Psychology

of

Classroom Discipline

by

Jerome Popp, Professor Emeritus

Southern Illinois University

Copyright 2010

Acknowledgment

The ideas presented in these materials are drawn from several classical publications, and

were refined in use by hundreds of students in the pre-service teacher education course in

educational psychology at Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville. These materials

profited greatly from the seriousness with which these students took their study of

teaching and classroom management. Graduates of the teacher education program

regularly rated that course as the most helpful one in the program. Gratitude is expressed

to the twenty-five years of students who contributed to these materials.

Lesson One

Introduction to Improving Classroom Discipline

I. The Two Goals of Classroom Management

The effective management of inevitable classroom disruptions is an ability required of

every classroom teacher. Moreover, no single technique or approach can be effective

with all cases of such disruptions. In these materials, you will be introduced to a

complete set of techniques that can be used in a wide variety of circumstances.

To select the most effective technique for dealing with a specific disruption, you must

have a diagnostic method that will help you identify the particular kind of disruptive

behavior encountered. This is the first goal of classroom management, and the most

important step in selecting the best course of action for preventing and terminating

disruptive behavior.

The second goal of these materials is to provide you with a set of teacher actions that are

known to be effective at both stopping disruptions in progress and minimizing the

probability of their reoccurrence.

II. Why We Need a System of Disruption Management

A. Two Basic Skills

Expertise in classroom teaching rests on two fundamental and reciprocating teacher

abilities. These are:

(1) to initiate and sustain student engagement in classroom academic activities, and

(2) to curtail and prevent typical disruptions of classroom academic activities.

The first set of abilities center on the psychology of learning while the second set of

abilities are rooted in knowledge of the causes of disruptive behavior. Teacher abilities

indicated in (2) must be such that they do not destroy the possibility of developing skills

for (1). The processes of preventing and curtailing classroom disruptions, and bringing

disrupting students back into academic activity must be done in such a fashion that

student attitudes toward academic activity do not become negative. It would be a hollow

victory to become proficient at (2) and in so doing make (1) impossible. One can

imagine classrooms that have virtually no disruption problems. But the question is: are

the methods being used to prevent students from engaging in disruptive activities also

preventing students from engaging in academically worthwhile activities?

B. A Positive Approach

The way students feel about school and academic activities can be directly affected by the

disruption-controlling experiences they have within classrooms. How well a person

enjoys a given activity may depend on what is associated, psychologically, with those

activities. Heavy-handed discipline methods can drive students away from academic

activities because of the pain and fear they associate with school. Even students who are

not disruptive may fear receiving the punishment they see visited on others. These

discipline techniques undermine the academic learning of students who would never

disrupt the class.

We all realize that orderly schools and classrooms are required if students are to be

engaged in events of academic value. However, order itself is not the goal of managing

classroom disruptions. Some forms of order support growth, while other forms prevent

it. Our task as classroom teachers is to establish classroom order that allows for full

engagement in academic activities, including student interactions. This means that we

must create a context for classroom activities that minimizes disruption as it enhances the

academic involvement of all students.

As the poet Robert Bly (1990) says,

Each child lives deep inside his or her own psychic house, or soul castle, and the

child deserves the right of sovereignty inside that house. Whenever a parent

ignores the child's sovereignty, and invades, the child feels not only anger, but

shame. The child concludes that if it has no sovereignty, it must be worthless.

Shame is the name we give to the sense that we are unworthy and inadequate as

human beings.

The goal of classroom discipline is to support learning without creating shame for

students or a sense that they are unworthy or inadequate as human beings. School

discipline based on coercion, threat, or fear may, on the surface, decrease disorder. But it

rarely leads students to value learning or to see themselves as someone of value,

academically and personally.

The methods of managing disruption presented in these materials effectively stop and

prevent classroom disruptions. But they do so in a manner that brings disruptive students

back into academic activities without creating anger, a sense of inferiority or a dislike for

school. This approach models methods of self-control for all students in the classroom

and helps them learn how to assist in situations where their peers lose self-control.

C. Developing Individuality

James Q. Wilson (1993) made a profound observation:

[Y]oung people...in all cultures and in every epoch test the limits of acceptable

behavior. Testing limits is a way of asserting selfhood. Maintaining limits is a

way of asserting community. If the limits are asserted weakly, uncertainly, or

apologetically, their effects must surely be weaker than if they are asserted boldly,

confidently, and persuasively.

As educators, we want to encourage students to assert their selfhood. When their

immaturity leads them to assert it in self-defeating ways, we must help direct them

toward more productive ways. At the same time, we are entrusted by the ethics of our

profession and the expectations of society, to assert community in our classrooms, to

make them desirable places to be and to provide a model for life in the broader sense.

John Dewey, America's most notable philosopher of education, believed that the function

of society is to produce individuality. If our classrooms assert community over and

against the assertion of selfhood, then we subordinate the individual to the state. If our

classrooms assert selfhood to the point of destroying community, then we deny

individuals the means to their fulfillment. In either case, the proper social function of the

school is defeated. These points place the problem of classroom discipline in a different

light. How do we sustain the academic activities of the classroom and the sense of

community upon which academic knowledge is based, while at the same time giving

better direction to the immature assertion of selfhood that often disrupts classroom

activities? This is the problem that we set out to solve.

D. Diagnosis, Selection, and Execution

To deal effectively with an episode of disruptive behavior, teachers must be able to (1)

correctly diagnose what kind of disruptive behavior is occurring, (2) select the

appropriate corrective procedure, and (3) adequately execute the procedure. Beginning

with the problem of diagnosing disruptive behavior, teachers must be able to answer the

following questions:

What kinds of disruptive behaviors are common to classrooms?

How do teachers decide which type of disruptive behavior is occurring in any given

instance?

What actions should be taken, given this diagnosis?

What are the typical mistakes that teachers make as they respond to each type of

disruptive behavior?

No matter how well we plan and conduct our lessons, disruptions can occur. Even good

students have bad days. Events such as upcoming holidays at the elementary school

level, and the prom or an important game at the high school level can affect

concentration. Some students will have personal problems that may lead them to

distraction or disruption of academic activity.

There are other important reasons for having a definite set of methods for dealing with

student disruptions. Without such methods, two things may happen:

(1) Teachers may develop a dislike for teaching because of the discipline problems

encountered.

(2) Teachers may develop ways of dealing with classroom disruptions that may be

effective in the short run, but might undermine the student's attitude toward the teacher

and schooling in general.

Student disruptions occur because of student problems. If we deal with student disruptors

in a manner that shows the student that we are more concerned with the inconvenience of

disruptive behavior than for the discomfort that such behavior indicates, then we have

given a non-professional, impersonal, bureaucratic response. Students should experience

justice and fairness at school if nowhere else. To disillusion students at an early age is to

breed cynical adults. We can show students that fairness and justice are possible if we

are fair and just in our dealings with students.

When we punish without understanding why they did what they did, we are telling

students that the school does not care about evaluating reasons. Without the evaluation of

reasons, authority becomes arbitrary and capricious. A physician who prescribes the

same drug for all patients would be successful in some case, but obviously not in all

cases. Attempting to use one response to all forms of student disruptions incorporates the

same mistake.

It is useful to think of student disruptive behavior as occurring at four levels.

Understanding these levels is helpful in understanding why a given student is disrupting

the class. Once a diagnosis has been made, it is then possible to identify the explicit

methods for dealing with a particular disruption at that level.

The methodology described below will not control a classroom that has no competent

lessons to help hold it together. This approach is designed to support good lessons by

quickly curtailing any disruption. No disruption-reducing methodology can compensate

for poorly prepared lessons.

III. Developing a Diagnostic System for Disruptive Behavior

The types of classroom disruptions seem endless, but a classification system helps bring

the types of problems into better focus. Using this system helps the teacher: (1) identify

the specific case of disruption occurring; (2) diagnose the type disruption; and (3) take

the appropriate corrective actions. The following discussion develops a classification

system for identifying, diagnosing, and correcting classroom disruptions.

This classification system is based on two dimensions of disruptive behavior. The first

dimension is frequency. How often does this behavior occur in your classroom? Is the

frequency of the disruptive behavior high or low? The second dimension required in the

diagnosis of disruptive behavior concerns emotional intensity. How emotional for

teachers, disruptive students, and other students in the classroom is this disruptive

experience? Is the emotion associated with this disruption high or low? Given that there

are two dimensions, frequency and emotional intensity, and that there are two categories

in each dimension, four possibilities are created. These cases are presented in the

following table.

Table 1.1: Four Possible Types of Classroom Disruptions

Low Frequency--Low Emotion

Low Frequency--High Emotion

High Frequency--Low Emotion

High Frequency--High Emotion

Table 1.1 identifies four types of classroom disruption based on the factors of frequency

and emotional level. When the four types of disruptive classroom behavior identified are

assigned names, this diagnostic system becomes clearer.

Consider Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Four Category-Names for Disruptive Behavior

Normal Disruptions

Low Frequency--Low Emotion

Impulsive Disruptions High Frequency--Low Emotion

Eruptive Disruptions

Low Frequency--High Emotion

Chronic Disruptions

High Frequency--High Emotion

The names of the categories in the above table indicate the nature of the four basic types

of disruptions that classroom teachers encounter. Each of these four is discussed below.

IV. The Four Levels of Classroom Disruption

Classroom disruptions can be reinterpreted in terms of levels of disruption. This

specification of levels allows the different types of disruption to be ordered in terms of

seriousness. The least serious type of disruption is the low frequency/low emotion class

of disruptions. The most serious type of classroom disruption are the high frequency/high

emotion disruptions. Examples of the four categories of disruptions presented above are

given for each category in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Diagnostic Levels of Classroom Disruptions

Level

Name

Frequency of

Occurrence

Level of

Emotion

Examples

1

Normal Low Low police car passing, fire drill,

tattling

2

Impulsive High Low whispering, passing notes,

day dreaming

3

Eruptive Low High fighting, whisper campaigns,

temper tantrums

4 Chronic High High mocking the voice or behavior of

the teacher, showing off

Each of the first four levels of classroom disruption presented in Table 1.3 is discussed

below.

A. Level One Disruptions: Normal Disruptions

As every teacher knows, events of the world often disrupt the work of the classrooms.

When a lesson is going well, the fire bell rings and students must go through the fire drill.

These exercises are important safety precautions, but they illustrate how outside events

can be so riveting they cannot be stopped from interfering with classroom activities.

Another example is the fire truck that goes down the street just in front of the school.

Some teachers try to ignore it and talk over the sound of the sirens. But as one

kindergarten teacher pointed out, it is usually better to let the students go to the window

and look. Once the fire trucks pass, a brief discussion about fires or fire safety can

precede a return to the task at hand. It is pointless to try to compete with this type of

distraction, since students' minds are not focused for instruction.

High school students may come to class excited about prom weekend. Again, an outside

event is so significant for students that some classroom disruption is unavoidable. The

wise course of action may be to allow students a few minutes to talk about the aspect of

the event that concerns them. Being able to express our concerns often serves to allay

them. Rather than trying to suppress student enthusiasm for the event, letting them vent

their feelings can be the best way back to the lesson at hand.

A different type of example of the first level disruption is tattling. Teachers make rules

and when students break these rules, other students who have dutifully followed the rules

find it disconcerting. Other students may overhear the tattling and become absorbed in

what will happen to whom. A simple way for teachers to respond is to say to the

reporting student: "Thank you, I'll handle it." The right response can get the class back to

work without a long disruption involving claims and counter-claims.

The general point is that level-one disruptions are going to happen, and since distractions

are inevitable, it is more helpful to view them as opportunities for discussion or as a

resource to enhance lessons. Allowing students to think about disruptive events is often

the best way to move on to the task at hand as quickly as possible.

