ABSTRACT

The Relationship Between Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Styles

When Measuring purpose in life and Worker Motivation

By

Jason Michael Starr

B.A., The University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX,2001

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Sciencein Psychology

Walden UniversityJune 2007

ii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to determine whether

transformational versus transactional leadership style is

more impactful on workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation, hence on organizational competitive advantage.

The literature is clear that leaders can facilitate changes

in workers’ attitudes; and that competitive advantage is

essential to organizations. This study hypothesizes that

transformational is the more impactful style on worker’s

sense of purpose in life and motivation. Significant

research has examined leadership styles and their

relationships to worker motivation while less has examined

their relationships with workers’ sense of purpose in life.

This study seeks to fill that void. Ryan and Deci’s Self-

Determination Theory and Frankl’s will-to-meaning provide

the study’s primary theoretical foundation. Participants

from mid-sized companies (250-500 employees) will be

recruited and surveyed via the Internet and assigned to

iii

groups based on leadership style, as determined by the

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Levels of sense of

purpose in life and motivation will be measured,

respectively, by the purpose in life Test and Motivation

Sources Index. Relationship strength will be analyzed with

ANOVA. Findings of this study might provide internal and

external Organizational Consultants with an important tool

to assist organizations in creating and maintaining

competitive advantage. Additionally, if leaders can be

trained up to increase workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation, workers’ lives outside of work might be

positively impacted, as well, thus reducing the caseload on

therapists for professional burnout and the existential

emptiness mentioned by Frankl.

iv

The Relationship Between Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Styles

When Measuring purpose in life and Worker Motivation

By

Jason Michael Starr

B.A., The University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX,2001

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Sciencein Psychology

v

Walden UniversityJune 2007

vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For all their hard work, patience, assistance and

guidance, I wish to extend both thanks and acknowledgment to

the Walden Faculty, generally, and Drs. Bauer, Greiner, and

Hawley, specifically. Without their experience and

willingness to guide a plebe through the maze of academic

requirements, I would have been lost.

I must also acknowledge my beautiful wife, Catherine,

and all our children, Jennifer, Lisa, Elizabeth, Loren,

Sidra, and Sarah. For, without them to inspire (and goad)

me, this project would not have been completed.

Finally, no success on my part would be possible and no

acknowledgement complete without giving full credit to the

Lord of my being, the Creator and Father of my very Soul,

The Lord God, Yahweh.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract...................................................iAcknowledgements.........................................iiiChapter 1: Introduction to the Study.......................1

Introduction..........................................1Background of the Problem.............................2Theoretical Foundations...............................5Purpose of the Study..................................5Statement of the Problem..............................6Definition of Terms...................................8Assumptions and Limitations of the Study..............9Significance of the Study............................10Summary..............................................11

Chapter 2: Literature Review..............................12Introduction.........................................12Organization of the Chapter..........................12Literature Search Strategy...........................13Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles.13Purpose in Life......................................31Motivation...........................................41Summary..............................................53

Chapter 3: Research Method................................57Introduction.........................................57Identification of Population.........................57Design of the Study..................................59Procedures...........................................61Steps Taken to Ensure Participants’ Privacy..........61Instruments..........................................62

Chapter 4: Results and Discussion.........................64Review of Literature from Chapter 2..................64Clinical Practice Implications.......................73Social Implications..................................74

v

Recommendations for Future Research..................75Integrative Summary..................................76Conclusion...........................................77

References................................................79

Curriculum Vita...........................................88

vi

1CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to determine whether

transformational versus transactional leadership style is

more impactful on workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation. Research seems to indicate that increases in

workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation will assist

in creating and maintaining competitive advantage for

American organizations. Finding a universal underlying

motivator for human behavior in order to better understand,

predict, and control behavior has been the object of

research for the past several decades, if not longer (Deci &

Ryan, 2000; Goleman, 1997; Kelly, 1955/1963). Leadership

styles in general and Transformational and Transactional

leadership styles in particular (Frankl, 1955/1965;

Herzberg, Mausner, & Bloch Snyderman, 1959/1993; Maslow,

1971) have received considerable attention in the

psychological research community, as have the constructs

2purpose in life and Worker Motivation. There is also

research linking leadership style to worker motivation

(Bass, 1985, 1999; Burns, 1979; Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). It

seems, however, that less attention has been given to the

relationship between leadership style and purpose in life.

Research, such as that proposed in this study, will examine

the relationships between leadership style, worker

motivation and workers’ sense of purpose in life. If a

positive relationship were found between leadership style

and one or both of workers’ sense of purpose in life and

worker motivation, it would be logical for leaders to assist

followers as they discover and professionally operationalize

their purpose in life. Additionally, should a statistically

significant relationship be found between a particular

leadership style and one or both of the constructs to be

examined, it would behoove organizations to examine their

leadership style for alignment with the preferred model, and

implement interventions, if necessary, to realign with the

preferred model.

3This proposed research and critical literature review

will examine the literature on leadership styles, purpose in

life, and worker motivation to lay the groundwork for

proposed research. The proposed research will examine the

between-group relationship of transformational and

transactional leadership styles when measuring workers’

sense of purpose in life and worker motivation. Conclusions,

social and practice implications are discussed.

Background of the Problem

There have been significant amounts of research done on

leadership style. Burns (1979) provided an in-depth

examination of leadership types, categories, and styles. He

expansively defined and described what he termed the

transforming leader and a more commonly seen type of leader—

the transactional. Bass (1985, 1990) built on Burns’s work,

describing three major leadership styles: Transformational,

Transactional, and Laissez-faire. Since Laissez-faire

leaders only act when performance expectations aren’t met,

their style of leadership is no leadership at all.

4Therefore, this style will not be considered directly,

either in this critical review or the proposed study.

The two leadership styles considered here,

Transformational and Transactional, share some common

characteristics, but there are fundamental existential

differences between them (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1979). As an

example, in the case of the former, the characteristic

Charisma is frequently present, combined with the ability to

empower subordinates who then perform beyond their own

beliefs in their abilities and expectations of their

capacities. Transformational leaders care about their

followers as individuals having intrinsic or inherent value.

Transactional leaders depend on incentives or an exchange of

valued items or conditions to generate performance.

Transactional leaders only care about subordinates as

producers of value, independent of their worth as human

beings.

In seeking ways to create, or increase Worker

Motivation, past research and theory have frequently

5addressed the construct purpose. Studies suggest that when

individuals have a sense of purpose they age more

successfully (Fisher & Specht, 1999; Penick, 2004),

experience a greater sense of well-being (Adams & Bezner,

2000; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006), or, if in

relationship to a task, experience increased motivation

(Francis, 2000, Maslow, 1998). Also, Frankl (1955/1965)

stated that man cannot merely work, but must have meaning or

purpose in his work.

For decades, researchers have sought ways to increase

worker motivation (Argyris, 1976; Maslow, 1954/1970, 1998).

Even as there has not been discovered, to date, a universal

causative factor for human motivation, so might there be no

single reason for the large body of research done in this

area. One suggestion, however, might be that increased

worker motivation would lead to higher levels of

productivity, quality, customer service, and ultimately

profitability, justifying the amount of effort expended by

researchers. Another reason might be the personal curiosity

6of researchers in this area. In any case, human motivation

and worker motivation have long been (and will likely

continue to be) subjects of scientific scrutiny.

The search for a universal motivator continues even

today (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999; Francis, 2000;

Hendricks & Ludeman, 1996). Some researchers, however, have

pointed toward individual purpose as the single, greatest

underlying factor in human motivation and thus, worker

motivation (Francis, 2000; Maslow, 1998). One researcher

found that individuals with some sense of a higher purpose

are likely to perform better, to be kinder, more motivated,

and more socially conformist than their peers without such a

sense (Francis, 2000). There is also considerable literature

in Existential Psychology (Bugental, 1965; as cited by

Bauman & Waldo, 1998; May, 1961, 1981; Yalom, 1981; all as

cited by Chen, 2001) and in religious studies as well

(Ferris, 2002; French & Joseph, 1999), which indicate that

people without purpose are not as happy, content, motivated,

or productive as those with some sense of purpose or meaning

7in their lives. Such studies, addressing children possessed

of purpose in life, found an association between purpose in

life with both longevity and survival, after episodes of

cancer (Zebrack & Chesler, 2002). Interestingly, Thompson,

Coker, Krause, and Else (2003), found a positive correlation

between purpose in life and rehabilitation success in spinal

cord injury patients, suggesting that purpose in life is a

critical element in the connection of mind to body.

Ghoshal and Bruch (2003) examined two constructs,

considered as causative factors of human motivation—“will”

and “volition.” These constructs were in vogue prior to the

Second World War and the rise of Nazism. The constructs lost

favor with Psychology, however, after being usurped by the

Nazi regime as part of their propaganda for building the

master race. Ghoshal & Bruch (2003) cited Heckhausen,

Gollwitzer, and Weinert (1987) and also Heckhausen’s (n.d.)

study into the history of the concepts of “volition” and

“will.” In the psychological literature of the early 20th

and late 19th centuries, Hechkausen found that these were

8key terms (Ghoshal & Bruch, 2003), but that the term

“volition” disappeared by 1945 and “will” by 1970. Perhaps

future research will determine whether the construct purpose

in life is akin to, or synonymous, with volition. This

critical review, though, will assume them to be separate and

distinct domains, and volition will not be further examined.

The current research expectation is that theory and research

examining the suggested relationships will provide

information useful in answering the question posed in the

section titled Research Questions and Hypotheses.

Theoretical Foundations

The review proposes a research project to seek answers

to the question below, proving or disproving the stated

hypotheses. In preparation, this paper briefly examines

classic theoretical concepts put forward by several

researchers dealing with leadership style, purpose in life,

and worker motivation, including Vroom’s (1964; as cited by

Brooks & Betz, 1990; Harder, 1991) Value-Instrumentality-

Expectancy Theory (Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy ); Ryan

9and Deci’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory (SDT); Kelly’s

(1955/1963) Theory of Personal Construct Psychology

(Personal Construct Psychology); Maslow’s (1971, 1954/1970,

1995) Hierarchy of Needs; and Herzberg, Mausner, and Bloch

Snyderman’s (1959/1993) hygiene/motivation factors. Frankl’s

(1965, 1985a, 1985b, 1988) work on will-to-meaning is also

strongly considered in this review.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine whether

transformational versus transactional leadership style is

more impactful on increasing workers’ sense of purpose in

life and motivation. In this age of globalization, American

organizations face a greater than ever and continually

growing need to create and maintain competitive advantage.

And, while workers are essential in the creation of goods

and services, thus in competitive advantage, the literature

is clear that workers’ attitudes and beliefs strongly affect

their output (as described later when discussing The

Hawthorne Studies; Schulz & Schulz, 1998; Robbins, 1998). It

10is also clear in the literature that workers’ attitudes and

beliefs can be affected, not only by circumstances (as shown

in the Hawthorne Studies), but by their leaders as well. And

if leaders can effect change in workers attitudes and

beliefs, then it is logical to assume that finding the most

effective leadership model would benefit American

organizations in their efforts to create and maintain

competitive advantage. From the proposed research, it is

anticipated that a favored leadership style will emerge. It

is also anticipated that suggested directions for best

practices for hiring, employee relations, development, and

retention will emerge.

Statement of the Problem

Intensifying competition, rapidly changing technology,

and ever-increasing pressure to streamline and improve

productivity and quality while cutting costs is a driving

force in American organizations today. Through

globalization, many organizations are able to take advantage

of cheap, abundant, foreign labor, where technologically

11advanced processes permit production of consumer goods with

lower costs and equal or higher quality than that found in

American goods. Huyett & Viguerie (2005) call the arising

situation extreme competition. They also state that one of

the major ways for organizations to remain not only

competitive, but extant, is to manage costs; i.e., keeping

costs, such as compensation, as low as possible. Garelli

(2004) reported that while global manufacturing productivity

steadily has risen over the last three decades, the number

of workers steadily has declined. Steel production has

increased from 75 MM tons to over 100 MM tons, while the

number of workers in the industry has dropped from 289,000

to only 74,000.

In order to meet, and hopefully exceed, this extreme

competition, American workers, in every industry, are going

to have to continue to increase output and quality (Karim &

Kathawala, 2005). In order to do so, they will have to be

motivated to outwork their foreign counterparts. Intrinsic

motivation provides greater task-commitment, occupation-

12commitment, and organization-commitment than extrinsic

motivation (Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). Ireland and Hitt

(2005) identified one avenue to dealing with this extreme

competition—strategic leadership, which they defined as the

ability of a leader to ensure the viability of his or her

organization by anticipating future events, envisioning

successful outcomes, maintaining flexibility, employing

strategic thought processes, and engaging others to work for

planned and necessary changes. Engaging others in working

toward predetermined goals is one characteristic of a

Transformational leader. Persuading followers to align their

personal goals or purpose in life with the organizational

mission or vision is another. Ultimately, the strategic

leader would create circumstances under which the

organization would meet and overcome extreme competition by

aligning the personal goals or purpose in life of the entire

workforce with the organizational mission.

Leadership and management styles have been the subject

of significant research. These styles and their

13relationships to worker motivation have also been researched

in depth. However, less research has been directed toward

leadership styles and their relationships with workers’

sense of purpose in life. This study seeks to fill that void

by examining the ability of leaders to affect workers’ sense

of purpose in life, in hopes that by examining the

relationship of this construct to workers’ motivation as

well as its relationship to leadership style, a new

understanding of what is required to create and maintain

competitive advantage will be discovered.

The need of American organizations for maximum

productivity and quality on the part of the American

workforce is now greater than ever. Maximizing intrinsic

motivation in workers is the answer. Examining one way of

achieving that—professional operationalization of purpose in

life in alignment with organizational mission—is at the

heart of the proposed study. The first step in approaching

this subject, however, is to examine the difference between

14Transformational and Transactional leadership styles when

measuring purpose in life and worker motivation.

Research Questions:

In considering the hypothesized relationship between

Transformational and Transactional leadership styles when

measuring workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation,

the following question arises:

1. Is Transformational versus Transactional leadership

style more impactful on workers’ sense of purpose in

life and Motivation?

Hypotheses: The hypotheses for this study were:

Null Hypothesis One: There is not a significant difference

between the impact of Transformational versus Transactional

leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation.

Research Hypothesis One: There is a significant

difference between the impact of Transformational versus

Transactional leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose

in life and motivation.

15Operational Definition of Terms

Amotivation: Amotivation is the opposite of motivation,

or self-determination, and can be characterized by active

unwillingness and uninterested compliance.

Extrinsic Motivation. Extrinsic motivation describes

incentives to act which originate outside the organism.

Intrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic motivation has been defined

as a value-related construct subsumed by motivation, which

tends to produce actions that fulfill or agree with peoples’

value systems and enhances performance (Wigfield & Guthrie,

1997).

Motivation. Motivation is the construct describing

“forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and

direct behavior” (Petri, 1996, p. 3).

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors. Organizational citizenship

behaviors were described by Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) as

self-directed behaviors which will benefit the organization

but have no tie to any external rewards.

Purpose. Purpose is the driver of motivation, whether

16individual or organizational. One might be said to act due

to motivation generated by a need to fulfill his or her

purpose.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a theory posited by

Deci and Ryan (2000) which states that individuals are

motivated by three needs: autonomy, relatedness, and

competence.

Transactional Leadership. Transactional leadership is a

leadership style based on a value exchange—a leader provides

a reward or withholds a negative consequence of some sort,

and a follower provides the leader’s desired result or

outcome.

Transformational Leadership. Transformational leadership is a

leadership style based on empowering followers and providing

them with the opportunity to participate in their own job

description and career development. Transformational leaders

also seem to have greater concern for their followers than

Transactional leaders and work harder to develop followers

than their Transformational counterparts.

17Worker Motivation. Worker motivation can be described as a

worker’s determination to complete a task successfully.

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study

All research endeavors require certain assumptions to

be held in common before beginning. For this proposed study,

it is assumed that Transformational and Transactional

leadership environments can be quantified and identified

using existing instruments; that the constructs purpose in

life and worker motivation can be, and have been,

empirically quantified and measured; and that individuals’

purpose in life and worker motivation can be affected by

external factors. It is further assumed that the differences

between Transformational and Transactional leadership styles

when measuring workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation can be identified, measured, quantified, and

analyzed. It is finally assumed that determining the

existence of a difference between leadership styles when

measuring workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation

will benefit leaders, followers, and the organizations for

18which they work. Ultimately, it is expected that such

findings would benefit American organizations in general.

