ABSTRACT
The Relationship Between Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Styles
When Measuring purpose in life and Worker Motivation
By
Jason Michael Starr
B.A., The University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX,2001
Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Sciencein Psychology
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to determine whether
transformational versus transactional leadership style is
more impactful on workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation, hence on organizational competitive advantage.
The literature is clear that leaders can facilitate changes
in workers’ attitudes; and that competitive advantage is
essential to organizations. This study hypothesizes that
transformational is the more impactful style on worker’s
sense of purpose in life and motivation. Significant
research has examined leadership styles and their
relationships to worker motivation while less has examined
their relationships with workers’ sense of purpose in life.
This study seeks to fill that void. Ryan and Deci’s Self-
Determination Theory and Frankl’s will-to-meaning provide
the study’s primary theoretical foundation. Participants
from mid-sized companies (250-500 employees) will be
recruited and surveyed via the Internet and assigned to
iii
groups based on leadership style, as determined by the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Levels of sense of
purpose in life and motivation will be measured,
respectively, by the purpose in life Test and Motivation
Sources Index. Relationship strength will be analyzed with
ANOVA. Findings of this study might provide internal and
external Organizational Consultants with an important tool
to assist organizations in creating and maintaining
competitive advantage. Additionally, if leaders can be
trained up to increase workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation, workers’ lives outside of work might be
positively impacted, as well, thus reducing the caseload on
therapists for professional burnout and the existential
emptiness mentioned by Frankl.
iv
The Relationship Between Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Styles
When Measuring purpose in life and Worker Motivation
By
Jason Michael Starr
B.A., The University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX,2001
Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Sciencein Psychology
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For all their hard work, patience, assistance and
guidance, I wish to extend both thanks and acknowledgment to
the Walden Faculty, generally, and Drs. Bauer, Greiner, and
Hawley, specifically. Without their experience and
willingness to guide a plebe through the maze of academic
requirements, I would have been lost.
I must also acknowledge my beautiful wife, Catherine,
and all our children, Jennifer, Lisa, Elizabeth, Loren,
Sidra, and Sarah. For, without them to inspire (and goad)
me, this project would not have been completed.
Finally, no success on my part would be possible and no
acknowledgement complete without giving full credit to the
Lord of my being, the Creator and Father of my very Soul,
The Lord God, Yahweh.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract...................................................iAcknowledgements.........................................iiiChapter 1: Introduction to the Study.......................1
Introduction..........................................1Background of the Problem.............................2Theoretical Foundations...............................5Purpose of the Study..................................5Statement of the Problem..............................6Definition of Terms...................................8Assumptions and Limitations of the Study..............9Significance of the Study............................10Summary..............................................11
Chapter 2: Literature Review..............................12Introduction.........................................12Organization of the Chapter..........................12Literature Search Strategy...........................13Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles.13Purpose in Life......................................31Motivation...........................................41Summary..............................................53
Chapter 3: Research Method................................57Introduction.........................................57Identification of Population.........................57Design of the Study..................................59Procedures...........................................61Steps Taken to Ensure Participants’ Privacy..........61Instruments..........................................62
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion.........................64Review of Literature from Chapter 2..................64Clinical Practice Implications.......................73Social Implications..................................74
v
Recommendations for Future Research..................75Integrative Summary..................................76Conclusion...........................................77
References................................................79
Curriculum Vita...........................................88
vi
1CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to determine whether
transformational versus transactional leadership style is
more impactful on workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation. Research seems to indicate that increases in
workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation will assist
in creating and maintaining competitive advantage for
American organizations. Finding a universal underlying
motivator for human behavior in order to better understand,
predict, and control behavior has been the object of
research for the past several decades, if not longer (Deci &
Ryan, 2000; Goleman, 1997; Kelly, 1955/1963). Leadership
styles in general and Transformational and Transactional
leadership styles in particular (Frankl, 1955/1965;
Herzberg, Mausner, & Bloch Snyderman, 1959/1993; Maslow,
1971) have received considerable attention in the
psychological research community, as have the constructs
2purpose in life and Worker Motivation. There is also
research linking leadership style to worker motivation
(Bass, 1985, 1999; Burns, 1979; Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). It
seems, however, that less attention has been given to the
relationship between leadership style and purpose in life.
Research, such as that proposed in this study, will examine
the relationships between leadership style, worker
motivation and workers’ sense of purpose in life. If a
positive relationship were found between leadership style
and one or both of workers’ sense of purpose in life and
worker motivation, it would be logical for leaders to assist
followers as they discover and professionally operationalize
their purpose in life. Additionally, should a statistically
significant relationship be found between a particular
leadership style and one or both of the constructs to be
examined, it would behoove organizations to examine their
leadership style for alignment with the preferred model, and
implement interventions, if necessary, to realign with the
preferred model.
3This proposed research and critical literature review
will examine the literature on leadership styles, purpose in
life, and worker motivation to lay the groundwork for
proposed research. The proposed research will examine the
between-group relationship of transformational and
transactional leadership styles when measuring workers’
sense of purpose in life and worker motivation. Conclusions,
social and practice implications are discussed.
Background of the Problem
There have been significant amounts of research done on
leadership style. Burns (1979) provided an in-depth
examination of leadership types, categories, and styles. He
expansively defined and described what he termed the
transforming leader and a more commonly seen type of leader—
the transactional. Bass (1985, 1990) built on Burns’s work,
describing three major leadership styles: Transformational,
Transactional, and Laissez-faire. Since Laissez-faire
leaders only act when performance expectations aren’t met,
their style of leadership is no leadership at all.
4Therefore, this style will not be considered directly,
either in this critical review or the proposed study.
The two leadership styles considered here,
Transformational and Transactional, share some common
characteristics, but there are fundamental existential
differences between them (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1979). As an
example, in the case of the former, the characteristic
Charisma is frequently present, combined with the ability to
empower subordinates who then perform beyond their own
beliefs in their abilities and expectations of their
capacities. Transformational leaders care about their
followers as individuals having intrinsic or inherent value.
Transactional leaders depend on incentives or an exchange of
valued items or conditions to generate performance.
Transactional leaders only care about subordinates as
producers of value, independent of their worth as human
beings.
In seeking ways to create, or increase Worker
Motivation, past research and theory have frequently
5addressed the construct purpose. Studies suggest that when
individuals have a sense of purpose they age more
successfully (Fisher & Specht, 1999; Penick, 2004),
experience a greater sense of well-being (Adams & Bezner,
2000; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006), or, if in
relationship to a task, experience increased motivation
(Francis, 2000, Maslow, 1998). Also, Frankl (1955/1965)
stated that man cannot merely work, but must have meaning or
purpose in his work.
For decades, researchers have sought ways to increase
worker motivation (Argyris, 1976; Maslow, 1954/1970, 1998).
Even as there has not been discovered, to date, a universal
causative factor for human motivation, so might there be no
single reason for the large body of research done in this
area. One suggestion, however, might be that increased
worker motivation would lead to higher levels of
productivity, quality, customer service, and ultimately
profitability, justifying the amount of effort expended by
researchers. Another reason might be the personal curiosity
6of researchers in this area. In any case, human motivation
and worker motivation have long been (and will likely
continue to be) subjects of scientific scrutiny.
The search for a universal motivator continues even
today (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999; Francis, 2000;
Hendricks & Ludeman, 1996). Some researchers, however, have
pointed toward individual purpose as the single, greatest
underlying factor in human motivation and thus, worker
motivation (Francis, 2000; Maslow, 1998). One researcher
found that individuals with some sense of a higher purpose
are likely to perform better, to be kinder, more motivated,
and more socially conformist than their peers without such a
sense (Francis, 2000). There is also considerable literature
in Existential Psychology (Bugental, 1965; as cited by
Bauman & Waldo, 1998; May, 1961, 1981; Yalom, 1981; all as
cited by Chen, 2001) and in religious studies as well
(Ferris, 2002; French & Joseph, 1999), which indicate that
people without purpose are not as happy, content, motivated,
or productive as those with some sense of purpose or meaning
7in their lives. Such studies, addressing children possessed
of purpose in life, found an association between purpose in
life with both longevity and survival, after episodes of
cancer (Zebrack & Chesler, 2002). Interestingly, Thompson,
Coker, Krause, and Else (2003), found a positive correlation
between purpose in life and rehabilitation success in spinal
cord injury patients, suggesting that purpose in life is a
critical element in the connection of mind to body.
Ghoshal and Bruch (2003) examined two constructs,
considered as causative factors of human motivation—“will”
and “volition.” These constructs were in vogue prior to the
Second World War and the rise of Nazism. The constructs lost
favor with Psychology, however, after being usurped by the
Nazi regime as part of their propaganda for building the
master race. Ghoshal & Bruch (2003) cited Heckhausen,
Gollwitzer, and Weinert (1987) and also Heckhausen’s (n.d.)
study into the history of the concepts of “volition” and
“will.” In the psychological literature of the early 20th
and late 19th centuries, Hechkausen found that these were
8key terms (Ghoshal & Bruch, 2003), but that the term
“volition” disappeared by 1945 and “will” by 1970. Perhaps
future research will determine whether the construct purpose
in life is akin to, or synonymous, with volition. This
critical review, though, will assume them to be separate and
distinct domains, and volition will not be further examined.
The current research expectation is that theory and research
examining the suggested relationships will provide
information useful in answering the question posed in the
section titled Research Questions and Hypotheses.
Theoretical Foundations
The review proposes a research project to seek answers
to the question below, proving or disproving the stated
hypotheses. In preparation, this paper briefly examines
classic theoretical concepts put forward by several
researchers dealing with leadership style, purpose in life,
and worker motivation, including Vroom’s (1964; as cited by
Brooks & Betz, 1990; Harder, 1991) Value-Instrumentality-
Expectancy Theory (Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy ); Ryan
9and Deci’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory (SDT); Kelly’s
(1955/1963) Theory of Personal Construct Psychology
(Personal Construct Psychology); Maslow’s (1971, 1954/1970,
1995) Hierarchy of Needs; and Herzberg, Mausner, and Bloch
Snyderman’s (1959/1993) hygiene/motivation factors. Frankl’s
(1965, 1985a, 1985b, 1988) work on will-to-meaning is also
strongly considered in this review.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine whether
transformational versus transactional leadership style is
more impactful on increasing workers’ sense of purpose in
life and motivation. In this age of globalization, American
organizations face a greater than ever and continually
growing need to create and maintain competitive advantage.
And, while workers are essential in the creation of goods
and services, thus in competitive advantage, the literature
is clear that workers’ attitudes and beliefs strongly affect
their output (as described later when discussing The
Hawthorne Studies; Schulz & Schulz, 1998; Robbins, 1998). It
10is also clear in the literature that workers’ attitudes and
beliefs can be affected, not only by circumstances (as shown
in the Hawthorne Studies), but by their leaders as well. And
if leaders can effect change in workers attitudes and
beliefs, then it is logical to assume that finding the most
effective leadership model would benefit American
organizations in their efforts to create and maintain
competitive advantage. From the proposed research, it is
anticipated that a favored leadership style will emerge. It
is also anticipated that suggested directions for best
practices for hiring, employee relations, development, and
retention will emerge.
Statement of the Problem
Intensifying competition, rapidly changing technology,
and ever-increasing pressure to streamline and improve
productivity and quality while cutting costs is a driving
force in American organizations today. Through
globalization, many organizations are able to take advantage
of cheap, abundant, foreign labor, where technologically
11advanced processes permit production of consumer goods with
lower costs and equal or higher quality than that found in
American goods. Huyett & Viguerie (2005) call the arising
situation extreme competition. They also state that one of
the major ways for organizations to remain not only
competitive, but extant, is to manage costs; i.e., keeping
costs, such as compensation, as low as possible. Garelli
(2004) reported that while global manufacturing productivity
steadily has risen over the last three decades, the number
of workers steadily has declined. Steel production has
increased from 75 MM tons to over 100 MM tons, while the
number of workers in the industry has dropped from 289,000
to only 74,000.
In order to meet, and hopefully exceed, this extreme
competition, American workers, in every industry, are going
to have to continue to increase output and quality (Karim &
Kathawala, 2005). In order to do so, they will have to be
motivated to outwork their foreign counterparts. Intrinsic
motivation provides greater task-commitment, occupation-
12commitment, and organization-commitment than extrinsic
motivation (Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). Ireland and Hitt
(2005) identified one avenue to dealing with this extreme
competition—strategic leadership, which they defined as the
ability of a leader to ensure the viability of his or her
organization by anticipating future events, envisioning
successful outcomes, maintaining flexibility, employing
strategic thought processes, and engaging others to work for
planned and necessary changes. Engaging others in working
toward predetermined goals is one characteristic of a
Transformational leader. Persuading followers to align their
personal goals or purpose in life with the organizational
mission or vision is another. Ultimately, the strategic
leader would create circumstances under which the
organization would meet and overcome extreme competition by
aligning the personal goals or purpose in life of the entire
workforce with the organizational mission.
Leadership and management styles have been the subject
of significant research. These styles and their
13relationships to worker motivation have also been researched
in depth. However, less research has been directed toward
leadership styles and their relationships with workers’
sense of purpose in life. This study seeks to fill that void
by examining the ability of leaders to affect workers’ sense
of purpose in life, in hopes that by examining the
relationship of this construct to workers’ motivation as
well as its relationship to leadership style, a new
understanding of what is required to create and maintain
competitive advantage will be discovered.
The need of American organizations for maximum
productivity and quality on the part of the American
workforce is now greater than ever. Maximizing intrinsic
motivation in workers is the answer. Examining one way of
achieving that—professional operationalization of purpose in
life in alignment with organizational mission—is at the
heart of the proposed study. The first step in approaching
this subject, however, is to examine the difference between
14Transformational and Transactional leadership styles when
measuring purpose in life and worker motivation.
Research Questions:
In considering the hypothesized relationship between
Transformational and Transactional leadership styles when
measuring workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation,
the following question arises:
1. Is Transformational versus Transactional leadership
style more impactful on workers’ sense of purpose in
life and Motivation?
Hypotheses: The hypotheses for this study were:
Null Hypothesis One: There is not a significant difference
between the impact of Transformational versus Transactional
leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation.
Research Hypothesis One: There is a significant
difference between the impact of Transformational versus
Transactional leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose
in life and motivation.
15Operational Definition of Terms
Amotivation: Amotivation is the opposite of motivation,
or self-determination, and can be characterized by active
unwillingness and uninterested compliance.
Extrinsic Motivation. Extrinsic motivation describes
incentives to act which originate outside the organism.
Intrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic motivation has been defined
as a value-related construct subsumed by motivation, which
tends to produce actions that fulfill or agree with peoples’
value systems and enhances performance (Wigfield & Guthrie,
1997).
Motivation. Motivation is the construct describing
“forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and
direct behavior” (Petri, 1996, p. 3).
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors. Organizational citizenship
behaviors were described by Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) as
self-directed behaviors which will benefit the organization
but have no tie to any external rewards.
Purpose. Purpose is the driver of motivation, whether
16individual or organizational. One might be said to act due
to motivation generated by a need to fulfill his or her
purpose.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a theory posited by
Deci and Ryan (2000) which states that individuals are
motivated by three needs: autonomy, relatedness, and
competence.
Transactional Leadership. Transactional leadership is a
leadership style based on a value exchange—a leader provides
a reward or withholds a negative consequence of some sort,
and a follower provides the leader’s desired result or
outcome.
Transformational Leadership. Transformational leadership is a
leadership style based on empowering followers and providing
them with the opportunity to participate in their own job
description and career development. Transformational leaders
also seem to have greater concern for their followers than
Transactional leaders and work harder to develop followers
than their Transformational counterparts.
17Worker Motivation. Worker motivation can be described as a
worker’s determination to complete a task successfully.
Assumptions and Limitations of the Study
All research endeavors require certain assumptions to
be held in common before beginning. For this proposed study,
it is assumed that Transformational and Transactional
leadership environments can be quantified and identified
using existing instruments; that the constructs purpose in
life and worker motivation can be, and have been,
empirically quantified and measured; and that individuals’
purpose in life and worker motivation can be affected by
external factors. It is further assumed that the differences
between Transformational and Transactional leadership styles
when measuring workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation can be identified, measured, quantified, and
analyzed. It is finally assumed that determining the
existence of a difference between leadership styles when
measuring workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation
will benefit leaders, followers, and the organizations for
18which they work. Ultimately, it is expected that such
findings would benefit American organizations in general.