B. Level Two Disruptions: Impulsive Behavior

The second level of classroom disruptions is impulsive behavior. This behavior is the

result of combining two separate factors: (1) student immaturity and (2) dense-packing

students into one room.

If students were mature adults, they would not require schools, because they would be

self-directed scholars. Immaturity, as John Dewey points out, is positive because it

contains something that maturity does not--the possibility of growth. Impulsive behavior

indicates energy seeking a focus. If there were no impulsive disruptions there would also

be no spontaneous student questions, thoughts, or comments. Teaching would be very

dull.

The actual dimensions of a typical classroom are larger than most of the houses in which

students in that classroom live. However, the typical classroom contains at least twenty-

five people, far more than the number of people found in the usual house. When children

begin instruction at the pre-school or kindergarten levels, they must learn to function in

an area of space that includes more children than they have encountered before.

Natural energy levels and the lack of experience in dealing with social exuberance lead

many children to become disruptive. They are interested in other children and the very

presence of so many children in the room can be a cause of disruptive behavior. This

does not mean that these children are bad. But it does mean that we must have effective

ways to manage disruptions so that students can progress without forming negative

associations with academic activities.

The problem for all classroom teachers is to manage immaturity in ways that promote

student growth in positive directions. This outcome requires a plan for dealing with

impulsive behavior.

C. Level Three: Eruptive Behavior

Eruptive behavior takes two forms: Acting out behavior and inter-student conflict.

Eruptive behavior occurs infrequently but when it does occur, it creates a very emotional

situation for all involved. Acting Out behavior will be investigated in Lesson Three.

Lesson Four will present a discussion of conflict resolution.

D. Level Four: Chronic or Habitual Disruptions

What is chronic disruption? When a teacher reads the daily attendance list to discover

that a particular student is absent and then has a feeling of great relief, that student is a

chronic disrupter. Chronic disruptors present the kinds of difficulties every day which

are emotionally draining for teachers and the other students in the classroom.

V. Curtailing and Preventing Classroom Disruptions

Classifying the levels of disruption further supports the point that a single corrective

action used by teachers in all cases has a low probability of success. The corrective

action must be matched to the type of disruption occurring. If teachers can place the

disruption at the appropriate level, the management system will direct them toward the

best action to be taken.

Disruptions in progress have to be terminated in such a way that future disruptions by

that student and other students who are observing the event are made less probable. If the

disruptive behavior cannot be extinguished completely, it can at least be degraded

significantly. If we can degrade the disruptive potential of any student's actions, the

disruptive effects of those actions can be drastically reduced.

The four topics (lessons) that follow this introduction present the best corrective actions

for each type of disruption, using the research and resources of the major studies in

disciplinary management. A caveat is in order, here, however. It should be noted that

accurately diagnosing and identifying the best corrective procedures is still dependent on

the teacher carrying out these actions in an effective manner. Any plan must be executed

well to produce the desired results.

The ability to execute plans improves with practice. If you have not as yet used some of

these techniques, you will soon discover that a little practice will help you become

increasingly confident and proficient.

One final point should be noted. After each topic, various types of practice exercises are

provided. These exercises present readers with the opportunity to practice diagnosing

and selecting the best corrective actions for each type of disruption. Such practice is

good preparation for times when you will not have the opportunity to reflect on what to

do when confronted with disruptions to classroom activity. The practice exercises are

included so that readers can experience in a simulated way how they might react to

disruptions to their classroom activities. Suggested solutions to these exercises can be

found at the end of the text.

Lesson Two

Managing Impulsive Behavior

I. Introduction

The purpose of the school is to move the immature toward maturity. Given in the very

concept of a school is the assumption of some sort of immaturity. We should not hold the

immaturity of the children against them as if it was something they had chosen to be.

Level two disruptive behaviors are created by this immaturity and the dense-packing of

students in classrooms, which makes it difficult for them to concentrate on the academic

work at hand. When students with short attention spans are placed in close proximity, it

is only to be expected that they will disengage from the academic activities at hand and

begin to interact in other ways.

The following are twenty specific techniques for dealing with level two disruptive

behaviors. Some of these techniques are original to this book, but the majority were first

identified by Redl and Wattenberg (1959), and later refined by Long and Newman

(1961).

II. Techniques for Managing Level Two Disruptive Behavior

A. Supporting Self-Control

Classroom teachers can curtail and prevent level two classroom disruptions by immature

students while at the same time helping these students to develop greater self-control.

The same techniques that manage disruption can also be techniques of helping students to

better manage their own behavior. The following are useful devices for classroom

teachers.

(1) Planned Ignoring

A classroom teacher is not required to see everything that happens in the school or

classroom. There is no rule that states that if a teacher allows one transgression to go

undetected, the teacher will automatically become inconsistent with regard to discipline.

Sometimes it is more prudent to ignore the disruptive behavior than to take some action

to curtail it, because some disruptions will terminate on their own.

If the lesson is going well, but one student is whispering to another, do not stop the whole

class to show that you see what they are doing. When you try to return to the lesson, you

might find that now everyone is off-task. It is often difficult to get the class back into the

lesson so do not become the source of disruption for your own lessons.

(2) Proximity Control

If students are whispering, passing notes, or are inattentive, the most effective teacher

response is to move to the location of misbehavior, rather than to interrupt instruction. It

is usually not necessary to say anything specific about the behavior because the teacher's

proximity is the only prompt required.

(3) Signal Interference

Sometimes a certain look or glance sends enough of a message to let students know that a

behavior is not appropriate. This technique is effective because it gets the message to one

student without involving or distracting other students who are behaving in an acceptable

manner.

(4) Interest Boosting

Students will at times become less enthusiastic about their work. Teachers stop by their

desks to ask a question or make a positive personal comment about the work being done.

Frequently, interest in the task will return. As Redl and Wattenberg pointed out,

This simple step changes somewhat the value the youngster puts on his work.

The result is a renewed burst of energy. For a while, the wandering attention is

checked; the young person concentrates on the task at hand. In this way, any

misconduct which might have arisen from boredom and restlessness is

prevented." (p. 350)

(5) Priming

Students sometimes become distracted or daydream during instruction. A quick way to

bring them back to classroom participation is to ask a question that can be easily

answered. This technique should never be used to embarrass students. Since questions

are key tools for teaching and learning, it is vital that students do not associate them with

fear or punishment.

(6) Tension Decontamination with Humor

Occasionally, students make remarks that create tension in the room, or they will arrive in

class, upset from another experience. A humorous remark can help reduce tension and

keep the situation productive. Note that this technique is not simply telling a joke, but

rather a way to help return the atmosphere in the room to a more positive tone.

For example, one teacher relieved the tension created by an impending test by remarking

that all tests completed in Sanskrit would receive an A. Another responded to an

unintentionally rude remark about her age by pretending to have a cane and limping to

the chalkboard to write the assignment.

(7) Venting Irritation

When students seem irritated or annoyed about life at school or in the classroom it is

often helpful to allow them to express their feelings. Some teachers encourage students

to write down what is bothering them and hand these papers in anonymously. Others

allow students to discuss their concerns in a group situation, where they listen to each

other and contribute their own comments. These methods provide emotional release for

students and allow them to return more quickly to the learning situation.

B. Situational Assistance

Sometimes students misbehave because they do not have either the skills or

understanding to complete a task. Disruptive behavior fills up the time or covers up what

cannot be done. In other cases, the structure of the classroom may be such that it

distracts students from their tasks, or at least it does not support them in their work. The

following techniques address these situations.

(8) Support from Routine

Experienced teachers know that well-explained and practiced routines help prevent the

vast majority of misbehavior. At all grade levels, effective teachers plan activities for

students to begin, as soon as they enter the classroom. There are established routines for

taking attendance and collecting lunch money that are minimally disruptive. Many

teachers assign these tasks to students on a rotating basis, such as caring for classroom

pets and plants, or distributing materials.

Because a key goal at the beginning of a class or school day is to bring students as

quickly as possible into an academic frame of mind, many teachers allow free reading

from self-selected books, or assign brief practice activities that students complete while

nonacademic matters are being processed.

(9) Hurdle Lessons

Individual. It is important that students understand how to complete an assignment, and

that the material is appropriate to their comprehension level. Individual help with getting

started and alternative activities, when necessary, give students the extra boost that is

sometimes necessary to achieve success.

Class. After giving directions for completing an assignment, students may appear

confused or slow to begin the task. At this point, you will want to check with the entire

class, step-by-step, to discover where they might be having difficulty, and create

examples that illustrate the task.

(10) Encourage Problem Solving

It is critical to give students tools that will help them deal constructively with the

consequences of impulsive behavior. A kindergarten student carelessly knocks down a

block tower; crayons are dumped out on the table and fall on the floor; someone is

accidentally shoved to the floor when a student rushes through the classroom door at the

last bell; a student fails to follow instructions and breaks equipment for an experiment;

paper for a mural is torn because it was stepped on by one of the artists.

These are all examples of behavior that results in unpleasant consequences for the student

or others. Avoid rushing in to settle things. State the problem: “The mural is torn.”

Then ask the student “What can you do about this?” or “You knocked this person into

their desk. How are you going to make things right?”

This technique requires the student to own the problem, solve it and learn from it. It

replaces guilt with action, and provides practice in recovering positively from impulsive

misbehavior

(11) Restructuring Classroom Procedures

When routines grow stale and students seem restless with instruction, it may indicate that

a fresh approach is called for. Teachers might introduce new activities that involve more

student participation. Students at every age level respond positively to increased

opportunities for social interaction, with group or team work. Some teachers change the

way they introduce new topics, such as reading aloud from a gripping historical novel to

provide background for a study of the Revolutionary War. Others find that displays and

learning centers provide new ideas and challenges for their students.

(12) Removing Distracting Objects

Objects and materials that are not being currently used, and are distracting to the lesson at

hand, should be placed elsewhere until they are required. Materials for a demonstration

to be used in an afternoon class may prove irresistible to students during the morning. At

the kindergarten and primary levels, most teachers require show and tell objects to be

brought and stored in paper sacks.

(13) Antiseptic Bouncing

When students cough continuously, have the giggles, or get a case of nervous hiccoughs,

it’s important to get them relief from the physical problem or embarrassment as quickly

as possible, both for the individual’s sake and the attention level of the rest of the

students. Ask students to get a drink of water or run an errand outside the classroom.

This helps prevent the spread of contagious, imitative behaviors or allows students to

regain composure.

(14) Physical Restraint

When a student loses control and poses a threat to others, temporary physical restraint

may be called for. Examples of behavior that may have to be restrained include

impulsive running-away behavior by kindergarten children or fighting behavior at all

ages. Guidelines or even permission to use physical restraint is strictly regulated in most

schools. Be sure to check with your school's code before an event occurs that might call

for physical restraint. Most codes include four general rules:

Be Decisive. If you have any doubts about the outcome, get assistance before you

intervene.

Keep Talking. When you restrain a student, talk immediately. "It's all right

now." "I can’t let you hurt yourself or anyone else."

Deny Harm. If the student says something such as, "You hurt me.", respond with

“I am not hurting you. You know that I can’t let you hurt yourself or anyone

else.” Even if the student is very upset, these words are calming, and they

reassure other children in this stressful situation.

Follow Up. Any situation requiring the use of physical restraint should be

reviewed with the student. When things have calmed down, a discussion of what

happened and how it might be prevented in the future is necessary. The student

should not be allowed to walk away from the situation.

Report. Immediately inform your principal or building head about the incident.

