOTAL / 27
T ikCHER TEACHER *UEST11ONS
A CHALLENGING
A CONTEXTUAL
A COG-STIMULATING
A QUESTION GROUP
A QUESTION INDIVIDUAL
A INVITING
A PROMPTS REGULARLY
A ASKS REGULARLY
B NON-CONTEXTUAL
B PROMPTS LITTLE
B ASKS FEW QUESTIONS
TOTAL / 37
A PROMPTLY ANSWERED
B ANSWERS INCORRECTLY
B FORGETS QUESTION
300.
TEACH1-R7 TEACHER REAC ION TO PURL QUM fi KONS
A CONFIRMS ANSWER
B DELAYS ANSWERING
B IGNORES QUESTION
TOTAL / 08
THACHER8 TEACHER EVALUATING PUPILS
A CONSISTENT
A DRILL A REGULAR
B IRREGULAR A REPETITION
B INCONSISTENT
TEACHER TOTAL : aoo TOTAL / 18
tn PUPL QUES IONS & ANSWERS
A ASK AGAIN B DO NOT ASK
B ASK HESITANTLY
A SPONTANEOUS ANS
A GROUP ANSWERS
A BOLD ANSWERS
A ASK REGULARLY
BTIMID ANSWERS
B RELUCTANT ANSWER
A COMPETITIVE ANSWERS
TOTAL / 31
CH LD2 PARTOP T1ON & RESPONSES
A BOLD
B LETHARGIC
A CONFIDENT
A IMMEDIATE
B COAXED
B NO RESPONSE
B DELAYED RESPONSE
B SHY
A SPONTANEOUS
B CARRY OUT 1/2 VW/
B DISOBEY INSTRUCTIONS
B SELF-CONSCIOUS
TOTAL / 12.
302
CH LiD3 CHOLD ACTilV0T0ES
A GROUP ACTIVITIES B NON-EVALUATIVE
A INDIVIDUAL TASKS S A EVALUATIVE TASKS
A VARIED TASKS TIME CONSUMING
B PASSIVE (LISTEN) B MOTtIORMOUS RESPONSE
TOTAL / 16
G CHILD4
OUP IINTERAL 00N
A ORG. GROUP FORMATION
A FREE INTERACTION
SEATING SCATTER
NO GROUP INTERACTIo
B DOMINANT 'CLICKS'
A FREE GROUP FORMATION
A SEATING ARRANGED
HORSEPLAY
B FIGHTING
TOTAL / 15
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ONLY ONE
NO MEDIA ONLY THREE
THREE OR MORE
ATTEN'fiON & BODY LANGUAGE
A ENTHUSIASTIC A SITTING UPRIGHT
A PUPILS KEEN
A PUPILS ALERT
B PUPILS BORED
B PUPILS LEANING
B PUPILS APATHETIC
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS * 14/9® i
B ARGUING/FIGHTING B PUPILS DROWSY
B HEAD IN HANDS
CHILD TOTAL a 717- 1 TOTAL / 24
CLASSROO 11 ENVllmONMENT mEDll USAGE
ONLY TWO
TOTAL / 5
LIMITED VIEW/BUSY
FULL VIEW/BUSY
NO OUTSIDE VIEW
LTD. VIEW/SOME ACTV1 TY
LTD. VIEW/TRANQUIL
POOR/CAN IMPROVISE
NO EQUIPMENT
EXLNT./EXPERIMENTATION
305
CLASSROOM ,NVIRONMENT VOBLE SUE YEW
_TOTAL /
CLASSROOM NNARONMENT FACUL11-0ES & E UlIPMENT
ADEQUATE
GOOD/ENHANCES LESSON
TOTAL
FURNITURE AR NGEMENT.