Several limitations presented themselves when
considering the constructs being examined and the method of
data gathering. One such limitation is that the construct
purpose in life, while quantifiable and measurable, is
easily misconstrued as short-term, long-term, or even
lifetime-goals. Barring very clear instructions when data
gathering, misconstrual of this construct could skew
results. Another potential limitation is the definition and
identification of worker motivation. Since worker motivation
has traditionally been measured by a variety of measures and
in a variety of ways, the findings might be less than
universally applicable, whatever the sample size. One
additional limitation is that data gathering via the
Internet will render control over the sample population less
rigorous than might be attained in a controlled experiment.
Finally, there is always a danger of false reporting in
self-assessment or self-report surveys.
19Significance of the Study
The literature review revealed no research dealing with
the relationship between Transformational and Transactional
leadership styles when measuring workers’ sense of purpose
in life and motivation. Quantitative research into this
relationship would help quantify it and, possibly,
illuminate a path for future organizational interventions
designed to examine and alter leadership style to better
discover and professional operationalization of purpose in
life, worker motivation, job- and organization-fit, and job
satisfaction.
Aside from laying the groundwork for the proposed
research, the intended contribution of this thesis is to
assist American organizations and their workers in
increasing their competitive edge. This is to be
accomplished through the promotion of the Transformational
leadership style by uncovering the presence of elevated
levels of workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation
in a Transformational leadership environment. Such an
20outcome could contribute to significant reductions in
intention to quit, tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover, and
increase levels of job satisfaction and occupation-
commitment and organization-commitment. The cost savings
afforded American businesses by realizing these ideals could
well be the competitive edge that sustains America’s global
superiority in the business world throughout this century
and beyond. If organizations can identify successful
strategies for increasing workers’ sense of purpose in life
and motivation through leadership style, significant
reductions in job-related stress and concomitant reductions
in such mental-health related issues as burnout can be
expected.
Summary
This critical review is aimed at providing a framework
within which proposed research can be performed to determine
what relationship, if any, exists between Transformational
and Transactional leadership styles when measuring workers’
sense of purpose in life and motivation. The answers to the
21research question promise to aid American organizations and
their workers in developing and honing a competitive edge in
global markets by increasing job- and organization-fit, job
satisfaction, and worker motivation, thus increasing
productivity and quality of goods and services. While
purpose in life, worker motivation, and Transformational and
Transactional leadership styles, individually, have been
well researched, the literature review revealed no specific
research addressing the stated hypotheses.
Chapter 2 provides an in-depth examination of the
literature regarding Transformational and Transactional
leadership styles and the constructs purpose in life and
worker motivation. The theoretical framework within which
the constructs and leadership styles are viewed will also be
discussed; e.g., Frankl’s (1965, 1985a, 1985b, 1988) Will-
to-Meaning, Vroom’s (1964; as cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990
and Harder, 1991) Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory
(Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy ), Ryan and Deci’s (2000)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Kelly’s (1955/1963) Theory
22of Personal Construct Psychology, Maslow’s (1971, 1954/1970,
1995) Hierarchy of Needs, and Herzberg, Mausner, and Bloch
Snyderman’s (1959/1993) Hygiene/Motivation factors.
23CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This review examines literature regarding the between-
group relationship of Transformational and Transactional
leadership styles when measuring workers’ sense of purpose
in life and motivation. The literature has shown that,
characteristically, Transformational leaders are more likely
to know their followers’ desires, needs, and capabilities
two levels of management hierarchy deep as compared to
Transactional leaders, to whom subordinates and incentives
are merely means to an end. Transformational leaders
increase performance levels by inspiring and empowering
followers and can assist them in discovering and
professionalization of purpose in life and increasing worker
motivation. Literature discussing purpose in life suggests
that individuals with a sense of purpose in life are
happier, better adjusted, and live lives more intrinsically
directed. The literature also suggests that intrinsic
24motivation is more likely to drive long-term commitment to
tasks and organizations and to generate higher levels of
happiness and life satisfaction (leadership style) than
extrinsic motivation. Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude
that if workers discover their purpose in life and express
it through their work, then intrinsic motivation, task
commitment, occupation-commitment, organization-commitment,
worker motivation, happiness and life satisfaction would all
increase.
Organization of the Chapter
This chapter describes classic and contemporary studies
regarding Transformational and Transactional leadership
styles, and the constructs purpose in life and worker
motivation. Background information, past research, and
contemporary views on leadership styles and both constructs
are presented.
Burns’s (1979) and Bass’s (1985) groundbreaking works
on Transformational and Transactional leadership styles are
examined as well as several theories regarding purpose in
25life and worker motivation, including, among others:
Frankl’s (1955/1965, 1978, 1985, 1988) work on meaning in
life; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1954/1970); and
Kelly’s Theory of Personality Constructs, (Kelly,
1955/1963).
Literature Search Strategy
Searches were performed on EBSCO databases Academic
Search Premier, Business Source Premier, PsycINFO, and
PSYCArticles, for the terms transformational leader,
transforming leader, transactional leader, leadership,
motivation, work motivation, worker motivation, motivation
to work, employee motivation, job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, occupational commitment, purpose,
purpose in life, meaning, meaning in life, life meaning,
mission, life satisfaction, happiness, expectancy theory,
self-determination theory, self-determination, self-esteem,
self-regulation, and sample size determination. All
searches were limited to full text articles, and where
appropriate, no articles were included from earlier than
26January, 2002. Additionally, several books were included by
researchers such as Maslow, Burns, Bass, Frankl, and Kelly.
Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles
Leadership Styles Background
The Transformational leadership style is best
understood in the context of its relationship to the
Transactional style. The progenitor of transformational or
transforming leadership as a research topic was James
MacGregor Burns (1979). Burns was struck by the fact that,
prior to his work, studies on leadership had all too
frequently taken the form of biographies of what he called
“titans”—e.g., Churchill, Roosevelt, Einstein, and others.
Such studies tended to be based, he said, on the idea that
leaders were somehow representatives of their followers. The
literature on followers tended to focus on the masses,
audiences, or voters, and was done through opinion polls or
the like. The outcome of these positions seemed to evoke or
perpetuate elitist and anti-elitist groupings or ideologies
regarding leaders and followers, respectively.
27Burns’s (1979) work in leadership can be likened to
excavating a building site. Bass’s (1985) studies, which
examined two styles of leadership in particular,
Transformational and Transactional leadership, can be
likened to laying the foundation for the current structure
of psychological, sociological, and organizational research
into Leadership styles and their effects on followers.
Leadership Styles Past Research
The purpose of Burns’s (1979) seminal treatise on
Transformational and Transactional leadership styles was to
unite the two bodies of literature—the literature on
leadership and the literature on followership—so the effects
of leadership and followership on one another could be
studied. He also wanted to see leadership viewed not by
popular opinion or reputation, but, instead, by the real
changes brought about in society by leaders and how well
they satisfied others’ needs and expectations.
Burns (1979) examined leadership as a construct
separate from simple brute force and authority over others,
28or power-holding. He called the former transforming and the
latter transactional. The Transformational leader identified
and met the needs and expectations of followers. This leader
also ferreted out followers’ motives, worked to fulfill
followers’ higher needs, and assisted followers in becoming
fully engaged. From this transformational relationship, the
leader might well become a moral agent, and followers be
groomed to become leaders. The Transactional leader, on the
other hand, simply entered into transactions where leader
and follower exchanged things of value; e.g., output for
paycheck, work for political support, etc..
Transactional Leadership: Burns defined Transactional
leadership as what happens “when one person takes the
initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of
an exchange of valued things” (1979, p. 19). Schulz and
Schulz (1998) described Transactional leaders as focused “on
the social transactions or exchanges between leaders and
followers” (p. 211). In other words, there is a transaction
that occurs between transactional leaders and their
29followers, and central to the level of leadership
effectiveness, in this style, is the level of perceived
authority in the leader by subordinates. Transactional
leaders are commonly referred to as managers. They create
relationships with subordinates based on give and take.
Extrinsic or contingent rewards figure heavily in these
relationships.
As of Bass’s (1985) writing, charismatic leadership
previously had been discouraged in the corporate world and
essentially ignored by organizational psychology. The
prevailing view of leadership was to attain results by
punishment or reward—Transactional leadership style. Such
relationships involve regular meetings between parties to
transmit expectations and describe consequences (whether
good or bad). In other words, Transactional leadership style
involves an exchange—e.g., productivity for compensation.
Transactional leaders know what their subordinates must
do to achieve objectives. They clarify goals and activities.
They also know how the subordinates’ wants and needs will be
30satisfied by successful outcomes and relate this to
subordinates. Bass (1985) outlined several problems present
in the Transactional leadership model. Among them were that
Transactional leadership adherents frequently don’t fully
utilize the tools of the model. Also, when utilizing
management by exception, they typically interact with
negative feedback, thus undermining employee morale.
Managers give negative feedback, but it is perceived as
complaining instead of offering solutions to shortcomings.
The Transactional leadership manager is less likely to take
into account individual differences in relation to receiving
feedback, whether positive or negative. The weight placed on
input varies among up to down, down to up, and laterally. In
other words, supervisors value their comments to
subordinates more than from co-workers, whereas subordinates
better accept lateral comments than from up to down.
Transactional leaders are likely to abandon this model when
non-contingent rewards result in performance improvements.
When Transactional leaders utilize aversive reinforcement
31(consequences to be avoided) success plummets; and simple
contrariness in subordinates could lead to conscious efforts
to undermine productivity.
Both Transformational and Transactional leadership
styles aim to improve productivity, morale, loyalty, and
commitment. But, per Bass (1985), a Transactional leader
will tend to inspire improvements of a magnitude lower than
Transformational leaders. A survey of 845 Americans from the
working class indicated that simple transactions (i.e.,
compensation for productivity) were not sufficient to
motivate them. Level of effort in work was found to have
little correlation to level of earnings. Transformational
leadership style, conversely, achieves more desirable
results on nearly all fronts using a significantly different
approach to leader/follower relationships.
Transformational Leadership: Burns (1979) defined
Transformational leadership as when “persons engage with
others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one
another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p.
3220). Popper, Mayseless, and Castelnovo (2000) found two
common characteristics among those who became
Transformational leaders. The first was a high level of
self-regard and self-assurance. The second was a high level
of interest in others’ well-being and a tendency to invest
time and energy in developing relationships with others.
Bass (1985) suggested that Transformational leaders focused
on transforming and redirecting the thoughts and actions of
their followers. From this perspective, the ability of a
Transformational leader to lead is not based on followers’
perceptions of authority. Rather, it is based on a
Transformational leader’s ability to inspire followers. Some
leaders balance the development of themselves and their
subordinates, raising the aspirations of both leader and led
in the process (Burns, 1978; as cited by Bass, 1985; Bass,
1985). Transformational leaders also seek to bring out the
best in a person in accordance with Maslow’s (1954; as cited
by Spinelli, 2006) Hierarchy of Needs.
Popper, et. al. (2000) cited several researchers (Bass,
331995; Bass & Avolio, 1990; Yammarino & Bass, 1990) in
listing numerous characteristics commonly found in
Transformational leaders. Among them were empowering
followers, encouraging followers to perform beyond
expectations, having vision, inspiring respect and trust in
underlings, and motivating them to work at greater levels,
put out more effort, and be more committed. Charisma was
also found to be a common characteristic. Transformational
leaders also exhibited an ability to anticipate the
needs/desires of their followers, to meet those
needs/desires, and thus guide followers into greater
intrinsic willingness to perform above expectations.
Transformational leaders create leader/follower
relationships in which intrinsic motivation seems to play a
large part (Popper, et. al., 2000).
Burns (1979) was not writing with an eye to
revolutionizing the field of business management. He was
writing to address leadership, especially political
leadership. In fact, he referred to Transformational
34leadership as transforming leadership. One facet of
leadership he addressed was the intellectual aspect. For
Burns (1979) the idea was that, like the intellectuals who
shape their time, transforming leaders engage with what we
would today refer to as stakeholders in general and society
at large. They seek to change their surroundings for the
better. The way to judge successful intellectual leadership
is to determine the presence of a capacity for conceiving
values and purpose in such a way as to link means and ends
with creativity and analysis.
Burns (1979) saw another aspect or facet of
transforming leadership, and that was reform leadership.
This leader must learn from and teach followers, arouse
hopes among followers, and then seek to fulfill those hopes
through change. Implicit in the label reform leader, is the
idea of moral leadership. Burns (1979) held that the moral
leader gives up many means, owing to the high moral level of
his proposed ends. After all, a moral leader could hardly
justify stooping to immoral means to achieve a moral end. In
35other words, the straight and narrow becomes the only way
open to the moral, reforming, transforming leader.
Burns (1979) likened transforming leaders to heroes,
and recounted Freud’s encounter with Michelangelo’s statue
of Moses. Freud’s later publication depicted Moses as “a
great man acting in the network of determining historical
causes” (Burns, 1979, p. 241). Freud saw Moses as the first
charismatic leader, affecting history with not just the
ideology he represented, but also with the strength of his
personality. In describing Moses (or the charismatic
leader), Burns (1979) used such labels as “spiritual and
political father of his people” (p. 242), lawgiver,
authority, statesman, ikon, idol, prophet, and revealer.
Other heroic figures cited, to build a foundation for the
idea of a transforming leader’s characteristics, included
Joan of Arc, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, Gandhi, and John F.
Kennedy.
One more type of transforming leader is the ideological
leader. This leader is not driven by the idea of leading,
36but rather by some fundamental social change she or he is
committed to. This type of leader is more markedly close-
knit to followers, and conflict—both internal and external
to the organization—is constant and sometimes fierce. In
this case, a leader’s success is marked only by the degree
of social change promulgated—how well the ideology is able
to move forward on a larger scale. In Bass’s (1985) writing,
the term used was transformational leader.
Yammarino and Bass (1990; as cited by Popper, et. al.,
2000) and Bycio, Hackett, and Allen (1995; also as cited by
Popper, et. al., 2000) indicated that Transformational
leaders scored higher than Transactional leaders in several
leadership variables. Among them were the level of leader
effectiveness as perceived by followers, the level of
satisfaction with leaders among followers, and perceived
self-efficacy of followers. Bass and Avolio (1993; as cited
by Popper, et. al., 2000) indicated that followers’
performance and behavior measures were also better in
Transformational leadership relationships. Followers also
37experienced elevated levels of attitude, values, and self-
concept. Further, there was found to be a greater sense of
equality and justice among these followers than among those
in transactional situations.
Bass (1985) conducted a survey of 176 former high-level
U.S. military leaders and found five characteristics of
leadership. Two were transactional, and the other three were
transformational. Interestingly, the latter three were more
often observed in combat units than in support units. They
were: charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual
consideration. These characteristics were briefly
characterized, respectively, as arousing trust, pride,
faith, loyalty, and enthusiasm; maintaining an
individualistic and developmental orientation toward
followers; and enhancing subordinates’ problem-solving
abilities. The military leaders previously mentioned
indicated that these three characteristics were more closely
related to unit effectiveness than were the transactional
characteristics. Similar results were found in followers’
38satisfaction with leaders. Bass (1985) also found similar
results in a survey of over 300 leaders in business,
education administration, and professional fields. It was
also found that even when using transactional methodology,
Transformational leaders were likely to produce better
results among followers.
In response to a survey presented by Bass (1985), 70
senior executives indicated that a Transformational leader
could inspire followers to “do more than they ever expected
to do (p. 31)” and even work excessive hours, but more
importantly, to do so gladly. Many indicated that a
protective parent-protected child bond seemed to grow
between them and the Transformational leaders they had
known. Their awareness of performance was increased, and
thus their ability to perform was enhanced. The quality of
their output improved as well as their level of
innovativeness. Among the qualities seen in Transformational
leaders were integrity, fairness, equality, high standards
of performance, encouragement, building of confidence,
39empowerment, firmness, informal, and accessible. From these
qualities, the Transformational leader was likely to enjoy
high levels of liking, loyalty, admiration, trust, and
respect from followers.
Schulz and Schulz (1998) listed three components of
Transformational leadership: charisma, individualized
consideration, and intellectual stimulation. A
Transformational leader is charismatic and inspires
confidence and action in followers. This is achieved in part
by giving individualized support and attention to followers—
or at least giving them the feeling they’ve received it.
Finally, the Transformational leader causes followers to
think—some for the first time—but more importantly, to think
about how their tasks relate to those around them and how to
improve their efficiency and productivity. Bycio, Hackett,
and Allen (1995; as cited by Schulz & Schulz, 1998) stated
that there is a high degree of correlation among these three
components.