(15) Anticipatory Planning

Some classroom situations are particularly conducive to disruptive behavior. If a certain

activity seems loaded with opportunities for mischief, try to prepare the class ahead of

time and emphasize the need for control. When instructional activities are out of the

ordinary, (audio-visual presentations, guest speakers, demonstrations, experiments, or

field trips), the teacher should anticipate every possible situation (breakdown of

equipment, speaker is late, demonstration takes longer than expected, someone gets lost

from the group on a trip). It’s helpful to go over the rules for the unexpected and allow

students (especially primary children) to role-play proper behavior.

C. Student Values and Behavior

Learning what is significant in life is often a matter of experiencing the consequences of

what is done. Part of what teachers can do to promote the development of maturity is to

help students think about the consequences of their behavior before they act. The

following techniques help students assess the consequences of their actions to themselves

and others.

(16) Appeal to Student Values

If we know that a student values something and at the same time engages in behavior that

is contrary to these values, it is helpful to indicate to them how their values establish

limits and give direction to behavior. If you know that a child is a scout member or

admires a highly-principled athlete, you can ask them how the scout code or the athlete

might address the situation at hand. In one elementary school, students are given two

warnings for misbehavior. At the third offense, they must call home and tell their mother

what they said or did. “It’s worse than a spanking,” one young man said.

One morning, before classes began, seven high school football players were throwing

snowballs at passing cars; sorry to say, I was one of them. During the first period we

seven received the message to report to the principal's office. We sat in silence in the

empty office, knowing full well why we were there. After about fifteen or twenty

minutes the principal entered and sat down. In a calm voice, he said, "I have only one

thing to say. The people at whom you aimed your snowballs are the same people who

pay their money to watch you play football." He got up and left.

(17) Creating Value Bonds

The experience children have with their peers at school is vital to their self- esteem. But

their experience with classroom teachers is also a vital factor in how a child sees himself.

If you show a personal interest in a student, it often compensates for difficulties they

might experience at home, on the playground or in the hallways.

At the beginning of an academic term, watch for students who enter your class

determined to have a hostile relationship with you. As soon as possible, make an effort to

find an interest of theirs that you can relate to. Continued conversations and a common

interest made it increasingly difficult for the student to be hostile, and eventually lead to

productive conversations about academic problems.

I was once assigned to teach ninth grade general mathematics—not a popular course for

the students therein. After the following interaction, this student no longer disrupted the

class, and helped set the tone for the behavior of other students.

Teacher: "Was that a motorcycle I saw you riding yesterday?"

Student: "Yep, that's my brother's."

Teacher: "Wasn't that a Harley...a big bike."

Student: “Yes, it’s a hog.”

Teacher: “Your brother lets you ride a bike like that?”

Student: "It's a real good bike...but he won't let me ride it all the time."

Talk about motorcycles can be the basis of communication about later academic matters.

This student may come to class with a magazine article about motorcycles. It becomes

more difficult to be hostel with someone with whom we have common interests, and who

has some appreciation for what we value.

(18) Public Criticism

The old school rule was, praise in public and criticize in private. But when a student

must be criticized in the presence of peers, avoid ridiculing or humiliating. Describe the

behavior and not the person. When a primary child was reckless with science equipment

during an experiment, his teacher said, "We can't bump the bottles together. They will

break. If you think you can't work safely with the glass, you'll have to put the bottles

away."

Another teacher witnessed a group having difficulty with a member who was distracting

the rest. "Your group has only ten minutes left to complete the study sheet, Brandon.

Are you doing everything you can to get it finished on time? Do you need to take a break

and complete a sheet on your own?" This type of comment can help refocus a child on a

task or allow a restless child the option to complete work without the stimulation of

social interaction.

(19) Situational Follow-up

When classroom discipline must be administered publicly, it helps to have a discussion in

private with individuals and in class if it was a group situation. For example, the teacher

above asked Brandon in private what was most difficult for him about group work. He

reported being frequently bored by the level of discussion and was successfully changed

to a more rapid-moving group. Debriefing with the group revealed that other group

members found Brandon's remarks to be unhelpful, and that he worked too fast for them

to keep up. The follow-up discussions benefited both the individual and the group.

(20) Interpretation of Class Behavior

Things are not always what they seem. Even the best of classes may be unruly when its

members are hungry or tired, and most teachers attest to the distractibility of students

when the barometer falls. One teacher asked students to notice when they were most

restless or distracted, and if they could identify the causes. During the discussion, they

revealed that it was most difficult to sit still or concentrate right before lunch, after recess

and 15 minutes before dismissal. They worked together to identify ways to deal with

these situations and settled on several solutions.

The teacher agreed to read aloud to students and provide group learning games, which

would support the academic effort in a varied form. In return, students agreed to give

their best efforts during these awkward time periods. The exercise was valuable, because

it involved students in problem-solving that provided insight into their own behavior.

D. Other Techniques Are Possible

Experienced teachers have learned how to recognize behavior that is not typical of a

student, and carefully observe those who display the fatigue, defiance, and irritability that

can accompany fever and infection. If you suspect that a student is ill, send them

immediately to the school office or nurse, so their family can be notified and they can rest

in a quiet place. Prompt attention to these symptoms also helps prevent the spread of

communicable disease.

Many teachers stand at the door to the classroom and notice each child as they enter,

speaking to them and welcoming them into the room. This sets a good tone for the day,

and also allows other observations. As students walk by you, it is possible to detect fever

radiating from them, or signs that they have heated up too much on the playground.

Irritability may signal hunger, low blood sugar, allergies or nutritional deficiencies, and

should be discussed with the school nurse.

If children enter the classroom still embroiled in a playground dispute, this may call for a

cooling off period, before instruction resumes. Some schools permit students to drink

caffeinated beverages between classes or at recess, which can create hyperactivity in

children. Diet colas may be no better since some children cannot tolerate the sweetener

in most diet drinks today.

It is also possible that a disruptive student may have psychological problems that require

treatment from a professional counselor. When any of the above causes are suspected,

teachers should speak with their principals, school counselors, or school nurses. School

districts can make arrangements to obtain treatment for students who are correctly

referred.

Table 2.1: Twenty Techniques for Managing Impulsive Behavior

1 Planned Ignoring 11 Restructuring

Classroom

Procedures

2 Proximity Control 12 Removing

Distracting

Objects

3 Signal Interference

13 Antiseptic Bouncing

4 Interest Boosting

14 Physical Restraint

5 Priming

15 Anticipatory

Planning

6 Tension

Decontamination

16 Appeal to Student

Values

7 Venting Irritation

17 Creating Value

Bonds

8 Support from

Routine

18 Public Criticism

9 Hurdle lessons:

Individual and

Class

19 Situational Follow-up

10 Encourage

problem solving

20 Interpretation of

Class Behavior

These techniques, and almost all of the labels for them, were originally discussed buy

Redl, Fritz, and Wattenberg, in 1959, and by Long and Newman in 1961. John Maag has

recently reviewed them. (See References for full citations.)

IV. Practice Exercises: Level Two Disruptions

(Solutions may be found at the end of the document.)

A. Matching Exercise

Directions: Match the following two lists.

1. show concern for student

2. move closer to where students are working

3. send student on an errand

4. ask a question the student can answer

5. appeal to previously used ways of organizing the classroom

6. when student has lost control

7. teacher makes a joke of the situation

8. teacher does not see disruptive behavior that is occurring

9. use of non-verbal cues

10. individual academic assistance

11. referring to personal values

12. take away distracting objects

13. a fresh approach to teaching

___ hurdle lessons

___ proximity control

___ planned ignoring

___ decontamination with humor

___ interest boost

___ reinforcing objectives

___ study priming

___ appeal to what is valued

___ signal interference

___ restructuring program

___ seductive object removal

___ physical restraint

___ support from routine

___ antiseptic bounce

B. Selecting Appropriate Actions

Directions: In each of the following situations, name the technique that you would use

and describe how you would use it to control the problem behavior. (Note that you may

feel as though these situations do not provide sufficient information for you to make an

informed choice of action. It turns out that most of the decisions that teachers must make

will be in the context of insufficient information.) Solutions are provided at the end of

the book.

1. A 7th grade boy gets a case of nervous hiccoughs in the middle of class. The class

begins to giggle, and disruption threatens.

2. A 4th grade boy tears up his math paper, throws it on the floor, and says, "I'm not

doing this dumb stuff ANYMORE!"

3. A 1st grade boy teases another, just as the two enter the classroom from recess. The

taunted boy gets red in the face, starts screaming, "I hate you!"

4. You have assigned everyone a seat for the first day of your sophomore English class.

However, one boy refuses to take the seat you have assigned, and says, "I'm sitting here."

The rest of the class looks at you for your response.

5. A 6th grade boy, who is a member of the school's scout troop, makes an unfair call

while refereeing a kickball game. The call is against an unpopular boy, so no one

objects. You have observed the incident.

6. Two 10th grade girls are whispering and passing notes during study hall. They are in

your class and you know that they usually do not complete their homework.

7. A group of third graders are discussing a game rather loudly at a learning center, while

you are conducting a reading group.

8. A freshman girl regularly does annoying things in class, like tapping her pencil or foot,

or sighing deeply until the class responds by laughing. You usually let your irritation be

known, and say something to the girl. She smiles, looks down, and stops...for a while.

This is a daily occurrence.

9. John is a 7th grader in your science lab. He performs acceptably, but is probably

capable of more. He is very withdrawn, and barely speaks to you or to his classmates.

You learn that he has transferred schools several times in the last few years, and has had

difficulty adjusting to this school.

10. You inherit a class of 1st graders from a Kindergarten teacher who was absent much

of the previous year. The children have substitutes at least twice a week, and finally a

long term sub was hired half-way through the year. Each teacher had different goals and

routines, and the children were confused and disruptive as a consequence. By the end of

the year, they were "hanging from the ceiling", as one sub succinctly remarked.

11. You are beginning to get remarks in your junior health class that things are pretty

boring. You know this is true, because you're bored with the "read the chapter, answer

the questions in the back of the book" routine yourself. Students are not paying attention,

are goofing off during study period, and not achieving well on exams.

12. Your Kindergarten children bring in items for Show and Tell. These are placed on a

special table until Show and Tell time. During the morning's activities, squabbles

regularly break out because children handle and sometimes damage things brought in by

other children who are eager to show them or look at what has been brought in.

Lesson Three

Managing Acting-Out Behavior

I. Introduction

Disruptions to classroom activities that occur at the third level are of two distinct types:

(1) acting-out behavior and (2) inter-student conflicts. This lesson will deal with

acting out behavior. Effective methods for handing conflicts among students will be

described in Lesson Four.

Acting-out behavior begins with problems outside of the classroom, but is triggered by

classroom events. It is important for teachers to recognize and respond accurately to the

levels of acting out to prevent misbehavior from escalating. The goal in dealing with

students who act out is to return them as quickly as is psychologically possible to the

academic activities of the classroom.

The first point to note in the study of acting-out-behavior is that all behavior is not acting

out behavior. Acting-out behavior suggests that a person is putting on a kind of play.

What is this play about?

A. Why Do People Act Out?

When a student displays acting-out behavior, the play is about his or her anger and

frustration. The purpose of the play is to display this anger and to ask for help. A more

mature way of dealing with anger and frustration would be to talk to a trusted person

about these feelings, since they are a part of life and can be expected to occur in everyone

at some time. But when students act out their feelings, they are showing that they have

not developed adequate ways of dealing with these powerful emotions.

One of the best ways teachers can help students with acting out behavior is to model

language as a device for expressing anger. Encourage them to tell you about their

feelings before they become explosive, and to ask for help when they feel they are losing

control. This loss of control is frightening to a child, especially when they believe that

these displays are the only way to communicate the angry feelings they have inside.