MUCH NEAT/ - OBSCURED
UNTIDY ROW/H-SHOE
RANDOM ARRANGEMENT NEAT/SOME OBSCU
NEAT/NiL OBSCURED
CLASSROOM HNV RONMENT
TOTAL / 5
CLASSROOM LE,'MPRONMENT MAGACAL NVIITATION (A MOSPHERE)
FACILITATES ENOU1R
TOTAL / 5
ENVIRONMENT . TOTAL
MUSTY/BORING
CONFUSING
INTIMIDATING COMPL- Olsb
INVITING/STIMULATING
25'
RA071VAllON SCALE 'O'AL
3Z
307
MOTIVATIOK MEASUREMENT SCALE A 3
XE TO USE OF THE FIVE-POINT SCALE
i 2 3 4 5
NEVER ONLY ONCE OR
TWICE
EVERY kOW & THEN
MOST OF THE TIME
ALL OF THE
TIME
VERY POUR
POOR GOOD VERY GOOD
EXCELLENT
NONE VERY LITTLE SOME SUB- STANTIAL
COMPLETELY
TEACHER
CHILD
SCALE A3
PERSONAL' TV AND EHAUIOUR
QUESTIONS AND A HERS
CALM 1 2 3 4 5 ASX REGULARLY A 1 2 3 4 5
FRIENDLY 1 2 3 45 ASH FOR CLASS A 1 2 3 4 5
WARM A 1 2 3 45 ASX AGAIN A 1 2 3 4 5
EMPATHETIC A 1 2 3 45 DO NOT ASH 1 2 3 4 5
SYMPATHETIC A 1 2 3 45 ASH HESITANTLY 1 2 3 4 5
SELFDISCIPLINED A 1 2 3 45 SPONTANEOUS Al 1 2 3 4 5 ANSWERS
IRRITABLE 1 2 3 45 BOLD ANSWERS A 1 2 3 4 5
ANXIOUS 1 2 3 45 GROUP ANSWERS A 1 2 3 4 5
DISTANT 1 2 3 4 5 COMPETITIVE 1 2 3 4 5 ANSWERS
COLD 1 2 3 4 5 TIMID ANSWERS B 1 2 3 4 5 AGGRESSIVE 1 2 3 4 5 RELUCTANT 1 2 3 4 5
ANSWERS TOT: /36 LAX 1 2 3 4 5
TOY: /24
APPEARANCE AND ODV MOUEMENT
PUPIL ACTIUXTIES
NEAT/TIDY A 1 2 3 4 5 EVALUATED TASKS A 1 2 3 4 5
QUICK/ ASSERTIVE A 1 2 3 4 5 GROUP ACTIVITIES A 1 2 3 4 5
ASSURED / SELF A 1 2 3 4 5 INDIVIDUAL TASKS A 1 2 3 4 5 CONFIDENT
REINFORCES VERBAL A 1 2 3 4 5 VARIED TASKS A 1 2 3 4 5
INCONGRUENT TO 13 1 2 3 4 5 LISTENING/PASSIVE 13 1 2 3 4 5 VERBAL SLOW 1 2 3 4 5 NON—EVALUATIVE 1 2 3 4 5
TASX/S HESITANT B 1 2 3 4 5 ' MONOTONOUS 1 2 3 4 5
ACTIVITIES SLOPPY / SHABBY 13 1 2 3 4 5 TIME CONSUMING 1 2 3 4 5
T07: /16 707: /17
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
PARTICIPATION AND RESPONSES
ORGANIZED 1 2 3 4 5 SPONTANEOUS iAt 1 2 3 4 5 PREPARED A 1 2 3 4 5 IMMEDIATE A 1 2 3 4 5 SYSTEMATIC 1 2 3 4 5 BOLD A 1 2 3 4 5
AUTHORITY 1 2 3 4 5 CONFIDENT A 1 2 3 4 5 FLOWING PACE A 1 2 3 4 5 LETHARGIC B 1 2 3 4 5 SETS VERBAL GOALSA 1 2 3 4 5 COAXED 1 2 3 4 5 AND AIMS TIME MANAGEMENT A 1 2 3 4 5 NO RESPONSE 1 2 3 4 5 DISCIPLINE A 1 2 3 4 5 DELAYED RESPONSE 3 1 2 3 4 5 ACTIVITY A 1 2 3 4 5 SHY B 1 2 3 4 5 DELEGATION INVITATIONS TO A 1 2 3 4 5 SELF—CONSCIOUS 1 2 3 4 5 PUPILS(DIDACTICAL) ACTIVITY A 1 2 3 4 5 DISOBEY B 1 2 3 4 5 MANAGEMENT INSTRUCTIONS SETTING PREP FOR PUPILS
A 1 2 3 4 5 FAIL TO EXECUTE B 1 2 3 4 5 INSTRUCTIONS
707: /65 HALF EXECUTE is 1 2 3 4 5 INSTRUCTIONS
TOT: /11
SIT UPRIGHT A 1 2 3 4 5
LEANING 1 2 3 4 5
HOLD HEAD IN 13 1 2 3 4 5 HANDS PHYSICAL 1 2 3 4 5 FIGHTING
TOT: /62
SEE PUPIL
FACIAL EXPRESS IONS
309
TEACHER HABITS
REINFORCING A 1 2 3 4 5
AHUSING A 1 2 3 4 5