40Popper, et. al. (2000), described similarities between
the characteristics of Transformational leaders and an
aspect of attachment theory, specifically secure attachment.
Their study showed that a trusted parent and
Transformational leaders shared the ability to instill
trust, respect, and a desire to perform in those they lead.
Charisma: Among the three characteristics of
Transformational leaders, Bass (1985) found the most
important one to be charisma. Among those characteristics
which separated a charismatic or Transformational leader
from a Transactional leader were: the ability to evoke
intense feelings among followers (either love or hate); a
desire to be identified with the leader; and greater
turbulence in the relationship. Within the domain of
charisma, Bass (1985) listed the following components: self-
confidence, self-determination, mastery of task-specific
abilities, high esteem in the eyes of followers, and an
“absence of inner conflict” (p. 35). A charismatic leader
was said to be able to transform follower motivation beyond
41previous levels by using appeals and support of an emotional
nature. Across civil and military lines, charismatic leaders
were described by their followers as being able to inspire
project enthusiasm and organization-commitment, command
respect, be aware of the really important things, maintain
an awareness of mission which excites followers to respond,
inspire faith in followers and their abilities to overcome
obstacles and pride in association with themselves among
followers.
Popper, et. al. (2000), found the charismatic factor to
be divided into two components, the first being idealized
influence and the second being inspirational motivation.
Leaders using idealized influence seek to fulfill the needs
of others before their own. They don’t use their power and
position for personal aggrandizement or gain. They challenge
their followers with growth-oriented goals and act in highly
ethical and moral ways. The second component—and the more
impactful one for this critical review—is inspirational
motivation which means giving meaning to individuals’
42efforts (or perhaps even their lives) and challenging them.
The ways of accomplishing this include expressing optimism
and enthusiasm, displaying commitment to shared goals—goals
which followers were involved in creating, expecting greater
performance than followers knew they were capable of, and
clearly communicating those expectations.
Individual Consideration: Bass (1985) indicated that
Transformational leaders utilize a developmental approach
with followers; i.e., seeking not only top performance today
and continued improvement tomorrow, but advancement in the
future—greater levels of responsibility within the
organization. By setting examples, assigning tasks, and
expecting greater achievements on an individualized basis,
Transformational leaders draw forth the inner potential of
their followers. In other words, followers will stretch
beyond previously accepted limits. Serving as a role model
or mentor, Transformational leaders teach followers how to
become leaders themselves. Being familiar with subordinates
at least two levels deep and becoming aware of each one’s
43motivational factors is critical, Bass (1985) felt, and the
interest shown and time given has to be genuine.
Another aspect of individual consideration is
communication. Transformational leaders tend to keep
subordinates informed of developments and do so using two-
way communications rather than merely dispensing
information. This way, followers feel more a part of the
process and are both more likely to give buy-in and less
likely to be surprised by changes. This type of person-to-
person communication also gives leaders the opportunity to
remain more aware of subordinates’ concerns.
In an era when fitting the corporate mold was
tantamount to success, Bass (1985) was proposing that
individualism be encouraged. His idea was that among
subordinates in any organization would be found individuals
with the potential to be good or even great leaders. And,
for any organization to survive, he held, such leaders would
have to be found and prepared for the leadership roles they
would eventually be expected to fill.
44Intellectual Stimulation: Bass (1985) described intellectual
stimulation as the effect a Transformational Leadership has
on followers’ awareness of situations, problems, solutions,
and generally, their overall thought processes. The leader
arouses an awareness of and new approaches to problems and
potential solutions. This stimulation was said to increase
followers’ imaginations and understandings. Essentially,
this intellectual stimulation is not a mere call to thought,
but a quantum leap to a new level of thought.
It is incumbent on the Transformational leader, said
Bass (1985), to maintain a keen awareness of the range of
organizational strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats and to articulate them to followers. More than this,
though, it was seen as critical for Transformational leaders
to foment the formulation of high quality solutions to the
problems facing organizations or units within organizations.
One consideration Bass (1985) mentioned within this
factor of Transformational leadership was the different
approach toward risk taking. Transformational leaders were
45seen as more likely to take greater risks for possible
desired outcomes versus Transactional leaders or managers
who were more likely to focus on actions they viewed as more
highly probable to succeed. In other words, status quo is
less important to a Transformational leader while efficiency
and guaranteed effectiveness are more important to a
Transactional manager—proactive and innovation oriented
versus reactive and maintenance oriented.
Morality: Burns (1979) spoke eloquently about moral
leadership. His ultimate definition was that it was a kind
of leadership which worked to fulfill the authentic needs of
followers. This type of leadership works at levels higher
than followers’ identified needs and values. For example, a
person who has not had their lower order needs fulfilled,
might, through the influence of a moral leader, seek to
fulfill some higher order need first—ignoring hunger in the
belly to march for justice and freedom. Moral leadership
takes advantage of followers’ inner tension and conflict
regarding their value structures. Finding incongruence
46between a person’s actions and values, such a leader might
exploit this apparent conflict to draw the follower into
action, creating directed change. Such a leader will
recognize real needs, discover and take advantage of
followers’ inner conflicts, help followers realign their
values to the group values, reorganize organizations or
institutions, and guide change. Some moral leaders are also
charismatic leaders.
Charismatic leaders have the ability to elevate the
levels of certain needs in followers. Then through the
corporate milieu, they can provide followers with the
opportunity to fulfill those needs (Burns, 1978; as cited by
Bass, 1985). The exercise of this ability, though, can be
moral or immoral (Bass, 1985). Burns (1978; as cited by
Bass, 1985) held that moral leadership focuses on
individuals’ rights, dignity, and true needs and provides
for informed choice. Followers of a moral leader will likely
experience their fundamental needs being addressed. Indeed,
such leadership will assist them in identifying their
47fundamental values and working to align their behaviors with
those values. The changes a moral leader seeks to implement
will be ethical, and they will make the organization
stronger and more viable, adding value to goods and
services, and improving the position of stakeholders.
The type of charisma Popper, et. al. (2000), identified
with Transformational leaders was also known as socialized
charisma as opposed to personalized charismatic leaders. The
difference was, as stated above, that socialized leaders are
committed to the welfare of their followers and the
organization, not just their own. Some of the activities of
the socialized charismatic leader include: serving others
with the power of leadership, aligning the leader’s vision
with the wants and needs of followers, communicating with
and listening to followers, and living according to high
ethical standards.
48Leadership Styles Contemporary Perspectives
A separate search was performed on EBSCO databases Academic
Search Premier, Business Source Premier, PsycINFO, and
PSYCArticles, searching for the terms “transformational
leaders” or “transforming leaders.” The search was limited
to full text articles no earlier than January, 2002, and it
returned 313 results. Clearly there is still much interest
in Burns’s (1979) and Bass’s (1985) concept of the
Transformational leadership style. Among those articles
returned, several showed not only the present utilization of
the Transformational leadership style, but also future
expectations.
Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) examined the mediating
effects of core job characteristics in a Transformational
leadership environment. They pointed out that over the past
twenty years, Transformational leadership theory has moved
to the forefront as a management theory. They cited several
authors (Fuller, Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996; Lowe,
Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996) when stating that there is
49a proven positive association between the behaviors of
followers and Transformational leaders. Another finding in
their literature review was that followers’ actions tended
to be affected by their feelings toward Transformational
leaders as well as their feelings about themselves (and
their group) based on Transformational leaders behaviors
(Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006).
Since Burns’s initial recognition of transforming or
transformational leadership, Transformational leadership
theory has been refined to include four primary
characteristics: Idealized influence, Inspirational
motivation, Intellectual stimulation, and Individualized
consideration (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Most salient to
this review, Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) cited Smircich and
Morgan (1982) when pointing out that Transformational
leaders had the capability of generating and activating
purpose for followers. They cited Griffin (1981) when
stating that Transformational leaders can affect job
performance without changing job characteristics. Further,
50they cited various authors (Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993;
Bono & Judge, 2003) in stating that Transformational leaders
can verbally persuade followers to view organizational
values as in alignment with their own and can affect the way
in which followers view their work environment.
Additionally, in keeping with Ryan and Deci’s (2000) Self-
Determination Theory, Transformational leaders are able to
promote a feeling of autonomy in followers.
Testing 283 individuals from a variety of work
backgrounds, Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) found a positive
correlation between Transformational leadership
characteristics and core job characteristics; i.e.,
individuals scored higher in the five core job
characteristics areas (variety, feedback, autonomy,
identity, and significance) in a Transformational leadership
environment. More importantly, core job characteristics are
positively correlated with intrinsic motivation. Hackman and
Oldham (1976; as cited by Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006)
suggested that employees with intrinsic motivation would be
51more effective than those motivated otherwise. Piccolo and
Colquitt (2006) also found a positive relationship between
intrinsic motivation and organizational citizenship
behaviors.
Spinelli (2006) surveyed 101 hospital managers,
examining the relationships between the independent
variable, management style (Transformational leadership,
Transactional leadership, and laissez-faire), and three
dependent variables (follower satisfaction with leaders,
perceived leader effectiveness, and willingness to put out
extra effort). He found significant positive correlations
between the Transformational leadership style and the three
dependent variables. The same was not true of the other two
leadership styles. Transformational leadership scored
higher.
Masood, Dani, Burns, and Backhouse (2006) surveyed 339
workers in manufacturing settings, and from those
respondents, surveyed 76 leaders, who, based on their
responses were separated into Transformational and
52Transactional leaders. They were examining the relationship
between leadership style and situational strength. They
cited Fiedler (1967) as having first recognized the
importance of situation in leaders’ effectiveness. Task,
environment, rules and regulations are some of the
components of situation. The importance of situation in
determining a leader’s effectiveness is delineated between
weak and strong situation. High situational strength, in and
of itself, demands certain responses from leaders and
followers. Low situational strength, on the other hand, does
not provide such contextual clues and requires individuals
to respond according to some other motivation. Strong
situations tend to override individual differences, whereas
weak situations tend to emphasize individual differences. It
was found that 65% of Transformational leaders preferred
weak situational strength compared to 74% of Transactional
leaders who preferred strong situational strength. This
markedly illustrates the difference in character strengths
between Transformational and Transactional leaders. The
53former feels comfortable relying on inner strengths and
individual differences to direct outcomes, absent of
situational factors, whereas the latter feels more
comfortable allowing circumstances to lead to desired
outcomes.
Kelloway, Mullen, and Francis (2006) cited Zohar (2000,
2002a, 2002b) in an examination of the relationship between
leadership and safety related incidents. It was shown that
Transformational leadership style and contingency-based
leadership affect safety related incidents positively where
laissez-faire and management by exception both affect safety
related incidents negatively. In other words, when engaged
in consciousness-raising activities, Transformational
leadership style management can cause reductions in
accidents and increase work-place safety.
Perhaps, of all the literature reviewed, Parry and
Sinha’s (2005) research into training up Transformational
leaders is the most salient to the present critical review
and proposed research. They cited Conger and Benjamin (1999)
54and Freidman (2000) when pointing out that organizations
were having to adapt to change at startling speeds to remain
competitive and that strong leadership was key to
maintaining a competitive edge.
In a quasi-field, pre-test/post-test experiment, they
employed the Full Range Leadership Development program to
affect changes in leader behaviors. The Full Range
Leadership Development program was designed by Avolio and
Bass (1991; as cited by Parry & Sinha, 2005) to train
Transformational leaders. The idea was that by educating and
then training leaders in Transformational leadership
characteristics, or factors, they could then develop into
Transformational leaders themselves. However, prior to Parry
and Sinha’s (2005) research, there remained the question of
whether such training was actually effective, since reports
of effectiveness were based on self-report and the fact that
training was general, not pin-pointed.
Parry and Sinha (2005) led a two-day intensive
workshop, during which mid-level managers from both the
55private and public sector were introduced to the concept of
leadership at the macro level, then to Transformational and
Transactional leadership styles. Next, they were introduced
to factors of each style of leadership, and finally to
behaviors specific to each style and factor. The authors
also obtained agreement from 50 participants in seven
cohorts, and their organizations, to conduct a three-month
research continuation. During this time, the participants
created a personal development plan, set goals, and
implemented proposed behavioral changes around two of the
five factors of Transformational leadership behaviors. The
five factors identified were Idealized attributes, Idealized
behavior, Inspirational motivation, Intellectual
stimulation, and Individualized consideration.
The pre-test benchmark scores were obtained by
administering the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to
the participants and up to 12 of their immediate colleagues.
The results provided a 360-degree profile from which to
judge the effectiveness of training. The authors wanted to
56determine: the effectiveness of the Full Range Leadership
Development program; whether or not Transformational
leadership training impacted Transactional leadership
behaviors; which, if any, Transformational leadership
factors or behaviors changed after training; the impact of
goal-setting on the effects of Transformational leadership
training; and whether or not coaching affected training
outcomes.
The results showed that the program was effective
across all cohorts and all dimensions of Transformational
leadership behaviors—not only did the chosen behaviors
change, but so did all other identified behaviors.
Transformational leaders can be trained up. The change in
all factors is particularly significant since each
participant only chose two dimensions to address in their
development and action plans. It was also found that
Transactional leadership behaviors changed more based on
organizational structure than on Transformational leadership
training. Strikingly, Parry and Sinha (2005) concluded that
57“one can increase the two outcomes of ‘follower extra
effort’ and ‘satisfaction with leadership’ as a result of
the Full Range Leadership Development intervention” (p.
179). Additionally, they concluded that Transactional
leadership outcomes do not necessarily decrease with the
increase of Transformational leadership behaviors. It is
important to remember that Transformational leadership
characteristics are additional to Transactional leadership
characteristics, not opposed to.
As can be seen from these examples of contemporary
literature on Transformational and Transactional leadership
styles, interest in leadership styles in general, and
Transformational leadership style in particular, is growing
in intensity. The effects of leadership on organizational
direction and outcomes have long been acknowledged and
researched (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Now, we are left with
the task of continuing and refining research directions and
utilizing research to design and implement interventions.
58Purpose In Life
Purpose In Life Background
Individual Purpose. purpose in life is the motivating
factor behind one’s pursuit of a desired lifestyle. Simply
put, purpose in life is one’s reason for being or doing any
thing. It is “the innate desire to give as much meaning as
possible to one’s life” (Frankl, 1955/1965, p. x). Frankl
(1955/1965) said that people with a purpose in life differed
from those without a purpose in life in the sense that the
former were on a mission as opposed to merely seeing life as
drudgery and a task, like the latter.
Jackson and Coursey (1988) cited Frankl’s (1959) view
that religious beliefs provided individuals with meaning or
purpose in life. They also cited Bolt’s (1975) empirical
support of Frankl’s (1959) caveat that religion must be
authentic to provide a purpose in life. It is through
religion that many seek a relationship with a higher power,
while some hold that the search for a higher power is innate
(Barness, 2006). Thus we see one approach to how purpose in
59life might be discovered or instilled—the path of believing
in something greater than oneself. Ultimately, some might
consider a significant other or organization to be that
which is greater than oneself. In other words, it might be
from this external source that one draws their meaning or
purpose in life (Frankl, 1985a).
Jackson and Coursey (1988) cited Pargament, Kennell,
Hathaway, Grevengoed, Newman, and Jones’s (1988) work, which
delineated three approaches to problem solving as related to
religious beliefs. The approaches had to do with whose
activity in one’s life had the greatest influence on
outcomes. Those approaches were: collaborative problem-
solving, deferring problem-solving, and self-directing
problem-solving, which respectively meant high self-
influence, high God-influence; low self-influence, high God-
influence; and high self-influence, low God-influence.
Germane to this critical review is the result of multiple-
regression analyses of the variables collaborative problem-
solving as related to religious beliefs and purpose in life.
60Jackson and Coursey (1988) found a significant positive
relationship between collaborative problem-solving and
purpose in life. They also pointed out the similarity
between high self-influence (seen in collaborative problem-
solving) and internal locus of control. The implication here
is that as internal locus of control increases along with
belief in some greater power (and one’s ability to work
alongside that power as a collaborative partner), one’s
sense of purpose in life is enhanced—or at least the process
of having one or finding it is.
Organizations and Purpose. Collins and Porras (1997), in
their discussion of successful organizations, defined
purpose as the “…fundamental [reason] for existence … a
perpetual guiding star on the horizon; not to be confused
with specific goals or … strategies” (p. 73). Frankl
(1955/1965, 1978, 1985) referred to purpose as meaning—
specifically, meaning in one’s life. This critical review
and proposed research consider purpose to be the reason for
61being that individuals or organizations attach to their
lives.