Several limitations presented themselves when

considering the constructs being examined and the method of

data gathering. One such limitation is that the construct

purpose in life, while quantifiable and measurable, is

easily misconstrued as short-term, long-term, or even

lifetime-goals. Barring very clear instructions when data

gathering, misconstrual of this construct could skew

results. Another potential limitation is the definition and

identification of worker motivation. Since worker motivation

has traditionally been measured by a variety of measures and

in a variety of ways, the findings might be less than

universally applicable, whatever the sample size. One

additional limitation is that data gathering via the

Internet will render control over the sample population less

rigorous than might be attained in a controlled experiment.

Finally, there is always a danger of false reporting in

self-assessment or self-report surveys.

19Significance of the Study

The literature review revealed no research dealing with

the relationship between Transformational and Transactional

leadership styles when measuring workers’ sense of purpose

in life and motivation. Quantitative research into this

relationship would help quantify it and, possibly,

illuminate a path for future organizational interventions

designed to examine and alter leadership style to better

discover and professional operationalization of purpose in

life, worker motivation, job- and organization-fit, and job

satisfaction.

Aside from laying the groundwork for the proposed

research, the intended contribution of this thesis is to

assist American organizations and their workers in

increasing their competitive edge. This is to be

accomplished through the promotion of the Transformational

leadership style by uncovering the presence of elevated

levels of workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation

in a Transformational leadership environment. Such an

20outcome could contribute to significant reductions in

intention to quit, tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover, and

increase levels of job satisfaction and occupation-

commitment and organization-commitment. The cost savings

afforded American businesses by realizing these ideals could

well be the competitive edge that sustains America’s global

superiority in the business world throughout this century

and beyond. If organizations can identify successful

strategies for increasing workers’ sense of purpose in life

and motivation through leadership style, significant

reductions in job-related stress and concomitant reductions

in such mental-health related issues as burnout can be

expected.

Summary

This critical review is aimed at providing a framework

within which proposed research can be performed to determine

what relationship, if any, exists between Transformational

and Transactional leadership styles when measuring workers’

sense of purpose in life and motivation. The answers to the

21research question promise to aid American organizations and

their workers in developing and honing a competitive edge in

global markets by increasing job- and organization-fit, job

satisfaction, and worker motivation, thus increasing

productivity and quality of goods and services. While

purpose in life, worker motivation, and Transformational and

Transactional leadership styles, individually, have been

well researched, the literature review revealed no specific

research addressing the stated hypotheses.

Chapter 2 provides an in-depth examination of the

literature regarding Transformational and Transactional

leadership styles and the constructs purpose in life and

worker motivation. The theoretical framework within which

the constructs and leadership styles are viewed will also be

discussed; e.g., Frankl’s (1965, 1985a, 1985b, 1988) Will-

to-Meaning, Vroom’s (1964; as cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990

and Harder, 1991) Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory

(Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy ), Ryan and Deci’s (2000)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Kelly’s (1955/1963) Theory

22of Personal Construct Psychology, Maslow’s (1971, 1954/1970,

1995) Hierarchy of Needs, and Herzberg, Mausner, and Bloch

Snyderman’s (1959/1993) Hygiene/Motivation factors.

23CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This review examines literature regarding the between-

group relationship of Transformational and Transactional

leadership styles when measuring workers’ sense of purpose

in life and motivation. The literature has shown that,

characteristically, Transformational leaders are more likely

to know their followers’ desires, needs, and capabilities

two levels of management hierarchy deep as compared to

Transactional leaders, to whom subordinates and incentives

are merely means to an end. Transformational leaders

increase performance levels by inspiring and empowering

followers and can assist them in discovering and

professionalization of purpose in life and increasing worker

motivation. Literature discussing purpose in life suggests

that individuals with a sense of purpose in life are

happier, better adjusted, and live lives more intrinsically

directed. The literature also suggests that intrinsic

24motivation is more likely to drive long-term commitment to

tasks and organizations and to generate higher levels of

happiness and life satisfaction (leadership style) than

extrinsic motivation. Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude

that if workers discover their purpose in life and express

it through their work, then intrinsic motivation, task

commitment, occupation-commitment, organization-commitment,

worker motivation, happiness and life satisfaction would all

increase.

Organization of the Chapter

This chapter describes classic and contemporary studies

regarding Transformational and Transactional leadership

styles, and the constructs purpose in life and worker

motivation. Background information, past research, and

contemporary views on leadership styles and both constructs

are presented.

Burns’s (1979) and Bass’s (1985) groundbreaking works

on Transformational and Transactional leadership styles are

examined as well as several theories regarding purpose in

25life and worker motivation, including, among others:

Frankl’s (1955/1965, 1978, 1985, 1988) work on meaning in

life; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1954/1970); and

Kelly’s Theory of Personality Constructs, (Kelly,

1955/1963).

Literature Search Strategy

Searches were performed on EBSCO databases Academic

Search Premier, Business Source Premier, PsycINFO, and

PSYCArticles, for the terms transformational leader,

transforming leader, transactional leader, leadership,

motivation, work motivation, worker motivation, motivation

to work, employee motivation, job satisfaction,

organizational commitment, occupational commitment, purpose,

purpose in life, meaning, meaning in life, life meaning,

mission, life satisfaction, happiness, expectancy theory,

self-determination theory, self-determination, self-esteem,

self-regulation, and sample size determination. All

searches were limited to full text articles, and where

appropriate, no articles were included from earlier than

26January, 2002. Additionally, several books were included by

researchers such as Maslow, Burns, Bass, Frankl, and Kelly.

Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles

Leadership Styles Background

The Transformational leadership style is best

understood in the context of its relationship to the

Transactional style. The progenitor of transformational or

transforming leadership as a research topic was James

MacGregor Burns (1979). Burns was struck by the fact that,

prior to his work, studies on leadership had all too

frequently taken the form of biographies of what he called

“titans”—e.g., Churchill, Roosevelt, Einstein, and others.

Such studies tended to be based, he said, on the idea that

leaders were somehow representatives of their followers. The

literature on followers tended to focus on the masses,

audiences, or voters, and was done through opinion polls or

the like. The outcome of these positions seemed to evoke or

perpetuate elitist and anti-elitist groupings or ideologies

regarding leaders and followers, respectively.

27Burns’s (1979) work in leadership can be likened to

excavating a building site. Bass’s (1985) studies, which

examined two styles of leadership in particular,

Transformational and Transactional leadership, can be

likened to laying the foundation for the current structure

of psychological, sociological, and organizational research

into Leadership styles and their effects on followers.

Leadership Styles Past Research

The purpose of Burns’s (1979) seminal treatise on

Transformational and Transactional leadership styles was to

unite the two bodies of literature—the literature on

leadership and the literature on followership—so the effects

of leadership and followership on one another could be

studied. He also wanted to see leadership viewed not by

popular opinion or reputation, but, instead, by the real

changes brought about in society by leaders and how well

they satisfied others’ needs and expectations.

Burns (1979) examined leadership as a construct

separate from simple brute force and authority over others,

28or power-holding. He called the former transforming and the

latter transactional. The Transformational leader identified

and met the needs and expectations of followers. This leader

also ferreted out followers’ motives, worked to fulfill

followers’ higher needs, and assisted followers in becoming

fully engaged. From this transformational relationship, the

leader might well become a moral agent, and followers be

groomed to become leaders. The Transactional leader, on the

other hand, simply entered into transactions where leader

and follower exchanged things of value; e.g., output for

paycheck, work for political support, etc..

Transactional Leadership: Burns defined Transactional

leadership as what happens “when one person takes the

initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of

an exchange of valued things” (1979, p. 19). Schulz and

Schulz (1998) described Transactional leaders as focused “on

the social transactions or exchanges between leaders and

followers” (p. 211). In other words, there is a transaction

that occurs between transactional leaders and their

29followers, and central to the level of leadership

effectiveness, in this style, is the level of perceived

authority in the leader by subordinates. Transactional

leaders are commonly referred to as managers. They create

relationships with subordinates based on give and take.

Extrinsic or contingent rewards figure heavily in these

relationships.

As of Bass’s (1985) writing, charismatic leadership

previously had been discouraged in the corporate world and

essentially ignored by organizational psychology. The

prevailing view of leadership was to attain results by

punishment or reward—Transactional leadership style. Such

relationships involve regular meetings between parties to

transmit expectations and describe consequences (whether

good or bad). In other words, Transactional leadership style

involves an exchange—e.g., productivity for compensation.

Transactional leaders know what their subordinates must

do to achieve objectives. They clarify goals and activities.

They also know how the subordinates’ wants and needs will be

30satisfied by successful outcomes and relate this to

subordinates. Bass (1985) outlined several problems present

in the Transactional leadership model. Among them were that

Transactional leadership adherents frequently don’t fully

utilize the tools of the model. Also, when utilizing

management by exception, they typically interact with

negative feedback, thus undermining employee morale.

Managers give negative feedback, but it is perceived as

complaining instead of offering solutions to shortcomings.

The Transactional leadership manager is less likely to take

into account individual differences in relation to receiving

feedback, whether positive or negative. The weight placed on

input varies among up to down, down to up, and laterally. In

other words, supervisors value their comments to

subordinates more than from co-workers, whereas subordinates

better accept lateral comments than from up to down.

Transactional leaders are likely to abandon this model when

non-contingent rewards result in performance improvements.

When Transactional leaders utilize aversive reinforcement

31(consequences to be avoided) success plummets; and simple

contrariness in subordinates could lead to conscious efforts

to undermine productivity.

Both Transformational and Transactional leadership

styles aim to improve productivity, morale, loyalty, and

commitment. But, per Bass (1985), a Transactional leader

will tend to inspire improvements of a magnitude lower than

Transformational leaders. A survey of 845 Americans from the

working class indicated that simple transactions (i.e.,

compensation for productivity) were not sufficient to

motivate them. Level of effort in work was found to have

little correlation to level of earnings. Transformational

leadership style, conversely, achieves more desirable

results on nearly all fronts using a significantly different

approach to leader/follower relationships.

Transformational Leadership: Burns (1979) defined

Transformational leadership as when “persons engage with

others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one

another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p.

3220). Popper, Mayseless, and Castelnovo (2000) found two

common characteristics among those who became

Transformational leaders. The first was a high level of

self-regard and self-assurance. The second was a high level

of interest in others’ well-being and a tendency to invest

time and energy in developing relationships with others.

Bass (1985) suggested that Transformational leaders focused

on transforming and redirecting the thoughts and actions of

their followers. From this perspective, the ability of a

Transformational leader to lead is not based on followers’

perceptions of authority. Rather, it is based on a

Transformational leader’s ability to inspire followers. Some

leaders balance the development of themselves and their

subordinates, raising the aspirations of both leader and led

in the process (Burns, 1978; as cited by Bass, 1985; Bass,

1985). Transformational leaders also seek to bring out the

best in a person in accordance with Maslow’s (1954; as cited

by Spinelli, 2006) Hierarchy of Needs.

Popper, et. al. (2000) cited several researchers (Bass,

331995; Bass & Avolio, 1990; Yammarino & Bass, 1990) in

listing numerous characteristics commonly found in

Transformational leaders. Among them were empowering

followers, encouraging followers to perform beyond

expectations, having vision, inspiring respect and trust in

underlings, and motivating them to work at greater levels,

put out more effort, and be more committed. Charisma was

also found to be a common characteristic. Transformational

leaders also exhibited an ability to anticipate the

needs/desires of their followers, to meet those

needs/desires, and thus guide followers into greater

intrinsic willingness to perform above expectations.

Transformational leaders create leader/follower

relationships in which intrinsic motivation seems to play a

large part (Popper, et. al., 2000).

Burns (1979) was not writing with an eye to

revolutionizing the field of business management. He was

writing to address leadership, especially political

leadership. In fact, he referred to Transformational

34leadership as transforming leadership. One facet of

leadership he addressed was the intellectual aspect. For

Burns (1979) the idea was that, like the intellectuals who

shape their time, transforming leaders engage with what we

would today refer to as stakeholders in general and society

at large. They seek to change their surroundings for the

better. The way to judge successful intellectual leadership

is to determine the presence of a capacity for conceiving

values and purpose in such a way as to link means and ends

with creativity and analysis.

Burns (1979) saw another aspect or facet of

transforming leadership, and that was reform leadership.

This leader must learn from and teach followers, arouse

hopes among followers, and then seek to fulfill those hopes

through change. Implicit in the label reform leader, is the

idea of moral leadership. Burns (1979) held that the moral

leader gives up many means, owing to the high moral level of

his proposed ends. After all, a moral leader could hardly

justify stooping to immoral means to achieve a moral end. In

35other words, the straight and narrow becomes the only way

open to the moral, reforming, transforming leader.

Burns (1979) likened transforming leaders to heroes,

and recounted Freud’s encounter with Michelangelo’s statue

of Moses. Freud’s later publication depicted Moses as “a

great man acting in the network of determining historical

causes” (Burns, 1979, p. 241). Freud saw Moses as the first

charismatic leader, affecting history with not just the

ideology he represented, but also with the strength of his

personality. In describing Moses (or the charismatic

leader), Burns (1979) used such labels as “spiritual and

political father of his people” (p. 242), lawgiver,

authority, statesman, ikon, idol, prophet, and revealer.

Other heroic figures cited, to build a foundation for the

idea of a transforming leader’s characteristics, included

Joan of Arc, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, Gandhi, and John F.

Kennedy.

One more type of transforming leader is the ideological

leader. This leader is not driven by the idea of leading,

36but rather by some fundamental social change she or he is

committed to. This type of leader is more markedly close-

knit to followers, and conflict—both internal and external

to the organization—is constant and sometimes fierce. In

this case, a leader’s success is marked only by the degree

of social change promulgated—how well the ideology is able

to move forward on a larger scale. In Bass’s (1985) writing,

the term used was transformational leader.

Yammarino and Bass (1990; as cited by Popper, et. al.,

2000) and Bycio, Hackett, and Allen (1995; also as cited by

Popper, et. al., 2000) indicated that Transformational

leaders scored higher than Transactional leaders in several

leadership variables. Among them were the level of leader

effectiveness as perceived by followers, the level of

satisfaction with leaders among followers, and perceived

self-efficacy of followers. Bass and Avolio (1993; as cited

by Popper, et. al., 2000) indicated that followers’

performance and behavior measures were also better in

Transformational leadership relationships. Followers also

37experienced elevated levels of attitude, values, and self-

concept. Further, there was found to be a greater sense of

equality and justice among these followers than among those

in transactional situations.

Bass (1985) conducted a survey of 176 former high-level

U.S. military leaders and found five characteristics of

leadership. Two were transactional, and the other three were

transformational. Interestingly, the latter three were more

often observed in combat units than in support units. They

were: charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual

consideration. These characteristics were briefly

characterized, respectively, as arousing trust, pride,

faith, loyalty, and enthusiasm; maintaining an

individualistic and developmental orientation toward

followers; and enhancing subordinates’ problem-solving

abilities. The military leaders previously mentioned

indicated that these three characteristics were more closely

related to unit effectiveness than were the transactional

characteristics. Similar results were found in followers’

38satisfaction with leaders. Bass (1985) also found similar

results in a survey of over 300 leaders in business,

education administration, and professional fields. It was

also found that even when using transactional methodology,

Transformational leaders were likely to produce better

results among followers.

In response to a survey presented by Bass (1985), 70

senior executives indicated that a Transformational leader

could inspire followers to “do more than they ever expected

to do (p. 31)” and even work excessive hours, but more

importantly, to do so gladly. Many indicated that a

protective parent-protected child bond seemed to grow

between them and the Transformational leaders they had

known. Their awareness of performance was increased, and

thus their ability to perform was enhanced. The quality of

their output improved as well as their level of

innovativeness. Among the qualities seen in Transformational

leaders were integrity, fairness, equality, high standards

of performance, encouragement, building of confidence,

39empowerment, firmness, informal, and accessible. From these

qualities, the Transformational leader was likely to enjoy

high levels of liking, loyalty, admiration, trust, and

respect from followers.

Schulz and Schulz (1998) listed three components of

Transformational leadership: charisma, individualized

consideration, and intellectual stimulation. A

Transformational leader is charismatic and inspires

confidence and action in followers. This is achieved in part

by giving individualized support and attention to followers—

or at least giving them the feeling they’ve received it.