IRRITATING 1 2 3 4 5
DESTRUCTIVE 1 2 3 4 5
PUPIL ATTENTION
ALERT A 1 2 3 4 5
KEEN A 1 2 3 4 5
ENTHUSIASTIC A 1 2 3 4 5
DROUSY 1 2 3 4 5
APATHETIC 1 2 3 4 5
BORED 1 2 3 4 5
TOT: /12
TEACHER
ODIE LANGUAGE
HOVEHENT A 1 2 3 4 5
FACE CLASS A 1 2 3 4 5
SUPPORTS VERBAL A 1 2 3 4 5
USE OF HANDS A 1 2 3 4 5
GOOD POSTURE A 1 2 3 4 5
FACES BOARD .13 1 2 3 4 5
FOLDED ARMS 13 1 2 3 4 5
STATIC STANDS 1 2 3 4 5 STILL SITS BEHIND DESK 23 1 2 3 4 5
TOT: /21
TEACHER COMIENTS
CHILD
GROUPFORMA T I ON
SEATING ARRANGED A 1 2 3 4 5
FREE GROUP A 1 2 3 4 5 FORMATION ORGANIZED GROUP A 1 2 3 4 5 FORMATION FREE INTERACTION A 1 2 3 4 5
SEATING GENERAL 13 1 2 3 4 5
NO GROUP 1 2 3 4 5 INTERACTION DOMINANT 'CLICKS' 1 2 3 4 5
FIGHTING 1 2 3 4 5
HORSEPLAY 1 2 3 4 5
TOT: /15
PUPIL OD LANGUAGE
EMPATHETIC A 1 2 3 4 5
ENCOURAGING A 1 2 3 4 5
CONTEXTUAL A 1 2 3 4 5
STRUCTURAL A 1 2 3 4 5
SARCASTIC 1 2 3 4 5
PERSONAL 1 2 3 4 5
NON-CONTEXTUAL 1 2 3 4 5
INSULTING 1 2 3 4 5
TOY: /16
TEACHER C J ILD
CONTENT TRANSIMISSON
PUP X L EXPRESS X OLDS
ENJOYABLE A 1 2 3 4 5 SEE TOUGHING
EXCITING A 1 2 3 4 5 FACIAL
ENTERTAINING A 1 2 3 4 5 EXPRESSION
VARIED A 1 2 3 4 5 SHEET
MONOTONOUS 1 2 3 4 5
(TOT: /191 1TOT: /I@
310
TEACHER QUESTIONING
ASKS REGULARLY A 1 2 3 4 5
PROMPTS REGULARLYA 1 2 3 4 5
INVITING A 1 2 3 4 5
CHALLENGING A 1 2 3 4 5
CONTEXTUAL A 1 2 3 4 5
COGNITIVELY A 1 2 3 4 5 STIMULATING QUESTIONS GROUP A 1 2 3 4 5
QUESTIONS A 1 2 3 4 5 INDIVIDUAL ASKS FEU 13 1 2 3 4 5 QUESTIONS PROMPTS LITTLE 13 1 2 3 4 5
NON CONTEXTUAL 13 1 2 3 4 5' QUESTIONS
TOT: /37
TEACHER VOICE AND FOCUS
LOUD A 1 2 3 4 5
PLEASING TONE A 1 2 3 4 5
PROJECTS VOICE A 1 2 3 4 5
VOLUME VARIATION A 1 2 3 4 5
TONE VARIATION A 1 2 3 4 5
SOFT 13 1 2 3 4 5
NO PROJECTION 13 1 2 3 4 5
LOOKS AT WHOLE 13 1 2 3 4 5 CLASS
LOOKS AT ONE 13 1 2 3 4 5 PUPIL
TOT: /21
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MA X NTA KRUNG PUPXL ATTENT X ON
GAINS A 1 2 3 4 5
HOLDS A 1 2 3 4 5
FAILS TO GAIN 1 2 3 4 3
LOSES le 1 2 3 4 5
TEACHER EUALUATXON
REGULAR A 1 2 3 4 5
CONSISTENT RI 1 2 3 4 5
DRILL A 1 2 3 4 5
REPETITION PO *1 2 3 45
INCONSISTENT 33 1 2 3 4 5
IRREGULAR 1 2 3 4 5
TOT: /18
312
A IMSNER X NG PUPIIL EQUESTXONS
PROMPTLY A 1 2 3 4 3 ANSWERED CONFIRMS A 1 2 3 4 5 ANSWER IGNORES 33 1 2 3 4 5 QUESTION FORGETS 1 2 3 4 5 QUESTION ANSWERS 13 1 2 3 4 5 INCORRECTLY DELAYS 1 2 3 4 5 ANSWER
TOT: /CS
TEACHER
TOTAL
PUPXL
TOTAL
1
2
3
4
NO OUTSIDE VIEW FULL VIEW / BUSY / NOISY LIMITED VIEW / BUSY LIMITED VIEW WITH SOME ACTIVITY LIMITED VIEW / TRANQUIL LITTLE NOISE OR MOVEMENT.
Elitt3U X PIONMENTA
TOTAL
25
CLASSROOM ENUIROMMENT
PLACE AN X OVER THE APPROPRIATE NUNBER MICH BEST DESCRIBES
EACH OF THE SITUATIONS STATED BELCH.