De Geus (1997) and Senge (1990) found vision to be
critical to corporate success. Vision, in this context,
could be considered the equivalent of purpose in life in
individuals. De Geus (1997) reported that organizations,
which were extant beyond 40-50 years, had a vision and
strove to fulfill that vision—much as individuals with
purpose in life strive to fulfill theirs.
Purpose In Life Past Research
Frankl (1985) spoke of what he called the will to
meaning, which he described as an innate desire to find
meaning in life, something present in every individual. He
stated, “Man’s search for meaning is the primary motivation
in his life…” (p. 121). He also identified three levels of
human existence, which could provide this meaning to
individuals: instinctual drives, values, and the will to
meaning. However, he pointed out that, through societal
62development, instinct and values have been rendered
ineffectual in providing individuals with meaning.
Instinct: At one time, instinctual drives, resulting from
genetic input, provided people with meaning in life and
clear direction for their activities. Originally, men hunted
and gathered. Subsistence was their work; survival was their
meaning. Later, growing and harvesting crops—agriculture—
became men’s work. There was a direct and tangible link
between work and survival.
Then a break occurred in the link between “meaning in
work” and survival. Crafts and trades developed, which led
to the trading of goods and services—mercantilism—and
agriculture as vocation was, by and large, supplanted.
Finally, the industrial revolution—with all its subsequent
technological innovations and revolutions—created jobs. Work
was divorced from meaning in men’s lives as it related to
survival. Work was merely a means to an end—men earned money
to exchange for food. The sense of meaning was lost.
63As example of this, Frankl (1955/1965) referred to a
neurosis he labeled the unemployment neurosis. This neurosis
is the result of loss of identification during periods of
unemployment. He stated that this neurosis is also present
in the empty feeling some people experience on Sunday
evenings, when the busy-ness of the weekend is over and the
occupation of the weekday has yet to begin. During this
time, people are left alone to face their own inner
emptiness—or fullness as the case may be. In these times
(unemployment and Sunday evenings), those who have not
discovered meaning in their lives, apart from their
occupation, discover the failure of their lives to provide
them with meaning. They discover that society and job have
been unable to deliver the meaning each one seeks.
Values: Individuals’ values once arose from the
traditions their societies provided. These traditions helped
people know and understand their place and role in society,
what was expected of them, and how to act in their day-to-
day lives. Cultures dictated meaning for most individuals.
64However, in modern society, just like instinct, much of
tradition has been lost as well. This means that individuals
are not receiving meaning or direction from either instincts
or values. This lack leads to what Frankl (1985) referred to
as an existential vacuum. This existential vacuum—or sense
of futility—has led to a great sense of meaninglessness in
society, mass neuroses, and even increasing suicides,
particularly among the younger generation.
Meaning: It is only meaning which provides happiness and
the motivation to persist in the face of adversity or to
persist in goal pursuit in the face of obstacles.
Depression, aggression, and addiction have all been shown to
flourish when individuals feel their lives are without
purpose or meaning. Thus, finding meaning is not only
useful, but essential in the ultimate well-being of both
individuals and society (Frankl, 1985a). Yalom (1998)
pointed out that physiologically, our nervous systems
naturally seek to create order or meaning in incoming
stimuli. The meaning which results gives us a sense of
65control or mastery over our lives and environment. It is
from this perception of meaning that values arise.
Validation Of The Construct “Will To Meaning”: Crumbaugh and
Maholick (1981; as cited by Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann,
2000) found meaning in life, or purpose in life, to be a
valid construct by comparing several populations’ group
means. Frankl (1985) cited empirical validation for the
construct, will to meaning, provided by Crumbaugh and
Maholick (1963). He also cited Kratochvil and Planova (n.d.)
as having shown that it was an irreducible need, present in
every person. Several authors (Kotchen, n.d.; Crumbaugh,
Raphael, & Shrader, 1970; Lukas, 1977, 1979; as cited by
Frankl, 1985) found relationships between the will to
meaning and such qualities as being successful, being
motivated, exhibiting good mental health, and a propensity
toward survival.
Frankl’s Will To Meaning and Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs: Frankl
(1985) discussed Maslow’s (1954/1970) concept of self-
actualization. Maslow described this state of being as the
66pinnacle of human achievement with regard to basic drives.
His explanation was that self-actualization would become the
natural desired state when lower drives had been fulfilled
(i.e., physiological, security, love or acceptance, and
esteem). In other words, when lower needs had been
fulfilled, a need of a higher order would be aroused.
Frankl (1985) referred to self-actualization as the
fulfillment of one’s ultimate meaning. He indicated that one
challenge in the pursuit of meaning was that self-
actualization could only be attained when one let go of its
pursuit and instead sought to fulfill some external purpose.
This externalization of self could be seen as the expression
of one’s gifts and talents—the greatest use of one’s
knowledge, skills, and abilities. It could also be described
as the professionalization of purpose in life.
Operationalization Of Purpose In Life And Goals: There appears to
be some parallel between the operationalization of one’s
goals and one’s purpose. The primary similarities are that
each provides motivation to achieve, stimulates action, and
67maintains motivation to act until the goal is satisfied. The
major difference seems to be that goals are object or
outcome oriented (e.g., the completion of a project or
attainment of a new status) whereas purpose is the
fulfillment of one’s very reason for being. The fulfillment
of one’s purpose for being might well involve the
accomplishment of goals, but will more likely be a lifetime
in the doing and will almost certainly involve some self-
transcendent, or altruistic, activity (Frankl, 1985). The
difference between day-to-day goals and life goals is the
presence of meaning (Frankl, 1955/1965). Frankl (1955/1965)
held that each person comes into life with a task to
perform, and if religiously oriented, the individual may
well view this task as akin to a holy mission.
Frankl’s (1965, 1985a, 1985b) extensive work in meaning
in life and his creation of Logotherapy provided a solid
foundation for the construct meaning in life, referred to
here as purpose in life. Purpose in life is frequently
tested by the purpose in life test (Crumbaugh & Maholick,
681964; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004) and the Life Purpose
Questionnaire (Hablas & Hutzell, 1982; Hutzell, 1989; as
cited by Schulenberg, 2004). These instruments have been
shown to provide valid, reliable results, (Schulenberg,
2004, cited Crumbaugh & Henrion, 1988 and Hutzell, 1988 for
reviews), although some questions have been raised as to
whether the purpose in life test actually tests for
depression rather than purpose in life (Dyck, 1987; as cited
by Schulenberg, 2004). Schulenberg (2004) expanded the
psychometric properties of these tests, which are frequently
utilized in the practice of Logotherapy. The first
instrument devised to test for purpose in life was Crumbaugh
and Maholick’s (1964; as cited by Moomal, 1999) purpose in
life test, and it was specifically designed to
operationalize purpose in life and perceived meaning.
Several other scales test for purpose in life, including The
Life Attitude Profile (Reker & Peacock, 1981; as cited by
Moomal, 1999), the Meaning In Life Depth Instrument
(Ebersole & Kobayakawa, 1989; as cited by Moomal, 1999), the
69Life Regard Index (Battista & Almond, 1973; as cited by
Moomal, 1999), and the Sense of Coherence Scale (Antonovsky,
1983, 1985; as cited by Moomal, 1999).
Purpose In Life Contemporary Perspectives
Contemporary studies on purpose in life can be found in
a variety of disciplines, such as the medical community
(Heidrich, Egan, Hengudomsub, & Randolph, 2006) the
sociological community (King, Hicks, Krull, & Gaiso, 2006;
Mascaro & Rosen, 2005) and, of course, the psychological
community (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Heidrich,
et. al. (2006) cited several studies (Heidrich, 1998;
Zebrack, 2000) in describing purpose in life as one core
component of quality of life in the elderly. They measured
existential quality of life with Ryff’s (1989; as cited by
Heidrich, et. al., 2006) purpose in life Scale, which tests
for ‘finding meaning’ and ‘spirituality’ dimensions. It was
found that patients who did not know the cause of their
cancer-related symptoms experienced a reduced sense of
purpose in life. This may be, according to Heidrich, et. al.
70(2006), due to not being able to make sense of or understand
the symptoms’ ‘why.’
Ryff and Keyes (1995) performed six studies to re-
examine psychological well-being (psychological well-being).
They selected various aspects from many prior theorists—such
as Erickson, Maslow, Allport, Rogers, and Jung—to create a
multi-dimensional well-being model. Ryff (1989b, 1995; as
cited by Ryff & Keyes, 1995) identified purpose in life as
one of the six subsumed components of psychological well-
being (psychological well-being), indicating that it was
associated with believing that one’s life has purpose and
meaning. A person with a high sense of purpose in life was
said to be: goal-directed; to experience life as having
meaning, both past and present; and to believe that life,
itself, holds purpose.
Ryff and Keyes (1995; as cited by Ryan & Deci, 2001)
distinguished between psychological well-being and
subjective well-being. Psychological well-being is
determined in clinical settings by measuring several
71factors, including purpose in life. Conversely, subjective
well-being is determined by individuals’ self-report or
answers to direct questions. Such subjective well-being
reports could easily be based on hedonistic happiness and
not authentic happiness. Thus, they might be less reflective
of true well-being. Also, subjective well-being, like
hedonism, might reflect behaviors and attitudes which, while
producing transitory happiness, would not necessarily
reflect healthy living.
Meraviglia (2006) cited Reker, Peacock, and Wong (1987)
as having found a positive correlation between purpose in
life and both psychological well-being and physical well-
being. Meraviglia (2006) surveyed a convenience sample of
84 women, ranging from 34-80 years of age, who had
previously been diagnosed with breast cancer. It was found
that the effect of breast cancer on psychological well-being
was mediated by purpose in life. Additionally, several
articles (Gall & Cornblatt, 2002; Meraviglia, 2002; both as
cited by Meraviglia) have shown that some aspects of
72spirituality, including purpose in life, are beneficial to
cancer patients.
Ryan and Deci (2001) reviewed research on two types of
well-being: Hedonic and Eudaimonic (the realization of one’s
true nature). Eudaimonic well-being separates happiness from
well-being; i.e., a distinct difference is seen between
subjective happiness (which can be pure hedonism, or
physical satisfaction as in eating a good meal) and true
happiness (such as the absence of self-denigration or inner
peace which arises from living a virtuous life). Eudaimonism
holds that not all acts which provide pleasure necessarily
contribute to a person’s overall well-being.
Ryan and Deci (2001) cited Waterman (1993), who said
that Eudaimonism is individuals living in alignment with
their true selves—their deepest, most sacredly held values.
Eudaimonism also requires or encompasses the existential
concept, authenticity, and leads to personal development and
growth. Finally, Eudaimonsim requires personal effort and
confronting challenges, whereas hedonism generally involves
73relaxing and avoiding problems. Ryan and Deci (2001) stated
that individuals’ lives have meaning when they live to some
larger purpose, are significant beyond the here and now, and
have some transcendent quality.
Mascaro and Rosen (2005) defined meaning as occurring
when one’s life has coherence and purpose. They utilized a
test-retest methodology to examine the ability of
existential meaning to enhance hope and prevent the symptoms
of depression. Of 329 undergraduate students taking the
first set of instruments, 191 completed the second set. The
findings indicated that those students with a sense of
purpose in life were more hopeful regarding outcomes and had
fewer symptoms of depression.
King, Hicks, Krull, and Del Gaiso (2006) performed six
studies to determine what role positive affect played in
purpose in life. Overall, their results supported the
mediating effect of positive affect on individuals’ feelings
that life is meaningful or purposeful and that positive
affect may mediate increases in individuals’ perceptions of
74situational meaning-relevance. Purpose in life, itself, was
the dependent variable.
Steger and Frazier (2005) performed two studies to
determine the nature of the relationship between purpose in
life and religiousness and well-being. The results of their
first study indicated that purpose in life had a mediating
effect on both well-being and religiousness. They also found
partial mediation by purpose in life between optimism and
religiousness. Strong support was found in their second
study for the idea that purpose in life mediates the
relationship between well-being and daily activity.
Regarding experiences of purpose in life, King (2004)
developed a transdisciplinary meta-model, which would
integrate accumulated knowledge. She cited several authors
(Fidler, 1996; Rutter, 1993; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
2000) in discussing existing theories or descriptions of a
need for theories from various disciplines and pointed out
that no meta-model, meta-theory, or integrative model or
theory currently exists. While not theories in themselves,
75meta-models can be used to further the knowledge-base
through testable propositions and predictions (Kelly, 1983;
as cited by King, 2004). King (2004) also cited several
authors (Rein & Schon, 1977; Taylor, 1994) in describing
the benefits of a meta-model including: simplifying complex
ideas, pinpointing and associating primary attributes of a
construct or topic, delineating higher order principles and
themes, separating the important from the unimportant, and
bringing the significant characteristics of a topic into a
more easily recognizable and understandable pattern.
Thus, we see that researchers in several disciplines
are, today, recognizing and researching the construct,
purpose in life. The importance of this construct cannot be
overemphasized. King’s (2004) attempt to provide a framework
within which the construct can better be researched,
understood, and knowledge shared, is further evidence that
the construct warrants examination.
76Motivation
Motivation Background
Behaviorist theories dominated research on motivation
up until the 1970’s. It was widely held in the psychological
community that external influences were the source of all
motivation. Behaviorists and drive reductionists held that
any internal processes involved in motivation were purely
unconscious. In the 1970’s, however, Ryan (1970; as cited by
Locke & Latham, 2002) posited and researched his goal-
setting theory. Ryan held that human behavior had to be
consciously directed to some degree—that conscious thoughts
controlled actions. Locke and Latham (2002) pointed out that
people can perform actions without being aware of what
motivated them to do so. Bandura (1997; as cited by Locke &
Latham, 2002) noted that purposeful thought was what enabled
people to exercise control over their lives. And, it seems a
small intuitive leap to imagine that individuals with a
strong sense of purpose in life would be highly motivated
and possessed of powerful, purposeful thoughts.
77Cognitive theories of motivation include the works of
such researchers and theorists as Frankl (1988), Herzberg
(1959/1993), Maslow (1954/1970), Kelly (1955/1963), and
Vroom (1964; as cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990 and Harder,
1991). This review will now examine these individuals’
theories in relation to motivation.
Motivation Past Research
Frankl’s Will to Meaning: Frankl (1988) differentiated purpose
in life from the long-established theory of human motivation
known as drive reduction or homeostasis. Also, he stood in
opposition to the Freudian pleasure principle, which, again,
was merely the reduction or satisfaction of some inner need,
thus bringing the organism back to stasis. He saw the human
being as an open system, reaching out to the world, seeking
connections and meaning, being a part of it, unlike animals,
living in an environment, but not open to it—rather being
driven by it. He also illustrated his theory as a triangle,
with stasis at one corner, reason for happiness at the
second, and happiness at the third. To pursue happiness
78directly was to lose one’s reason, he stated. Rather, one
must pursue one’s reason for being, and in the pursuit and
accomplishment of that reason, happiness would ensue. With
this logic, Frankl (1988) validated the idea that the
operationalization of purpose in life will provide greater
motivation than the pursuit of happiness alone (material
wealth, status, etc.).
Frankl (1988) pointed out that existence requires
strong ideals. But, strong ideals aren’t enough. Self-
transcendence is also required. For only through
transcendence is authentic existence possible. In the ideal
situation, one’s professional endeavors will lead to the
fulfillment of one’s discovering or experiencing strong
ideals, self-transcendence, and authenticity.
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation: To understand Herzberg’s
(1959/1993) Theory of Motivation, it is useful to first
examine a particular series of classical motivation studies:
The Hawthorne Studies. The Western Electric Company set out
to determine optimal lighting conditions in their Hawthorne
79Works in Cicero, Illinois. They found, surprisingly, that
productivity rose whenever a change was made in lighting
conditions among both control and test groups of workers.
They then sought the help of psychologists and over the next
several years, the Hawthorne Effect, as it came to be known,
was discovered (Schulz & Schulz, 1998; Robbins, 1998). This
Hawthorne Effect refers to the fact that multiple motivators
may be driving behaviors or that the actual motivators may
not be the perceived motivators. In other words, in the
Hawthorne Studies, the workers changed their level of
productivity even when they were not personally affected by
illumination changes, whether increased or decreased. Their
attitudes and feelings about the situation caused the
changes (Schulz & Schulz, 1998). This is extremely important
because it points out that external circumstances are less
important in creating, modifying, or driving behavior than
previously had been thought; i.e., perceptions of
circumstances can modify individuals’ feelings about and
reactions/responses to circumstances. For psychologists,
80this means that changing thought patterns is more important
than changing work circumstances.