Finally, the Transformational leader causes followers to

think—some for the first time—but more importantly, to think

about how their tasks relate to those around them and how to

improve their efficiency and productivity. Bycio, Hackett,

and Allen (1995; as cited by Schulz & Schulz, 1998) stated

that there is a high degree of correlation among these three

components.

40Popper, et. al. (2000), described similarities between

the characteristics of Transformational leaders and an

aspect of attachment theory, specifically secure attachment.

Their study showed that a trusted parent and

Transformational leaders shared the ability to instill

trust, respect, and a desire to perform in those they lead.

Charisma: Among the three characteristics of

Transformational leaders, Bass (1985) found the most

important one to be charisma. Among those characteristics

which separated a charismatic or Transformational leader

from a Transactional leader were: the ability to evoke

intense feelings among followers (either love or hate); a

desire to be identified with the leader; and greater

turbulence in the relationship. Within the domain of

charisma, Bass (1985) listed the following components: self-

confidence, self-determination, mastery of task-specific

abilities, high esteem in the eyes of followers, and an

“absence of inner conflict” (p. 35). A charismatic leader

was said to be able to transform follower motivation beyond

41previous levels by using appeals and support of an emotional

nature. Across civil and military lines, charismatic leaders

were described by their followers as being able to inspire

project enthusiasm and organization-commitment, command

respect, be aware of the really important things, maintain

an awareness of mission which excites followers to respond,

inspire faith in followers and their abilities to overcome

obstacles and pride in association with themselves among

followers.

Popper, et. al. (2000), found the charismatic factor to

be divided into two components, the first being idealized

influence and the second being inspirational motivation.

Leaders using idealized influence seek to fulfill the needs

of others before their own. They don’t use their power and

position for personal aggrandizement or gain. They challenge

their followers with growth-oriented goals and act in highly

ethical and moral ways. The second component—and the more

impactful one for this critical review—is inspirational

motivation which means giving meaning to individuals’

42efforts (or perhaps even their lives) and challenging them.

The ways of accomplishing this include expressing optimism

and enthusiasm, displaying commitment to shared goals—goals

which followers were involved in creating, expecting greater

performance than followers knew they were capable of, and

clearly communicating those expectations.

Individual Consideration: Bass (1985) indicated that

Transformational leaders utilize a developmental approach

with followers; i.e., seeking not only top performance today

and continued improvement tomorrow, but advancement in the

future—greater levels of responsibility within the

organization. By setting examples, assigning tasks, and

expecting greater achievements on an individualized basis,

Transformational leaders draw forth the inner potential of

their followers. In other words, followers will stretch

beyond previously accepted limits. Serving as a role model

or mentor, Transformational leaders teach followers how to

become leaders themselves. Being familiar with subordinates

at least two levels deep and becoming aware of each one’s

43motivational factors is critical, Bass (1985) felt, and the

interest shown and time given has to be genuine.

Another aspect of individual consideration is

communication. Transformational leaders tend to keep

subordinates informed of developments and do so using two-

way communications rather than merely dispensing

information. This way, followers feel more a part of the

process and are both more likely to give buy-in and less

likely to be surprised by changes. This type of person-to-

person communication also gives leaders the opportunity to

remain more aware of subordinates’ concerns.

In an era when fitting the corporate mold was

tantamount to success, Bass (1985) was proposing that

individualism be encouraged. His idea was that among

subordinates in any organization would be found individuals

with the potential to be good or even great leaders. And,

for any organization to survive, he held, such leaders would

have to be found and prepared for the leadership roles they

would eventually be expected to fill.

44Intellectual Stimulation: Bass (1985) described intellectual

stimulation as the effect a Transformational Leadership has

on followers’ awareness of situations, problems, solutions,

and generally, their overall thought processes. The leader

arouses an awareness of and new approaches to problems and

potential solutions. This stimulation was said to increase

followers’ imaginations and understandings. Essentially,

this intellectual stimulation is not a mere call to thought,

but a quantum leap to a new level of thought.

It is incumbent on the Transformational leader, said

Bass (1985), to maintain a keen awareness of the range of

organizational strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and

threats and to articulate them to followers. More than this,

though, it was seen as critical for Transformational leaders

to foment the formulation of high quality solutions to the

problems facing organizations or units within organizations.

One consideration Bass (1985) mentioned within this

factor of Transformational leadership was the different

approach toward risk taking. Transformational leaders were

45seen as more likely to take greater risks for possible

desired outcomes versus Transactional leaders or managers

who were more likely to focus on actions they viewed as more

highly probable to succeed. In other words, status quo is

less important to a Transformational leader while efficiency

and guaranteed effectiveness are more important to a

Transactional manager—proactive and innovation oriented

versus reactive and maintenance oriented.

Morality: Burns (1979) spoke eloquently about moral

leadership. His ultimate definition was that it was a kind

of leadership which worked to fulfill the authentic needs of

followers. This type of leadership works at levels higher

than followers’ identified needs and values. For example, a

person who has not had their lower order needs fulfilled,

might, through the influence of a moral leader, seek to

fulfill some higher order need first—ignoring hunger in the

belly to march for justice and freedom. Moral leadership

takes advantage of followers’ inner tension and conflict

regarding their value structures. Finding incongruence

46between a person’s actions and values, such a leader might

exploit this apparent conflict to draw the follower into

action, creating directed change. Such a leader will

recognize real needs, discover and take advantage of

followers’ inner conflicts, help followers realign their

values to the group values, reorganize organizations or

institutions, and guide change. Some moral leaders are also

charismatic leaders.

Charismatic leaders have the ability to elevate the

levels of certain needs in followers. Then through the

corporate milieu, they can provide followers with the

opportunity to fulfill those needs (Burns, 1978; as cited by

Bass, 1985). The exercise of this ability, though, can be

moral or immoral (Bass, 1985). Burns (1978; as cited by

Bass, 1985) held that moral leadership focuses on

individuals’ rights, dignity, and true needs and provides

for informed choice. Followers of a moral leader will likely

experience their fundamental needs being addressed. Indeed,

such leadership will assist them in identifying their

47fundamental values and working to align their behaviors with

those values. The changes a moral leader seeks to implement

will be ethical, and they will make the organization

stronger and more viable, adding value to goods and

services, and improving the position of stakeholders.

The type of charisma Popper, et. al. (2000), identified

with Transformational leaders was also known as socialized

charisma as opposed to personalized charismatic leaders. The

difference was, as stated above, that socialized leaders are

committed to the welfare of their followers and the

organization, not just their own. Some of the activities of

the socialized charismatic leader include: serving others

with the power of leadership, aligning the leader’s vision

with the wants and needs of followers, communicating with

and listening to followers, and living according to high

ethical standards.

48Leadership Styles Contemporary Perspectives

A separate search was performed on EBSCO databases Academic

Search Premier, Business Source Premier, PsycINFO, and

PSYCArticles, searching for the terms “transformational

leaders” or “transforming leaders.” The search was limited

to full text articles no earlier than January, 2002, and it

returned 313 results. Clearly there is still much interest

in Burns’s (1979) and Bass’s (1985) concept of the

Transformational leadership style. Among those articles

returned, several showed not only the present utilization of

the Transformational leadership style, but also future

expectations.

Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) examined the mediating

effects of core job characteristics in a Transformational

leadership environment. They pointed out that over the past

twenty years, Transformational leadership theory has moved

to the forefront as a management theory. They cited several

authors (Fuller, Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996; Lowe,

Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996) when stating that there is

49a proven positive association between the behaviors of

followers and Transformational leaders. Another finding in

their literature review was that followers’ actions tended

to be affected by their feelings toward Transformational

leaders as well as their feelings about themselves (and

their group) based on Transformational leaders behaviors

(Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006).

Since Burns’s initial recognition of transforming or

transformational leadership, Transformational leadership

theory has been refined to include four primary

characteristics: Idealized influence, Inspirational

motivation, Intellectual stimulation, and Individualized

consideration (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Most salient to

this review, Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) cited Smircich and

Morgan (1982) when pointing out that Transformational

leaders had the capability of generating and activating

purpose for followers. They cited Griffin (1981) when

stating that Transformational leaders can affect job

performance without changing job characteristics. Further,

50they cited various authors (Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993;

Bono & Judge, 2003) in stating that Transformational leaders

can verbally persuade followers to view organizational

values as in alignment with their own and can affect the way

in which followers view their work environment.

Additionally, in keeping with Ryan and Deci’s (2000) Self-

Determination Theory, Transformational leaders are able to

promote a feeling of autonomy in followers.

Testing 283 individuals from a variety of work

backgrounds, Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) found a positive

correlation between Transformational leadership

characteristics and core job characteristics; i.e.,

individuals scored higher in the five core job

characteristics areas (variety, feedback, autonomy,

identity, and significance) in a Transformational leadership

environment. More importantly, core job characteristics are

positively correlated with intrinsic motivation. Hackman and

Oldham (1976; as cited by Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006)

suggested that employees with intrinsic motivation would be

51more effective than those motivated otherwise. Piccolo and

Colquitt (2006) also found a positive relationship between

intrinsic motivation and organizational citizenship

behaviors.

Spinelli (2006) surveyed 101 hospital managers,

examining the relationships between the independent

variable, management style (Transformational leadership,

Transactional leadership, and laissez-faire), and three

dependent variables (follower satisfaction with leaders,

perceived leader effectiveness, and willingness to put out

extra effort). He found significant positive correlations

between the Transformational leadership style and the three

dependent variables. The same was not true of the other two

leadership styles. Transformational leadership scored

higher.

Masood, Dani, Burns, and Backhouse (2006) surveyed 339

workers in manufacturing settings, and from those

respondents, surveyed 76 leaders, who, based on their

responses were separated into Transformational and

52Transactional leaders. They were examining the relationship

between leadership style and situational strength. They

cited Fiedler (1967) as having first recognized the

importance of situation in leaders’ effectiveness. Task,

environment, rules and regulations are some of the

components of situation. The importance of situation in

determining a leader’s effectiveness is delineated between

weak and strong situation. High situational strength, in and

of itself, demands certain responses from leaders and

followers. Low situational strength, on the other hand, does

not provide such contextual clues and requires individuals

to respond according to some other motivation. Strong

situations tend to override individual differences, whereas

weak situations tend to emphasize individual differences. It

was found that 65% of Transformational leaders preferred

weak situational strength compared to 74% of Transactional

leaders who preferred strong situational strength. This

markedly illustrates the difference in character strengths

between Transformational and Transactional leaders. The

53former feels comfortable relying on inner strengths and

individual differences to direct outcomes, absent of

situational factors, whereas the latter feels more

comfortable allowing circumstances to lead to desired

outcomes.

Kelloway, Mullen, and Francis (2006) cited Zohar (2000,

2002a, 2002b) in an examination of the relationship between

leadership and safety related incidents. It was shown that

Transformational leadership style and contingency-based

leadership affect safety related incidents positively where

laissez-faire and management by exception both affect safety

related incidents negatively. In other words, when engaged

in consciousness-raising activities, Transformational

leadership style management can cause reductions in

accidents and increase work-place safety.

Perhaps, of all the literature reviewed, Parry and

Sinha’s (2005) research into training up Transformational

leaders is the most salient to the present critical review

and proposed research. They cited Conger and Benjamin (1999)

54and Freidman (2000) when pointing out that organizations

were having to adapt to change at startling speeds to remain

competitive and that strong leadership was key to

maintaining a competitive edge.

In a quasi-field, pre-test/post-test experiment, they

employed the Full Range Leadership Development program to

affect changes in leader behaviors. The Full Range

Leadership Development program was designed by Avolio and

Bass (1991; as cited by Parry & Sinha, 2005) to train

Transformational leaders. The idea was that by educating and

then training leaders in Transformational leadership

characteristics, or factors, they could then develop into

Transformational leaders themselves. However, prior to Parry

and Sinha’s (2005) research, there remained the question of

whether such training was actually effective, since reports

of effectiveness were based on self-report and the fact that

training was general, not pin-pointed.

Parry and Sinha (2005) led a two-day intensive

workshop, during which mid-level managers from both the

55private and public sector were introduced to the concept of

leadership at the macro level, then to Transformational and

Transactional leadership styles. Next, they were introduced

to factors of each style of leadership, and finally to

behaviors specific to each style and factor. The authors

also obtained agreement from 50 participants in seven

cohorts, and their organizations, to conduct a three-month

research continuation. During this time, the participants

created a personal development plan, set goals, and

implemented proposed behavioral changes around two of the

five factors of Transformational leadership behaviors. The

five factors identified were Idealized attributes, Idealized

behavior, Inspirational motivation, Intellectual

stimulation, and Individualized consideration.

The pre-test benchmark scores were obtained by

administering the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to

the participants and up to 12 of their immediate colleagues.

The results provided a 360-degree profile from which to

judge the effectiveness of training. The authors wanted to

56determine: the effectiveness of the Full Range Leadership

Development program; whether or not Transformational

leadership training impacted Transactional leadership

behaviors; which, if any, Transformational leadership

factors or behaviors changed after training; the impact of

goal-setting on the effects of Transformational leadership

training; and whether or not coaching affected training

outcomes.

The results showed that the program was effective

across all cohorts and all dimensions of Transformational

leadership behaviors—not only did the chosen behaviors

change, but so did all other identified behaviors.

Transformational leaders can be trained up. The change in

all factors is particularly significant since each

participant only chose two dimensions to address in their

development and action plans. It was also found that

Transactional leadership behaviors changed more based on

organizational structure than on Transformational leadership

training. Strikingly, Parry and Sinha (2005) concluded that

57“one can increase the two outcomes of ‘follower extra

effort’ and ‘satisfaction with leadership’ as a result of

the Full Range Leadership Development intervention” (p.

179). Additionally, they concluded that Transactional

leadership outcomes do not necessarily decrease with the

increase of Transformational leadership behaviors. It is

important to remember that Transformational leadership

characteristics are additional to Transactional leadership

characteristics, not opposed to.

As can be seen from these examples of contemporary

literature on Transformational and Transactional leadership

styles, interest in leadership styles in general, and

Transformational leadership style in particular, is growing

in intensity. The effects of leadership on organizational

direction and outcomes have long been acknowledged and

researched (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Now, we are left with

the task of continuing and refining research directions and

utilizing research to design and implement interventions.

58Purpose In Life

Purpose In Life Background

Individual Purpose. purpose in life is the motivating

factor behind one’s pursuit of a desired lifestyle. Simply

put, purpose in life is one’s reason for being or doing any

thing. It is “the innate desire to give as much meaning as

possible to one’s life” (Frankl, 1955/1965, p. x). Frankl

(1955/1965) said that people with a purpose in life differed

from those without a purpose in life in the sense that the

former were on a mission as opposed to merely seeing life as

drudgery and a task, like the latter.

Jackson and Coursey (1988) cited Frankl’s (1959) view

that religious beliefs provided individuals with meaning or

purpose in life. They also cited Bolt’s (1975) empirical

support of Frankl’s (1959) caveat that religion must be

authentic to provide a purpose in life. It is through

religion that many seek a relationship with a higher power,

while some hold that the search for a higher power is innate

(Barness, 2006). Thus we see one approach to how purpose in

59life might be discovered or instilled—the path of believing

in something greater than oneself. Ultimately, some might

consider a significant other or organization to be that

which is greater than oneself. In other words, it might be

from this external source that one draws their meaning or

purpose in life (Frankl, 1985a).

Jackson and Coursey (1988) cited Pargament, Kennell,

Hathaway, Grevengoed, Newman, and Jones’s (1988) work, which

delineated three approaches to problem solving as related to

religious beliefs. The approaches had to do with whose

activity in one’s life had the greatest influence on

outcomes. Those approaches were: collaborative problem-

solving, deferring problem-solving, and self-directing

problem-solving, which respectively meant high self-

influence, high God-influence; low self-influence, high God-

influence; and high self-influence, low God-influence.

Germane to this critical review is the result of multiple-

regression analyses of the variables collaborative problem-

solving as related to religious beliefs and purpose in life.

60Jackson and Coursey (1988) found a significant positive

relationship between collaborative problem-solving and

purpose in life. They also pointed out the similarity

between high self-influence (seen in collaborative problem-

solving) and internal locus of control. The implication here

is that as internal locus of control increases along with

belief in some greater power (and one’s ability to work

alongside that power as a collaborative partner), one’s

sense of purpose in life is enhanced—or at least the process

of having one or finding it is.