MEDIA USAGE
MEV g
TEXT BOOR BLACK BOARD OVER HEAD PROJECTOR SLIDES FILM/VIDEO LIVE MATERIAL MODELS EXPERIMENTAL APPRATUS POSTERS/CHARTS NO MEDIA. 1
ONLY ONE FROM THE KEY
2
ONLY TWO FROM THE HEY
3
ONLY THREE FROM THE KEY
4
MORE THAN THREE FROM THE HEY
5
CLgass 0F U
M 0IRN X TURE
RANDOM ARRANGEMENT
1
UNTIDY ROWS / HORSESHOE
2
ROWS / HORSESHOE EVENLY SPREAD
3 LOTS OF MEDIA OBSCURED
4 ROWS / HORSESHOE EVENLY SPREAD SOME MEDIA OBSCURED
5
ROWS EVENLY SPREAD WITH NO MEDIA OBSCURED
1
2
3
4
5
DX DA C'rK CAL ATMOSPHERE
INTIMIDATING - TOO COMPLICATED CONFUSING - DISCOURAGING MUSTY / BORING / BLAND FACILITATES ENQUIRY INVITING / STIMULATING / ENCOURAGING SLOGANS / USE OF
COLOUR OUTS X DE U X EM FROM INS IDE THE CLASS
FACXLICTXES AND EQ112 X PMENT
NO EQUIPMENT POOR EQUIPMENT - CAN IMPROVISE ADEQUATE EQUIPMENT APPROPRIATE EQUIPMENT - ENHANCES LESSON EXCELLENT - FACILITATES EXPERIMENTATION / EXPLORATION
1
2
3
4
5
NOTIVATION SCALE
TOTAL :
314
APPENDIX :
Scale A4 : MEERKOTTER (1980) MOTIVATION MEASURING INSTRUMENT
CATEGORY DESCRIPTIONS
A. Teacher Behaviour / Activities
1. A. Factual limning= :
Teacher reveals syllabus content himself. Content is transferred as facts. The teacher solves the problems for the.pupils.
- Content is transferred in an 'Ostensive' manner.
2. Emahlan constituent Monologue
The teacher facilitates a gap in the reference framework of the pupils and the lesson content which is to be assimilated. Syllabus content is presented in a problem format - not in a factual manner.
- The teacher makes use of contrasts, surprise and actual occurrences to transfer the syllabus content. Pupils are afforded the opportunity to ask questions.
3. kli,anzzrgatm_1..g.t2saa.2 Instructions
Instructions are directed at a pupil's existing knowledge. Pupils are expected.to recall existing knowledge.
4. Iiimaan71martaaandant Irmatmna.tinas.
- Instructions are aimed at relationships between various elements of the syllabus content of which the pupils are not yet conscious.
315
- Pupil activities include operations such as new :
comparisons interpretations synthesis evaluations
5. Fin.g.i.granPH.Leigammt.
The teacher accepts pupil answers as final and complete.
- Pupils are not encouraged to explore further possibilities.
6. InajtatismallaramsaLladgeimeat
The teacher informs the pupil that a gap still exists between what he knows and what he should know.
- The teacher identifies a new problem from a pupil's answer. Further information, expansion and additions are required from a ,
Pupil.
B PUPIL INVOLVEMENT / OPERATIONS
7. RgamndnAtiza gagmgtimig.
Acquired knowledge is presented.
8. Creative responses
The pupil compares, interprets, analyses, evaluates, and synthesizes when presenting an answer.
9. aRnatAnAaaa anall inanizamaral.
The pupil supplies more than is required of him. A pupil improves on another pupil's answer without being requested to do so.
316
10. Pupil anaatimia L. enanixiga
Pupils ask questions pertaining to the content. Beliefs and values are voiced; pupils' queries reveal a doubt-,
C. NON-DIDACTIC OPERATIONS
These are operations from both the teacher or the pupils which are not related to the syllabus content. A value of 0 is awarded to these episodes. It is important that this facility is not abused if accurate, valid results are to be obtained.
SCALE A4 : THE MEERKOTTER (1980) MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTENT OR SYLLABUS-BASED MOTIVATION AND PUPIL MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM SITUATION.
317
Description of Class : Date :
Teacher : Subject :
Episode 01 3
02 7
03 4
04 8
05 0
06 7
07 3
08
09
10
FIGURE Al. THE MEERKOTTER (1980) MEASURING INSTRUMENT, CODING SHEET, TO MEASURE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTENT OR SYLLABUS-BASED MOTIVATION AND PUPIL MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM SITUATION.
318
SCALE A5 : CATEGORIES OF THE MAARSCHALK (1977) HEURISTIC MEASUREMENT SCALE
07 DOMINANT OSTENSIVE
There is little or no chance of any 'cognitive gap' being allowed to form in a pupil's mind, as the teacher serves as the only source of information.