Herzberg (1959/1993) further illustrated this fact or
effect by showing that there were work factors which, when
present, led to greater job satisfaction (motivators) and
other factors, which when absent, led to job dissatisfaction
(hygiene). These factors did not, however, cross over; i.e.,
motivators, when absent did not necessarily lead to job
dissatisfaction, and hygiene factors, when present, did not
lead to job satisfaction. At best, in these latter
circumstances, they would lead to neutral feelings.
Herzberg’s (1959/1993) study involved a group of over
200 engineers and accountants who were asked to recall
experiences in their professional lives which caused them to
have very strong feelings of a positive or negative nature
about their job or work. The positive feelings were
characterized as ‘high’ and the negative feelings were
labeled ‘low.’ His findings resulted in the Motivation-
Hygiene Theory, which basically stated that job satisfaction
81was tied to intrinsic factors, while job dissatisfaction was
related to extrinsic factors (Robbins, 1998). The intrinsic
factors which related to positive or high feelings about
work included recognition, achievement, advancement,
responsibility, and work itself. The extrinsic factors
related to negative or low feelings about work included
possibility of growth, interpersonal relations, supervision-
technical, company policy and administration, working
conditions, and to a lesser extent, personal life and job
security. Robbins (1998) pointed out that Herzberg’s
findings did much to undermine the concept of scientific
management espoused by Münsterberg and others. However,
whatever the definition of the term ‘scientific management,’
it seems it came back into vogue, somewhat at least, with
the works of Argyris (1976) and Maslow (1998) and others,
such as De Geus (1997) and Senge (1990). Herzberg
(1959/1993) and the Hawthorne Studies (Schulz & Schulz,
1998) showed that internal or cognitive processes were at
least as important, if not more so, than environmental
82factors in determining Worker Motivation, job satisfaction,
productivity levels and quality.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow (1954/1970) gave us the
Hierarchy of Needs. He started out to discover how self-
actualization people came to be that way (Benjamin, 1993).
His basic theory was built on the idea that humans were
motivated to fully realize their inner potential, whatever
that might be. His first premise was that when any given
need of the organism was met, another need would arise. He
also laid out a structure (the hierarchy) of lower and
higher needs.
At the lower end of the continuum of lower-higher needs
were physiological needs—things required for simple
survival. Next came safety needs, followed by belongingness
needs. Progressing higher up the hierarchy came esteem
needs, and finally self-actualization needs. Maslow
(1954/1970) indicated that while in a perfect system, one
would progress in orderly fashion from each need to the next
higher one, most people don’t exist in a perfect system.
83Some criticisms leveled against Maslow’s ideas pointed out
that reversals of need fulfillment occur (Petri, 1996).
However, Maslow (1954/1970) himself addressed this very
point, saying that there were many reasons for reversals to
exist. In fact, he pointed out that rarely would anyone
fully complete one level of needs before the next set began
to be expressed and fulfilled. There would be overlaps and
even regressions, depending on life circumstances.
There was also prepotency among needs. For example, a
person with a strong need to belong, due to deprivation of
social acceptance at an early age, might well ignore lower
level needs (such as safety) in order to be accepted into
some social order. Gangs and dare-devil initiation stunts
are good examples of this. The individual is willing to risk
severe bodily harm or even death to be accepted into a
social group. In this case, the belongingness need is
prepotent relative to the safety need. As relates to
management of organizations, Maslow (1998) chose not to
address what management styles would be appropriate and
84effective for individuals not self-actualized. His attention
to management styles was focused on the idea of pushing
individuals to self-actualize (or as Senge (1990) would say,
to experience personal mastery).
Kelly’s Theory of Personality Constructs: Kelly (1955/1963) posited
the theory of Personal Construct Psychology and described
several techniques which might be employed to assist people
in regaining balance within themselves and in relation to
those in their lives. The primary postulate of Personal
Construct Psychology is that the way people anticipate
future events determines the direction of their
psychological processes (Kelly, 1955/1963). Personal
Construct Psychology falls within the framework of
constructivism, which emphasizes the way people organize
their perceptions and thoughts and anticipate or create
expectancies about future events (Neimeyer, 1993). In
contrast to the mechanistic view of humanity, constructivism
states that the world we see is more the result of our
thoughts about it than the cause of our thoughts about it.
85Kelly (1977, as cited by Neimeyer, 1993) held that people
can only perceive the world through their constructs—those
systems of identification they come to hold regarding the
events of their lives.
Kelly (1955/1963) posited that individuals form
constructs based on construals and perceptions of their
experiences. Within these constructs, they have construals
about themselves and their life-roles. If their experiences
have been causative of, contributory to, or predictive of
at-risk designation or amotivation, then Personal Construct
Psychology says that in order to change, a new construct
must be created to replace the old one. To form the new
construct, individuals must create new self-construals and
new life-roles for themselves.
However, there are several points to hold in mind prior
to attempting to replace old self-construals, life-roles,
and constructs. First, in Personal Construct Psychology,
constructs are dichotomous, i.e., they consist of polar
opposites, which sometimes allow existence of elements
86within the construct along a continuum between the poles.
For example, the construct male vs. female is an exclusive
construct allowing membership only at the poles.
Alternatively, maleness vs. femaleness is a fluid construct,
which allows for membership which could be along the
continuum between full maleness and full femaleness. Kelly
(1955/1963) and Schneider (1990), who quoted Kierkegaard,
said that individuals who attempt to change self-construals
tend to first resort to the opposite pole of the construct
within which they are working. For example, an abusive
person who wishes to change might suddenly become a complete
pacifist. The reason for this is that the person is only
aware of the polar elements of their construct—abuser and
pacifist.
Second, in attempting to build new self-construals,
life-roles, and constructs, individuals must feel their
choices are intrinsically motivated—they must feel
autonomous. Only then will the individual be able to muster
the internal commitment required to integrate them. Third,
87the changes must take place in a safe environment; i.e.,
they must feel supported by those around them. Kelly
(1955/1963) suggested that the psychotherapeutic environment
could be made such a place.
Kelly (1955/1963) referred to the philosophical
position of Personal Construct Psychology as constructive
alternativism, meaning that there is always another way of
being—different constructs which can be chosen. Neimeyer
(1993) examined constructivist therapies, which included
Kelly’s work, and said that constructivist therapies seek to
make second-order changes, which delve into the individual’s
core beliefs. Constructive therapies help individuals
reconstruct both their perceptions of the world and their
relation to it. This is done by helping people alter the
constructs they’ve created to facilitate the anticipation of
events. Binswanger (1975; as cited by Schneider, 1990)
described the process of psychotherapy as helping
individuals see the world as it actually is and to determine
where their person-environment fit has gone awry.
88Recognizing that constructs, as defined by Kelly, may
be the driving and directing forces behind individuals’
actions can provide valuable insights for leaders. When a
Transformational leader seeks to guide followers in the
direction which will best serve the individual and the
organization, such information can make the difference
between promotion and separation, leadership assignment or
follower’s role, the ability to compete or organizational
dissolution.
Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory (Value-Instrumentality-
Expectancy): Expectancy theory, or the expectancy-value
approach, can be traced as far back as Murray (1938; as
cited by Petri, 1996). Murray’s work focused on the idea of
motivation arising from need fulfillment, and identified two
components of needs or drives. The first was direction,
object, or goal oriented, and the second was effort or
energy expenditure oriented and could be thought of as the
intensity of desire to fulfill a need. In the area of needs,
Murray and his Harvard colleagues identified 20 major and
89several other minor needs which individuals seek to fulfill.
Murray felt the strongest need was the need to achieve
(Petri, 1996). McClelland and Atkinson (1948; as cited by
Petri, 1996) proved the validity of Murray’s need-to-achieve
and its accompanying intensity in a study conducted with
submariners, gauging hunger intensity by short-term food
deprivation. They repeated their efforts with a 1949 study
in which students’ achievement needs were activated and
measured using images from the Thematic Apperception Test
(Murray, 1936; as cited by Petri, 1996).
Vroom (1964; as cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990 and
Harder, 1991) expanded the expectancy-value approach by
adding the component of instrumentality. Thus, his expanded
theory was the Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory
(Vroom, 1964; as cited by Lord, Hanges, & Godfrey, 2003).
Vroom stated that individuals are motivated to act by an
expectation (expectancy) that their actions and effort
(instrumentality) will produce an outcome with some value
(valence) to them. Oliver (1995) stated the Value-
90Instrumentality-Expectancy postulate as being that people,
when motivated, will expend more effort in the belief that
their efforts will produce good performances, which will, in
turn, produce the desired outcomes.
Brooks and Betz (1990) examined the predictive power of
Expectancy theory in college students’ occupational choices.
They quoted Wabba and House (1974) who stated that
Expectancy theory was “perhaps the most widely accepted
theory of work and motivation among … industrial and
organizational psychologists [of the time]” (p. 121). Lord,
et. al. (2003) indicated that Value-Instrumentality-
Expectancy theory has generated a great deal of research.
The primary reasons are first, because it focuses on
cognitive processes rather than behaviorist reinforcement
models, and second, because of Vroom’s (1964; as cited by
Lord, et. al., 2003; and as cited by Brooks, et. al., 1990)
algebraic formulae showing the ways in which the three
components of Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy theory
interact.
91This theory showed that as the value of expected
outcomes increases, motivation to act does as well. Also, as
belief that one’s actions will produce the desired results
increases, so does the amount of effort one will expend in
the direction of achievement. Lord, et. al. (2003) defined
valences as the preferences one has for an outcome;
expectancies as the beliefs about the effects of one’s
actions; and instrumentalities as individuals’ perceptions
about the relationship between primary outcomes and
secondary ones.
Motivation Contemporary Perspectives
Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Deci and Ryan (2000) reviewed
their Self-Determination Theory in relation to goal pursuits
and achievement and defined “needs” as “innate psychological
nutriments that are essential for ongoing psychological
growth, integrity, and well-being (p. 229)”. They determined
that three needs basic to human motivation and well-being
are relatedness, competence, and autonomy. They held that in
order to best understand motivation in humans and the
92content and process of goal pursuit, one must consider these
three innate human needs.
Satisfying these three innate needs plays an important
role, they said, in the way goal pursuit and achievement
affects individuals. An individual’s needs satisfaction also
plays a key role in attainment or maintenance of
psychological health, and all three needs must be satisfied,
not just one or two. As a postulate to recognizing and
identifying needs, Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that positive
psychological outcomes can be expected when conditions
permit needs satisfaction, and that the opposite is true in
adverse conditions. Where life conditions support the
fulfillment of all three, Deci and Ryan (2000) would expect
to see a flourishing of well-being, whereas ill-being would
be expected under conditions where the three needs cannot be
fulfilled. Further, they stated that if needs satisfaction
were not linked to human motivation and psychological well-
being, one would expect to see no difference in goal pursuit
93and achievement in favorable or adverse needs satisfaction
conditions.
SDT differentiates between physiological and
psychological needs. Considering a physiological need
deficit, such as hunger, individuals will increase attempts
to satisfy that need and will become predisposed to focus on
that need, even to the point of obsession. Conversely, when
a psychological need goes unsatisfied, individuals have
greater capacity to accommodate or subsume the need.
However, SDT holds that prolonged thwarting of psychological
needs leads to ill-being, perhaps of significant
proportions.
SDT’s primary postulate states that humans are
naturally growth-oriented, active beings, predisposed to
personal wholeness, inclined to integrate into social
milieus. As a corollary to this postulate, SDT holds that
people naturally seek out situations which provide
opportunities for need satisfaction. To the degree they
94succeed, this is the degree to which they will experience
beneficial psychological outcomes.
In the SDT perspective, needs are innate, that is,
natural, not learned. This means that SDT holds certain
aspects of basic human nature to be genetic and inescapable.
Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that some behaviors previously
thought to be drive-based, as described by Hull and Freud
(n.d.), are actually regulated psychologically and thus
interact with SDT’s three basic needs. Perhaps more
importantly, though, is the idea that need satisfaction
might not be an important motivating factor under SDT.
Individuals might well perform actions to satisfy some other
desire, yet the outcomes include need satisfaction. In fact,
in SDT—as opposed to Hull and Freud—behaviors based on the
three identified innate needs do not require a deficit to be
activated.
Also, whereas the theory of homeostasis holds that
individuals seek equilibrium, and that only disequilibrium
motivates action, SDT holds that people naturally move to
95find a higher experience of existence, thus creating their
own disequilibrium to generate positive actions—actions
which tend to create need satisfaction.
The three needs described in SDT are competence,
relatedness, and autonomy. Competence in an
individual is defined by Merriam-Webster (2003) as having
the required abilities to function in a specific way. Ryan
and Deci (2000) and Deci and Ryan (2000) also called it
effectance or self-efficacy, and identified it as one of the
three basic innate psychological needs possessed by every
person. Like any other need, this psychological need must be
fulfilled for individuals’ well-being and it can motivate
activity.
Ryan and Deci (2000) cited several authors (Baumeister
& Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1958; Harlow, 1958) in positing their
definition of relatedness as the need to feel a
connectedness to other people. This involves giving and
receiving love and care in relationships. Ainsworth, Blehar,
Waters, and Wall (1978; as cited by Ryan & Deci, 2000),
96stated that relatedness was a critical component of
attachment.
Autonomy is equated by many authors (Angyal, 1965;
Deci, 1980; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; all as cited by Ryan &
Deci, 2000) to volition, and defined as “the organismic
desire to self-organize experience and behavior and to have
activity be concordant with one’s integrated sense of self”
(p. 231). Ryan and Deci, though, refer to autonomy as acting
in accord with ideas, beliefs, or concepts individuals have
integrated as a part of self. Like the other two fundamental
needs, autonomy is requisite to health and well-being, even
across cultures.
97Ryan and Deci’s (2000) work does not focus on whether
behaviors are respondent to varying strength in needs.
Rather, it focuses on individual differences and the part
they play in individuals’ behaviors across contexts and
environments. They stated that without a theory of
underlying and fundamental needs (e.g., relatedness,
competence, and autonomy), every group of similar behaviors
would need an underlying behavior-specific set of drives,
motives, or needs. Thus, SDT more aptly describes a
universal and fundamental set of human needs or motivators.
Summary
Theoretical Perspectives
Several theories seem to support the progression that
Leadership style might impact purpose in life, which might
in turn impact Worker Motivation. Ryan and Deci’s (2000) SDT
posits the need for autonomy and competence. Individuals
possessed of a strong sense of purpose in life seem likely
to expend greater amounts of energy in the pursuit of goals
designed to fulfill their purpose in life, thus expressing
98autonomy and developing competence. In the case of
professionalization of purpose in life, it seems logical
that increased Worker Motivation would follow in direct
proportion to an increase in one’s sense of purpose in life.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1971) states that as lower
needs are fulfilled, higher ones arise. With purpose in life
being expressed toward the top of the hierarchy, again, it
is expected that the relationship between the
professionalization of purpose in life and Worker Motivation
would be positively correlated. Kelly’s (1963) Personal
Construct Psychology Theory predicts that individuals move
from one end of a personal construct toward its polar
opposite. If, at the beginning stage of life, individuals
have no sense of purpose in life and low Worker Motivation,
then once more, it seems intuitive that the discovery and
professionalization of purpose in life would propel them
from low to high in both areas. Vroom’s (1964; as cited by
Brooks & Betz, 1990; Harder, 1991) Value-Instrumentality-
Expectancy Theory aligns with at least two of the identified
99needs of SDT Theory in that one’s expectations of success
and attendant rewards are seen as being related to one’s
effort—with effort being expended in direct proportion to
one’s feelings of competence and autonomy in performing
tasks that will deliver the desired outcome. Thus being
autonomous and able to choose one’s actions determines not
only outcomes, but rewards. Finally, Frankl’s (1985a)
construct will-to-meaning and his theoretical and field work
on meaning state clearly that nothing in life worth having
will occur without a person having a sense of their purpose
in life.
Constructs: Leadership Styles, purpose in life, and Work Motivation
Leadership Styles: The general effects of leadership on
organizational direction and outcomes have long been
acknowledged and researched (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Now,
we are left with the task of continuing and refining
research directions and utilizing research to design and
implement interventions. Clear differences exist, however,
between Leadership styles and their effects on followers.
100Compared to the Transactional leadership style,
Transformational has the potential for greater effects on
followers at deeper levels, meaning they can impact the very
beliefs that shape followers’ lives and work performance.