Organizations and Purpose. Collins and Porras (1997), in

their discussion of successful organizations, defined

purpose as the “…fundamental [reason] for existence … a

perpetual guiding star on the horizon; not to be confused

with specific goals or … strategies” (p. 73). Frankl

(1955/1965, 1978, 1985) referred to purpose as meaning—

specifically, meaning in one’s life. This critical review

and proposed research consider purpose to be the reason for

61being that individuals or organizations attach to their

lives.

De Geus (1997) and Senge (1990) found vision to be

critical to corporate success. Vision, in this context,

could be considered the equivalent of purpose in life in

individuals. De Geus (1997) reported that organizations,

which were extant beyond 40-50 years, had a vision and

strove to fulfill that vision—much as individuals with

purpose in life strive to fulfill theirs.

Purpose In Life Past Research

Frankl (1985) spoke of what he called the will to

meaning, which he described as an innate desire to find

meaning in life, something present in every individual. He

stated, “Man’s search for meaning is the primary motivation

in his life…” (p. 121). He also identified three levels of

human existence, which could provide this meaning to

individuals: instinctual drives, values, and the will to

meaning. However, he pointed out that, through societal

62development, instinct and values have been rendered

ineffectual in providing individuals with meaning.

Instinct: At one time, instinctual drives, resulting from

genetic input, provided people with meaning in life and

clear direction for their activities. Originally, men hunted

and gathered. Subsistence was their work; survival was their

meaning. Later, growing and harvesting crops—agriculture—

became men’s work. There was a direct and tangible link

between work and survival.

Then a break occurred in the link between “meaning in

work” and survival. Crafts and trades developed, which led

to the trading of goods and services—mercantilism—and

agriculture as vocation was, by and large, supplanted.

Finally, the industrial revolution—with all its subsequent

technological innovations and revolutions—created jobs. Work

was divorced from meaning in men’s lives as it related to

survival. Work was merely a means to an end—men earned money

to exchange for food. The sense of meaning was lost.

63As example of this, Frankl (1955/1965) referred to a

neurosis he labeled the unemployment neurosis. This neurosis

is the result of loss of identification during periods of

unemployment. He stated that this neurosis is also present

in the empty feeling some people experience on Sunday

evenings, when the busy-ness of the weekend is over and the

occupation of the weekday has yet to begin. During this

time, people are left alone to face their own inner

emptiness—or fullness as the case may be. In these times

(unemployment and Sunday evenings), those who have not

discovered meaning in their lives, apart from their

occupation, discover the failure of their lives to provide

them with meaning. They discover that society and job have

been unable to deliver the meaning each one seeks.

Values: Individuals’ values once arose from the

traditions their societies provided. These traditions helped

people know and understand their place and role in society,

what was expected of them, and how to act in their day-to-

day lives. Cultures dictated meaning for most individuals.

64However, in modern society, just like instinct, much of

tradition has been lost as well. This means that individuals

are not receiving meaning or direction from either instincts

or values. This lack leads to what Frankl (1985) referred to

as an existential vacuum. This existential vacuum—or sense

of futility—has led to a great sense of meaninglessness in

society, mass neuroses, and even increasing suicides,

particularly among the younger generation.

Meaning: It is only meaning which provides happiness and

the motivation to persist in the face of adversity or to

persist in goal pursuit in the face of obstacles.

Depression, aggression, and addiction have all been shown to

flourish when individuals feel their lives are without

purpose or meaning. Thus, finding meaning is not only

useful, but essential in the ultimate well-being of both

individuals and society (Frankl, 1985a). Yalom (1998)

pointed out that physiologically, our nervous systems

naturally seek to create order or meaning in incoming

stimuli. The meaning which results gives us a sense of

65control or mastery over our lives and environment. It is

from this perception of meaning that values arise.

Validation Of The Construct “Will To Meaning”: Crumbaugh and

Maholick (1981; as cited by Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann,

2000) found meaning in life, or purpose in life, to be a

valid construct by comparing several populations’ group

means. Frankl (1985) cited empirical validation for the

construct, will to meaning, provided by Crumbaugh and

Maholick (1963). He also cited Kratochvil and Planova (n.d.)

as having shown that it was an irreducible need, present in

every person. Several authors (Kotchen, n.d.; Crumbaugh,

Raphael, & Shrader, 1970; Lukas, 1977, 1979; as cited by

Frankl, 1985) found relationships between the will to

meaning and such qualities as being successful, being

motivated, exhibiting good mental health, and a propensity

toward survival.

Frankl’s Will To Meaning and Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs: Frankl

(1985) discussed Maslow’s (1954/1970) concept of self-

actualization. Maslow described this state of being as the

66pinnacle of human achievement with regard to basic drives.

His explanation was that self-actualization would become the

natural desired state when lower drives had been fulfilled

(i.e., physiological, security, love or acceptance, and

esteem). In other words, when lower needs had been

fulfilled, a need of a higher order would be aroused.

Frankl (1985) referred to self-actualization as the

fulfillment of one’s ultimate meaning. He indicated that one

challenge in the pursuit of meaning was that self-

actualization could only be attained when one let go of its

pursuit and instead sought to fulfill some external purpose.

This externalization of self could be seen as the expression

of one’s gifts and talents—the greatest use of one’s

knowledge, skills, and abilities. It could also be described

as the professionalization of purpose in life.

Operationalization Of Purpose In Life And Goals: There appears to

be some parallel between the operationalization of one’s

goals and one’s purpose. The primary similarities are that

each provides motivation to achieve, stimulates action, and

67maintains motivation to act until the goal is satisfied. The

major difference seems to be that goals are object or

outcome oriented (e.g., the completion of a project or

attainment of a new status) whereas purpose is the

fulfillment of one’s very reason for being. The fulfillment

of one’s purpose for being might well involve the

accomplishment of goals, but will more likely be a lifetime

in the doing and will almost certainly involve some self-

transcendent, or altruistic, activity (Frankl, 1985). The

difference between day-to-day goals and life goals is the

presence of meaning (Frankl, 1955/1965). Frankl (1955/1965)

held that each person comes into life with a task to

perform, and if religiously oriented, the individual may

well view this task as akin to a holy mission.

Frankl’s (1965, 1985a, 1985b) extensive work in meaning

in life and his creation of Logotherapy provided a solid

foundation for the construct meaning in life, referred to

here as purpose in life. Purpose in life is frequently

tested by the purpose in life test (Crumbaugh & Maholick,

681964; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004) and the Life Purpose

Questionnaire (Hablas & Hutzell, 1982; Hutzell, 1989; as

cited by Schulenberg, 2004). These instruments have been

shown to provide valid, reliable results, (Schulenberg,

2004, cited Crumbaugh & Henrion, 1988 and Hutzell, 1988 for

reviews), although some questions have been raised as to

whether the purpose in life test actually tests for

depression rather than purpose in life (Dyck, 1987; as cited

by Schulenberg, 2004). Schulenberg (2004) expanded the

psychometric properties of these tests, which are frequently

utilized in the practice of Logotherapy. The first

instrument devised to test for purpose in life was Crumbaugh

and Maholick’s (1964; as cited by Moomal, 1999) purpose in

life test, and it was specifically designed to

operationalize purpose in life and perceived meaning.

Several other scales test for purpose in life, including The

Life Attitude Profile (Reker & Peacock, 1981; as cited by

Moomal, 1999), the Meaning In Life Depth Instrument

(Ebersole & Kobayakawa, 1989; as cited by Moomal, 1999), the

69Life Regard Index (Battista & Almond, 1973; as cited by

Moomal, 1999), and the Sense of Coherence Scale (Antonovsky,

1983, 1985; as cited by Moomal, 1999).

Purpose In Life Contemporary Perspectives

Contemporary studies on purpose in life can be found in

a variety of disciplines, such as the medical community

(Heidrich, Egan, Hengudomsub, & Randolph, 2006) the

sociological community (King, Hicks, Krull, & Gaiso, 2006;

Mascaro & Rosen, 2005) and, of course, the psychological

community (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Heidrich,

et. al. (2006) cited several studies (Heidrich, 1998;

Zebrack, 2000) in describing purpose in life as one core

component of quality of life in the elderly. They measured

existential quality of life with Ryff’s (1989; as cited by

Heidrich, et. al., 2006) purpose in life Scale, which tests

for ‘finding meaning’ and ‘spirituality’ dimensions. It was

found that patients who did not know the cause of their

cancer-related symptoms experienced a reduced sense of

purpose in life. This may be, according to Heidrich, et. al.

70(2006), due to not being able to make sense of or understand

the symptoms’ ‘why.’

Ryff and Keyes (1995) performed six studies to re-

examine psychological well-being (psychological well-being).

They selected various aspects from many prior theorists—such

as Erickson, Maslow, Allport, Rogers, and Jung—to create a

multi-dimensional well-being model. Ryff (1989b, 1995; as

cited by Ryff & Keyes, 1995) identified purpose in life as

one of the six subsumed components of psychological well-

being (psychological well-being), indicating that it was

associated with believing that one’s life has purpose and

meaning. A person with a high sense of purpose in life was

said to be: goal-directed; to experience life as having

meaning, both past and present; and to believe that life,

itself, holds purpose.

Ryff and Keyes (1995; as cited by Ryan & Deci, 2001)

distinguished between psychological well-being and

subjective well-being. Psychological well-being is

determined in clinical settings by measuring several

71factors, including purpose in life. Conversely, subjective

well-being is determined by individuals’ self-report or

answers to direct questions. Such subjective well-being

reports could easily be based on hedonistic happiness and

not authentic happiness. Thus, they might be less reflective

of true well-being. Also, subjective well-being, like

hedonism, might reflect behaviors and attitudes which, while

producing transitory happiness, would not necessarily

reflect healthy living.

Meraviglia (2006) cited Reker, Peacock, and Wong (1987)

as having found a positive correlation between purpose in

life and both psychological well-being and physical well-

being. Meraviglia (2006) surveyed a convenience sample of

84 women, ranging from 34-80 years of age, who had

previously been diagnosed with breast cancer. It was found

that the effect of breast cancer on psychological well-being

was mediated by purpose in life. Additionally, several

articles (Gall & Cornblatt, 2002; Meraviglia, 2002; both as

cited by Meraviglia) have shown that some aspects of

72spirituality, including purpose in life, are beneficial to

cancer patients.

Ryan and Deci (2001) reviewed research on two types of

well-being: Hedonic and Eudaimonic (the realization of one’s

true nature). Eudaimonic well-being separates happiness from

well-being; i.e., a distinct difference is seen between

subjective happiness (which can be pure hedonism, or

physical satisfaction as in eating a good meal) and true

happiness (such as the absence of self-denigration or inner

peace which arises from living a virtuous life). Eudaimonism

holds that not all acts which provide pleasure necessarily

contribute to a person’s overall well-being.

Ryan and Deci (2001) cited Waterman (1993), who said

that Eudaimonism is individuals living in alignment with

their true selves—their deepest, most sacredly held values.

Eudaimonism also requires or encompasses the existential

concept, authenticity, and leads to personal development and

growth. Finally, Eudaimonsim requires personal effort and

confronting challenges, whereas hedonism generally involves

73relaxing and avoiding problems. Ryan and Deci (2001) stated

that individuals’ lives have meaning when they live to some

larger purpose, are significant beyond the here and now, and

have some transcendent quality.

Mascaro and Rosen (2005) defined meaning as occurring

when one’s life has coherence and purpose. They utilized a

test-retest methodology to examine the ability of

existential meaning to enhance hope and prevent the symptoms

of depression. Of 329 undergraduate students taking the

first set of instruments, 191 completed the second set. The

findings indicated that those students with a sense of

purpose in life were more hopeful regarding outcomes and had

fewer symptoms of depression.

King, Hicks, Krull, and Del Gaiso (2006) performed six

studies to determine what role positive affect played in

purpose in life. Overall, their results supported the

mediating effect of positive affect on individuals’ feelings

that life is meaningful or purposeful and that positive

affect may mediate increases in individuals’ perceptions of

74situational meaning-relevance. Purpose in life, itself, was

the dependent variable.

Steger and Frazier (2005) performed two studies to

determine the nature of the relationship between purpose in

life and religiousness and well-being. The results of their

first study indicated that purpose in life had a mediating

effect on both well-being and religiousness. They also found

partial mediation by purpose in life between optimism and

religiousness. Strong support was found in their second

study for the idea that purpose in life mediates the

relationship between well-being and daily activity.

Regarding experiences of purpose in life, King (2004)

developed a transdisciplinary meta-model, which would

integrate accumulated knowledge. She cited several authors

(Fidler, 1996; Rutter, 1993; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,

2000) in discussing existing theories or descriptions of a

need for theories from various disciplines and pointed out

that no meta-model, meta-theory, or integrative model or

theory currently exists. While not theories in themselves,

75meta-models can be used to further the knowledge-base

through testable propositions and predictions (Kelly, 1983;

as cited by King, 2004). King (2004) also cited several

authors (Rein & Schon, 1977; Taylor, 1994) in describing

the benefits of a meta-model including: simplifying complex

ideas, pinpointing and associating primary attributes of a

construct or topic, delineating higher order principles and

themes, separating the important from the unimportant, and

bringing the significant characteristics of a topic into a

more easily recognizable and understandable pattern.

Thus, we see that researchers in several disciplines

are, today, recognizing and researching the construct,

purpose in life. The importance of this construct cannot be

overemphasized. King’s (2004) attempt to provide a framework

within which the construct can better be researched,

understood, and knowledge shared, is further evidence that

the construct warrants examination.

76Motivation

Motivation Background

Behaviorist theories dominated research on motivation

up until the 1970’s. It was widely held in the psychological

community that external influences were the source of all

motivation. Behaviorists and drive reductionists held that

any internal processes involved in motivation were purely

unconscious. In the 1970’s, however, Ryan (1970; as cited by

Locke & Latham, 2002) posited and researched his goal-

setting theory. Ryan held that human behavior had to be

consciously directed to some degree—that conscious thoughts

controlled actions. Locke and Latham (2002) pointed out that

people can perform actions without being aware of what

motivated them to do so. Bandura (1997; as cited by Locke &

Latham, 2002) noted that purposeful thought was what enabled

people to exercise control over their lives. And, it seems a

small intuitive leap to imagine that individuals with a

strong sense of purpose in life would be highly motivated

and possessed of powerful, purposeful thoughts.

77Cognitive theories of motivation include the works of

such researchers and theorists as Frankl (1988), Herzberg

(1959/1993), Maslow (1954/1970), Kelly (1955/1963), and

Vroom (1964; as cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990 and Harder,

1991). This review will now examine these individuals’

theories in relation to motivation.

Motivation Past Research

Frankl’s Will to Meaning: Frankl (1988) differentiated purpose

in life from the long-established theory of human motivation

known as drive reduction or homeostasis. Also, he stood in

opposition to the Freudian pleasure principle, which, again,

was merely the reduction or satisfaction of some inner need,

thus bringing the organism back to stasis. He saw the human

being as an open system, reaching out to the world, seeking

connections and meaning, being a part of it, unlike animals,

living in an environment, but not open to it—rather being

driven by it. He also illustrated his theory as a triangle,

with stasis at one corner, reason for happiness at the

second, and happiness at the third. To pursue happiness

78directly was to lose one’s reason, he stated. Rather, one

must pursue one’s reason for being, and in the pursuit and

accomplishment of that reason, happiness would ensue. With

this logic, Frankl (1988) validated the idea that the

operationalization of purpose in life will provide greater

motivation than the pursuit of happiness alone (material

wealth, status, etc.).

Frankl (1988) pointed out that existence requires

strong ideals. But, strong ideals aren’t enough. Self-

transcendence is also required. For only through

transcendence is authentic existence possible. In the ideal

situation, one’s professional endeavors will lead to the

fulfillment of one’s discovering or experiencing strong

ideals, self-transcendence, and authenticity.

Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation: To understand Herzberg’s

(1959/1993) Theory of Motivation, it is useful to first

examine a particular series of classical motivation studies:

The Hawthorne Studies. The Western Electric Company set out

to determine optimal lighting conditions in their Hawthorne

79Works in Cicero, Illinois. They found, surprisingly, that

productivity rose whenever a change was made in lighting

conditions among both control and test groups of workers.