06 STRONG OSTENSIVE AND UEAKLY HEURISTIC
A very limited opportunity for a pupil's cognitive self-discovery is created, but is prevented from being applied. This category is characterized by rhetorical questions posed by the teacher.
05 REASONABLY OSTENSIVE UITH CLEAR HEURISTIC SUPPORT
The teacher facilitates a gap in the pupil's knowledge to be recognized where the pupil is allowed a limited participation in its elimination. This category is characterized by guiding questions which require reproductive answers from the pupil.
oh BALANCE BETUEEN OSTENSIVE AND HEURISTIC TEACHING
The teacher identifies a gap in the pupil's reference framework which he must then eliminate while offering clear and structured assistance.
H5 REASONABLY HEURISTIC KITH CLEAR OSTENSIVE ELEMENTS
Only a small part of the gap/path (soekontwerp) to an answer is supplied by the teacher, where the pupil must discover for himself, with teacher assistance when required, the remaining elements necessary in order to successfully master the lesson content.
319
H6 STRONG HEURISTIC AND UEAKLY OSTENSIVE
The pupils employs selfdiscovery in order to determine the cognitive path he is to follow in filling the gaps in his reference framework. The teacher creates a clear structure. An example of this is the analysis of a poem.
H7 DONINABT HEURISTIC
The pupil discovers a cognitive path and employs measures of his own in order to eliminate any gaps in his knowledge.
X CONTINGENT EPISODES
This includes all those activities occurring during a lesson not included in the previous categories.
SCALE A5 : CATEGORIES OF THE MAARSCHALK (1977) HEURISTIC MEASUREMENT SCALE
320
Description of Class : Date :
Teacher : Subject :
Episode 01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
FIGURE A2 : THE MAARSCHALK (1977) HEURISTIC MEASUREMENT SCALE CODING SHEET
321
SCALE AS
GOOSEN (1995) LEMOSS MOTIVATION STRATEGY MEASUREMENT SCALE
PUPIL QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTIONS:
X Answer ALL the questions. Answer truthfully. There is no right or wrong answer. Choose only one answer per question. Indicate the answer of your choice by placing an " X " over the appropriate number on the answer sheet provided. Thank you for your participation.
When trying to solve a problem - in this subject, I usually do not know where to start and it seems that I cannot use anything that I know.
When writing tests in this subject I realize that I studied the wrong parts of the syllabus, and ignored the important areas.
Although I know this subject, I always find it difficult to solve problems.
I do not always understand the essence ( what the examiner wants ) of some of the questions in this subject, as they appear in examinations.
I always try to find connections or links between this subject and the others that I do.
I always try to investigate laws and definitions by putting them into practice, which assists in forming a clearer understanding of a particular phenomenon ( for example : an experiment ).
When hearing or reading an explanation or conclusion in this subject, I search for alternatives with the same meaning.
322
When studying new concepts in this subject, I always try to relate them to those that already exist in my mind.
When coming across new information with regard to this subject, I always try to find links with my existing knowledge.
I use simple tables and diagrams to gammazazg the work in this subject.
I use diagrams and tables to organize the syllabus content, thereby forming a complete image of the work.
I use headings of chapters in my text book to identify important aspects of a particular theme.
While studying, I try to ascertain which concepts are not clear to me.
When reading up on this subject I try to follow a logical course of thought and read parts of the content again.
When I do not understand what I am studying, I go back to the beginning and start over again.
I believe that studying this subject is useful to me.
I think that I am going to use parts of this subject in my profession in the future.
I know that I can perform well in this subject, provided that I pay attention in class, do my homework frequently and have enough time to study.
If I try hard enough, I will understand this subject.
I would like to perform better than most of the other pupils at school.
The greatest satisfaction I derive from being at school, is to achieve good marks.
323
22. After each test, it is clear that I had to cram the information into my head, and only later do I realize how I should have applied the information.
23.,It seems that I overlook the main points when studying this subject by getting entangled in the insignificant detail.
While studying this subject, I am convinced that I understand it, but whenever the teacher explains the memorandum, I discover that I did not understand it at all in the first place.
During tests and examinations in this subject, the teacher combines concepts that I would never relate to one another , within a single question.
When reading up on this subject, I look for reasons why the work was done in the first place and how it can be applied in problem-solving, as this gives me a clue to the logical course of the contents.
Before I study new laws, definitions or rules in this subject, I try to ascertain which concepts I already know.
I memorize new definitions and laws by imagining certain situations that contain the concepts within the work that I am studying.
I try to relate new information in this subject to my own experiences gained in the laboratory or in nature.
It is important to me to know in which cases to apply new information.
I memorize key words in order to remember important concepts when studying this subject.
I first briefly scan through my notes, in order to obtain a global image of how the content is structured.
While studying, I compose questions that I think could arise in the exam.
While working through the content of thith subject, I frequently pause to reason the facts in my mind.
I derive a great deal of satisfaction from knowing my work well.