If you know that a child with acting out behavior has been placed in your classroom, it is

helpful to develop a buddy system with a nearby teacher, in the event that you must give

all your attention to the acting out child or that the situation becomes more than you can

handle alone. If signals have been established beforehand, a call for assistance can be as

simple as asking another student to notify the other teacher or the principal.

It is also critical to have a clear and complete understanding of your own district's code

for handling discipline problems. Some schools place restrictions on touching students in

any way, and this information must be known to you before you use any methods of

physical restraint. Other schools require that the principal or counselor be called

immediately in such situations.

The best use of the following information is to help you prevent the behavior from

occurring in the first place and to know how to handle it on your own, if this is required

and/or permitted. Temper tantrums or acting out behavior escalates quickly, and time

(and knowing what to do) is of the essence. In these emotional situations, the following

information will allow you to have a sense of confidence as you deal with acting-out

students.

B. Incorrect Ways to Treat Acting Out Behavior

A. E. Trieschman warned against the following "bad advice" that is sometimes given to

parents and teachers who must deal with children who act out. Consider the following

familiar explanations of a child in a temper tantrum. Keep in mind that these are not

productive ways to look at the situation.

1. "He just wants attention."

2. "Put him in a room by himself where he can't get hurt."

3. "Walk away and remove the audience."

4. "If you just laugh at the ridiculous waste of energy, it will stop."

5. "Any kid who tries to fight me will find out I'm bigger and tougher."

6. "If he thinks he can get his way with that act, he better think again."

7. "The poor child is frightened--comfort him and hold him close."

Trieschman's point was that these are not adequate ways to think about what teachers

should do. To find a more productive solution to the "best action" question, it is

necessary to understand the full dimensions of the process of acting out.

II. Six Stages of Acting-Out

Trieschman's experience with children who act out led him to identify six distinct stages.

It is important for teachers to be able to recognize these stages because each stage

presents unique demands and requires specific responses. Proper intervention can

shorten the length and intensity of acting-out behavior or prevent it from happening at all.

The names presented for these stages are those originally used by Trieschman.

(1) Rumbling and Grumbling

Acting out begins with seeking an event that can be used as an excuse to engage in

acting-out behavior. Knowing no alternative way to respond to the terrible feelings of

anger, disappointment or frustration, the student is getting ready to act out. This is the

point at which teachers can take action to prevent this kind of disruption, if they

recognize the symptoms and respond appropriately.

For example, a young student may come into the classroom kicking a piece of paper and

muttering to himself. He might knock over some blocks that other children are playing

with or look like he is ready to cry. Older students may slam books down on their desks,

bump into people, be argumentative or appear to be upset for no apparent reason.

Although these behaviors are sometimes observed in children who don't act out their

anger, it is likely that you will have been given some type of background information

about students who have experienced problems in the past, and for them, this behavior is

a red flag.

The brain is composed of three layers, each of which responds differently to stimuli in the

environment. The highest and most recently evolved layer is responsible for logic and

language. The lowest and most primitive layer, sometimes referred to as the reptilian

brain, insures physical survival and stores the fight or flight programs.

Perceived threats from the environment are automatically referred to this level of the

brain, even when there is no imminent physical danger. Adrenaline rushes through the

body, preparing it to respond, and this is when acting out students begin to respond in

inappropriate ways.

Feeling themselves under threat, they begin to "rumble and grumble." They have, as

Leslie Hart (1983) says, "downshifted" to the lower brain. If teachers respond to this

behavior with comments that make the student feel further threatened, the descent into

the lower brain accelerates. If teachers respond supportively, with comments like "Can I

help?" or "It looks to me like you're feeling pretty bad," they are encouraging students to

verbalize their feelings. Talking about feelings requires language and results in a

subsequent "upshifting" to the higher brain, where problems can be dealt with in a more

rational way.

(2) Help-Help

If there is no intervention or an incorrect one in the first phase of acting out, a more noisy

phase will follow. Students will openly break a rule as a way of showing that they need

help. It is not helpful to point out that a rule has been broken, since the student already

knows this. This kind of comment will just make it clear to the student that you did not

receive the "help me" message being sent.

A more effective response is to acknowledge the student's pain and anger: "I didn't know

you were hurting that much." "What can I do to help?" This helps the student begin to

feel some hope. Try to establish a dialogue if at all possible, so that language can be used

to resolve the problem, rather than furthering the acting out behavior.

(3) Either-Or

If appropriate intervention does not occur, or was ineffectively used at previous levels,

the student will likely move to the third phase. At this phase, students may call names,

make threats or use unacceptable language. When you hear the name calling, "You're a

dumb teacher and this is a dumb school," we know the student is in the "Either-Or" phase

of the acting-out episode.

In this phase the student will often make unreasonable demands in an either-or fashion.

"Either you let me go home or I'm going to wreck this place." "If you don't let me go, I'm

going to hit you." Your role at this point is to reassure the student that you won't let them

hurt themselves or anyone else. With small children, physical restraint can be effective,

if it is permitted in your school system. Sitting with the child and holding them in a way

that they cannot hit, bite or scratch, involves holding both arms and the child himself to

the side of you. Talk to the child in a constant calm voice, repeating your determination

not to let them hurt themselves or others.

At times, students will present an either-or demand that can be used. "Either you let me

out of this class, or I'm not going to the next one." The teacher says, "You do not have to

go into Mrs. Brown's class right now," taking the option offered, but quietly qualifying it

with "right now." The impact of having one side of the either-or tentatively accepted by

the teacher will rapidly defuse the situation.

The point of recognizing that you have been insulted is to prepare yourself for a possible

either-or demand that you can work with, and thus avoid the use of physical restraint. It

is crucial to anticipate that you may be tempted to respond in kind, which would create a

more serious situation since there will be then be two persons out of control.

(4) No-No

In the fourth phase, the peak of the emotional outburst, the student is completely

negative. This phase is the most difficult to manage, because any suggestion will be

rejected by the student. It is pointless to ask students in this stage if they would like to sit

down or re-engage in productive activity. Sometimes the best action is to let the student

run the course of acting out, i.e., supervise but not intervene. If you believe that

someone may be harmed, however, then physical restraint is required, in accordance with

the specific rules of your particular school.

(5) Leave Me Alone

Anyone who has ever experienced a traumatic event knows that when it is over, a period

of recuperation is required. It is important to allow the student some time to themselves,

but, especially in cases of acting out behavior, it is imperative that this recuperative time

is closely supervised. Young students can sit close to you and you can stand near older

students during instruction. Students may also be taken (not sent) to the counselor or

principal's office for supervision. Remember that exterior calm is not always an

indication of what is happening inside a person and the student will still be quite upset.

Allowing them to be alone is too great a risk, because the acting out could erupt again.

The "Leave Me Alone" phase is over when the student attempts to return to the previous

or now appropriate activity. It is important not to attempt to speed up this phase, because

it is going to take some time to "come down" from this kind of experience.

(6) Hangover versus Clean Drunk

Two different outcomes of acting-out episodes are possible. Some students will feel

embarrassed and even guilty. They may not want to go back to class or face other

students. In this case the student admits that they felt out of control and are typically

willing to work on the problem. What is required is a plan for what the student can do

when they feel anger or frustration building up again. One third grade girl tells her

teacher, "I'm feeling that way again." The teacher then talks with her and allows her to

work alone, but under supervision.

Having a plan is important because the reason that some students do not want to go back

to class is a fear of the bad feeling returning. A plan gives them hope and the security of

having something definite to do if they become distressed again.

If the student seems amenable to apologizing to any students whose work was damaged

or who were insulted, giving the opportunity to make amends for their actions is a way

for them to lower any feelings of guilt, and to help the student mark the end of the

episode.

Some students will take the "clean drunk" path. They seem to forget immediately about

the disruption they caused or fail to see that their behavior was really all that bad. They

make comments such as: "It wasn't that big a deal...you're the one making something of

it." Or "Hey man, you're the one with the problem--not me." This cannot be allowed. If

the student is to gain control of their behavior and improve their ways of managing anger,

they must be confronted with the facts of what happened and accept responsibility for

future behavior.

Again, it is important to have an agreed upon plan in place in case the student feels this

way on another occasion. The "clean drunk" response often leads acting out students to

believe that it was an isolated event and won't happen again, the same response often

found in cases of spousal abuse. The degree to which you can get a student to reconstruct

their behavior patterns for dealing with frustration may well be the degree to which their

spouses and children are spared future abuse.

III. Three Basic Teacher Options

In each of the stages of acting out discussed above, classroom teachers have three basic

options.

1. Monitor the behavior but take no action.

2. Try to engage the student in conversation.

3. Use physical restraint.

It is helpful to review each of these options.

(1) Acting out behavior can be monitored with no action taken when teachers think that

events may run their course. If this option is taken, the stage six attempt to prevent future

occurrences is still required. Teachers may select the monitoring only option when, for

example, other events require attention and the acting out is not as serious as other

possible disruptions. There is no general rule that can be stated. Teachers must make

this decision at the time of occurrence.

(2) A second option for teachers is to engage the acting out student in language. Try to

create a conversation in which the student can reflect on the situation and perhaps

describe the source of anger or frustration. As it was noted in the introduction to this

lesson, the technique of creating a conversation is called upshifting, moving the student

from control by the lowest brain into control by the highest brain.

We want to get the student engaged in language for two reasons. On the one hand we

want the student to leave the "fighting" mind, and on the other hand, we want the student

to think about what is happening so they can gain insight into the situation and better

control the possibility of future acting out episodes.

When attempting to upshift acting-out students, it is important to use what are called "I

messages." That is, use sentences that make you the subject of the sentence. "I'm

wondering if you're all right." This is preferable to sentences such as, "What's wrong

with you?" or "You look terrible." By accusing students of being angry or feeling bad,

teachers might actually downshift students. No one likes to be accused of being

inadequate or not in best form. If you make yourself the subject of the sentence, the

student feels as though they are actually helping you by answering your concern. This

alone takes the focus off of their anger and moves their thinking toward another less

personal topic.

Finally, pay attention to the actual stage of acting out because the different stages tend to

have different points of entry for talking. Rumbling and Grumbling can be addressed by

a general appeal to student discomfort. The Help-Help stage receives a more focused

response since the acting out actions have actually occurred. The Either-Or stage

presents opportunities for approaching students by means of the either-or they state. The

No-No stage needs careful monitoring, allowing negative responses to take their course

with minimum intervention. The Leave-Me-Alone stage requires quiet supervision, to

allow the student to regain composure and decompress from a highly emotional

experience. The Clean Drunk stage usually requires teacher persistence to find a

workable plan for future occurrences.

(3) The third option is physical restraint, the correct use of which was described in the

previous lesson. Physical restraint is used only when the acting out student presents a

danger to themselves or other students, and this is additionally influenced by the location

where the acting out episode takes place. Some contexts, such as those involving

equipment that could be thrown to injure others, or near wires or water, may contain

more threat than others. Teachers must make this decision at the time and place of the

episode.

Of the three options possible, trying to engage the student in a conversation is generally

the best initial option. Unless teachers have prior knowledge that talking will make

matters worse, the general rule is to try to get students to talk about what is bothering

them.

(The material in this lesson is taken from Trieschman's classic paper, Understanding the

Stages of the Typical Temper Tantrum, which is Chapter VII, pages 170-197, in

Trieschman, A. E., Whittaker, James K., and Brendtro, Larry K. (1969). The Other 23

Hours. New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction, third printing, 2010.)

IV. Summary of Acting Out Behaviors

Table 3.1: Six Phases of Acting Out

Phase

Name

Description

1

Rumbling/Grumbling

Seeking an Act-Out

Occasion

2

Help/Help

Openly Breaking a Rule

3

Either/Or

Insults and Either-Or

Demand

4

No/No

Height of the Anger

5

Leave Me Alone

Quiet Time of Re-

adjustment

6

Hangover/Clean

Drunk

Experience of

Consequences

V. Practice Exercises: Acting Out Behavior

(Solutions may be found at the end of the document.)