They then sought the help of psychologists and over the next

several years, the Hawthorne Effect, as it came to be known,

was discovered (Schulz & Schulz, 1998; Robbins, 1998). This

Hawthorne Effect refers to the fact that multiple motivators

may be driving behaviors or that the actual motivators may

not be the perceived motivators. In other words, in the

Hawthorne Studies, the workers changed their level of

productivity even when they were not personally affected by

illumination changes, whether increased or decreased. Their

attitudes and feelings about the situation caused the

changes (Schulz & Schulz, 1998). This is extremely important

because it points out that external circumstances are less

important in creating, modifying, or driving behavior than

previously had been thought; i.e., perceptions of

circumstances can modify individuals’ feelings about and

reactions/responses to circumstances. For psychologists,

80this means that changing thought patterns is more important

than changing work circumstances.

Herzberg (1959/1993) further illustrated this fact or

effect by showing that there were work factors which, when

present, led to greater job satisfaction (motivators) and

other factors, which when absent, led to job dissatisfaction

(hygiene). These factors did not, however, cross over; i.e.,

motivators, when absent did not necessarily lead to job

dissatisfaction, and hygiene factors, when present, did not

lead to job satisfaction. At best, in these latter

circumstances, they would lead to neutral feelings.

Herzberg’s (1959/1993) study involved a group of over

200 engineers and accountants who were asked to recall

experiences in their professional lives which caused them to

have very strong feelings of a positive or negative nature

about their job or work. The positive feelings were

characterized as ‘high’ and the negative feelings were

labeled ‘low.’ His findings resulted in the Motivation-

Hygiene Theory, which basically stated that job satisfaction

81was tied to intrinsic factors, while job dissatisfaction was

related to extrinsic factors (Robbins, 1998). The intrinsic

factors which related to positive or high feelings about

work included recognition, achievement, advancement,

responsibility, and work itself. The extrinsic factors

related to negative or low feelings about work included

possibility of growth, interpersonal relations, supervision-

technical, company policy and administration, working

conditions, and to a lesser extent, personal life and job

security. Robbins (1998) pointed out that Herzberg’s

findings did much to undermine the concept of scientific

management espoused by Münsterberg and others. However,

whatever the definition of the term ‘scientific management,’

it seems it came back into vogue, somewhat at least, with

the works of Argyris (1976) and Maslow (1998) and others,

such as De Geus (1997) and Senge (1990). Herzberg

(1959/1993) and the Hawthorne Studies (Schulz & Schulz,

1998) showed that internal or cognitive processes were at

least as important, if not more so, than environmental

82factors in determining Worker Motivation, job satisfaction,

productivity levels and quality.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow (1954/1970) gave us the

Hierarchy of Needs. He started out to discover how self-

actualization people came to be that way (Benjamin, 1993).

His basic theory was built on the idea that humans were

motivated to fully realize their inner potential, whatever

that might be. His first premise was that when any given

need of the organism was met, another need would arise. He

also laid out a structure (the hierarchy) of lower and

higher needs.

At the lower end of the continuum of lower-higher needs

were physiological needs—things required for simple

survival. Next came safety needs, followed by belongingness

needs. Progressing higher up the hierarchy came esteem

needs, and finally self-actualization needs. Maslow

(1954/1970) indicated that while in a perfect system, one

would progress in orderly fashion from each need to the next

higher one, most people don’t exist in a perfect system.

83Some criticisms leveled against Maslow’s ideas pointed out

that reversals of need fulfillment occur (Petri, 1996).

However, Maslow (1954/1970) himself addressed this very

point, saying that there were many reasons for reversals to

exist. In fact, he pointed out that rarely would anyone

fully complete one level of needs before the next set began

to be expressed and fulfilled. There would be overlaps and

even regressions, depending on life circumstances.

There was also prepotency among needs. For example, a

person with a strong need to belong, due to deprivation of

social acceptance at an early age, might well ignore lower

level needs (such as safety) in order to be accepted into

some social order. Gangs and dare-devil initiation stunts

are good examples of this. The individual is willing to risk

severe bodily harm or even death to be accepted into a

social group. In this case, the belongingness need is

prepotent relative to the safety need. As relates to

management of organizations, Maslow (1998) chose not to

address what management styles would be appropriate and

84effective for individuals not self-actualized. His attention

to management styles was focused on the idea of pushing

individuals to self-actualize (or as Senge (1990) would say,

to experience personal mastery).

Kelly’s Theory of Personality Constructs: Kelly (1955/1963) posited

the theory of Personal Construct Psychology and described

several techniques which might be employed to assist people

in regaining balance within themselves and in relation to

those in their lives. The primary postulate of Personal

Construct Psychology is that the way people anticipate

future events determines the direction of their

psychological processes (Kelly, 1955/1963). Personal

Construct Psychology falls within the framework of

constructivism, which emphasizes the way people organize

their perceptions and thoughts and anticipate or create

expectancies about future events (Neimeyer, 1993). In

contrast to the mechanistic view of humanity, constructivism

states that the world we see is more the result of our

thoughts about it than the cause of our thoughts about it.

85Kelly (1977, as cited by Neimeyer, 1993) held that people

can only perceive the world through their constructs—those

systems of identification they come to hold regarding the

events of their lives.

Kelly (1955/1963) posited that individuals form

constructs based on construals and perceptions of their

experiences. Within these constructs, they have construals

about themselves and their life-roles. If their experiences

have been causative of, contributory to, or predictive of

at-risk designation or amotivation, then Personal Construct

Psychology says that in order to change, a new construct

must be created to replace the old one. To form the new

construct, individuals must create new self-construals and

new life-roles for themselves.

However, there are several points to hold in mind prior

to attempting to replace old self-construals, life-roles,

and constructs. First, in Personal Construct Psychology,

constructs are dichotomous, i.e., they consist of polar

opposites, which sometimes allow existence of elements

86within the construct along a continuum between the poles.

For example, the construct male vs. female is an exclusive

construct allowing membership only at the poles.

Alternatively, maleness vs. femaleness is a fluid construct,

which allows for membership which could be along the

continuum between full maleness and full femaleness. Kelly

(1955/1963) and Schneider (1990), who quoted Kierkegaard,

said that individuals who attempt to change self-construals

tend to first resort to the opposite pole of the construct

within which they are working. For example, an abusive

person who wishes to change might suddenly become a complete

pacifist. The reason for this is that the person is only

aware of the polar elements of their construct—abuser and

pacifist.

Second, in attempting to build new self-construals,

life-roles, and constructs, individuals must feel their

choices are intrinsically motivated—they must feel

autonomous. Only then will the individual be able to muster

the internal commitment required to integrate them. Third,

87the changes must take place in a safe environment; i.e.,

they must feel supported by those around them. Kelly

(1955/1963) suggested that the psychotherapeutic environment

could be made such a place.

Kelly (1955/1963) referred to the philosophical

position of Personal Construct Psychology as constructive

alternativism, meaning that there is always another way of

being—different constructs which can be chosen. Neimeyer

(1993) examined constructivist therapies, which included

Kelly’s work, and said that constructivist therapies seek to

make second-order changes, which delve into the individual’s

core beliefs. Constructive therapies help individuals

reconstruct both their perceptions of the world and their

relation to it. This is done by helping people alter the

constructs they’ve created to facilitate the anticipation of

events. Binswanger (1975; as cited by Schneider, 1990)

described the process of psychotherapy as helping

individuals see the world as it actually is and to determine

where their person-environment fit has gone awry.

88Recognizing that constructs, as defined by Kelly, may

be the driving and directing forces behind individuals’

actions can provide valuable insights for leaders. When a

Transformational leader seeks to guide followers in the

direction which will best serve the individual and the

organization, such information can make the difference

between promotion and separation, leadership assignment or

follower’s role, the ability to compete or organizational

dissolution.

Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory (Value-Instrumentality-

Expectancy): Expectancy theory, or the expectancy-value

approach, can be traced as far back as Murray (1938; as

cited by Petri, 1996). Murray’s work focused on the idea of

motivation arising from need fulfillment, and identified two

components of needs or drives. The first was direction,

object, or goal oriented, and the second was effort or

energy expenditure oriented and could be thought of as the

intensity of desire to fulfill a need. In the area of needs,

Murray and his Harvard colleagues identified 20 major and

89several other minor needs which individuals seek to fulfill.

Murray felt the strongest need was the need to achieve

(Petri, 1996). McClelland and Atkinson (1948; as cited by

Petri, 1996) proved the validity of Murray’s need-to-achieve

and its accompanying intensity in a study conducted with

submariners, gauging hunger intensity by short-term food

deprivation. They repeated their efforts with a 1949 study

in which students’ achievement needs were activated and

measured using images from the Thematic Apperception Test

(Murray, 1936; as cited by Petri, 1996).

Vroom (1964; as cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990 and

Harder, 1991) expanded the expectancy-value approach by

adding the component of instrumentality. Thus, his expanded

theory was the Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory

(Vroom, 1964; as cited by Lord, Hanges, & Godfrey, 2003).

Vroom stated that individuals are motivated to act by an

expectation (expectancy) that their actions and effort

(instrumentality) will produce an outcome with some value

(valence) to them. Oliver (1995) stated the Value-

90Instrumentality-Expectancy postulate as being that people,

when motivated, will expend more effort in the belief that

their efforts will produce good performances, which will, in

turn, produce the desired outcomes.

Brooks and Betz (1990) examined the predictive power of

Expectancy theory in college students’ occupational choices.

They quoted Wabba and House (1974) who stated that

Expectancy theory was “perhaps the most widely accepted

theory of work and motivation among … industrial and

organizational psychologists [of the time]” (p. 121). Lord,

et. al. (2003) indicated that Value-Instrumentality-

Expectancy theory has generated a great deal of research.

The primary reasons are first, because it focuses on

cognitive processes rather than behaviorist reinforcement

models, and second, because of Vroom’s (1964; as cited by

Lord, et. al., 2003; and as cited by Brooks, et. al., 1990)

algebraic formulae showing the ways in which the three

components of Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy theory

interact.

91This theory showed that as the value of expected

outcomes increases, motivation to act does as well. Also, as

belief that one’s actions will produce the desired results

increases, so does the amount of effort one will expend in

the direction of achievement. Lord, et. al. (2003) defined

valences as the preferences one has for an outcome;

expectancies as the beliefs about the effects of one’s

actions; and instrumentalities as individuals’ perceptions

about the relationship between primary outcomes and

secondary ones.

Motivation Contemporary Perspectives

Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Deci and Ryan (2000) reviewed

their Self-Determination Theory in relation to goal pursuits

and achievement and defined “needs” as “innate psychological

nutriments that are essential for ongoing psychological

growth, integrity, and well-being (p. 229)”. They determined

that three needs basic to human motivation and well-being

are relatedness, competence, and autonomy. They held that in

order to best understand motivation in humans and the

92content and process of goal pursuit, one must consider these

three innate human needs.

Satisfying these three innate needs plays an important

role, they said, in the way goal pursuit and achievement

affects individuals. An individual’s needs satisfaction also

plays a key role in attainment or maintenance of

psychological health, and all three needs must be satisfied,

not just one or two. As a postulate to recognizing and

identifying needs, Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that positive

psychological outcomes can be expected when conditions

permit needs satisfaction, and that the opposite is true in

adverse conditions. Where life conditions support the

fulfillment of all three, Deci and Ryan (2000) would expect

to see a flourishing of well-being, whereas ill-being would

be expected under conditions where the three needs cannot be

fulfilled. Further, they stated that if needs satisfaction

were not linked to human motivation and psychological well-

being, one would expect to see no difference in goal pursuit

93and achievement in favorable or adverse needs satisfaction

conditions.

SDT differentiates between physiological and

psychological needs. Considering a physiological need

deficit, such as hunger, individuals will increase attempts

to satisfy that need and will become predisposed to focus on

that need, even to the point of obsession. Conversely, when

a psychological need goes unsatisfied, individuals have

greater capacity to accommodate or subsume the need.

However, SDT holds that prolonged thwarting of psychological

needs leads to ill-being, perhaps of significant

proportions. 

SDT’s primary postulate states that humans are

naturally growth-oriented, active beings, predisposed to

personal wholeness, inclined to integrate into social

milieus. As a corollary to this postulate, SDT holds that

people naturally seek out situations which provide

opportunities for need satisfaction. To the degree they

94succeed, this is the degree to which they will experience

beneficial psychological outcomes.

In the SDT perspective, needs are innate, that is,

natural, not learned. This means that SDT holds certain

aspects of basic human nature to be genetic and inescapable.

Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that some behaviors previously

thought to be drive-based, as described by Hull and Freud

(n.d.), are actually regulated psychologically and thus

interact with SDT’s three basic needs. Perhaps more

importantly, though, is the idea that need satisfaction

might not be an important motivating factor under SDT.

Individuals might well perform actions to satisfy some other

desire, yet the outcomes include need satisfaction. In fact,

in SDT—as opposed to Hull and Freud—behaviors based on the

three identified innate needs do not require a deficit to be

activated.

Also, whereas the theory of homeostasis holds that

individuals seek equilibrium, and that only disequilibrium

motivates action, SDT holds that people naturally move to

95find a higher experience of existence, thus creating their

own disequilibrium to generate positive actions—actions

which tend to create need satisfaction.

The three needs described in SDT are competence,

relatedness, and autonomy. Competence in an

individual is defined by Merriam-Webster (2003) as having

the required abilities to function in a specific way. Ryan

and Deci (2000) and Deci and Ryan (2000) also called it

effectance or self-efficacy, and identified it as one of the

three basic innate psychological needs possessed by every

person. Like any other need, this psychological need must be

fulfilled for individuals’ well-being and it can motivate

activity.

Ryan and Deci (2000) cited several authors (Baumeister

& Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1958; Harlow, 1958) in positing their

definition of relatedness as the need to feel a

connectedness to other people. This involves giving and

receiving love and care in relationships. Ainsworth, Blehar,

Waters, and Wall (1978; as cited by Ryan & Deci, 2000),

96stated that relatedness was a critical component of

attachment.

Autonomy is equated by many authors (Angyal, 1965;

Deci, 1980; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; all as cited by Ryan &

Deci, 2000) to volition, and defined as “the organismic

desire to self-organize experience and behavior and to have

activity be concordant with one’s integrated sense of self”

(p. 231). Ryan and Deci, though, refer to autonomy as acting

in accord with ideas, beliefs, or concepts individuals have

integrated as a part of self. Like the other two fundamental

needs, autonomy is requisite to health and well-being, even

across cultures.

97Ryan and Deci’s (2000) work does not focus on whether

behaviors are respondent to varying strength in needs.

Rather, it focuses on individual differences and the part

they play in individuals’ behaviors across contexts and

environments. They stated that without a theory of

underlying and fundamental needs (e.g., relatedness,

competence, and autonomy), every group of similar behaviors

would need an underlying behavior-specific set of drives,

motives, or needs. Thus, SDT more aptly describes a

universal and fundamental set of human needs or motivators.

Summary

Theoretical Perspectives

Several theories seem to support the progression that

Leadership style might impact purpose in life, which might

in turn impact Worker Motivation. Ryan and Deci’s (2000) SDT

posits the need for autonomy and competence. Individuals

possessed of a strong sense of purpose in life seem likely

to expend greater amounts of energy in the pursuit of goals

designed to fulfill their purpose in life, thus expressing

98autonomy and developing competence. In the case of

professionalization of purpose in life, it seems logical

that increased Worker Motivation would follow in direct

proportion to an increase in one’s sense of purpose in life.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1971) states that as lower

needs are fulfilled, higher ones arise. With purpose in life

being expressed toward the top of the hierarchy, again, it

is expected that the relationship between the

professionalization of purpose in life and Worker Motivation

would be positively correlated. Kelly’s (1963) Personal

Construct Psychology Theory predicts that individuals move

from one end of a personal construct toward its polar

opposite. If, at the beginning stage of life, individuals

have no sense of purpose in life and low Worker Motivation,

then once more, it seems intuitive that the discovery and

professionalization of purpose in life would propel them

from low to high in both areas. Vroom’s (1964; as cited by

Brooks & Betz, 1990; Harder, 1991) Value-Instrumentality-

Expectancy Theory aligns with at least two of the identified

99needs of SDT Theory in that one’s expectations of success

and attendant rewards are seen as being related to one’s

effort—with effort being expended in direct proportion to

one’s feelings of competence and autonomy in performing

tasks that will deliver the desired outcome. Thus being

autonomous and able to choose one’s actions determines not

only outcomes, but rewards. Finally, Frankl’s (1985a)

construct will-to-meaning and his theoretical and field work

on meaning state clearly that nothing in life worth having

will occur without a person having a sense of their purpose

in life.