Transformational leaders can also engender higher levels of
motivation in, extract greater performance from, and promote
a greater sense of purpose in followers—greater even than
the followers believed themselves capable of. Further,
Transformational leaders do this, not from a sense of self-
aggrandizement or self-advancement, but rather from a sense
of genuine caring about the cause they promote and for the
followers they lead (Bass, 1985). Research into
Transformational leadership characteristics has shown that
these characteristics can be learned or strengthened through
behavioral adaptation (Parry & Sinha, 2005). Thus, it is
seen that Transformational leaders can have a profound
impact on followers’ beliefs and performance, and that
Transformational leaders may be made if not born.
101Purpose In Life: Purpose in life has been examined and shown
to be a valid construct, related in various studies to
psychological well-being, attitudes toward healing, quality
of life in aging, religiosity, and participation in the
healing process. Frankl (1985a) identified purpose in life
as the primary motivator for all meaningful human activity.
Worker Motivation: Worker motivation long has been
researched with an eye to increasing productivity and, more
recently, quality. Studies for decades have examined many
aspects of worker motivation: the effects of lighting in the
Hawthorne Studies; Herzberg’s motivators and hygiene
factors; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and studies on
management; Argyris’s study into management communication
styles; and, of course, all the theories mentioned
previously regarding motivation. Worker motivation clearly
is a topic of great interest, both clinically and
practically, for its implications in the workplace, in the
economy, and in the therapist’s office.
102This chapter has evaluated past research, the
background, and the present status of research into
Transformational and Transactional leadership styles, the
constructs of purpose in life and worker motivation, and
several theories of motivation. A significant between-group
difference has been hypothesized for Transformational and
Transactional leadership styles when measuring purpose in
life and worker motivation. Now, this review proposes
research intended to further deepen our understanding of the
hypothesized relationship and its successful application in
organizational interventions.
103CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHOD
Introduction
This chapter discusses Research Design and approach.
Population and data gathering methodology is described.
Steps taken to protect participants’ privacy and rights are
described, and finally, instruments are described along with
data analysis procedures.
The purpose of this study is to determine whether
transformational versus transactional leadership style is
more impactful on workers’ purpose in life and motivation.
The null hypothesis anticipates that there is not a
significant difference between the impact of
Transformational versus Transactional leadership styles on
workers’ sense of purpose in life and Motivation. The
research hypothesis states that there is a significant
difference between the impact of Transformational versus
Transactional leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose
in life and motivation.
104The following instruments measure leadership style,
purpose in life, and worker motivation respectively: The
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire; Bass, 1985) tests for the presence of
Transformational and Transactional leadership
characteristics; the purpose in life Test (Crumbaugh &
Maholick, 1964; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004) examines
individuals’ sense of purpose in life or meaning in life;
and the Motivation Sources Inventory (Barbuto, 1997a;
Barbuto, et al., 2000; Barbuto & Scholl, 1998, 1999; all as
cited by Barbuto, et. al., 2002) measures worker motivation.
The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) will be utilized to examine
the relationship between Transformational and Transactional
leadership styles on the various measures.
Identification of Population
The population for the proposed research is managers
and workers in mid- -size companies (250-500 employees). The
sample will be extracted from a group of Internet
respondents. Devane, Begley, and Clarke (2004) indicated
105that sample size requires formal estimation to reduce
wastage and expense and to decrease the probability of
missing some important difference in the study. According to
Kelly & Rausch (2006), who cited Kelly (2006a), and Ball
(2004), a sample size of 400 participants should provide a
sufficient sample size to provide for a 95% confidence level
with a 5% margin of error. Therefore, the proposed research
will seek a sample population size of at least 400 in order
to provide a statistically viable sample with a 5% margin of
error. This study is likely to yield respondents from a
broad cross-section of industries, managerial and worker
level, and demographic characteristics. It is expected that
there will be more respondents to the self-report surveys
than required. However, only 400 randomly selected
respondents will be included in data analysis, thus helping
to minimize deliberate self-report inaccuracies.
Respondents will be recruited either through
advertisements on websites of, or email lists obtained from,
a variety of Internet sources, such as professional
106organizations, corporations, and employment sites. Workers
at manufacturing, service, wholesale, and retail companies
will also be solicited for potential respondents.
Design of the Study
The research design utilizes a two group design,
analyzing between-groups with ANOVA. Participants will
complete self-report surveys via the Internet. Data of a
demographic nature will be gathered simultaneous to an
administration of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire,
the Purpose In Life Test, and the Motivation Sources Index.
Results from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire will
be used to assign respondents to the appropriate leadership
style group, providing for two groups. Results from the
Purpose In Life Test and the Motivation Sources Index will
be used to determine respondents’ levels of sense of purpose
in life and work motivation.
Squillini (1999) cited Maxwell (1996) who stated that
quantitative research is preferable to qualitative research
when attempting to compare data and define variables’
107differences. Mitchell and Jolley (1996) stated that there
are two primary types of research designs—experimental and
nonexperimental. Experimental designs are useful when trying
to determine the motivations behind peoples’ thoughts or
actions. However, when trying to discover peoples’ actual
thoughts, feelings, or actions, a nonexperimental research
design is better. The survey research design is an example
of a nonexperimental research design, and the self-reported
survey is listed as one valid type of survey.
The self-reported survey research design, administered
via the Internet, will be used for this study. The self-
reported survey offers researchers several advantages,
including the ability to gather data from a large population
less expensively and more easily than some other forms of
data gathering. It also provides researchers the ability to
predict behaviors or outcomes by sampling attitudes or
actions. Finally, it allows researchers to describe
attitudes, beliefs, or actions between groups of
respondents.
108The proposed research is a two-group design with
between-group data comparisons. The first group consists of
workers in a Transformational leadership environment, while
the second consists of workers from a Transactional
leadership environment. Data will be collected from each
group to determine levels of purpose in life and worker
motivation within groups, and then compared between groups.
Collecting data via the Internet, or the World Wide
Web, provides several advantages over traditional data
collection methods. Strickland, Moloney, Dietrich, Myerburg,
Cotsonis, and Johnson (2003) cited Joinson (1999) who stated
that respondents to Internet surveys would be less inhibited
and less bothered by social desirability. Data collection
via the Internet also offers rapid interaction with
respondents, the ability to automate the collection process,
and access to respondents from around the globe and across
industries, ethnic groups and cultures. Strickland, et. al.
(2003) also examined issues of Internet data collection and
listed five specific issues particularly salient to Internet
109collection of quantitative data. They were: (a) data
validity and reliability; (b) ensuring that both researchers
and respondents find data collection to be practical; (c)
ensuring that protocols for data collection address research
aims while maximizing advantages of the Internet; (d)
ensuring data quality; and (e) adaptation of traditional
quantitative measures for Internet usage.
Self-reported survey weaknesses, pointed out by
Mitchell and Jolley (1996), include the fact that surveys
typically have a lower response rate than other types of
survey or experimental designs. They also have a greater
margin of error in self-response accuracy rates than
controlled experiments or investigator-administered survey
research.
Procedures
Participants are recruited from a variety of major
employment websites and through emails spread randomly
through internet email chains and purchased lists.
Respondents are directed to an automated website to complete
110the organizational and vocational preliminary demographic
questionnaire, which will support respondent and
organizational filtering and group assignments. Respondents,
during recruitment, are directed to a data collection
website. The instruments’ questions are available
electronically, in exactly the same format and order as in a
paper and pencil version. After completion of demographics,
participants are directed to online instruments which test
for perceived organizational leadership style and levels of
purpose in life and worker motivation. Data are collected
and returned to researchers for analysis.
Steps Taken To Ensure Participants’ Privacy
To ensure participants’ privacy and rights, a
professional online web-survey company which promises that
they do not sell, share, or distribute any information
gathered will be selected. A double opt-in registration
process and a “no-link” policy regarding personal
information and data gathered will be provided. Industry
standards to protect personal information will be employed,
111during both data gathering and transmission. The company
will also guarantee they do not access data gathered except
as requested by the researcher, and even researchers will
have secure procedures they must follow when downloading
gathered data. All email information gathered will be
exclusively the property of the researcher and will not be
used or sold to anyone. The company will also be Safe Harbor
certified, a designation awarded by the International Trade
Federation of the United States Commerce Department to
companies which meet strict standards for data protection.
Instruments
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire; Bass, 1985) identifies
Transformational Leadership characteristics in leaders. The
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire is the accepted
instrument for measuring Transformational Leadership
(Heinitz, Liepmann, & Felfe, 2005; Tejeda, 2001). In this
case, it determines the perceived management style
characteristics of individuals’ organizations. Bass and
112Avolio (1991; as cited by Madzar, 2001) utilized a version
of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire known as the 5X-
rater version—consisting of 68, 5-point items—to test for
perceived leadership style.
The Purpose In Life Test (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964;
as cited by Schulenberg, 2004) provides information on
purpose in life. It has been shown to provide valid,
reliable results, (Schulenberg, 2004, cited Crumbaugh &
Henrion, 1988 and Hutzell, 1988 for reviews).
The Motivation Sources Inventory (MSI; Barbuto, 1997a;
Barbuto et al., 2000; Barbuto & Scholl, 1998, 1999; all as
cited by Barbuto, et. al., 2002) tests for worker
motivation. This instrument tests for five separate types of
motivation; Intrinsic Process, Instrumental, External Self-
Concept, Internal Self-Concept, and Goal Internalization. Of
special interest is the Goal Internalization sub-scale,
since this scale measures the idea that individuals wouldn’t
work for a company with whose mission they weren’t in
agreement.
113Null Hypothesis One: There is not a significant difference
between the impact of Transformational versus Transactional
leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation.
Research Hypothesis One: There is a significant difference
between the impact of Transformational versus Transactional
leadership styles on workers’ sense of purpose in life and
motivation.
Analysis: The relationship between leadership styles is
examined using between-groups ANOVA. According to Ramirez
and Runger (2006), analysis of variance (ANOVA) accurately
can compute between-group differences even with groups of
different sizes, so this can help ameliorate any differences
in group size between Transformational and Transactional
leadership groups, which will simplify population and data
gathering efforts. Examining the relationship of the
variables in two separate leadership environments, ANOVA
will be performed to compare differences in workers’ sense
of purpose in life and motivation between Transformational
114and Transactional leadership styles with an expected
significance level of < .05. The sample size of 400 is
sufficient to achieve a confidence level of 95%. Wilcox
(2005) stated that the ANOVA, which aims to measure
differences between group means or averages, has good power
when the underlying derivations are true, such as normality.
It is assumed responses follow a normal distribution.
115CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This critical review has examined the literature
related to the relationship between Transformational and
Transactional leadership styles when measuring workers’
sense of purpose in life and motivation. The background of,
and past and contemporary research into the variables and
constructs have been examined. A research methodology has
been suggested along with measures to examine the
hypothesized relationship and statistical tools with which
to quantify any between-group differences. In this chapter,
the literature review from Chapter 2 will be summarized,
social and clinical practice implications will be discussed,
and an integrative summary will be provided.
Review of Literature from Chapter 2
Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles
Burns (1979) wrote his treatise on leadership with the
intention of combining the literature on leadership and
116followership to create a foundation for research into the
effects of leadership style on followership. He also wanted
to create measurable indices by which the effects of
leadership could be tracked—specifically societal changes
and the level to which leaders satisfied peoples’ needs and
expectations. He delineated similarities and differences
between the two styles, indicating that Transformational
leaders identified and worked to meet followers’ needs and
expectations, discovering their motivators, and striving to
engage them in the process of change. Conversely,
Transactional leaders worked primarily to complete their own
agenda, entering into transaction-based exchanges with
others. Also, while a Transactional leader might not
necessarily be amoral or immoral, a Transformational leader
was much more likely to become a moral agent, grooming
followers to become leaders themselves. Transactional
leaders rely heavily on extrinsic motivators, or contingent
rewards, to spur behaviors, whereas Transformational
leaders, through the exercise of their charismatic
117characteristics, stimulate intrinsic motivation in
followers.
Bass (1985) surveyed 845 American workers and found
that people were not primarily motivated by exchanges of
value; i.e., Transactional leadership style, or transaction-
based relationships. Level of earnings was also not a
primary motivator. A Transformational leadership
environment, however, was more successful in creating
motivation in all areas. He also conducted a survey of 176
former high-level U.S. military leaders and found five
leadership characteristics—two transactional and three
transformational. The transformational characteristics—
charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual
consideration—were more often observed in combat units than
in support units. The leaders surveyed maintained an
individualistic and developmental orientation toward
followers, enhancing followers’ problem-solving abilities.
The effect on followers of these characteristics was that
they aroused trust, pride, faith, loyalty, and enthusiasm.
118Bass (1985) found similar results when surveying over 300
business, education administration, and professional
leaders. He also found that even when using Transactional
methodology, Transformational leaders were likely to produce
better results among followers.
Bass (1985) reported that charismatic leadership
previously had been discouraged by organizations and had not
been examined by I/O Psychology. He found several problems
with the Transactional leadership model, though, including:
Transactional leaders frequently didn’t use the tools they
had, even with training; feedback was typically negative;
this feedback was frequently perceived by followers to be
destructive instead of constructive; Transactional leaders
tended to use a cookie-cutter approach to management as
opposed to heeding individual differences among followers;
Transactional leaders valued their own comments above all
others; these leaders tended to abandon the model when non-
contingent rewards provide results; when consequences-to-be-
avoided were used as motivators, performance declined; and
119peevishness among subordinates sometimes lead to conscious
efforts to undermine productivity.
Among the characteristics which separate
Transformational leaders from Transactional, Popper, et. al.
(2000), noted that Transformational leaders have a high
level of self-regard and self-assurance. They also have a
high level of concern for the well-being of others and tend
to invest time and energy in developing relationships with
others. Another difference, pointed out by Bass (1985) is
that Transformational leaders’ authority and ability to lead
stems from their ability to inspire followers rather than on
a follower’s perception of the leader’s authority. Maslow
(1954; as cited by Spinelli, 2006) felt that a
Transformational leader would seek to raise individuals to
their highest potential. Bass (1985) and Popper, et. al.
(2000), listed several characteristics of Transformational
leaders including: empowering followers, encouraging them to
perform beyond even their own expectations, being a
visionary, inspiring respect and trust in followers, and
120motivating them to work at greater levels, put out more
effort, and be more committed.
Popper, et. al. (2000) cited several authors who stated
that Transformational leaders scored higher on several
leadership variables than did Transactional leaders,
including: the level of leader effectiveness (as perceived
by followers); the level of satisfaction with leaders among
followers; and followers’ perceived self-efficacy. Bass and
Avolio (1993; as cited by Popper, et. al., 2000) indicated
that followers scored better on performance and behavior
measures, and they experienced elevated levels of attitude,
values, and self-concept in Transformational leadership
relationships. Further, there was found to be a greater
sense of equality and justice among these followers than
among those in Transactional leadership environments.
According to Bass (1985), the heart of a
Transformational leader’s ability to inspire followers is
communication. Followers know the Transformational leader is
aware of their desires, needs, and expectations, and is
121working to not only fulfill them, but to challenge the
follower to increase their abilities and capacity to
perform.
Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) found that Transformational
leaders were capable of generating and activating purpose
for followers. They cited Griffin (1981) who found that
Transformational leaders could positively affect performance
without changing job characteristics. Thus, reinforcing the
findings of the Hawthorne experiment referenced earlier.
Piccolo and Colquitt (2006) cited other authors when stating
that Transformational leaders could verbally persuade
followers to view organizational values as being in
alignment with their own personal values. They were also
able to promote a sense of autonomy in followers.
As further evidence of the superiority of the
Transformational leadership style, Piccolo and Colquitt
(2006) tested 283 individuals from diverse work backgrounds
and found a positive correlation between Transformational
leadership characteristics and core job characteristics;
122i.e., individuals scored higher in the five core job
characteristics areas (variety, feedback, autonomy,
identity, and significance) in a Transformational leadership
environment. More importantly, core job characteristics are
positively correlated with intrinsic motivation. Hackman and
Oldham (1976; as cited by Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006)
suggested that employees with intrinsic motivation would be
more effective than those motivated otherwise. Piccolo and
Colquitt (2006) also found a positive relationship between
intrinsic motivation and organizational citizenship
behaviors.