A. Ordering Stages of Acting Out

Directions: Place the following statements in the proper order of occurrence in an

acting out episode.

___ Student answers 'no' to every question asked.

___ Student insults teacher.

___ Teacher and student discuss prevention.

___ Student withdraws to solitude.

___ Student seems grumpy.

___ Student overtly breaks a rule.

B. Diagnosing and Selecting Appropriate Actions

Directions: In each of the following cases, (1) identify the specific stage by name, (2)

state why you think the student is in that stage, and (3) describe what action you would

take to improve the situation. Please be specific and use several sentences to respond.

1. You are attempting to help a 7th grader calm down after he pushes his desk over in

response to your request to sit down. He tells you that you can pick it up yourself, unless

that's too much work. He kicks the desk, and says, "Come on, jerk (he mimics your tone

of voice) please pick up the nice little desk!"

2. A 2nd grade girl has been hitting another child and is crying and screaming. As you

attempt to restrain her, she kicks at you and tells you that you're fat and ugly and a

terrible teacher. She also screams that she's going to tell her mother that you hit her.

3. A 4th grade boy comes in from recess obviously irritated. He does not take his seat

immediately, but continues walking around the room, poking other students in the back,

just out of your eyesight.

4. A junior boy comes into P. E. class "looking for trouble." He doesn't dress out, picks

up a volleyball, and begins throwing it hard against the wall.

5. A 4th grade boy is upset because he does not get a turn at bat before the class must

return from recess. He complains to the teacher, who promises him first turn tomorrow.

Nevertheless, he walks off with tears in his eyes.

6. An 8th grade boy is having difficulty with a history assignment. He mumbles, sighs,

and then slams the book shut. He folds his arms and sits, doing nothing. You ask if there

is a problem, and he picks up the book and says, "Yes, there is! Here's the problem!" and

throws the book across the room. As the class looks on, he begins to take other books out

of his desk and throws them, barely missing other students and the window.

7. A 3rd grade girl loses her temper at two other girls on the playground and calls them

names, which upsets them. At afternoon recess, she approaches them to play and they

walk away. She goes to the teacher, complaining that no one will play with her.

8. A freshman on your basketball team becomes so angry at an unfair call that he pushes

the referee. He is suspended from the team, and feels guilty and ashamed of his behavior.

9. A kindergarten boy has just thrown the crayons from his box all over the room because

he is angry. You approach him and try to stop him from throwing the crayons at other

children. “Please stop, Jake.” you say. His reply is, "No!" "Come here, just a moment."

His reply is, "No!"

10. A 6th grade girl tears up her test in social studies, then begins flipping all the contents

of her desk out onto the floor, with loud banging. "Mary, please stop!" you say. The

response is, "No!" "Would you like to go out in the hall until you feel better?" Her

response is, "No!"

11. A 1st grade boy has destroyed a mural that other children were working on by ripping

it off the board. He screams at you and the other children that he hates all of you. The

other children are upset by the destruction of their work. While you calm them, you hold

the boy on your lap. He quiets down, and then goes to his desk and puts his head down.

12. A 7th grade girl fails to be chosen as a cheerleader. In anger, she pulls apart the pom-

pom collection for the team. Of course, this angers the other girls, who attack her

verbally for the outrage. She cries for some time in a corner of the gym, but finally stops.

Lesson Four

Resolving Inter-Student Conflicts

I. Introduction

Recall that Level Three classroom disruptions take two forms. Acting out behavior,

discussed in Lesson Three, may be triggered by something another student says or does,

but it is not the true cause of the disproportionate response. In the second type of Level

Three disruption, there is an open or covert conflict between two or more students. The

source of the difficulty in this case is the disruptive relationship that has developed

between or among students, rather than an individual student's response to internal

turmoil. Such conflicts may be physical (for example, fighting) or social (for example,

whisper campaigns).

The school can greatly assist students in dealing with life in more socially acceptable

ways by correctly responding to these conflicts when they occur. Unfortunately, school

policies may not help students resolve their conflicts. Consider the following description.

When students bring their conflicts to teachers, teachers most typically respond by

advising them to "ignore it" or "walk away." When students bring their conflicts

to their friends, the response is often "get 'em back." If conflicts reach the

principal's attention, detention or suspension is often the result. None of these

common responses resolves the conflicts. In fact, some of these strategies can

actually increase conflicts. (Schrumpf, F., et. al. (1991))

Students who are anxious, fearful, and confused because of conflicts with other students

should experience school resources being brought to bear on these problems. In the

context of the present discussion, this means that when students find themselves in an

intense emotional conflict, teachers and administrators should be concerned with helping

students work themselves out of the conflict situation. Such conflicts present educators

with an opportunity to help students learn valuable social skills.

The purpose of conflict resolution methods is twofold: (1) We want to get the conflict

resolved quickly so that students' minds are freed to return to the academic activities of

the classroom. (2) We also want to help students learn how to deal with interpersonal

conflicts when they occur. One painful aspect of immaturity is becoming involved in

conflicts whose consequences are not anticipated, until events have gone too far.

Students can get themselves into social situations from which they do not always have the

resources to extricate themselves.

Many times the desire to save face leads to a continuation of the conflict beyond what we

would expect. Teachers and administrators can assist students in resolving social

conflicts so that there is no embarrassment or loss of status, and in such a manner that the

combatants and on-lookers actually learn something about correcting social interactions

that have gone off track.

Conflicts among students may be thought of as either immediate outbursts of

disagreement or a smoldering unhappiness with relationships. In some cases inter-

student conflict erupts because of immediate factors. Two boys are shooting baskets in

the gym before class. As they both try for the rebounds, the competition intensifies.

There is more and more body contact. Suddenly one pushes the other and he hits back in

response. The two boys could end up wrestling on the floor, as a crowd collects around

them.

In other cases, inter-student conflict takes the form of a longer running unhappiness with

what other students are doing. It is not simply the result of an immediate outburst created

by a social interactive situation. Rather, this conflict may engulf students who may not

even be aware of the initial source of conflict. Students feel the mutual hostility and

spend much time thinking about what to do next. These long-running conflicts cut

deeply into the time and energy that could more productively be spent on academic

activities.

If the students involved in a conflict are physically attacking each other, then the first step

is to curtail the conflict. A teacher's presence will likely serve to terminate the overt

activity. Separate the students and sit them down together. If other events demand your

attention, it is permissible to allow the students to wait a short period before you actually

begin interacting with them, although immediate attention to the conflict is desirable.

Note that in acting out behavior students require a "leave me alone" period to recuperate.

In cases of inter-student conflict this waiting period is not required. Getting students

involved in the conflict resolution while they are still emotionally experiencing the

conflict is a good practice.

If you were to enter the gym and see the two basketball players mentioned above

scuffling on the floor, your first move is to stop the conflict. If there is a place where you

can take the boys that is private, then lead them out of the gym. If you do not have such a

place, then tell them to go sit down on the bleacher seats.

You will deal with this problem by conducting a conflict resolution interview. This

interview does not have to begin immediately. If the fight occurs on the playground, you

could sit the students involved in the shade while you attend to other matters. Once the

fighting, physical or verbal, has been terminated, you may begin immediately or delay for

several minutes depending on your situation.

II. Phase One: Non-Directive Facilitating

As you begin the conflict resolution interview, your attitude (the demeanor you show the

students) should be non-directive and helpful, providing facilitation, and non-judgmental

assistance. From past experience, students will likely expect you to moralize, telling

them what they did wrong and how much you are disappointed in them.

Moralizing is an attempt to shame the students, but it does not address the causes of the

problem and does nothing to prevent future occurrences. The red-faced students before

you are fully aware that something has gone wrong. What they require at the moment is

someone to help them get out of an awkward situation without anyone losing face.

There is the old joke about the man who, while walking through the woods, comes on

another man and a bear wrestling. The first man yells out, "Do you want me to help you

hold that bear?" The other man replies, "No...I want you to help me let go." That is just

what students involved in a conflict want. They want someone to get them out of the

mess they have unintentionally created for themselves.

As with any other response to behavior problems, you will be following the codes of your

particular school, so it is vital to know what these codes are before you are expected to

enforce them. If you want to handle conflict in a manner that differs from your school's

policy, it is imperative that you discuss this with the principal in advance and have

permission to use alternative methods.

The following steps have been found to be effective in resolving student conflicts,

because they allow each participant a fair chance to describe the event and place the

resolution of the conflict squarely on the shoulders of those involved.

Step 1: What Happened?

Begin your intervention by telling the students that each will be given an opportunity to

tell what has happened. One student at a time will tell their view of what happened,

without interruption from anyone else present. When the first student has finished, the

other is given equal time to explain how they understand what happened. The goal is to

get students to tell each other how they now interpret the events that led up to the

conflict.

As each student is talking, try to discover what that student wanted from the interaction

that ended in disagreement. Pay attention to student expectations. All social

interactions are aimed at something, and when these aims are frustrated, conflict can

erupt. As students explain what happened it is often possible to glean those aims from

what they say. Are there goal incompatibilities between the two students in the conflict?

Can both students' goals be realized at the same time--under the current conditions? Do

both students understand each other’s goals--understand what each other wanted to

happen? What expectation did each have for the other?

The need for a second round of explanation is not necessary since this is not a debate or

trial. Allowing rebuttals may serve to continue and even intensify the conflict, instead of

working toward a resolution of the issue. In this approach to conflict resolution, teachers

do not serve as judges who render verdicts of guilty or not guilty.

Step 2: Gather Additional Information, If Required

In a psychological sense, students cannot answer questions about why they did what they

did. The answer to the question, "Why did you do that?" involves selecting a

psychological theory and then giving an explanation based on that theory. For example,

the answer might be "because of the contingencies of reinforcement in this environment,"

information students cannot be expected to know.

When we ask, "Why did you do that?" we are often asking for an account of a person's

intentions. In the case of the two fighting students, they may not be able to answer this

question. What is important is helping students decide how they can resolve the conflict

and get on with other matters.

When students have finished their explanations of the event, you may have questions

about missing information or statements that require further clarification. For example, it

might be important to clarify the ownership of possessions under dispute. The point is

not to gather evidence to make a judgment about guilt, but to clarify for the students

something in the situation that they may have missed or misunderstood. The additional

information teachers obtain by asking questions at this stage will assist the combatants to

better understand each other. This is important for the next step in the conflict resolution

process.

Step 3: Where Do We Go From Here?

Ask students what they think they can do to resolve the conflict. Do not ask students

what they think they "should" do, as the word 'should' connotes rules and procedures

beyond the student's authority. Students who have gotten themselves into a situation that

has already gone beyond their control and understanding require assistance in extricating

themselves from the mess they have made. This gives students the opportunity to

advance ideas about what they can do to improve the situation.

If you think the plan they develop has any chance of success, review the plan with them,

emphasizing the point that they now know what to do if this situation occurs in the

future. Also review the school's rules on fighting and remind them that failure to follow

their own conflict management plan will result in these rules being enforced immediately

on the next occasion of fighting.

III. Phase Two: Directive Management

If the conflict is not resolved at this point, and students remain angry, hostile, or

uncooperative, your role changes from that of a facilitator to one of conflict manager.

They have had the opportunity to brainstorm their own resolution and now you assume

that responsibility.

Step 4: These Are the Consequences

In a no-nonsense manner, state the school rules or policies governing student behavior in

this situation and remind them of the consequences that will occur if the behavior

happens again. Be precise as to just what the penalties are for infractions of the rules.