Constructs: Leadership Styles, purpose in life, and Work Motivation

Leadership Styles: The general effects of leadership on

organizational direction and outcomes have long been

acknowledged and researched (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Now,

we are left with the task of continuing and refining

research directions and utilizing research to design and

implement interventions. Clear differences exist, however,

between Leadership styles and their effects on followers.

100Compared to the Transactional leadership style,

Transformational has the potential for greater effects on

followers at deeper levels, meaning they can impact the very

beliefs that shape followers’ lives and work performance.

Transformational leaders can also engender higher levels of

motivation in, extract greater performance from, and promote

a greater sense of purpose in followers—greater even than

the followers believed themselves capable of. Further,

Transformational leaders do this, not from a sense of self-

aggrandizement or self-advancement, but rather from a sense

of genuine caring about the cause they promote and for the

followers they lead (Bass, 1985). Research into

Transformational leadership characteristics has shown that

these characteristics can be learned or strengthened through

behavioral adaptation (Parry & Sinha, 2005). Thus, it is

seen that Transformational leaders can have a profound

impact on followers’ beliefs and performance, and that

Transformational leaders may be made if not born.

101Purpose In Life: Purpose in life has been examined and shown

to be a valid construct, related in various studies to

psychological well-being, attitudes toward healing, quality

of life in aging, religiosity, and participation in the

healing process. Frankl (1985a) identified purpose in life

as the primary motivator for all meaningful human activity.

Worker Motivation: Worker motivation long has been

researched with an eye to increasing productivity and, more

recently, quality. Studies for decades have examined many

aspects of worker motivation: the effects of lighting in the

Hawthorne Studies; Herzberg’s motivators and hygiene

factors; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and studies on

management; Argyris’s study into management communication

styles; and, of course, all the theories mentioned

previously regarding motivation. Worker motivation clearly

is a topic of great interest, both clinically and

practically, for its implications in the workplace, in the

economy, and in the therapist’s office.

102This chapter has evaluated past research, the

background, and the present status of research into

Transformational and Transactional leadership styles, the

constructs of purpose in life and worker motivation, and

several theories of motivation. A significant between-group

difference has been hypothesized for Transformational and

Transactional leadership styles when measuring purpose in

life and worker motivation. Now, this review proposes

research intended to further deepen our understanding of the

hypothesized relationship and its successful application in

organizational interventions.

103CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHOD

Introduction

This chapter discusses Research Design and approach.

Population and data gathering methodology is described.

Steps taken to protect participants’ privacy and rights are

described, and finally, instruments are described along with

data analysis procedures.

The purpose of this study is to determine whether

transformational versus transactional leadership style is

more impactful on workers’ purpose in life and motivation.

The null hypothesis anticipates that there is not a

significant difference between the impact of

Transformational versus Transactional leadership styles on

workers’ sense of purpose in life and Motivation. The

research hypothesis states that there is a significant

difference between the impact of Transformational versus

Transactional leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose

in life and motivation.

104The following instruments measure leadership style,

purpose in life, and worker motivation respectively: The

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Multifactor Leadership

Questionnaire; Bass, 1985) tests for the presence of

Transformational and Transactional leadership

characteristics; the purpose in life Test (Crumbaugh &

Maholick, 1964; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004) examines

individuals’ sense of purpose in life or meaning in life;

and the Motivation Sources Inventory (Barbuto, 1997a;

Barbuto, et al., 2000; Barbuto & Scholl, 1998, 1999; all as

cited by Barbuto, et. al., 2002) measures worker motivation.

The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) will be utilized to examine

the relationship between Transformational and Transactional

leadership styles on the various measures.

Identification of Population

The population for the proposed research is managers

and workers in mid- -size companies (250-500 employees). The

sample will be extracted from a group of Internet

respondents. Devane, Begley, and Clarke (2004) indicated

105that sample size requires formal estimation to reduce

wastage and expense and to decrease the probability of

missing some important difference in the study. According to

Kelly & Rausch (2006), who cited Kelly (2006a), and Ball

(2004), a sample size of 400 participants should provide a

sufficient sample size to provide for a 95% confidence level

with a 5% margin of error. Therefore, the proposed research

will seek a sample population size of at least 400 in order

to provide a statistically viable sample with a 5% margin of

error. This study is likely to yield respondents from a

broad cross-section of industries, managerial and worker

level, and demographic characteristics. It is expected that

there will be more respondents to the self-report surveys

than required. However, only 400 randomly selected

respondents will be included in data analysis, thus helping

to minimize deliberate self-report inaccuracies.

Respondents will be recruited either through

advertisements on websites of, or email lists obtained from,

a variety of Internet sources, such as professional

106organizations, corporations, and employment sites. Workers

at manufacturing, service, wholesale, and retail companies

will also be solicited for potential respondents.

Design of the Study

The research design utilizes a two group design,

analyzing between-groups with ANOVA. Participants will

complete self-report surveys via the Internet. Data of a

demographic nature will be gathered simultaneous to an

administration of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire,

the Purpose In Life Test, and the Motivation Sources Index.

Results from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire will

be used to assign respondents to the appropriate leadership

style group, providing for two groups. Results from the

Purpose In Life Test and the Motivation Sources Index will

be used to determine respondents’ levels of sense of purpose

in life and work motivation.

Squillini (1999) cited Maxwell (1996) who stated that

quantitative research is preferable to qualitative research

when attempting to compare data and define variables’

107differences. Mitchell and Jolley (1996) stated that there

are two primary types of research designs—experimental and

nonexperimental. Experimental designs are useful when trying

to determine the motivations behind peoples’ thoughts or

actions. However, when trying to discover peoples’ actual

thoughts, feelings, or actions, a nonexperimental research

design is better. The survey research design is an example

of a nonexperimental research design, and the self-reported

survey is listed as one valid type of survey.

The self-reported survey research design, administered

via the Internet, will be used for this study. The self-

reported survey offers researchers several advantages,

including the ability to gather data from a large population

less expensively and more easily than some other forms of

data gathering. It also provides researchers the ability to

predict behaviors or outcomes by sampling attitudes or

actions. Finally, it allows researchers to describe

attitudes, beliefs, or actions between groups of

respondents.

108The proposed research is a two-group design with

between-group data comparisons. The first group consists of

workers in a Transformational leadership environment, while

the second consists of workers from a Transactional

leadership environment. Data will be collected from each

group to determine levels of purpose in life and worker

motivation within groups, and then compared between groups.

Collecting data via the Internet, or the World Wide

Web, provides several advantages over traditional data

collection methods. Strickland, Moloney, Dietrich, Myerburg,

Cotsonis, and Johnson (2003) cited Joinson (1999) who stated

that respondents to Internet surveys would be less inhibited

and less bothered by social desirability. Data collection

via the Internet also offers rapid interaction with

respondents, the ability to automate the collection process,

and access to respondents from around the globe and across

industries, ethnic groups and cultures. Strickland, et. al.

(2003) also examined issues of Internet data collection and

listed five specific issues particularly salient to Internet

109collection of quantitative data. They were: (a) data

validity and reliability; (b) ensuring that both researchers

and respondents find data collection to be practical; (c)

ensuring that protocols for data collection address research

aims while maximizing advantages of the Internet; (d)

ensuring data quality; and (e) adaptation of traditional

quantitative measures for Internet usage.

Self-reported survey weaknesses, pointed out by

Mitchell and Jolley (1996), include the fact that surveys

typically have a lower response rate than other types of

survey or experimental designs. They also have a greater

margin of error in self-response accuracy rates than

controlled experiments or investigator-administered survey

research.

Procedures

Participants are recruited from a variety of major

employment websites and through emails spread randomly

through internet email chains and purchased lists.

Respondents are directed to an automated website to complete

110the organizational and vocational preliminary demographic

questionnaire, which will support respondent and

organizational filtering and group assignments. Respondents,

during recruitment, are directed to a data collection

website. The instruments’ questions are available

electronically, in exactly the same format and order as in a

paper and pencil version. After completion of demographics,

participants are directed to online instruments which test

for perceived organizational leadership style and levels of

purpose in life and worker motivation. Data are collected

and returned to researchers for analysis.

Steps Taken To Ensure Participants’ Privacy

To ensure participants’ privacy and rights, a

professional online web-survey company which promises that

they do not sell, share, or distribute any information

gathered will be selected. A double opt-in registration

process and a “no-link” policy regarding personal

information and data gathered will be provided. Industry

standards to protect personal information will be employed,

111during both data gathering and transmission. The company

will also guarantee they do not access data gathered except

as requested by the researcher, and even researchers will

have secure procedures they must follow when downloading

gathered data. All email information gathered will be

exclusively the property of the researcher and will not be

used or sold to anyone. The company will also be Safe Harbor

certified, a designation awarded by the International Trade

Federation of the United States Commerce Department to

companies which meet strict standards for data protection.

Instruments

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire; Bass, 1985) identifies

Transformational Leadership characteristics in leaders. The

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire is the accepted

instrument for measuring Transformational Leadership

(Heinitz, Liepmann, & Felfe, 2005; Tejeda, 2001). In this

case, it determines the perceived management style

characteristics of individuals’ organizations. Bass and

112Avolio (1991; as cited by Madzar, 2001) utilized a version

of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire known as the 5X-

rater version—consisting of 68, 5-point items—to test for

perceived leadership style.

The Purpose In Life Test (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964;

as cited by Schulenberg, 2004) provides information on

purpose in life. It has been shown to provide valid,

reliable results, (Schulenberg, 2004, cited Crumbaugh &

Henrion, 1988 and Hutzell, 1988 for reviews).

The Motivation Sources Inventory (MSI; Barbuto, 1997a;

Barbuto et al., 2000; Barbuto & Scholl, 1998, 1999; all as

cited by Barbuto, et. al., 2002) tests for worker

motivation. This instrument tests for five separate types of

motivation; Intrinsic Process, Instrumental, External Self-

Concept, Internal Self-Concept, and Goal Internalization. Of

special interest is the Goal Internalization sub-scale,

since this scale measures the idea that individuals wouldn’t

work for a company with whose mission they weren’t in

agreement.

113Null Hypothesis One: There is not a significant difference

between the impact of Transformational versus Transactional

leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation.

Research Hypothesis One: There is a significant difference

between the impact of Transformational versus Transactional

leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose in life and

motivation.

Analysis: The relationship between leadership styles is

examined using between-groups ANOVA. According to Ramirez

and Runger (2006), analysis of variance (ANOVA) accurately

can compute between-group differences even with groups of

different sizes, so this can help ameliorate any differences

in group size between Transformational and Transactional

leadership groups, which will simplify population and data

gathering efforts. Examining the relationship of the

variables in two separate leadership environments, ANOVA

will be performed to compare differences in workers’ sense

of purpose in life and motivation between Transformational

114and Transactional leadership styles with an expected

significance level of < .05. The sample size of 400 is

sufficient to achieve a confidence level of 95%. Wilcox

(2005) stated that the ANOVA, which aims to measure

differences between group means or averages, has good power

when the underlying derivations are true, such as normality.

It is assumed responses follow a normal distribution.

115CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

This critical review has examined the literature

related to the relationship between Transformational and

Transactional leadership styles when measuring workers’

sense of purpose in life and motivation. The background of,

and past and contemporary research into the variables and

constructs have been examined. A research methodology has

been suggested along with measures to examine the

hypothesized relationship and statistical tools with which

to quantify any between-group differences. In this chapter,

the literature review from Chapter 2 will be summarized,

social and clinical practice implications will be discussed,

and an integrative summary will be provided.

Review of Literature from Chapter 2

Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles

Burns (1979) wrote his treatise on leadership with the

intention of combining the literature on leadership and

116followership to create a foundation for research into the

effects of leadership style on followership. He also wanted

to create measurable indices by which the effects of

leadership could be tracked—specifically societal changes

and the level to which leaders satisfied peoples’ needs and

expectations. He delineated similarities and differences

between the two styles, indicating that Transformational

leaders identified and worked to meet followers’ needs and

expectations, discovering their motivators, and striving to

engage them in the process of change. Conversely,

Transactional leaders worked primarily to complete their own

agenda, entering into transaction-based exchanges with

others. Also, while a Transactional leader might not

necessarily be amoral or immoral, a Transformational leader

was much more likely to become a moral agent, grooming

followers to become leaders themselves. Transactional

leaders rely heavily on extrinsic motivators, or contingent

rewards, to spur behaviors, whereas Transformational

leaders, through the exercise of their charismatic

117characteristics, stimulate intrinsic motivation in

followers.

Bass (1985) surveyed 845 American workers and found

that people were not primarily motivated by exchanges of

value; i.e., Transactional leadership style, or transaction-

based relationships. Level of earnings was also not a

primary motivator. A Transformational leadership

environment, however, was more successful in creating

motivation in all areas. He also conducted a survey of 176

former high-level U.S. military leaders and found five

leadership characteristics—two transactional and three

transformational. The transformational characteristics—

charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual

consideration—were more often observed in combat units than

in support units. The leaders surveyed maintained an

individualistic and developmental orientation toward

followers, enhancing followers’ problem-solving abilities.

The effect on followers of these characteristics was that

they aroused trust, pride, faith, loyalty, and enthusiasm.

118Bass (1985) found similar results when surveying over 300

business, education administration, and professional

leaders. He also found that even when using Transactional

methodology, Transformational leaders were likely to produce

better results among followers.

Bass (1985) reported that charismatic leadership

previously had been discouraged by organizations and had not

been examined by I/O Psychology. He found several problems

with the Transactional leadership model, though, including:

Transactional leaders frequently didn’t use the tools they

had, even with training; feedback was typically negative;

this feedback was frequently perceived by followers to be

destructive instead of constructive; Transactional leaders

tended to use a cookie-cutter approach to management as

opposed to heeding individual differences among followers;

Transactional leaders valued their own comments above all

others; these leaders tended to abandon the model when non-

contingent rewards provide results; when consequences-to-be-

avoided were used as motivators, performance declined; and

119peevishness among subordinates sometimes lead to conscious

efforts to undermine productivity.

Among the characteristics which separate

Transformational leaders from Transactional, Popper, et. al.

(2000), noted that Transformational leaders have a high

level of self-regard and self-assurance. They also have a

high level of concern for the well-being of others and tend

to invest time and energy in developing relationships with

others. Another difference, pointed out by Bass (1985) is

that Transformational leaders’ authority and ability to lead

stems from their ability to inspire followers rather than on

a follower’s perception of the leader’s authority. Maslow

(1954; as cited by Spinelli, 2006) felt that a

Transformational leader would seek to raise individuals to

their highest potential. Bass (1985) and Popper, et. al.

(2000), listed several characteristics of Transformational

leaders including: empowering followers, encouraging them to

perform beyond even their own expectations, being a

visionary, inspiring respect and trust in followers, and

120motivating them to work at greater levels, put out more

effort, and be more committed.

Popper, et. al. (2000) cited several authors who stated

that Transformational leaders scored higher on several

leadership variables than did Transactional leaders,

including: the level of leader effectiveness (as perceived

by followers); the level of satisfaction with leaders among

followers; and followers’ perceived self-efficacy. Bass and

Avolio (1993; as cited by Popper, et. al., 2000) indicated

that followers scored better on performance and behavior

measures, and they experienced elevated levels of attitude,

values, and self-concept in Transformational leadership

relationships. Further, there was found to be a greater

sense of equality and justice among these followers than

among those in Transactional leadership environments.

According to Bass (1985), the heart of a

Transformational leader’s ability to inspire followers is

communication. Followers know the Transformational leader is

aware of their desires, needs, and expectations, and is

121working to not only fulfill them, but to challenge the

follower to increase their abilities and capacity to

perform.

Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) found that Transformational

leaders were capable of generating and activating purpose

for followers. They cited Griffin (1981) who found that

Transformational leaders could positively affect performance

without changing job characteristics. Thus, reinforcing the

findings of the Hawthorne experiment referenced earlier.

Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) cited other authors when stating

that Transformational leaders could verbally persuade

followers to view organizational values as being in

alignment with their own personal values. They were also

able to promote a sense of autonomy in followers.