I try to adapt my study methods to the nature of the syllabus.
324
3.7. I find this subject interesting at school.
General-applications of the laws and concepts of this subject as found in everyday life hold an interest •for me.
If I study this subject using the correct approach, I know that I will understand it.
Taking my ability, the difficulty of the work and the help of my teacher into account, I believe that I can perform well.
41. - 1 is important for me to achieve good marks in order for my family, friends and others to see what I can attaln.
It is important to get good marks in this subject, as they will increase my overall average.
I find it difficult to know what to study in order to cover this subject adequately.
I am convinced that I understand this subject's most difficult work.
I often ponder ( reason ) about aspects pertaining to this subject, as I hear or read about them.
When studying this subject, I work through all the contents in order to obtain a logical train of thought.
When studying this subject, rather than just reading through it, I try to see what it is in the content, it is that I am supposed to learn.
I always work through assignments, problems or experiments when studying this subject.
If I do not understand the content that I am reading, I change the way that I read. .
I always try to understand the reasoning behind definitions and laws before memorizing them.
It is important to study the content handled by the teacher in class.
I prefer certain sections in this subject that interest me, even though they might be more difficult.
325
FIGURE A3 : GOOSEN (1995) LEMOSS II PUPIL ANSWER SHEET
CONFIDENTIAL ANSWER SHEET
NAME : GRADE :
STANDARD : AGE
SUBJECT : GENDER : ( M or F )
SCHOOL :
AVERAGE SYMBOL IN THIS SUBJECT
AVERAGE SYMBOL OVERALL ( ALL SUBJECTS )
KEY :
N - NEVER
S - SOMETIMES F - FREQUENTLY A - ALWAYS
G - GENERALLY
Using the KEY above, place an 'X' over the letter of your choice for each of the following questions.
ANSWERS :
01 N S F G. A 22NSFGA 43NSFGA 02NSFGA 23NSFGA 44NSFGA 03NSFGA 24NSFGA 04NSFGA 25NSFGA 05NSFGA 26NSFGA 45NSFGA 06 N S F G A 27 N S .F G A 46 N S F G A 07NSFGA 28NSFGA 47NSFGA 08NSFGA 29NSFGA 48NSFGA 09NSFGA 30NSFGA lONSFGA 31NSFGA 4911SFGA 11NSFGA 32NSFGA 12NSFGA 33NSFGA 13NSFGA 34NSFGA 50 NSFGA 14NSFGA 35NSFGA 15NSFGA 36NSFGA 16NSFGA 37NSFGA 51NSFGA 17NSFGA 38NSFGA 52NSFGA 18NSFGA 39NSFGA 19NSFGA 40NSFGA 20NSFGA 41NSFGA 21NSFGA 42NSFGA
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
MOTIVATION STRATEGIES
UPPER I 39.9 46.0 25.6 31.2 26.6 19.3 19.6 CONFIDENCE LIMIT 33 672 38.550 19,867 26.056 21.718 16.076L 15.675
LOWER 28.1 31.3 14.1 21.0 16.8 12.8. 11.7 CONFIDENCE LIMIT
PS/AS CT/CS P./OS M/U S CO IM
E
326
DIAGNOSTIC TABLE
PS/AS - Problem-solving and answering strategies CT/CS - Critical thinking and conceptualization strategies P/OS - Planning and organizational strategies M/US - Monitoring and understanding strategies CO - Content IM - Intrinsic Motivation EM - Extrinsic Motivation
Score/ Tot Score Score
01 5 4 3 2 1 22 5 4 3 2 1 43 5 4 3 2 1 02 5 4 3 2 1 23 5 4 3 2 1 44 1 2 3 4 5 03 5 4 3 2 1 24 5 4 3 2 1 04 5 4 3 2 1 25 5 4 3 2 1 05 1 2 3 4 5 26 1 2 3 4 5 45 1 2 3 4 5 06 1 2 3 4 5 27 1 2 3 4 5 46 1 2 3 4 5 07 1 2 3 4 5 28 1 2 3 4 5 47 1 2 3 4 5 08 1 2 3 4 5 29 1 2 3 4 5 48 1 2 3 4 5 09 1 2 3 4 5 30 1 2 3 4 5 - 10 1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 3 4 5 49 1 2 3 4 5 11 1 2 3 4 5 32 1 2 3 4 5 12 1 2 3 4 5 33 1 2 3 4 5 13 1 2 3 4 5- 34. 1 2 -3 4 5 50 1 2 3 4 5 14 1 2 3 4 5 35 1 2 3 4 5 15 1 2 3 4 5 36 1 2 3 4 5 16 1 2 3 4 5 37 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 4 5 17 1 2 3 4 5 38 1 2 3 4 5 52 1 2 3 4 5 18 1 2 3 4 5 3W-1 2 3 4 5 19 1 2 3 4 5 40 1 2 3 4 5 20 1 2- 3 4 5 41 1 2 3 4 5 21 1 2 3 4 5 42 1 2 3 4 5
FIGURE A4 : PUPIL ANSWERS - SCORING SHEET AND DIAGNOSTIC • TABLE
PS
CT/ CS
Os
MI/
US
C O
327
SCALE A7 : PUPIL'S VIEW OF LESSON
INSTRUCTIONS :
-For each question asked, please place an X over the appropriate number.