Spinelli (2006), in a survey of 101 hospital managers,
found significant positive correlations between the
Transformational leadership style and three dependent
variables (follower satisfaction with leaders, perceived
leader effectiveness, and willingness to put out extra
effort). The same was not true of the other two leadership
styles—Transactional and laissez-faire.
123Masood, et. al. (2006), cited Fiedler (1967) when
discussing another difference between Transformational and
Transactional leaders—their approach to, and comfort with,
situational strength. Situational strength is the degree to
which a leader looks to the situation to determine choices
and actions. Transformational leaders feel comfortable with
low situational strength; i.e., the situation does not
contain, within itself, any overt or familiar cues to guide
a leader to a choice. Therefore, the leader must draw on
inner wisdom and confidence in their ability to provide
appropriate guidance. Transactional leaders, conversely,
feel more comfortable with high situational strength, where
the situation dictates a course of action. In fact, 65% of
Transformational leaders preferred low situational strength
vs. Transactional leaders, 74% of whom preferred high
situational strength.
Perhaps most supportive of the present review and
proposed research is Parry and Sinha’s (2005) research into
training Transformational leaders. Owing to such business
124drivers as globalization, extreme competition, and the ever-
increasing speed of changing markets, they cited several
authors when pointing out that strong leadership was,
indeed, a competitive advantage. They performed a quasi-
field, pre-test/post-test experiment, three months in
duration, testing the Full Range Leadership Development
(Full Range Leadership Development ) program to determine
whether and which changes in leader behaviors could be
affected. The five factors in question were were Idealized
attributes, Idealized behavior, Inspirational motivation,
Intellectual stimulation, and Individualized consideration.
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was
administered to participants and up to 12 of their immediate
colleagues to provide a pre-test, 360-degree profile from
which to judge the effectiveness of training. Post-test
results showed the program effective across all cohorts and
all dimensions of Transformational leadership behaviors—
Transformational leaders can be trained up. The change in
all factors is particularly significant since each
125participant only chose two dimensions to address in their
development and action plans. It was also found that
Transactional leadership behaviors changed more based on
organizational structure than on Transformational leadership
training. Strikingly, Parry and Sinha (2005) concluded that
“one can increase the two outcomes of ‘follower extra
effort’ and ‘satisfaction with leadership’ as a result of
the Full Range Leadership Development intervention” (p.
179). Additionally, they concluded that Transactional
leadership outcomes do not necessarily decrease with the
increase of Transformational leadership behaviors. It is
important to remember that Transformational characteristics
are additional to Transactional characteristics, not as
opposed to.
Purpose In Life
Collins and Porras (1997) referred to purpose in life
as a guiding star and the reason for existence. They stated
that purpose in life was not synonymous with personal goals
or strategies. Frankl (1955/1965) said that purpose in life
126was the meaning in one’s life, and pointed out varying
sources of individuals’ purpose in life: instinct, societal
values, and authentic meaning. Instinct, he said, was innate
and occurred when actions, or work, related directly to
survival. Societal values derive from work indirectly
related to survival, family, group, and the various
traditions which arise from them all. Only purpose in life,
says Frankl (1955/1965), provides happiness and the
motivation to persist when faced with obstacles. Bonebright,
et. al. (2000), cited numerous authors in stating that
purpose in life was an irreducible need, present in every
person. Frankl (1985) cited several authors who found
relationships between purpose in life and a variety of
qualities, such as: being successful, being motivated,
exhibiting good health, and a propensity toward survival.
Frankl (1985) referred to self-actualization (Maslow,
1954/1970) as the fulfillment of purpose in life, stating
that it could only be achieved through the accomplishment of
some external purpose, such as selfless giving and the
127utilization of one’s talents and gifts to their full
potential.
Purpose in life is tested by various instruments,
including the Purpose In Life Test (Crumbaugh & Maholick,
1964; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004), the Life Purpose
Questionnaire (Life Purpose Questionnaire; Hablas & Hutzell,
1982; Hutzell, 1989; as cited by Schulenberg, 2004), which
have been shown to be valid and reliable (Schulenberg, 2004,
cited Crumbaugh & Henrion, 1988 and Hutzell, 1988), the Life
Attitude Profile (Reker & Peacock, 1981; as cited by Moomal,
1999), the Meaning In Life Depth Instrument (Ebersole &
Kobayakawa, 1989; as cited by Moomal, 1999), the Life Regard
Index (Battista & Almond, 1973; as cited by Moomal, 1999),
and the Sense of Coherence Scale (Antonovsky, 1983, 1985; as
cited by Moomal, 1999).
Contemporary research into purpose in life includes
Ryff and Keyes (1995), which differentiates between
psychological well-being as assessed with stringent measures
and subjective well-being. This research, which relied on
128self-report, showed purpose in life to be one of the six
components of psychological well-being. Steger and Frazier
(2005) also found purpose in life to mediate the presence of
well-being. Current research also includes Meraviglia
(2006), who surveyed previously diagnosed victims of breast
cancer, and found that the effect of breast cancer was both
mediated and benefited by the presence of purpose in life.
Ryan and Deci (2001) examined Eudaimonic well-being, a state
of happiness different than hedonic happiness, which
requires authentic awareness of one’s existential self and
purpose in life. Like Frankl (1985), they stated that
meaning in life derives from alignment with and fulfillment
of some purpose higher than oneself—some transcendent
meaning.
Mascara and Rosen (2005) performed a test-retest
experiment to determine whether purpose in life might impact
the symptoms of depression. They found that purpose in life
was positively associated with feelings of hopefulness and
negatively associated with symptoms of depression. Steger
129and Frazier (2005) also found purpose in life to have a
mediating effect on the relationship between well-being and
daily activity.
Motivation
Locke and Latham (2002) cited Ryan (1970) who stated
that human behavior had to be consciously directed to some
degree—that conscious thoughts controlled actions. They
pointed out that people can perform actions without being
aware of what motivated them to do so. They also referred to
Bandura (1997) who noted that purposeful thought was what
enabled people to exercise control over their lives. Frankl
(1988) held that operationalizing purpose in life provided
greater motivation than the pursuit of happiness alone and
pointed out that people’s very existence requires strong
ideals and self-transcendence. These things provide
motivation to not only survive, but to thrive.
The Hawthorne Effect was a seminal study on the effects
of changes in the workplace on worker motivation and
productivity. Researchers found that workers were at least
130as motivated by their perceptions of a situation as they
were by the situation itself (Schulz & Schulz, 1998;
Robbins, 1998). Clinically, this means that changing
perceptions may have as great an effect on motivation as
altering individuals’ circumstances. Herzberg (1959/1993)
found two distinct groups of work factors—motivators and
hygiene—which, independent of each other, were found to
increase job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction,
respectively. Motivators were tied to intrinsic factors,
whereas hygiene factors were tied to extrinsic factors.
Neither group had any direct correlation to the other’s
effects. Again, we see motivation tied to internal
perceptions.
Maslow (1954/1970) sought to prove that people were
motivated to grow—to achieve their full potential. He
organized needs in a hierarchy, ranging from low to high—
physiological to self-actualization. Each higher need would
arise, or become prepotent, as the lower need was fulfilled.
He did allow that sometimes, needs would be fulfilled out of
131order, but that should a lower one suddenly become
overwhelming, focus would shift to the fulfillment of that
lower need until attention could, once again, be redirected
upward. Needs of all levels would be subsumed by perceptions
and choices enacted by the individual.
Kelly (1955/1963) found individuals to be motivated by
their constructs—the perceptions they held of reality. Their
motivation was to be found in attempts to understand,
anticipate, predict—or ultimately control—future events. For
individuals to create change, he held that one construct
must be replaced by another. However, change generally
occurs along a continuum from the present state of a
construct toward its polar opposite, such as passive to
aggressive or gentle to violent. Kelly (1955/1963) agreed
with Kierkegaard and Ryan and Deci (2000) in naming autonomy
as a critical factor in the motivation to create change.
Murray (1938; as cited by Petri, 1996) developed the
expectancy-value approach to motivation. Vroom (1964; as
cited by Brooks & Betz, 1990 and Harder, 1991) expanded the
132expectancy-value approach by adding the component of
instrumentality, thus creating the Value-Instrumentality-
Expectancy Theory. This theory holds that individuals act
based on an expectation that their actions can affect
outcomes. As the value of outcomes increases, so does
motivation to act.
Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that three needs—
relatedness, competence, and autonomy—comprise the
foundation for human motivation. They also held that if
conditions support the fulfillment of these needs, humans
can prosper psychologically, whereas the thwarting of these
needs leads to negative psychological outcomes. If this were
not true, one would expect to see individuals prospering
psychologically despite favorable or adverse conditions as
related to needs fulfillment. Further, they anticipate that
long-term blocking of needs fulfillment will lead to
psychological ill-being. Finally, in accordance with
Frankl’s (1980) and Maslow’s (1954/1970) ideas that humans
are naturally predisposed toward growth, and contrary to
133Hull and Freud’s beliefs that action requires being out of
balance, these three needs do not require a deficit to be
activated.
Clinical Practice Implications
Results from the proposed research promise to impact
professionals in several areas. Among them Clinical
Psychologists, I/O Psychologists and Consultants, Social
Workers, Mental Health Workers, and Counselors of several
kinds—Mental Health, Career, School, and even Pastoral.
Clinical Psychologists might find themselves leading clients
to the discovery of purpose in life, and in conjunction with
Career Counselors, might work toward professionalization of
purpose in life. The hypothesized findings could provide I/O
Psychologists and Consultants with new directions for
several types of intervention, including: corporate culture,
leadership style, job- and organization-fit, and employee
hiring and retention best practices. As a result of
individuals finding greater meaning in their lives and work,
Mental Health Workers and Pastoral Counselors might see
134fewer clients suffering from job burnout and life- and job-
dissatisfaction. Mental Health Counselors might find it
easier to direct individuals toward greater happiness in
life and at work through professionalization of purpose in
life. School Counselors, utilizing the proper instruments
and assessments, might be better equipped to direct students
into more suitable and satisfying course selection. Overall,
the field of Psychology would benefit from having a clearer
picture of determinants of behavior. Benefits to individuals
discovering and professionally operationalizing their
purpose in life might include increased life satisfaction,
job satisfaction, greater feelings of autonomy, and a sense
of self-actualization.
Social Implications
From a societal perspective, developing and sustaining
a competitive advantage cannot but help improve the economic
outlook for American organizations, their stakeholders—
leaders and workers—and their stakeholders’ families. By
identifying a more highly suitable Leadership style, where
135purpose in life and worker motivation can be increased, thus
increasing productivity and quality, society as a whole,
also, cannot help but be improved.
From an individual perspective, the professionalization
of purpose in life in workers should lead to altruism, at
home, at work, and in society in general. In a self-
actualized individual, all subordinate needs have been
fulfilled, and arising from this fulfillment is the
sustaining belief that they will be fulfilled on an ongoing
basis (Maslow, 1971). This anticipation of continued well-
being is expected to lead the self-actualized individual to
look toward improving the lot of those around them—toward
altruistic behaviors. The societal impact of leading
individuals toward self-actualization through
professionalization of purpose in life—the ultimate aim of
the proposed research—might well presage an increase of
altruism and an accompanying improvement of the human
condition throughout society.
136A general increase in altruism might extend,
specifically, to individuals’ significant others and
families. Such a change could be expected to lead to greater
levels of marital harmony, marital longevity, and the
concomitant positive effects on children’s psyches.
Naturally, happier couples, parents, and households would
create happier, better adjusted children, who would grow up
to be happier, more productive citizens.
Recommendations for Future Research
The proposed research hopes to find a positive
relationship between the variables purpose in life and
worker motivation in comparison of Transformational and
Transactional leadership styles. Assuming a positive outcome
of this research, future research would be needed to
determine what, if any, causative or mediating effects
purpose in life might have on worker motivation. Other
potential research might include examination of the effects
of purpose in life on other variables, such as job- and
organization-fit, intention to quit, and organization-
137commitment. Purpose in life might be tested against almost
any of the subsumed components of life satisfaction and any
of the three areas of need described in SDT (Ryan & Deci,
2000).
Additional research might also examine the potential
ability of Transformational leaders to transform the
business processes of the very organizations they lead as
related to professionalization of purpose in life. The areas
they might especially affect, in this regard, include
recruiting and hiring processes, employee retention
practices, and performance development, to name just a few.
If Transformational leaders can, in practice, affect the
changes in purpose in life and worker motivation that the
literature seems to suggest they might, then the positive
outcomes and competitive advantages to be gained by American
organizations could be quite significant. Additionally,
these outcomes could be plotted and measured in real terms
of profitability and productivity.
138In the social sciences arena, measures could be taken
of the affects on the personal lives of workers who
professionalization of purpose in life. The impact on the
workload of mental health workers in a variety of fields
could be gauged over time, as related to these workers. This
research could show how mental health expenditures for
companies might be lowered by working to professionalization
of purpose in life.
Integrative Summary
The relationship between leadership style and worker
motivation has been well researched, and that there is an
influence of leadership style upon follower is without doubt
(e.g.; Popper, et. al., 2000; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006;
Bass, 1985). Frankl (1985a) was quite clear in his assertion
that nothing of any existential value would be accomplished
in life without a clear sense of meaning or purpose in life.
SDT is the primary theoretical basis upon which the proposed
research is based, and current literature suggests a
connection between the components of SDT and purpose in life
139(e.g.; Meraviglia, 2006; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Mascaro & Rosen,
2005; Steger & Frazier, 2005).
The proposed research intends to examine the
relationship between Transformational and Transactional
leadership styles when measuring workers’ sense of purpose
in life and motivation. Participants from wide-ranging
backgrounds and levels of worker responsibility will be
assessed through Internet-based, self-report surveys using
leadership style, purpose in life, and worker motivation
measures. SDT Theory, Kelly’s Personal Construct Psychology
Theory, Vroom’s Value-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory,
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and Frankl’s work on meaning
are the foundation of the proposed study’s research
questions and hypotheses (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Kelly,
1955/1963; Brooks & Betz, 1990; Frankl, 1985a; Maslow,
1971). The relationship between purpose in life and worker
motivation is a meaningful area of research not only because
of the tremendous implications to American business and the
need for a sustainable competitive advantage, but also to
140the American family and the American psyche overall. Workers
living out their purpose in life professionally cannot help
but be more satisfied and productive at work and happier at
home.
Conclusion
American organizations need to increase their
competitive edge to keep pace with the pressures of changes
in the global economy. New markets and economies are
emerging overseas and our ability to keep pace, both as
organizations and as a workforce, is being put to the test.
Finding ways to give ourselves a competitive advantage is
critical for our survival as an economic leader in the world
markets. Only by maximizing worker productivity can we
attain and maintain that competitive advantage.
Upon completion of the proposed study, it is
anticipated that two potential stepping-stones on the path
to increased and sustainable worker motivation will have
been found. They are, first, that the efficacy of the
Transformational leadership model is expected to prove out
141over the Transactional model; and second, that there is a
positive link between Transformational leadership and
workers’ sense of purpose in life and motivation, which
means that by assisting workers in professionalization of
purpose in life, organizations will benefit by having more
committed and devoted workers. This means that in any
organization where reciprocal caring between leaders and
followers has value (whether from a corporate culture or
productivity point of view) there will be evidence to
support a migration from Transactional to Transformational
leadership style.
Many types of interventions have been and can be
created to assist individuals in determining and
operationalizing their purpose in life professionally. This
is also true of training management teams to integrate
Transformational leadership practices into their corporate
culture. Further, wise Transformational leaders will be
highly interested in using their positions to support their
followers in achieving a high level of purpose in life,
142especially if it can be professionally operationalized in
alignment with organizational missions. This would surely be
beyond a win-win situation. The winners would include not
only the individual and organization, but the American
workforce and economy as well.
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Zebrack, B. J., & Chesler, M. A. (2002). Quality of life in childhood cancer survivors. Psycho-Oncology, 11(2), 132-141. Retrieved October 23, 2005, from Academic Search Premier Databases.