As further evidence of the superiority of the

Transformational leadership style, Piccolo and Colquitt

(2006) tested 283 individuals from diverse work backgrounds

and found a positive correlation between Transformational

leadership characteristics and core job characteristics;

122i.e., individuals scored higher in the five core job

characteristics areas (variety, feedback, autonomy,

identity, and significance) in a Transformational leadership

environment. More importantly, core job characteristics are

positively correlated with intrinsic motivation. Hackman and

Oldham (1976; as cited by Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006)

suggested that employees with intrinsic motivation would be

more effective than those motivated otherwise. Piccolo and

Colquitt (2006) also found a positive relationship between

intrinsic motivation and organizational citizenship

behaviors.

Spinelli (2006), in a survey of 101 hospital managers,

found significant positive correlations between the

Transformational leadership style and three dependent

variables (follower satisfaction with leaders, perceived

leader effectiveness, and willingness to put out extra

effort). The same was not true of the other two leadership

styles—Transactional and laissez-faire.

123Masood, et. al. (2006), cited Fiedler (1967) when

discussing another difference between Transformational and

Transactional leaders—their approach to, and comfort with,

situational strength. Situational strength is the degree to

which a leader looks to the situation to determine choices

and actions. Transformational leaders feel comfortable with

low situational strength; i.e., the situation does not

contain, within itself, any overt or familiar cues to guide

a leader to a choice. Therefore, the leader must draw on

inner wisdom and confidence in their ability to provide

appropriate guidance. Transactional leaders, conversely,

feel more comfortable with high situational strength, where

the situation dictates a course of action. In fact, 65% of

Transformational leaders preferred low situational strength

vs. Transactional leaders, 74% of whom preferred high

situational strength.

Perhaps most supportive of the present review and

proposed research is Parry and Sinha’s (2005) research into

training Transformational leaders. Owing to such business

124drivers as globalization, extreme competition, and the ever-

increasing speed of changing markets, they cited several

authors when pointing out that strong leadership was,

indeed, a competitive advantage. They performed a quasi-

field, pre-test/post-test experiment, three months in

duration, testing the Full Range Leadership Development

(Full Range Leadership Development ) program to determine

whether and which changes in leader behaviors could be

affected. The five factors in question were were Idealized

attributes, Idealized behavior, Inspirational motivation,

Intellectual stimulation, and Individualized consideration.

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was

administered to participants and up to 12 of their immediate

colleagues to provide a pre-test, 360-degree profile from

which to judge the effectiveness of training. Post-test

results showed the program effective across all cohorts and

all dimensions of Transformational leadership behaviors—

Transformational leaders can be trained up. The change in

all factors is particularly significant since each

125participant only chose two dimensions to address in their

development and action plans. It was also found that

Transactional leadership behaviors changed more based on

organizational structure than on Transformational leadership

training. Strikingly, Parry and Sinha (2005) concluded that

“one can increase the two outcomes of ‘follower extra

effort’ and ‘satisfaction with leadership’ as a result of

the Full Range Leadership Development intervention” (p.

179). Additionally, they concluded that Transactional

leadership outcomes do not necessarily decrease with the

increase of Transformational leadership behaviors. It is

important to remember that Transformational characteristics

are additional to Transactional characteristics, not as

opposed to.

Purpose In Life

Collins and Porras (1997) referred to purpose in life

as a guiding star and the reason for existence. They stated

that purpose in life was not synonymous with personal goals

or strategies. Frankl (1955/1965) said that purpose in life

126was the meaning in one’s life, and pointed out varying

sources of individuals’ purpose in life: instinct, societal

values, and authentic meaning. Instinct, he said, was innate

and occurred when actions, or work, related directly to

survival. Societal values derive from work indirectly

related to survival, family, group, and the various

traditions which arise from them all. Only purpose in life,

says Frankl (1955/1965), provides happiness and the

motivation to persist when faced with obstacles. Bonebright,

et. al. (2000), cited numerous authors in stating that

purpose in life was an irreducible need, present in every

person. Frankl (1985) cited several authors who found

relationships between purpose in life and a variety of

qualities, such as: being successful, being motivated,

exhibiting good health, and a propensity toward survival.

Frankl (1985) referred to self-actualization (Maslow,

1954/1970) as the fulfillment of purpose in life, stating

that it could only be achieved through the accomplishment of

some external purpose, such as selfless giving and the

127utilization of one’s talents and gifts to their full

potential.

Purpose in life is tested by various instruments,

including the Purpose In Life Test (Crumbaugh & Maholick,

1964; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004), the Life Purpose

Questionnaire (Life Purpose Questionnaire; Hablas & Hutzell,

1982; Hutzell, 1989; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004), which

have been shown to be valid and reliable (Schulenberg, 2004,

cited Crumbaugh & Henrion, 1988 and Hutzell, 1988), the Life

Attitude Profile (Reker & Peacock, 1981; as cited by Moomal,

1999), the Meaning In Life Depth Instrument (Ebersole &

Kobayakawa, 1989; as cited by Moomal, 1999), the Life Regard

Index (Battista & Almond, 1973; as cited by Moomal, 1999),

and the Sense of Coherence Scale (Antonovsky, 1983, 1985; as

cited by Moomal, 1999).

Contemporary research into purpose in life includes

Ryff and Keyes (1995), which differentiates between

psychological well-being as assessed with stringent measures

and subjective well-being. This research, which relied on

128self-report, showed purpose in life to be one of the six

components of psychological well-being. Steger and Frazier

(2005) also found purpose in life to mediate the presence of

well-being. Current research also includes Meraviglia

(2006), who surveyed previously diagnosed victims of breast

cancer, and found that the effect of breast cancer was both

mediated and benefited by the presence of purpose in life.

Ryan and Deci (2001) examined Eudaimonic well-being, a state

of happiness different than hedonic happiness, which

requires authentic awareness of one’s existential self and

purpose in life. Like Frankl (1985), they stated that

meaning in life derives from alignment with and fulfillment

of some purpose higher than oneself—some transcendent

meaning.

Mascara and Rosen (2005) performed a test-retest

experiment to determine whether purpose in life might impact

the symptoms of depression. They found that purpose in life

was positively associated with feelings of hopefulness and

negatively associated with symptoms of depression. Steger

129and Frazier (2005) also found purpose in life to have a

mediating effect on the relationship between well-being and

daily activity.

Motivation

Locke and Latham (2002) cited Ryan (1970) who stated

that human behavior had to be consciously directed to some

degree—that conscious thoughts controlled actions. They

pointed out that people can perform actions without being

aware of what motivated them to do so. They also referred to

Bandura (1997) who noted that purposeful thought was what

enabled people to exercise control over their lives. Frankl

(1988) held that operationalizing purpose in life provided

greater motivation than the pursuit of happiness alone and

pointed out that people’s very existence requires strong

ideals and self-transcendence. These things provide

motivation to not only survive, but to thrive.

The Hawthorne Effect was a seminal study on the effects

of changes in the workplace on worker motivation and

productivity. Researchers found that workers were at least

130as motivated by their perceptions of a situation as they

were by the situation itself (Schulz & Schulz, 1998;

Robbins, 1998). Clinically, this means that changing

perceptions may have as great an effect on motivation as

altering individuals’ circumstances. Herzberg (1959/1993)

found two distinct groups of work factors—motivators and

hygiene—which, independent of each other, were found to

increase job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction,

respectively. Motivators were tied to intrinsic factors,

whereas hygiene factors were tied to extrinsic factors.

Neither group had any direct correlation to the other’s

effects. Again, we see motivation tied to internal

perceptions.

Maslow (1954/1970) sought to prove that people were

motivated to grow—to achieve their full potential. He

organized needs in a hierarchy, ranging from low to high—

physiological to self-actualization. Each higher need would

arise, or become prepotent, as the lower need was fulfilled.

He did allow that sometimes, needs would be fulfilled out of

131order, but that should a lower one suddenly become

overwhelming, focus would shift to the fulfillment of that

lower need until attention could, once again, be redirected

upward. Needs of all levels would be subsumed by perceptions

and choices enacted by the individual.

Kelly (1955/1963) found individuals to be motivated by

their constructs—the perceptions they held of reality. Their

motivation was to be found in attempts to understand,

anticipate, predict—or ultimately control—future events. For

individuals to create change, he held that one construct

must be replaced by another. However, change generally

occurs along a continuum from the present state of a

construct toward its polar opposite, such as passive to

aggressive or gentle to violent. Kelly (1955/1963) agreed

with Kierkegaard and Ryan and Deci (2000) in naming autonomy

as a critical factor in the motivation to create change.

Murray (1938; as cited by Petri, 1996) developed the

expectancy-value approach to motivation. Vroom (1964; as

cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990 and Harder, 1991) expanded the

132expectancy-value approach by adding the component of

instrumentality, thus creating the Value-Instrumentality-

Expectancy Theory. This theory holds that individuals act

based on an expectation that their actions can affect

outcomes. As the value of outcomes increases, so does

motivation to act.

Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that three needs—

relatedness, competence, and autonomy—comprise the

foundation for human motivation. They also held that if

conditions support the fulfillment of these needs, humans

can prosper psychologically, whereas the thwarting of these

needs leads to negative psychological outcomes. If this were

not true, one would expect to see individuals prospering

psychologically despite favorable or adverse conditions as

related to needs fulfillment. Further, they anticipate that

long-term blocking of needs fulfillment will lead to

psychological ill-being. Finally, in accordance with

Frankl’s (1980) and Maslow’s (1954/1970) ideas that humans

are naturally predisposed toward growth, and contrary to

133Hull and Freud’s beliefs that action requires being out of

balance, these three needs do not require a deficit to be

activated.

Clinical Practice Implications

Results from the proposed research promise to impact

professionals in several areas. Among them Clinical

Psychologists, I/O Psychologists and Consultants, Social

Workers, Mental Health Workers, and Counselors of several

kinds—Mental Health, Career, School, and even Pastoral.

Clinical Psychologists might find themselves leading clients

to the discovery of purpose in life, and in conjunction with

Career Counselors, might work toward professionalization of

purpose in life. The hypothesized findings could provide I/O

Psychologists and Consultants with new directions for

several types of intervention, including: corporate culture,

leadership style, job- and organization-fit, and employee

hiring and retention best practices. As a result of

individuals finding greater meaning in their lives and work,

Mental Health Workers and Pastoral Counselors might see

134fewer clients suffering from job burnout and life- and job-

dissatisfaction. Mental Health Counselors might find it

easier to direct individuals toward greater happiness in

life and at work through professionalization of purpose in

life. School Counselors, utilizing the proper instruments

and assessments, might be better equipped to direct students

into more suitable and satisfying course selection. Overall,

the field of Psychology would benefit from having a clearer

picture of determinants of behavior. Benefits to individuals

discovering and professionally operationalizing their

purpose in life might include increased life satisfaction,

job satisfaction, greater feelings of autonomy, and a sense

of self-actualization.

Social Implications

From a societal perspective, developing and sustaining

a competitive advantage cannot but help improve the economic

outlook for American organizations, their stakeholders—

leaders and workers—and their stakeholders’ families. By

identifying a more highly suitable Leadership style, where

135purpose in life and worker motivation can be increased, thus

increasing productivity and quality, society as a whole,

also, cannot help but be improved.

From an individual perspective, the professionalization

of purpose in life in workers should lead to altruism, at

home, at work, and in society in general. In a self-

actualized individual, all subordinate needs have been

fulfilled, and arising from this fulfillment is the

sustaining belief that they will be fulfilled on an ongoing

basis (Maslow, 1971). This anticipation of continued well-

being is expected to lead the self-actualized individual to

look toward improving the lot of those around them—toward

altruistic behaviors. The societal impact of leading

individuals toward self-actualization through

professionalization of purpose in life—the ultimate aim of

the proposed research—might well presage an increase of

altruism and an accompanying improvement of the human

condition throughout society.

136A general increase in altruism might extend,

specifically, to individuals’ significant others and

families. Such a change could be expected to lead to greater

levels of marital harmony, marital longevity, and the

concomitant positive effects on children’s psyches.

Naturally, happier couples, parents, and households would

create happier, better adjusted children, who would grow up

to be happier, more productive citizens.

Recommendations for Future Research

The proposed research hopes to find a positive

relationship between the variables purpose in life and

worker motivation in comparison of Transformational and

Transactional leadership styles. Assuming a positive outcome

of this research, future research would be needed to

determine what, if any, causative or mediating effects

purpose in life might have on worker motivation. Other

potential research might include examination of the effects

of purpose in life on other variables, such as job- and

organization-fit, intention to quit, and organization-

137commitment. Purpose in life might be tested against almost

any of the subsumed components of life satisfaction and any

of the three areas of need described in SDT (Ryan & Deci,

2000).

Additional research might also examine the potential

ability of Transformational leaders to transform the

business processes of the very organizations they lead as

related to professionalization of purpose in life. The areas

they might especially affect, in this regard, include

recruiting and hiring processes, employee retention

practices, and performance development, to name just a few.

If Transformational leaders can, in practice, affect the

changes in purpose in life and worker motivation that the

literature seems to suggest they might, then the positive

outcomes and competitive advantages to be gained by American

organizations could be quite significant. Additionally,

these outcomes could be plotted and measured in real terms

of profitability and productivity.

138In the social sciences arena, measures could be taken

of the affects on the personal lives of workers who

professionalization of purpose in life. The impact on the

workload of mental health workers in a variety of fields

could be gauged over time, as related to these workers. This

research could show how mental health expenditures for

companies might be lowered by working to professionalization

of purpose in life.

Integrative Summary

The relationship between leadership style and worker

motivation has been well researched, and that there is an

influence of leadership style upon follower is without doubt

(e.g.; Popper, et. al., 2000; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006;

Bass, 1985). Frankl (1985a) was quite clear in his assertion

that nothing of any existential value would be accomplished

in life without a clear sense of meaning or purpose in life.

SDT is the primary theoretical basis upon which the proposed

research is based, and current literature suggests a

connection between the components of SDT and purpose in life

139(e.g.; Meraviglia, 2006; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Mascaro & Rosen,

2005; Steger & Frazier, 2005).

The proposed research intends to examine the

relationship between Transformational and Transactional

leadership styles when measuring workers’ sense of purpose

in life and motivation. Participants from wide-ranging

backgrounds and levels of worker responsibility will be

assessed through Internet-based, self-report surveys using

leadership style, purpose in life, and worker motivation

measures. SDT Theory, Kelly’s Personal Construct Psychology

Theory, Vroom’s Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory,

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and Frankl’s work on meaning

are the foundation of the proposed study’s research

questions and hypotheses (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Kelly,

1955/1963; Brooks & Betz, 1990; Frankl, 1985a; Maslow,

1971). The relationship between purpose in life and worker

motivation is a meaningful area of research not only because

of the tremendous implications to American business and the

need for a sustainable competitive advantage, but also to

140the American family and the American psyche overall. Workers

living out their purpose in life professionally cannot help

but be more satisfied and productive at work and happier at

home.

Conclusion

American organizations need to increase their

competitive edge to keep pace with the pressures of changes

in the global economy. New markets and economies are

emerging overseas and our ability to keep pace, both as

organizations and as a workforce, is being put to the test.

Finding ways to give ourselves a competitive advantage is

critical for our survival as an economic leader in the world

markets. Only by maximizing worker productivity can we

attain and maintain that competitive advantage.

Upon completion of the proposed study, it is

anticipated that two potential stepping-stones on the path

to increased and sustainable worker motivation will have

been found. They are, first, that the efficacy of the

Transformational leadership model is expected to prove out

141over the Transactional model; and second, that there is a

positive link between Transformational leadership and

workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation, which

means that by assisting workers in professionalization of

purpose in life, organizations will benefit by having more

committed and devoted workers. This means that in any

organization where reciprocal caring between leaders and

followers has value (whether from a corporate culture or

productivity point of view) there will be evidence to

support a migration from Transactional to Transformational

leadership style.

Many types of interventions have been and can be

created to assist individuals in determining and

operationalizing their purpose in life professionally. This

is also true of training management teams to integrate

Transformational leadership practices into their corporate

culture. Further, wise Transformational leaders will be

highly interested in using their positions to support their

followers in achieving a high level of purpose in life,

142especially if it can be professionally operationalized in

alignment with organizational missions. This would surely be

beyond a win-win situation. The winners would include not

only the individual and organization, but the American

workforce and economy as well.