Step 5: Increase the Value of Change

When students involved in the conflict remain belligerent, and the earlier steps of the

process have not resolved the problem, it is necessary to increase the value of doing away

with the stalemate. The following move is effective for creating attitude for improvement

of the situation.

Identify the student you judge to be the more desirous of resolving the situation and ask

that student if they are happy with the present situation. Do they want the battle to go on

all day? Most times the student will say "No."

Then turn to the other student and ask if they are happy with the situation, adding the fact

that the other student has already expressed dissatisfaction with the status quo. Again,

you hope to receive a "no" reply. If the second student concurs, both students have told

each other that they are unhappy, which establishes a basis for re-mediation. If both

students state publicly that they desire a change in the present relationship, then you have

a foundation upon which to begin building a plan for action, and return to Step 3. If

neither student will admit that they wish things were different, precede to the last step.

Step 6: Generate a Plan

Develop a plan for the students that will help them manage the rest of the day, and serve

them in future situations when such conflicts are likely to occur. Because they have

bypassed their opportunity to have input into ending the conflict, this will be a plan of

your design. If the students become cooperative, then you can consider their ideas.

Do not allow students to leave your presence until you are satisfied that both understand

the plan and the consequences that will occur if they break the rules again. If later in the

day these same students are observed engaging in conflict, do not attempt another

resolution interview, but move directly to the consequences. With this approach, students

receive only one chance to correct things without penalty. To engage in the conflict

resolution interview a second time will make you appear weak and indecisive. It will

also tend to belittle anything the students might have learned in the first run of the

process.

IV. Peer Mediation Approaches to Conflict Resolution

Several schools have attempted to deal with the various forms of student conflict by

training student mediators. These students learn specific techniques of conflict

resolution, and then assist their fellow students in the resolution of their conflicts. It is

believed that as more and more students become skilled in the process of peer mediation,

they are less likely to become embroiled in conflicts themselves. Furthermore,

developing student skills in peer mediation is developing student leadership. Schools that

experience much conflict among students probably are not generating the proper types of

student leaders. A peer-mediation training program may be an effective way to improve

school social climate.

V. Summary of Conflict Resolution Technique

Table 4.1: Conflict Resolution

Phase One: Non-Directive

What Happened?

Additional Information

Where Do we Go from Here?

Phase Two: Directive

These Are the Consequences

Make Change Valuable

Generate a Plan

Practice Exercises (Solutions may be found at the end of the document.)

A. Stages of Conflict Resolution

Directions: Use numbers 1 through 6 to place the following steps in conflict resolution in the

proper order.

___ Teacher points out the school rules and explains what the consequences of the

behavior if it happens again.

___ Teacher asks each student to tell their understanding of what happened.

___ A follow-through plan is developed that discusses alternative ways of handling a

problem if it occurs again. Consequences are clearly described by the teacher.

___ Teacher talks to students and tries to assess their motivation to change. Teacher may

make suggestions at this point, if students are unable to decide on a remedy.

___ Students are asked what they feel should be done about the problem situation. If

suggestions for remedy are acceptable to students and teacher, the process stops here.

___ Teacher tries to determine, through questioning, if the student explanations of the

problem are really what is bothering them.

B. Practice Situations

Directions: How would you respond to the following situations? Be as specific as possible:

what would you say or do?

1. You walk into the school gym a few minutes before the first bell for class rings. You

discover two boys tussling on the floor. It is immediately obvious they mean to hurt each

other.

2. A fourth-grade teacher is having trouble getting the class to concentrate on the lessons. At

recess you learn that two girls are angry at each other and are telling all sorts of stories about

each other.

3. Upon entering the classroom, two red faced, tenth graders are stating how they are going to

hurt each other at lunch. When they see you, they become quiet, as does the rest of the class.

Lesson Five

Managing Chronically Disruptive Behavior

I. Introduction

For some students, every day at school involves emotional trauma for them, their

teachers, and other students in their classes. Chronic or habitual disrupters exhibit

emotional problems at a high frequency. The key to understanding these students and

why they do what they do is the realization that everyone, and especially chronically

disruptive students, want status, that is, a sense of where they fit into the scheme of

things. Chronic, disruptive behavior indicates that (1) students are having serious doubts

about their self-worth and their place within school life, and (2) their methods for

obtaining this status are self-defeating.

The classroom environment places many demands on students, and those who have

serious doubts about their self-worth often become overly stressed therein. By using poor

methods to deal with stress, these students tend to lower their status in the eyes of

teachers and peers. When they sense that this has happened, they intensify their efforts,

thus making things even worse. How can educators help these students break out of this

circle of self-defeating behavior?

II. Diagnosing Level Four Classroom Disruptions

A. Four Goals of Chronic Disruptors

There are four basic motives behind all chronic disruptive behavior. It is important that

educators understand these motives, because it is from this knowledge that teachers can

determine a course of action. No diagnosis, or an incorrect diagnosis, will reinforce the

disruptive behavior and make things worse.

The four goals of misbehavior are related to four different ways that chronically

disruptive students are feeling. They are also related to the ways teachers themselves

regard the disrupters. Most teachers wonder if it is unprofessional to respond to their

own feelings about students, believing that fairness and objectivity demand that these

feelings be ignored.

Some feel that it is a serious mistake to ignore these feelings, because they may be a

helpful source of diagnostic evidence regarding a student's misbehavior. By paying

attention to these feelings, teachers can often more quickly determine how to deal

effectively with chronic behavior problems. Additional discussion of teacher feelings as

diagnostic tools can be found in a later section in this lesson.

Goal 1: Attention

Amateur psychologists know that sometimes people do things to get attention. Attention-

getting behavior becomes a problem when attention becomes the only thing that matters.

For some students, attention getting is what they do all day, every day.

Why is attention so important to these students? Why do they invest so much effort into

making sure they are noticed? If students feel insecure, helpless or insignificant, they

may believe that they are important only when they are getting attention. The feelings

are real, but the result of their behavior often drives people away.

Students who have this motive will employ one of several different techniques. As

teachers, it is important to be able to recognize and understand them. Table 5.1 shows

the four basic ways people attempt to get attention.

A person can attract attention by stepping out from the crowd. Table 5.1 uses the term

'active' for this approach. The passive approach is to hang back and be noticed for not

being aggressive or pushy. The other dimension represented in the table is positive

versus negative behavior. Positive behavior attempts to draw attention by being the

model student or teacher's pet. The negative approach is overt rule-breaking.

Table 5.1: Four Attention-Getting Techniques

Positive Approach (Excel at the rules)

Negative Approach (Break the rules)

Active

Hyper-achievement

Star

Nuisance, Brat,

Technobrat,

Show Off, Clown

Passive

Model child

excessive charm

teacher's pet

cute sayings

Untidiness (Look how

messy I am.)

Laziness

Ineptness (I need

you to help me.)

(1) Stardom

Some students have found that by shining brightly, they can get attention from their

teachers. They strive to achieve, not because they want to know or because they have life

goals that require this knowledge, but because they have discovered that it is a way of

being noticed. Obviously, to use this approach with any degree of success, a student

must have considerable academic ability. The difficulty is that the student is not using

this ability to move in the direction of autonomy or the realization of personal goals.

They place their self-worth in the hands of others. Mistakes become catastrophes, and

students believe that they have worth only as long as they excel.

Teachers typically consider the active-positive attention getter as the least troublesome of

the attention getters. They do not consider seeking attention and approval by means of

excellent school performance as a negative characteristic of any student. By providing

the attention and approval the student is seeking, teachers’ reactions may serve as support

for these goals. The point is that while some students may gain special attention by

means of success performance, they will be devastated by failure, and may resort to other

more negative means of gaining attention.

(2) Nuisance Behavior

Another group of students who devote considerable energy to being noticed are the

clowns, brats and nuisances. Each of these three roles is different but they all share the

method of disrupting social processes to make sure they are noticed. Students who are

computer-savvy can use this knowledge to disrupt entire classes. Others make faces,

giggle repeatedly, make odd noises or mime the teacher to get the attention of the class.

On the playground, it may be the person who takes the ball necessary to play a game, or

who repeatedly sits at the end of the slide, blocking others who want to play there.

(3) Model Students

Some students have learned that through the use of excessive charm and good manners,

their teachers will give them greater attention. They seek not to be more polished and

civilized, but only to remove the awful feeling that they do not count for much. Again,

teachers do not want to discourage efforts at good behavior, but these efforts should not

consume a student's entire attention. When model students are corrected, in spite of their

efforts to be perfect, this experience is often devastating, because they believe they have

no other way to obtain the attention they need.

(4) Helplessness

Finally, there are those students who discover that they will be noticed if they are untidy,

careless or helpless. These students include those who have a carefully-managed messy

locker, lose their pencils, forget their gym clothes or are never on the correct page. They

seem bewildered by everything going on around them, and in so doing, call as much

attention to themselves as possible. In true cases of using helplessness to gain attention,

students have previously been able to perform these tasks without problems or are able to

function well in other settings. It is important to note that this behavior, if sudden in

onset, may indicate depression. If parents and other teachers indicate that this has always

been a problem, the student may be exhibiting symptoms of learning disability.

Each of these types of attention-getting behavior is a call for recognition from the

teacher, classmates or the principal. We know a student is making a bid for attention

when we have strong feelings such as "I wish he or she would go away or quit

bothering me."

How should we deal with this behavior? Everyone needs recognition and students who

are so demanding of it actually do need great amounts of attention. But it is important to

provide this attention in a form that reduces the negative consequences of chronic

attention getting, and increases their autonomy as students.

Goal 2: Power

Some students feel that they count only when they can dominate people. They often try

to engage teachers in a power struggle, where they can feel powerful--as indeed they

sometimes are. When teachers are seduced into this kind of struggle, they feel like

the student is trying to take over. The way to deal with power-seekers is not to play the

power game in the first place.

Power seeking can be active or passive. Students who actively seek power, use

aggressive behavior. Openly defiant posturing sends the message of standing one's

ground and refusing to be moved. The passive approach to power seeking includes

students who purposely forget textbooks, pencils, paper, or assignments, with the

message being "You can't make me do that!" Laziness is another passive power play.

Not having the energy to do what one is required to do is a way of demonstrating

personal power over the situation. See Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Two Types of Power Seeking

Active

"Rebel"

openly disobedient

truant

Passive

"Stubborn"

purposely forgetful

extreme laziness

Goal 3: Revenge

When students feel that they count only when they are getting even, their motive for

misbehavior is revenge. Although everyone feels hurt sometimes, the revenge-motivated

student uses pain because they live in a world of pain--in a pain economy. If teachers

feel hurt by things a student says or does, this is a key diagnostic aid. It is not easy to

deal with revenge-seeking students, but the goal is to help them learn new ways to deal

with pain. Punishing the cause of the pain will just produce more pain and keep the cycle

going.

As with power seeking, revenge can take an active or passive form. The idea of passive

revenge may seem strange, but what is known as passive aggressive behavior is intended

to hurt the one it is directed toward without engaging in openly aggressive behavior.

Two people, for example, may have an argument and one of the persons refuses to speak

to the other. Refusing to speak to someone is aggression, passively expressed. Table 5.3

shows both types of revenge seeking.

Table 5.3: Two Types of Revenge Seeking

Active

"Vicious"

brutal acts

stealing

vandalism

Passive

"Sullen"

defiant

passive aggressive

Goal 4: Fear of Display of Inadequacy

If a student feels that they cannot do well in school work and will be laughed at for

failure, then their first priority becomes avoiding failure situations. School life is filled

with situations where students can be exposed as incompetent. For these students, life in

the classroom is terrifying. They will not be active disruptors but neither will they

engage in studying activities. Many teachers will allow these students to sit in the back

of the room and do nothing. The teacher feels that they cannot help the student, and will

ignore them as long as there is no overt misbehavior. This gets both through the day, but

the student learns little or nothing.