157CURRICULUM VITA
Jason Michael Starr8323 Timberwilde St.San Antonio, TX [email protected]
EducationRobert E. Lee High School, San Antonio, TX 9/67 – 5/70San Antonio College, San Antonio, TX 9/70 – 5/71
1/75 – 12/75St. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX 9/71 – 12/74University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
1/76 – 5/771/90 – 5/90
University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX1/00 – 5/01
Walden University, Minneapolis, MN 9/01 – present
DegreesBA – Psychology of Organizations & Development, 3.96 Gpositive affectSt. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX
Awards & Specialized ActivitiesEagle Scout - Boy Scouts of America, Sep-67
Master Mason, AF & AM - Charles W. Anderson Lodge, No. 1413,May-73
Licensed Realtor, State of Texas, Jan-86 – Aug-88
Substitute Teacher - Northeast Independent School District, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89 – May-90
Ordained Minister - Universal Life Church - 1993
Certified Reiki Practitioner - 1st Degree - 1997
National Honor Society in Psychology – Jul-02
158Certified Stellar Service Certification Presenter - Achieve Global – Mar-07
Continuing Education – Leadership DevelopmentClient Psychology and Eligibility Requirements: Eligibility Specialist Training, Mrs. Dorsey, et. al., The State of Texas, Department of Human Services, Food Stamps Department, San Antonio, TX, Oct-90
Cultural Diversity, Mrs. Dorsey, et. al., The State of Texas, Department of Human Services, Food Stamps Department, San Antonio, TX, Apr-91
Workplace Harrassment, Kathy Blachek, Afni, Inc., San Antonio, TX, Apr-07
Afni Coaching Model (ACM), Andy Lawrence, Rolando Collin, Afni, Inc., San Antonio, TX, May-07
Continuing Education – SalesSelling Through Persuasion, Tom Hopkins, Hopkins International, San Antonio, TX, Mar-86
Selling Through Persuasion II, Tom Hopkins, Hopkins International, Austin, TX, Apr-86
Course I, Graduate Realtors Institute Certification Classes, Texas Real Estate Commission, San Antonio, TX, Jun-86
Power Selling, Roger Butcher, NPC Realtors, San Antonio, TX, Jun-86
Reading, Understanding, and Selling People, Jaclyn Rhodes, NPC Realtors, San Antonio, TX, Oct-86
Persuading Via Telephone, David Alan Yoho, Yoho Continuing Education, San Antonio, TX, Mar-87
Power Persuading on the Phone, Carolyn Wyckoff, WorldWide Realtors/Ray Ellison Industries, San Antonio, TX, Mar-88
159Needs Assessment and Fulfillment, Carolyn Wyckoff, WorldWide Realtors/Ray Ellison Industries, San Antonio, TX, Apr-88
Continuing Education – Personal GrowthSelf-Esteem in Individuals, John Bradshaw, Houston, TX, Sep-86
Mastering Alive Relationships, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, Austin, TX, Apr-87
Creative Self-Expression, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, Austin, TX, May-87
Universal Principles of Truth Training, Rudi Harst, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jul-87
Prosperity Training, Edwene Gaines & Bert Carson, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Oct-87
Self-Responsibility, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, Austin, TX, Jun-88
Results Course, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, San Antonio, TX, Aug-88
Results Course, Wilbert Alix, The Natale Institute, San Antonio, TX, Oct-88
Spiritual Energy in the Body, Nancy Busch, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jun-89
Return to Grace, Richard Heinberg, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89
The Duality of Spirit & Matter, Walter Starcke, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89
The Mask of the Ego, Timothy Apgar, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89
Leadership Training, Rev. Marlene Abdulky, Unity of San Antonio,San Antonio, TX, Sep-89
160Thank God For Prayer, Aida Putnam, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Sep-89
The Power of Grace, Debby Tyson, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Apr-90
Power in Self through Play & Music, Rudi Harst, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jun-90
The Mask of the Ego, Timothy Apgar, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Oct-90
Prosperity Training, Edwene Gaines & Bert Carson, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jun-91
Comedy in Forgiveness and Spirituality, Steve Baerhman (Swami Beyondananda), Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Jul-91
Mastering Life, Love, and Relationships, Part I, Phyllis Light, Ph.D., Light Unlimited, Houston, TX, Mar-92
The Light Realization Program, Phyllis Light, Ph.D., Light Unlimited, San Diego, CA, Jun-92
Mastering Life, Love, and Relationships, Part II (Life Restructuring Process), Phyllis Light, Ph.D., Light Unlimited, Tampa, FL, Mar-93
Prosperity Training, Edwene Gaines & Bert Carson, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Jun-95
Practicing the Presence of God, Donna Wickes, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Apr-96
Practicing the Presence of God, Donna Wickes, Wicke Ministries, Houston, TX, Apr-96
Old Testament Interpretation, Rev. Sunny Stone, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, May-91
Discover the Power Within You, Frederick Hasley, ULC, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Sep-93
161Words of Jesus, Rev. L. Bill Wilson, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Jan-94
Interpretation of the Gospels #1, Rev. L. Bill Wilson, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Jan-94
Twelve Powers of Man, Rev. E.J. Niles, Unity of Fairfax, Fairfax, VA, Feb-94
Lessons in Truth, Jeanetta Davis, ULC, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, May-96
Prosperity, Vivian Martinez, ULC, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97
Continuing Education – Martial ArtsUnderstanding Bo Kata, Grand Master Robert A. Trias, 10th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu, United States Karate Association, Phoenix, AZ, Mar-85
Psychology, Self-Discipline, and Self-Mastery through Karate-do, Renshi Roy Osborne, 6th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu & Shorinji Ryu, United States Karate Association, San Antonio,TX, Aug-85
Discipline, Strategy, and Self-Control for Control of Others and Environment, Grand Master Robert A. Trias, 10th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu, United States Karate Association, San Antonio, TX, Oct-85
Meditation for Peace of Mind: Martial Arts' Gentle Side, Hanshi Dirk Mosig, Ph.D., Kearney State University, 7th Degree Black Belt, Okinawan Shuri-Ryu, United States Karate Association, Phoenix, AZ, Oct-85
Education – Performing Arts – DanceBallet, Doris Aceli, Doris Aceli School of Dance, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1967
162Tap Dance, Doris Aceli, Doris Aceli School of Dance, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1967
Acrobatics, Doris Aceli, Doris Aceli School of Dance, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1967
Education – Performing Arts – MusicTrumpet, Ed Solomon, Eisenhower Junior High School, San Antonio, TX, 1964-1966
Trumpet, Ed Solomon, San Antonio, TX, Private Lessons, 1964-1966
Trumpet, Melvin Meads, Robert E. Lee High Schoo, San Antonio, TX, 1966-1970
Trumpet, Theron Kirk, San Antonio College, San Antonio College, 1970-1971
Education – Performing Arts – TheaterActing I & II, Prof. Allan S. Ross, San Antonio College, SanAntonio College, 1974-75
Voice & Diction, Prof. Allan S. Ross, San Antonio College, San Antonio College, 1974-75
Performing Arts Practical Experience – MusicTrumpet, Halcyon Days Swing Band, John Weller, Dir., San Antonio, TX, 1972-1974
Performing Arts Practical Experience – TheaterThe Miser (Cleante), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX, Mar-73
The Boys of Syracuse (Antipholus), Music Theater, San Antonio, TX, May-73
Showboat (Frank), Music Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jun-73
163Love Rides the Rails (Stanley Steamer), Melodrama Theater, San Antonio, TX, Sep-73
Midsummer Night's Dream (Theseus), First Repertory Company Theater, San Antonio, TX, Nov-73
Cactus Flower (Igor), Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX,Jan-74
Play It Again Sam (Bogart's Ghost), Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Mar-74
Seven Year Itch (Tom), Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jun-74
Pygmalion (Chorus), University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Sep-74
Charley's Aunt (Jack), University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Mar-75
The Odd Couple (Speed), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort SamHouston, San Antonio, TX
The Rimers of Eldridge (Judge), San Antonio College Theater,San Antonio, TX
Cyrano de Bergerac (Ragneau), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX
And Miss Reardon Drinks A Little (Bob), New Kids Productions/San Pedro Playhouse, San Antonio, TX
Christmas in the Market Place (Melchior), First Christian Church Theater, San Antonio, TX
The Little Hut (Henry), Harlequin Dinner Theater, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX
A Thousand Clowns (Arnold), Harlequin Dinner Theater, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX
164Ten Little Indians (Rodgers), Harlequin Dinner Theater, FortSam Houston, San Antonio, TX
Twelfth Night (Sea Captain), Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX
A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum (Pseudolus),Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX,
Aug-80
A Christmas Carol (Young Scrooge), Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Dec-80
A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum (Protean), Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX, Nov-81
A Streetcar Named Desire (Stanley), Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Apr-81
Mr. Roberts (Shore Patrol/Sailor), Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX, Jun-81
Present Laughter (Henry), OffStage Productions/Trinity University Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jun-84
Lysistrata (Spartan), New Kids Productions/Trinity University, San Antonio, TX
From Hell to Hollywood (Schwartzkopf-German Spy), Melodrama Theater, San Antonio, TX, Nov-78
Don't Drink the Water (Axel Magee), San Pedro Playhouse, SanAntonio, TX
My Three Angels (Jules), Fort Sam Houston Playhouse, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX, Jul-77
Performing Arts Technical Experience – Theatrical Set ConstructionJudy: A Retrospective, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, 7/78
165You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown, Church Dinner Theater, SanAntonio, TX
A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Aug-80
A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum, Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX
Gigi, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX, Oct-80
Nightwatch, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX Dec-80
My Fair Lady, San Antonio Little Theater, San Antonio, TX, Jan-81
Performing Arts Technical Experience – Theatrical Light & SoundPygmalion, Designed/Executed Sound, University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Sep-74
Expo '75, Designed/Executed Sound, University of the Incarnate Word Theater, San Antonio, TX, Mar-75
Side by Side by Sondheim, Follow Spot, Offstage Productions/Trinity University Theater, San Antonio, TX
One woman show: Mrs. George Custer, Executed sound, Carver Cultural Center, San Antonio, TX
You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown, Executed lighting, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX
A Christmas Carol, Executed lighting, Church Dinner Theater,San Antonio, TX
Judy: A Retrospective, Follow Spot, Church Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX
Glass Menagerie, Designed/Executed sound, Harlequin Dinner Theater, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX
166Performing Arts Technical Experience – Stage HandCactus Flower, Plaza Dinner Theater, San Antonio, TX
A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum, Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX
Mr. Roberts, Fiesta Dinner Playhouse, San Antonio, TX
Relevant Work ExperienceHeartshine Productions SanAntonio, TXSpeaker/Consultant Mar-89 to Oct-90Created, marketed, and presented workshops, seminars, lectures on human potential
Texas Dept of Human Svcs/FoodStamps Div. SanAntonio, TXEligibility Specialist
Oct-90 to Oct-91Interviewed applicants and determined eligibility; interpreted documents and applied federal and state eligibility regulations
Light Productions San Diego, CA/Tampa, FLSpeaker/Consultant Nov-91 to Aug-93Provided career consulting and life coaching services to individuals and corporations.
Heartshine ProductionsHerndon, VA; San Antonio, TX
Speaker/Consultant Sep-93 to Dec-97Provided career consulting and life coaching services to individuals and corporations.
UTHSCself-actualization/South Texas Poison Center SanAntonio, TXAdministrative Assistant
Jan-98 to Oct-98
167Provided support services to Medical Director and Community Educators of South Texas Poison Center
International Executive Resources San Antonio, TXRecruiter Nov-98 to Oct-00Recruited engineers and mid-level managers for the tire and rubber industries. Solicited job orders. Installed and configuted computer system. Trained staff in new proprietarysoftware.
Academy of Careers & Technologies San Antonio, TXLiberal Arts Instructor
Sep-05 to Jun-06Developed and delivered curriculum in Speech, Psychology, Art, Music, Computer Applications, Multimedia, and Physical Education to inner city, disadvantaged youth. Facilitated and participated in implementation of Accelerated Schools Project Instructional Cadre.
StarrCat Books San Antonio, TXOperations & Facilities Manager Apr-03 to presentProvided oversight for inventory management and distribution. Designed and implemented construction of warehouse facilities. Maintained warehouse facilities.
Afni, Inc San Antonio, TXCorporate Trainer Sep-06 to presentDeveloped and delivered curriculum in customer service, policies & procedures in Verizon Wireless Prepay Project. Provided walking internal help desk support to operations personnel.
Presentations - WorkshopsProsperity Discovered and Recovered, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Aug-88
168You Can Change Your Life, Unlimited Thought Bookstore, San Antonio, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of The Hill Country, Kerrville, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity Oltorf, Austin, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, The Wellness Center, San Antonio, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Dallas, Dallas, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Denton, Denton, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX,Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Abilene, Abilene, TX, Apr-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Pharr, Pharr, TX, Apr-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Brownsville, Brownsville, TX,Apr-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX, Apr-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Midland, Midland, TX, May-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Lake Jackson, Lake Jackson, TX, May-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Friendswood, Clear Lake, TX, Jun-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Beaumont, Beaumont, TX, Jun-90
169You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Albuquerque, Albuquerque, NM,Jul-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Santa Fe, Santa Fe, NM, Jul-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Las Cruces, Las Cruces, NM, Jul-90
You Can Change Your Life, Unity of Midland, Midland, TX, Jul-90
The Light Realization Process, Cortez Wellness Center, San Antonio, TX, Mar-92
The Light Realization Process, The Emerald Center, San Antonio, TX,Jul-92
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Institute of Applied Metaphysics, Silver Springs, MD, May-94
Chakras: The Guided Tour, Institute of Applied Metaphysics, Silver Springs, MD, May-94
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Institute of Applied Metaphysics, Silver Springs, MD, Jul-94
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, Herndon, VA, May-95
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, Herndon, VA, Aug-95
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, Herndon, VA, Oct-95
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, TheAwareness Center, San Antonio, TX, Feb-97
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97
170Chakras: The Guided Tour, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97
Chakras: The Guided Tour, The Awareness Center, San Antonio, TX,Mar-97
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, Apr-97
Whatever You Want, Whenever You Want: Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Heartshine Productions, San Antonio, TX, May-97
Presentations – LecturesThe Power of the Spoken Word, Unity of Boerne, Boerne, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Religious Science of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, Mar-90
You Can Change Your Life, Religious Science of San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, May-90
You Can Change Your Life, Wurzbach Wellness Center, San Antonio,TX, Jun-90
10 Secrets of Happiness, Silva Mind Development, Arlington, VA, Mar-94
10 Secrets of Happiness, Silva Mind Development, Arlington, VA,Jul-94
10 Secrets of Happiness, Consciousness Frontiers, Arlington, VA, Oct-94
10 Secrets of Happiness, Consciousness Frontiers, Arlington, VA, Mar-95
10 Secrets of Happiness, The Awareness Center, San Antonio, TX, Mar-97
171Soul Sexuality 101, Universal Lightworkers Conference, Houston, TX, Mar-97
The 10 Secrets of Happiness, Unity of Portland, Portland, OR, May-97
Creating the Life of Your Dreams, New Vision Center, Nassau Bay, TX, Jun-97
The 10 Secrets of Happiness, New Vision Center, Nassau Bay, TX, Jun-97
Soul Sexuality 101, Centerpoint Project, Houston, TX, Jun-97
Creating the Life of Your Dreams, Spiritual Horizons, Houston, TX, Jun-97
The 10 Secrets of Happiness, Spiritual Horizons, Houston, TX, Jun-97
The 10 Secrets of Happiness, Universal Lightworkers Conference, Seattle, WA, Jul-97
Say Yes to Your Destiny, Unity of Boerne, Boerne, TX, Aug-98
Is It 5 O'Clock Yet?, Unity of Boerne, Boerne, TX, Oct-98
Leadership and Goal-Setting, Clark High School Student Council, San Antonio, TX, Oct-98
Leadership and Goal-Setting, Holmes High School FBLA, San Antonio,TX, Oct-98
Publications – Books10 Secrets of Happiness, Heartshine Productions, 1993 (1st ed.) (Former title: Voices of Innocence)
172
Publications - ArticlesThe Happiest Man Alive; Indigo Sun; Houston, TX; Aug/1997, 5(5)
Radio Show Inspirational/Interview-Talk/Producer/Designer/HostThe Shared Experience/Starr Moments, FCAC, Northern Virginia, 8/88to 10/94GuestsKen Roberts - Author/SpeakerGuy Finley - Author/SpeakerKen Carey - Author/SpeakerLiz Lafferty - PsychicJane Luce - Author/SpeakerSherril Smith - Author/PsychicShakti Wilson - Author/SpeakerMichelle Lusson - Author/SpeakerPeace Pilgrim II - Author/SpeakerShakti Gawain - Author/SpeakerNancy Gosek - TeacherEcho Bodine - Author/SpeakerWally Amos - Author/SpeakerRichard Heinberg - Author/Speaker
Shared Awareness, KENS, San Antonio, TX, 2/97 to 4/97Inspirational/Interview-Talk/Self-Awareness/Producer/Co-Host
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