'Please be honest (!.) as your name does not appear on the answer sheet.
Use the following scale when answering the questions which follow.
SCALE 5.5.
1 2 3 4 5 NEVER ONLY ONCE OR EVERY NOW & HOST OF ALL OF
TWICE THEN THE TIME THE TIME
Example : Do you like ice cream ?
1 2 3 4 5
[ Answer : all of the time (5) ]
QUESTIONS
A Was the teacher :
1) CALM 1 2 3 4 5 A 2) FRIENDLY 1 2 3 4 5 A 3) SYMPATHETIC TO
YOUR PROBLEMS 1 2 3 4 5 A 4) UNDERSTANDING 1 2 3 4 .5 A 5) SELF-DISCIPLINED 1 2 3 4 5 A 6) IRRITABLE 1 2 3 4 5 B 7) DISTANT 1 2 3 4 5 B 6).AGGRESSIVE 1 2 3 4 5 B 9) DISINTERESTED IN
THE LESSON -1 2 3 4 5 B
328
10) NEAT / TIDY 1 2 3 4 5 A 11) SLOPPY 1 2 3 4 5 B 12) ASSERTIVE 1 2 3 4 5 A 13) CONFIDENT 1 2 3 4 5 A 14) HESITANT /SLOW 1 2 3 4 5 B
B Did the teacher :
1) MOVE AROUND A . LOT 1 2 3 4 5 A
2) FACE THE B/BOARD 1 2 3 4 5 B 3) USE HIS/HER HANDS1 2 3 4 5 A '4) LEAN /SLOUCH 1 2 3 4 5 B 5) FOLD ARMS 1 2 3 4 5 B 6) SIT BEHIND THE .
DESK , 1 2 3 4 5 B 7) ENCOURAGE YOU 1 2 3 4 5 A 8) STRUCTURE THE LESSON
FOR YOU SO THAT YOU KNEW EXACTLY WHERE YOU WERE AND WHAT TO DO 1 2 3 4 5 A
9) MAKE PERSONAL • REMARKS ABOUT YOU OR ANY OTHER PUPIL/S 1 2 3 4 5 B
10) INSULT YOU OR ANY OTHER PUPIL/S 1 2 3 4 5 B
C Was the teacher's voice :
1) LOUD - 1 2 3 4 5 A 2) SOFT. 1 2 3 4 5 B 3) IRRITATING 1 2 3 4 5 B 4) TOO LOUD 1 2 3 4 5 B 5) TOO SOFT 1 2 3 4 5 B
D DID THE TEACHER :
. PROJECT HIS/HER VOICE 1 2 3 4 5 A ALTER THE TONE OF HIS/HER VOICE - 1 2 3 4 5 A ALTER THE VOLUME OF HIS/HER VOICE 1 2 3 4 5 A
329
1 - 2 3 4 5 NEVER ONLY ONCE OR EVERY NOW & HOST OF ALL OF
TWICE THEN THE TINE THE TINE
E Did the teacher :
1) ASK QUESTIONS 1 2 3 4 5 A 2) INVITE YOU TO TAKE
PART AT VARIOUS STAGES OF THE LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 A
3) CHALLENGE YOU OR OTHERS IN THE LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 A
4) MAKE YOU FEEL PART OF THE LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 A
5) LOOK AT THE WHOLE CLASS1 2 3 4 5 A 6) LOOK AT ONE SPOT OR ONE
PUPIL IN THE LESSON 1 2 3 4 5 B
F Did the teacher ask questions ?
yes no
1) DID THE TEACHER ANSWER • YOUR QUESTIONS ? 1 2 3 4 5 A
2) DID THE TEACHER IGNORE YOUR QUESTIONS ? 1 2 3 4 5 B
3) DID THE. TEACHER FORGET YOUR QUESTION ? 1 2 3 4 5 B
4) DID THE TEACHER CONFIRM THAT YOU UNDERSTOOD THE EXPLANATION BEFORE CONTINUING WITH THE WORK ?