III. Teachers' Feelings as a Diagnostic Device

As professional practitioners, teachers may believe that any feelings toward students

should be ignored and not be allowed to interfere with objective judgment. But the way

teachers feel about their students can be a source of insight into how students feel about

themselves and their teachers.

Think for a minute about students who feel that they are significant only if you are paying

attention to them. They are going to engage in various attention-seeking activities. How

are these actions going to affect you? Eventually, you are going to feel as though you

want those students to just leave you alone. When you feel that way about a student, you

have a good diagnostic device for further analyzing your relationship with that student.

A student who seeks power is going to make you feel as though you are being pushed out

of the way. Such a feeling indicates that the teacher is reacting to power-seeking

behavior. Or, consider the student who seeks revenge. It is very likely that you will be

hurt by this student in some way, because getting even means causing pain of some sort.

Finally, when you are completely frustrated with a student and feel like giving up, it is

highly likely that the student believes they are embarrassingly incompetent. Any effort to

complete assignments may reveal what they fear.

The way teachers feel about their students can be a reliable diagnostic device and

teachers are encouraged to attend to these feelings. Table 5.4 shows the relationship

between how teachers feel about students and how students feel about themselves.

Table 5.4: Relationships among Student Behavior and Teacher Feelings How Does This Student Feel?

How Do Teachers Feel

About This Student? I matter only if you pay attention to

me.

I wish they would leave me alone.

I matter only if you do what I want.

This student is trying to take charge of

the class. I matter only if I can get revenge.

It is painful to deal with this student.

I matter only if I can hide my

incompetence.

I can't do anything with her .

I have just given up on him.

How teachers feel toward students may well be a better diagnostic device than the probe

question. Feelings result from contact with students over a long period, and these

feelings may be more reliable because of this fact.

IV. Proper Use of Probe Questions in Diagnoses

A. Functions of Probe Questions

Probe questions have two basic functions: (1) to gain additional evidence for or against

the diagnosis of a disruptive case; (2) to provide students with insight into their own

behavior.

Probe questions are designed to elicit a response from students and to promote student

reflection on behavior. For example, if it is suspected that a student's motive is to gain

attention, they could be asked the following probe question. "Could it be that you want

me to pay more attention to you?" If this question is on the right track, the student will

not say anything but will give a non-verbal response that indicates the answer is clearly

"yes". If the answer is "no", nothing is lost, because the student will simply look at the

questioner with puzzlement. "Could" questions are thus a fail-safe technique.

Note that using probe questions is not required in most cases. If teachers feel that this

student will not leave them alone, it is very likely that the goal is attention. The above

probe question is a source of further evidence for that diagnosis.

Even if teachers are confident in their diagnosis of student motives, they may still use a

probe question for its interpretive value. This type of question helps students

understand why they are doing what they do, that is, can be a source of insight. Hearing

a question about their motives may be the first time these students reflect on such matters.

Understanding their own motives is a necessary step in helping students find better ways

of interacting with teachers and peers.

B. Probe Questions as Non-Accusatory

Asking probe questions requires sensitivity to the concept of down shifting discussed in

Lesson Three. Imagine a teacher saying, "I know what you want...you want me to notice

you (be the boss; get even)." The student receiving this comment is going to feel accused

and the reaction will likely be one of defensiveness and denial. The probe question

should not build defenses and produce denial, but help the person better understand

motives.

As with the treatment of rumbling and grumbling in acting out behavior, teachers are

advised to make themselves the subject of any declarative sentences. "I'm wondering if

you wish you could be in charge." This sentence parallels the 'could' question, "Could it

be that you want to be in charge?" Both the declarative and the interrogative sentences

are honest invitations for students to reflect on their motives. Neither sentence accuses

students of any social crime.

There is no guarantee that students will respond to the probe questions. Typically the

non-verbal response will be quite telling, but not always so. Even if a student shows no

response to the probe question, this does not mean that the force of the question is lost on

the student.

Teachers should ask themselves two sets of questions when thinking about using probe

questions. (1) Do I require additional information for my diagnosis of this case of

disruptive behavior? Might a probe question give me additional, helpful information?

(2) Will this student gain insight from a probe question? Table 5.5 presents sample probe

questions appropriate for each type of disruptive motive.

Table 5.5: Probe Questions by Motive

Goal of Chronic

Disruption

Probe Questions

Attention Seeking

Could it be that you want me to notice you

more...and to pay more attention to you?

Power Seeking Could it be that you want to be the boss? Could it be

that you want me to do what you want?

Revenge Seeking Could it be that you want to hurt those who hurt you?

Do you want to get even?

Fear of Display of

Inadequacy

Could it be that you feel stupid and don't want others

to see that?

The questions presented in the above table suggest the kinds of questions that should be

used with each type of student goal.

V. Treating Chronic Disruptions

Chronic classroom disruptors suffer from low self-esteem. Because the methods they

have devised to increase their self-esteem are ultimately self-defeating, this further lowers

their opinions of themselves. This is why effective intervention by teachers is an

important part of classroom teaching. In a sense, all effective teaching can be

summarized as giving direction to tendencies already present. Chronic disruptors have

tendencies that are disruptive, but these tendencies can, in spite of their disruptive quality,

be given the kind of direction that will help reduce their self-defeating nature.

A. Attention Seekers

Students who seek attention believe that they do not count unless the teacher or certain

other students are paying attention to them. Once an attention seeker is identified,

teachers do not have the option of giving attention or not, because the student will

demand attention. This demanding has potential for curtailing disruptive behavior and

leading that student back into academic activity.

Teachers can modify attention-seeking by choosing to reward behavior that furthers the

student's best interests. As we have seen, attention-seeking may take one of four forms.

The manner in which teachers give and withhold attention will vary with each type of

attention-seeking.

Attention through Success. Students who take the "star" route to attention-getting

obviously see themselves as capable, which gives teachers something positive to build

on. By focusing attention on the processes of achievement and encouraging students to

follow genuine academic interests, teachers can help students move from academics as an

attention-getting device to a more satisfying experience of inquiry that provides pleasure

and satisfaction for the student.

Attention by being a Model Child. It is important to notice other aspects of this

student's behavior in the classroom and reward it with attention. Often, students are

praised publicly by the teacher early in their school careers when they behave better than

other children in the class. Students may take up being the "good" child as a full time

activity. Try to find academic progress or evidence of leadership to praise, commenting

positively on behavior other than that of being "good." This allows a student more

flexibility in ways to gain attention, and prevents the devastation that often occurs when

the "good student" role is compromised.

Attention by being a Nuisance. When students resort to being a nuisance to get

attention, it is often the attention of the class they are seeking, rather than that of the

teacher. Some teachers effectively control nuisance behavior by publicly thanking a

student at the end of a period when they have not been disruptive. A simple "Thanks,

you helped." may even elicit nods from classmates and bring more positive attention than

that sought in more negative ways. Other teachers give these students positive status by

giving them tasks to do for the class that are associated with pleasure, such as passing out

art materials or treats. On the playground, nuisance behavior should be corrected quietly,

but cooperative behavior should receive public notice.

It should be noted that teachers are sometimes reticent to laugh at truly humorous

remarks made by clowning students. This situation is easily tested by observing your

own response. If you feel annoyed, then the behavior is in the nuisance category and

should be ignored. But if you find yourself wanting to laugh because what has been said

is truly funny, then the appropriate response is to laugh. It is unlikely that you will be

reinforcing negative behavior in this instance, because any other response would seem

forced and unnatural.

Attention through Helplessness. When problems of depression or learning disabilities

have been ruled out as causes of helpless behavior, teachers assist students with this

method of attention-seeking by noticing instances where the student is organized, tidy or

following the lesson with the rest of the class. Often these students will elicit attention

from other students with helpless behavior, and it is important to monitor this interaction,

also. If another student loans a pencil, shows the correct page, or assists in desk clean-up,

ask the helpless student what they will do to return the favor. If they look puzzled, make

a suggestion. This move encourages students to think in terms of gaining attention from

helping, rather than being helpless.

B. Power Seekers

It is not comfortable to feel powerless and pushed around by arbitrary authority. Perhaps

at home many students feel helpless to control unpleasant living conditions or have no

role in family decision-making. They come to school seeking power because it is an

arena in which they might gain some control. Their motives are misguided, but when

they are understood, teachers can begin to lead negative expressions of power-seeking

into more positive directions.

There are many roles for students to play in the classroom that give a sense of importance

and competence. Giving presentations or demonstrations associated with subject matter,

playing host for classroom visitors, taking attendance, or being in charge of classroom

equipment are all areas of responsibility that provide students with a sense of power and

responsibility.

It is important to know the student well enough so that the responsibilities assigned are

ones they can easily manage. Failure in a leadership role can serve to exacerbate the

problem by raising the frustration level of the power seeker. We want students to feel

power in a positive, social-serving sense.

When students feel some measure of control over their environment, they are freed to

give attention to academic matters. Their search for power can then lead them to

experience the success of achieving new levels of understanding in a subject-matter area.

The strategy is to get power seekers to widen their horizons and set more adequate goals

for themselves.

C. Revenge-Seekers

Revenge-seeking students spend their days making sure that no one has offended them.

The only way they can see themselves as a significant person is to make sure that all

painful experiences are answered in kind. They feel that they have value if they can at

least hold their own in a painful existence.

In this trap they have built for themselves, students are actively engaged in looking for

every case where someone has hurt them in some way. They keep careful count of

occasions when other people were not sensitive to their feelings, when they experienced

unnecessarily harsh remarks or were criticized for things over which they have no

control. Setting out to get even in all of these cases requires a complex schedule of pain

distribution.

Besides spending time thinking about hurting people, which is depressing enough, there

is a high probability that a student will eventually cause pain to another revenger. If an

even more destructive person is encountered, the effects can be devastating. Thus,

anything teachers can do to help revenging students move in more productive directions

will be a significant life event for them.

It is important to encourage students in the direction of social responsibility. Teachers

should attempt to find occasions where the student will feel accepted by peers and other

teachers. In some cases this may be difficult when the revenging student has a bad

reputation with other students. Those who deal in pain become known--and avoided.

Do not attempt to convince students of the futility of seeking revenge. Revenge is the

technique they have come to embrace, and teacher attempts to belittle it or take it away

will enhance the sense of desperation they already feel. The way to remove the revenge

motive is to let another motive crowd it out.

D. Fear of Display of Inadequacy

Many classrooms in America have two or more students sitting in the back of the room

not taking part in the activities going on. With a little encouragement these students

could be making academic progress and enjoying school. These students are often very

rewarding to work with because they respond so well to success. They have experienced

so little of it.

Give kind and gentle attention to these students. Reward attempts at any part of a task

with positive comments. Sometimes these students panic if teachers tell them they know

they can succeed, when they are convinced that they cannot. That is why the attempt to

complete even one part of a task should be recognized. Most students are afraid of the

judgment that comes with completed tasks.

It may be necessary to give situational assistance (Lesson Two) or check back

frequently to verify efforts on a task.

In every case in the author's experience, these students could perform at levels much

higher than their self-reported abilities. For example, two 7th

grade math students, seated

in the rear of the room, never turned in an assignment. At the end of class, I would assign

ten problems that if completed before the bell, homework could be avoided. I went to the

two students and told them that if they completed three problems correctly, I would give

them the ten points. Both turned in their papers; both had the correct answers. The

following day, I told the two students they had to get five answers to get ten points. One

turned in five correct answers, but the other student turned in ten correct answers.

I. Summary of Treatments for Chronic Disruptions

Table 5.6: Best Teacher Actions

Goal of Disruption

Best Treatment

Attention Seeking

1. Success

2. Model Child

3. Nuisance

4. Helplessness

Ignore unproductive bids for attention.