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157CURRICULUM VITA

Jason Michael Starr8323 Timberwilde St.San Antonio, TX 78250jasonstarr@satx.rr.com

EducationRobert E. Lee High School, San Antonio, TX 9/67 – 5/70San Antonio College, San Antonio, TX 9/70 – 5/71

1/75 – 12/75St. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX 9/71 – 12/74University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX

1/76 – 5/771/90 – 5/90

University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX1/00 – 5/01

Walden University, Minneapolis, MN 9/01 – present

DegreesBA – Psychology of Organizations & Development, 3.96 Gpositive affectSt. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX

Awards & Specialized ActivitiesEagle Scout - Boy Scouts of America, Sep-67

Master Mason, AF & AM - Charles W. Anderson Lodge, No. 1413,May-73

Licensed Realtor, State of Texas, Jan-86 – Aug-88

Substitute Teacher - Northeast Independent School District, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89 – May-90

Ordained Minister - Universal Life Church - 1993

Certified Reiki Practitioner - 1st Degree - 1997

National Honor Society in Psychology – Jul-02

158Certified Stellar Service Certification Presenter - Achieve Global – Mar-07

Continuing Education – Leadership DevelopmentClient Psychology and Eligibility Requirements: Eligibility Specialist Training, Mrs. Dorsey, et. al., The State of Texas, Department of Human Services, Food Stamps Department, San Antonio, TX, Oct-90

Cultural Diversity, Mrs. Dorsey, et. al., The State of Texas, Department of Human Services, Food Stamps Department, San Antonio, TX, Apr-91

Workplace Harrassment, Kathy Blachek, Afni, Inc., San Antonio, TX, Apr-07

Afni Coaching Model (ACM), Andy Lawrence, Rolando Collin, Afni, Inc., San Antonio, TX, May-07

Continuing Education – SalesSelling Through Persuasion, Tom Hopkins, Hopkins International, San Antonio, TX, Mar-86

Selling Through Persuasion II, Tom Hopkins, Hopkins International, Austin, TX, Apr-86

Course I, Graduate Realtors Institute Certification Classes, Texas Real Estate Commission, San Antonio, TX, Jun-86

Power Selling, Roger Butcher, NPC Realtors, San Antonio, TX, Jun-86

Reading, Understanding, and Selling People, Jaclyn Rhodes, NPC Realtors, San Antonio, TX, Oct-86

Persuading Via Telephone, David Alan Yoho, Yoho Continuing Education, San Antonio, TX, Mar-87

Power Persuading on the Phone, Carolyn Wyckoff, WorldWide Realtors/Ray Ellison Industries, San Antonio, TX, Mar-88

159Needs Assessment and Fulfillment, Carolyn Wyckoff, WorldWide Realtors/Ray Ellison Industries, San Antonio, TX, Apr-88

Continuing Education – Personal GrowthSelf-Esteem in Individuals, John Bradshaw, Houston, TX, Sep-86

Mastering Alive Relationships, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, Austin, TX, Apr-87

Creative Self-Expression, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, Austin, TX, May-87

Universal Principles of Truth Training, Rudi Harst, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jul-87

Prosperity Training, Edwene Gaines & Bert Carson, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Oct-87

Self-Responsibility, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, Austin, TX, Jun-88

Results Course, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, San Antonio, TX, Aug-88

Results Course, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, San Antonio, TX, Oct-88

Spiritual Energy in the Body, Nancy Busch, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jun-89

Return to Grace, Richard Heinberg, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89

The Duality of Spirit & Matter, Walter Starcke, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89

The Mask of the Ego, Timothy Apgar, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89

Leadership Training, Rev. Marlene Abdulky, Unity of San Antonio,San Antonio, TX, Sep-89

160Thank God For Prayer, Aida Putnam, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89

The Power of Grace, Debby Tyson, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Apr-90

Power in Self through Play & Music, Rudi Harst, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jun-90

The Mask of the Ego, Timothy Apgar, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Oct-90

Prosperity Training, Edwene Gaines & Bert Carson, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jun-91

Comedy in Forgiveness and Spirituality, Steve Baerhman (Swami Beyondananda), Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jul-91

Mastering Life, Love, and Relationships, Part I, Phyllis Light, Ph.D., Light Unlimited, Houston, TX, Mar-92

The Light Realization Program, Phyllis Light, Ph.D., Light Unlimited, San Diego, CA, Jun-92

Mastering Life, Love, and Relationships, Part II (Life Restructuring Process), Phyllis Light, Ph.D., Light Unlimited, Tampa, FL, Mar-93

Prosperity Training, Edwene Gaines & Bert Carson, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Jun-95

Practicing the Presence of God, Donna Wickes, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Apr-96

Practicing the Presence of God, Donna Wickes, Wicke Ministries, Houston, TX, Apr-96

Old Testament Interpretation, Rev. Sunny Stone, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, May-91

Discover the Power Within You, Frederick Hasley, ULC, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Sep-93

161Words of Jesus, Rev. L. Bill Wilson, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Jan-94

Interpretation of the Gospels #1, Rev. L. Bill Wilson, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Jan-94

Twelve Powers of Man, Rev. E.J. Niles, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Feb-94

Lessons in Truth, Jeanetta Davis, ULC, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, May-96

Prosperity, Vivian Martinez, ULC, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97

Continuing Education – Martial ArtsUnderstanding Bo Kata, Grand Master Robert A. Trias, 10th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu, United States Karate Association, Phoenix, AZ, Mar-85

Psychology, Self-Discipline, and Self-Mastery through Karate-do, Renshi Roy Osborne, 6th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu & Shorinji Ryu, United States Karate Association, San Antonio,TX, Aug-85

Discipline, Strategy, and Self-Control for Control of Others and Environment, Grand Master Robert A. Trias, 10th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu, United States Karate Association, San Antonio, TX, Oct-85

Meditation for Peace of Mind: Martial Arts' Gentle Side, Hanshi Dirk Mosig, Ph.D., Kearney State University, 7th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu, United States Karate Association, Phoenix, AZ, Oct-85

Education – Performing Arts – DanceBallet, Doris Aceli, Doris Aceli School of Dance, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1967

162Tap Dance, Doris Aceli, Doris Aceli School of Dance, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1967

Acrobatics, Doris Aceli, Doris Aceli School of Dance, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1967

Education – Performing Arts – MusicTrumpet, Ed Solomon, Eisenhower Junior High School, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1966

Trumpet, Ed Solomon, San Antonio, TX, Private Lessons, 1964-1966

Trumpet, Melvin Meads, Robert E. Lee High Schoo, San Antonio, TX, 1966-1970

Trumpet, Theron Kirk, San Antonio College, San Antonio College, 1970-1971

Education – Performing Arts – TheaterActing I & II, Prof. Allan S. Ross, San Antonio College, SanAntonio College, 1974-75

Voice & Diction, Prof. Allan S. Ross, San Antonio College, San Antonio College, 1974-75

Performing Arts Practical Experience – MusicTrumpet, Halcyon Days Swing Band, John Weller, Dir., San Antonio, TX, 1972-1974

Performing Arts Practical Experience – TheaterThe Miser (Cleante), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX, Mar-73

The Boys of Syracuse (Antipholus), Music Theater, San Antonio, TX, May-73

Showboat (Frank), Music Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jun-73

163Love Rides the Rails (Stanley Steamer), Melodrama Theater, San Antonio, TX, Sep-73

Midsummer Night's Dream (Theseus), First Repertory Company Theater, San Antonio, TX, Nov-73

Cactus Flower (Igor), Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX,Jan-74

Play It Again Sam (Bogart's Ghost), Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Mar-74

Seven Year Itch (Tom), Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jun-74

Pygmalion (Chorus), University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Sep-74

Charley's Aunt (Jack), University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Mar-75

The Odd Couple (Speed), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort SamHouston, San Antonio, TX

The Rimers of Eldridge (Judge), San Antonio College Theater,San Antonio, TX

Cyrano de Bergerac (Ragneau), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX

And Miss Reardon Drinks A Little (Bob), New Kids Productions/San Pedro Playhouse, San Antonio, TX

Christmas in the Market Place (Melchior), First Christian Church Theater, San Antonio, TX

The Little Hut (Henry), Harlequin Dinner Theater, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX

A Thousand Clowns (Arnold), Harlequin Dinner Theater, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX

164Ten Little Indians (Rodgers), Harlequin Dinner Theater, FortSam Houston, San Antonio, TX

Twelfth Night (Sea Captain), Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX

A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum (Pseudolus),Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX,

Aug-80

A Christmas Carol (Young Scrooge), Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Dec-80

A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum (Protean), Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX, Nov-81

A Streetcar Named Desire (Stanley), Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Apr-81

Mr. Roberts (Shore Patrol/Sailor), Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX, Jun-81

Present Laughter (Henry), OffStage Productions/Trinity University Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jun-84

Lysistrata (Spartan), New Kids Productions/Trinity University, San Antonio, TX

From Hell to Hollywood (Schwartzkopf-German Spy), Melodrama Theater, San Antonio, TX, Nov-78

Don't Drink the Water (Axel Magee), San Pedro Playhouse, SanAntonio, TX

My Three Angels (Jules), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX, Jul-77

Performing Arts Technical Experience – Theatrical Set ConstructionJudy: A Retrospective, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, 7/78

165You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown, Church Dinner Theater, SanAntonio, TX

A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Aug-80

A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum, Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX

Gigi, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Oct-80

Nightwatch, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX Dec-80

My Fair Lady, San Antonio Little Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jan-81

Performing Arts Technical Experience – Theatrical Light & SoundPygmalion, Designed/Executed Sound, University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Sep-74

Expo '75, Designed/Executed Sound, University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Mar-75

Side by Side by Sondheim, Follow Spot, Offstage Productions/Trinity University Theater, San Antonio, TX

One woman show: Mrs. George Custer, Executed sound, Carver Cultural Center, San Antonio, TX

You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown, Executed lighting, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX

A Christmas Carol, Executed lighting, Church Dinner Theater,San Antonio, TX

Judy: A Retrospective, Follow Spot, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX

Glass Menagerie, Designed/Executed sound, Harlequin Dinner Theater, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX

166Performing Arts Technical Experience – Stage HandCactus Flower, Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX

A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum, Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX

Mr. Roberts, Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX

Relevant Work ExperienceHeartshine Productions SanAntonio, TXSpeaker/Consultant Mar-89 to Oct-90Created, marketed, and presented workshops, seminars, lectures on human potential

Texas Dept of Human Svcs/FoodStamps Div. SanAntonio, TXEligibility Specialist

Oct-90 to Oct-91Interviewed applicants and determined eligibility; interpreted documents and applied federal and state eligibility regulations

Light Productions San Diego, CA/Tampa, FLSpeaker/Consultant Nov-91 to Aug-93Provided career consulting and life coaching services to individuals and corporations.

Heartshine ProductionsHerndon, VA; San Antonio, TX

Speaker/Consultant Sep-93 to Dec-97Provided career consulting and life coaching services to individuals and corporations.

UTHSCself-actualization/South Texas Poison Center SanAntonio, TXAdministrative Assistant

Jan-98 to Oct-98

167Provided support services to Medical Director and Community Educators of South Texas Poison Center

International Executive Resources San Antonio, TXRecruiter Nov-98 to Oct-00Recruited engineers and mid-level managers for the tire and rubber industries. Solicited job orders. Installed and configuted computer system. Trained staff in new proprietarysoftware.

Academy of Careers & Technologies San Antonio, TXLiberal Arts Instructor

Sep-05 to Jun-06Developed and delivered curriculum in Speech, Psychology, Art, Music, Computer Applications, Multimedia, and Physical Education to inner city, disadvantaged youth. Facilitated and participated in implementation of Accelerated Schools Project Instructional Cadre.

StarrCat Books San Antonio, TXOperations & Facilities Manager Apr-03 to presentProvided oversight for inventory management and distribution. Designed and implemented construction of warehouse facilities. Maintained warehouse facilities.

Afni, Inc San Antonio, TXCorporate Trainer Sep-06 to presentDeveloped and delivered curriculum in customer service, policies & procedures in Verizon Wireless Prepay Project. Provided walking internal help desk support to operations personnel.

Presentations - WorkshopsProsperity Discovered and Recovered, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Aug-88

168You Can Change Your Life, Unlimited Thought Bookstore, San Antonio, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of The Hill Country, Kerrville, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity Oltorf, Austin, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, The Wellness Center, San Antonio, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Dallas, Dallas, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Denton, Denton, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX,Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Abilene, Abilene, TX, Apr-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Pharr, Pharr, TX, Apr-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Brownsville, Brownsville, TX,Apr-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX, Apr-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Midland, Midland, TX, May-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Lake Jackson, Lake Jackson, TX, May-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Friendswood, Clear Lake, TX, Jun-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Beaumont, Beaumont, TX, Jun-90

169You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Albuquerque, Albuquerque, NM,Jul-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Santa Fe, Santa Fe, NM, Jul-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Las Cruces, Las Cruces, NM, Jul-90

You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Midland, Midland, TX, Jul-90

The Light Realization Process, Cortez Wellness Center, San Antonio, TX, Mar-92

The Light Realization Process, The Emerald Center, San Antonio, TX,Jul-92

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Institute of Applied Metaphysics, Silver Springs, MD, May-94

Chakras: The Guided Tour, Institute of Applied Metaphysics, Silver Springs, MD, May-94

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Institute of Applied Metaphysics, Silver Springs, MD, Jul-94

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, Herndon, VA, May-95

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, Herndon, VA, Aug-95

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, Herndon, VA, Oct-95

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, TheAwareness Center, San Antonio, TX, Feb-97

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97

170Chakras: The Guided Tour, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97

Chakras: The Guided Tour, The Awareness Center, San Antonio, TX,Mar-97

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Apr-97

Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, May-97

Presentations – LecturesThe Power of the Spoken Word, Unity of Boerne, Boerne, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Religious Science of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Mar-90

You Can Change Your Life, Religious Science of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, May-90

You Can Change Your Life, Wurzbach Wellness Center, San Antonio,TX, Jun-90

10 Secrets of Happiness, Silva Mind Development, Arlington, VA, Mar-94

10 Secrets of Happiness, Silva Mind Development, Arlington, VA,Jul-94

10 Secrets of Happiness, Consciousness Frontiers, Arlington, VA, Oct-94

10 Secrets of Happiness, Consciousness Frontiers, Arlington, VA, Mar-95

10 Secrets of Happiness, The Awareness Center, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97

171Soul Sexuality 101, Universal Lightworkers Conference, Houston, TX, Mar-97

The 10 Secrets of Happiness, Unity of Portland, Portland, OR, May-97

Creating the Life of Your Dreams, New Vision Center, Nassau Bay, TX, Jun-97

The 10 Secrets of Happiness, New Vision Center, Nassau Bay, TX, Jun-97

Soul Sexuality 101, Centerpoint Project, Houston, TX, Jun-97

Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Spiritual Horizons, Houston, TX, Jun-97

The 10 Secrets of Happiness, Spiritual Horizons, Houston, TX, Jun-97

The 10 Secrets of Happiness, Universal Lightworkers Conference, Seattle, WA, Jul-97

Say Yes to Your Destiny, Unity of Boerne, Boerne, TX, Aug-98

Is It 5 O'Clock Yet?, Unity of Boerne, Boerne, TX, Oct-98

Leadership and Goal-Setting, Clark High School Student Council, San Antonio, TX, Oct-98

Leadership and Goal-Setting, Holmes High School FBLA, San Antonio,TX, Oct-98

Publications – Books10 Secrets of Happiness, Heartshine Productions, 1993 (1st ed.) (Former title: Voices of Innocence)

172

Publications - ArticlesThe Happiest Man Alive; Indigo Sun; Houston, TX; Aug/1997, 5(5)

Radio Show Inspirational/Interview-Talk/Producer/Designer/HostThe Shared Experience/Starr Moments, FCAC, Northern Virginia, 8/88to 10/94GuestsKen Roberts - Author/SpeakerGuy Finley - Author/SpeakerKen Carey - Author/SpeakerLiz Lafferty - PsychicJane Luce - Author/SpeakerSherril Smith - Author/PsychicShakti Wilson - Author/SpeakerMichelle Lusson - Author/SpeakerPeace Pilgrim II - Author/SpeakerShakti Gawain - Author/SpeakerNancy Gosek - TeacherEcho Bodine - Author/SpeakerWally Amos - Author/SpeakerRichard Heinberg - Author/Speaker

Shared Awareness, KENS, San Antonio, TX, 2/97 to 4/97Inspirational/Interview-Talk/Self-Awareness/Producer/Co-Host