1
Did the teacher :
2 3 4 5 A
1) REPEAT ANY PARTS OF THE WORK '1 2 3 4 5 A
2) SUMMARIZE ANY PARTS OF THE WORK- 1 2 3 4 5 A
3) GIVE YOU HOMEWORK 1 2 3 4 5 A 4) GAIN YOUR ATTENTION 1 2 3 4 5 A 5) HOLD YOUR ATTENTION 1 2 3 4 5 A 6) LOSE YOUR ATTENTION 1 2 3 4 5 B
330
1 2 3 4 5 NEVER - ONLY ONCE OR EVERY HOST 81 MOST OF ALL OF
TUICE THEN THE TINE THE TINE
H Did the teacher :
IRRITATE YOU 1 2 3 4 5 B ANSWER YOU 1 2 3 4 5 A BORE YOU 1 . 2 3 4 5 B EXCITE YOU 1 2 3 4 5 A
I 1) WAS THE TEACHER ORGANIZED ?1. 2 3 4 5 A IN YOUR OPINION WAS THE TEACHER PREPARED FOR THE LESSON ? 1 2 3 4 5 A WAS THE TEACHER STRICT ? 1 2 3 4 5 A IN YOUR OPINION DID THE TEACHER USE THE AVAILABLE TIME EFFECTIVELY ? 1 2 3 4 5 A DO YOU LIKE THIS SUBJECT ? 1 2 3 4 5 A
J 1) DID THE TEACHER MAKE YOU FEEL LIKE TRYING YOUR BEST 1 2 3 4 5 A FOR THEM ? DID THE TEACHER MOTIVATE 1 2 3 4 5 A YOU ? DID THE TEACHER BORE YOU ? 1 2 3 4 5 B DID THE TEACHER DEMOTIVATE OR UPSET YOU ? 1 2 3 4 5 B
ELAM. X Oil 11:1E. APPROPRIATE Kamm DO YOU FEEL ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT DOING YOUR HOMEWORK OR LEARNING FOR A TEST, ON THE CONTENT OF TODAY'S LESSON ?.
1
2 3 4 5
NO A LITTLE MIXED FEELINGS VERY WANT TO BUT STILL POSITIVE WORK FLAT POSITIVE OUT (5)
331
X PLACE AN X NEXT TO THE APPROPRIATE FEELING
DID YOU FEEL ANY OF THE FOLLOWING EMOTIONS DURING THE LESSON ?
HYSTERICAL LONELY
A OPTIMISTIC A RELIEVED A INNOCENT
MISCHIEVIOUS PERPLEXED SHEEPISH UNDECIDED SURLY
IDIOTIC A LOVESTRUCK
PAINED SUSPICIOUS
A INTERESTED MISERABLE.
B PRUDISH SMUG LOADED
B UNDECIDED
INDIFFERENT A MEDITATIVE PARANOID
A SYMPATHETIC JEALOUS
B NEGATIVE PUZZLED
A THOUGHTFUL REGRETFUL WITHDRAWN
(7)
Did the media (black board, overhead & textbook etc.) stimulate you to be more interested in the lesson ?
1 2 3 4
5 NEVER ONCE OR TWICE EVERY NOW MOST OF
ALL OF(5) AND THEN THE TIME THE TIME
Did you like the placing of the furniture ?
1 2 NO YES BUT COULD
NOT SEE MOST OF THE LESSON FROM WHERE I SAT
3 YES BUT COULD ONLY SEE SOME OF THE LESSON
4 YES BUT SOME OF THE MEDIA WAS OBSCURED
5 YES I COULD SEE & HEAR EVERY-THING
Did you find the
1 INTIMIDATING TOO COMPLIC-ATED
atmosphere
2 CONFUSING DISCOURA-GING
3 4 MUSTSTY/ ENCOURAG-BORING ING
5 STIMULAT-ING
Were you distracted by the view outside
5 4 3 2
1 _NO WORRIED YOU SOME QUITE A LOT ALMOST ALL
A LITTLE
THE TIME
TOTAL : X / 193
SCALE A7 :PUPIL QUESTIONNAIRE
332
LESSON SUBJECT
1 AFR
2 BIOL
3 ACCOUNTS
4 Sc
5 TECH DRAWING
6 BIOL
7 MATHS
STANDARD 7 10 10 9 9 9 7
RESULTS EXPRESSED
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
(SCALE A2) PROPOSED
AS A PERCENTAGE (%)
MOTIVATION 23 • 77 62 I 61 1 68 65 67 MEASUREMENT SCALE
GOOSEN LEMOSS II (SCALE A6). 50 94 81 92 I 79 98 98 EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
GOOSEN LEMOSS II (SCALE A6) 33 94 81 I 74 i 66 8 1 80 INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
MAARSCHALK HEUROSTENTIC 31 49 50 56 I 42 35 54 VARIABILITY (SCALE A5)
MEERKOTTER MOTIVATION STRATEGY 35 48 42 49 I 54 37 47 MEASUREMENT (SCALE.A4)
(SCALE A7) PUPIL RESPONSE 40 62 52 67 I 64 70 74 QUESTIONNAIRE
FIGURE AS COMPARATIVE MOTIVATION MEASUREMENT SCORES