Give attention when students are engaged in activity

that extends their development in academic or social

areas.

1. Look for areas in which the student has genuine

enthusiasm. Reward efforts to inquire in areas that

do not require showing off.

2. Praise efforts to succeed in areas other than

manners. Extend interests.

3. Praise behavior that is positive. Give opportunities

to gain positive status with class.

4. Praise any efforts at organization; encourage

returning favors in exchange for help from other

students.

Power Seeking

Find places where students can be given

responsibility. Give opportunities to develop

leadership. Place them in charge of tasks that are

productive and positive.

Revenge

Directly support student's self-concept.

Notice every positive achievement.

Project success in areas of expressed interest.

No negative language to describe students.

Fear of Display of

Inadequacy

Show belief that student is capable.

Show confidence in student.

Help student to be successful in small increments and

point out successes when they occur.

Table 5.7 presents a summary of techniques for dealing with chronic disruptive behavior.

Note the increasing level of discouragement from left to right.

Table 5.7: Overall Summary of Chronic Disruption

Goals of

Behavior

Attention

Power

Revenge

Conceal

Inadequacy

How does the

student feel?

I matter

only when

you pay

attention to

me. Please

notice me!

I matter

only when I

can control

you. I want to

be the boss.

I matter

only when I

can get

even with those

who hurt me.

I matter

only when

you don't

see how

stupid I am

How does the

teacher

feel?

Teacher's

Reaction

I wish he would

leave me alone.

She takes so

much of my

time.

Who is

running this

class, him

or me? She

won't get

away with it.

Feels hurt.

"How can he/she

be so mean?

Dislikes the

student.

Feels help-

less.

I can't do

a thing with

her/him...I

give up.

Probe

Questions:

Diagnostic and

Interpretative to

Students.

Could it be

that you want

me to pay more

attention to

you?

Could it be

you want

to get me

to do what

you want?

Could it be

you want to

get even with

those who hurt

you?

Could it be

you feel

stupid and

don't want

anyone to see?

Teacher's

Most Effective

Actions

Give attention

when student

isn't demanding

or bidding for it.

Encourage

achievement in

other areas.

Give student

some

responsibility.

Don't engage

in a power

struggle.

Show

encouragement

Don't respond in

kind.

Give appropriate

encouragement

Show faith in

student. Use

Hurdle

Lessons and

Interest Boost

(This table is adapted from one presented in Dinkmeyer, D. (1971))

VII. Practice Exercises: Chronic Disruptions

(Solutions may be found at the end of the document.)

Directions: Consider the following cases. (1) Make a diagnosis of the student's goals.

(2) State what you take to be evidence for that diagnosis. (3) Prescribe the best teacher

action for that case. Please describe what you would say and do as completely as

possible.

1. Tom, a freshman in Algebra, tries to be the first one finished on every quiz. Moreover,

he corrects the teacher whenever Mr. Smith makes the slightest mistake. If a student asks

a question in class, Tom tries to answer it before Mr. Smith can say a word.

2. Joe sits in the back of the room and never causes any trouble. He rarely opens a book

or writes anything. He day dreams often but never acts bored. The teacher gives him D's

and never calls on him.

3. Harry is truly the class clown. He makes jokes at every opportunity. Mrs. Brown likes

him and usually laughs at his jokes. She told his mother at Open House that Harry

brightens her day. Harry cannot read at grade level nor can he do basic math.

4. All of the teachers think that Jenny is charming. She is very polite and has the best of

manners. Her grades are B-/C+. An observing student teacher wrote that Jenny tries to

use her personality to get by without turning in assignments.

5. Carol's homeroom teacher says that she "is always in trouble." She was accused of

stealing a student's coin collection and another student's lunch money. Lately, she seems

sullen in class and refuses to do any written work.

6. The teachers used to call Bill a non-conformist. But now they call him "the rebel

without a cause." Bill loves to defy authority and the other students respect his ability to

put down teachers. He has been known to throw temper tantrums but they seem forced.

Bill is often in fights. He makes low grades though he seems intelligent.

Answers to Practice Exercises: Level Two Disruptions

A. True or False (And Why)

Directions: Identify the following as true or false and briefly explain your answer.

1.T Sometimes it is less disruptive to ignore minor misbehavior than to call attention

to it.

2.F It is best for teachers to referee the solutions of all misbehavior

3.F Ignore hiccoughing, because it will soon go away.

4.F Never physically restrain a student.

5.T Keep students on their toes by asking the daydreamers questions about the

material you have just presented.

6.F Call out the names of offenders in class, so they will return to their work.

7.T If possible, dismiss minor impolite remarks with humor and discuss your response

with the student after class.

8.T Regular routines help students know what is expected and can prevent

misbehavior.

9.F Helping individuals with work they don’t understand prevents them from exerting

more effort on their own.

10.F It is usually not a good idea to experiment with new instructional procedures,

especially after the school year has begun.

11.F It helps students develop self-control to leave distracting objects in their line of

view.

12.T Informal discussions with students on a one to one basis can create bonds that

may translate into improved classroom behavior.

B. Selecting Appropriate Actions

Directions: In each of the following situations, name the technique you would use and

describe exactly how you would use it to control the problem behavior. (Note: you may

feel that you have insufficient information to make a choice of action. Most of the

decisions you will make in real life situations will be based on insufficient information.)

The answers presented here are viewed by the author as adequate, but you may have a

better idea of how to deal with these cases. Great! When you encounter these

problems in your classroom, you will be the first to know if your solution worked!

1.#13 A 7th grade boy gets a case of nervous hiccups in the middle of class. The class

begins to giggle, and disruption threatens.

2.#9 A 4th grade boy tears up his math paper, throws it on the floor, and says, "I'm not

doing this dumb stuff ANYMORE!"

3.#14 A 1st grade boy teases another, just as the two enter the classroom from recess.

The taunted boy gets red in the face, starts screaming, "I hate you!"

4. You have assigned everyone a seat for the first day of your sophomore English class.

One boy refuses to take the seat you have assigned, and says, "I'm sitting here." The rest

of the class looks at you for your response. This turns out to be a controversial issue, at

least among the students in my classes. #6 is the instructor’s answer; but you may

have a better one. Note that this may not be questioning your authority—as many

beginning teachers feel. Think of other good reasons why a student may not want that

seat!

5.#16 A 6th grade boy, who is a member of the school's scout troop, makes an unfair

call while refereeing a kickball game. The call is against an unpopular boy, so no one

objects. You have observed the incident.

6.#2 Two 10th grade girls are whispering and passing notes during study hall. They

are in your class and you know that they usually do not complete their homework.

7.#3 A group of 3rd graders are discussing a game rather loudly at a learning center,

while you are conducting a reading group.

8.#17 A freshman girl regularly does annoying things in class, like tapping her pencil or

foot, or sighing deeply until the class responds by laughing. You usually let your

irritation be known, and say something to the girl. She smiles, looks down, and

stops...for a while. This is a daily occurrence.

9.#17 John is a 7th grader in your science lab. He performs acceptably, but is probably

capable of more. He is very withdrawn, and barely speaks to you or to his classmates.

You learn that he has transferred schools several times in the last few years, and has had

difficulty adjusting to this school.

10.#8 You inherit a class of 1st graders from a Kindergarten teacher who was absent

much of the previous year. The children had substitutes at least twice a week, and finally

a long term sub was hired half-way through the year. Each teacher had different goals

and routines, and the children were confused and disruptive as a consequence. By the

end of the year, they were "hanging from the ceiling", as one sub succinctly remarked.

11.#11 You are beginning to get remarks in your junior health class that things are pretty

boring. You know this is true, because you're bored with the "read the lesson, answer the

questions in the back of the book" routine yourself. Students are not paying attention, are

goofing off during study period, and not achieving well on exams.

12.#12 Your Kindergarten children bring in items for Show and Tell. These are placed

on a special table until Show and Tell time. During the morning's activities, squabbles

regularly break out because children handle and sometimes damage things brought in by

other children who are eager to show them or look at what has been brought in

Answers to Practice Exercises: Acting Out Behavior

A. Ordering Stages of Acting Out

Directions: Place the following statements in the proper order of occurrence in an acting

out episode.

___#4 Student answers 'no' to every question asked.

___#3 Student insults teacher.

___#6 Teacher and student discuss prevention.

___#5 Student withdraws to solitude.

___#1 Student seems grumpy.

___#2 Student overtly breaks a rule.

B. Diagnosing and Selecting Appropriate Actions

Directions: In each of the following cases, (1) identify the specific stage by name, (2)

state why you think the student is in that stage, and (3) describe what action you would

take to improve the situation. Please be specific and use several sentences to respond.

1. You are attempting to help a 7th grader calm down after he pushes his desk over in

response to your request to sit down. He tells you that you can pick it up yourself, unless

that's too much work. He kicks the desk, and says, "Come on, jerk (he mimics your tone

of voice) please pick up the nice little desk!"

The first act was help/help (breaking the rule), but then we have the either/or insult.

Look for an either/or demand and use it to try to defuse the situation.

2. A 2nd grade girl has been hitting another child and is crying and screaming. As you

attempt to restrain her, she kicks at you and tells you that you're fat and ugly and a

terrible teacher. She also screams that she's going to tell her mother that you hit her.

Either/Or; you get insulted; deny harm; look for an either/or demand and use it to try

to defuse the situation.

3. A 4th grade boy comes in from recess obviously irritated. He does not take his seat

immediately, but continues walking around the room, poking other students in the back,

just out of your eyesight.

Rumbling and Grumbling; he’s looking for a reason to act out; get him to talk about it.

4. A junior boy comes into P. E. class "looking for trouble." He doesn't dress out, picks

up volleyball, and begins throwing it hard against the wall.

Rumbling and Grumbling; he’s looking for a reason to act out; get him to talk about it.

5. A 4th grade boy is upset because he does not get a turn at bat before the class must

return from recess. He complains to the teacher, who promises him first turn tomorrow,

Nevertheless, he walks off with tears in his eyes.

Rumbling and Grumbling; he is disappointed and feels terrible. Get him to talk further

about his sadness and anger. Recognition of anger and of the unfairness caused by

the clock may get his mind back for the ensuing classwork.

6. An 8th grade boy is having difficulty with a history assignment. He mumbles, sighs,

then slams the book shut. He folds his arms and sits, doing nothing. You ask if there is a

problem, and he picks up the book and says, "Yes, there is! Here's the problem!" and

throws the book across the room. As the class looks on, he begins to take other books out

of his desk and throws them, barely missing other students and the window.

Help/Help; He’s breaking an implicit rule; Get him to express just what problem he is

having with the history assignment; if he cannot or will not state the difficulty, offer

help and try to see where the problem is—ignore the rule breaking because focusing

on it will exacerbate the situation.

7. A 3rd grade girl loses her temper at two other girls on the playground and calls them

names, which upsets them. At afternoon recess, she approaches them to play and they

walk away. She goes to the teacher, complaining that no one will play with her.

She’s doing the “clean drunk,” i.e., not taking responsibility for her actions. Point out

to her why the girls may feel the way they do. Offer to help her avoid this kind of

situation, etc.

8. A freshman on your basketball team becomes so angry at an unfair call that he pushes

the referee. He is suspended from the team, and feels guilty and ashamed of his behavior.

He’s feeling remorse, which means that he recognizes that he is the cause of the

problem. Talk about his anger and what he might to do deal with it in the future. Get

him to recognize when the anger is coming on—prevention—prevention—prevention!

9. A kindergarten boy has just thrown the crayons from his box all over the room because he

is angry. You approach him and try to stop him from throwing the crayons at other children.

“Please stop, Jake.” you say. His reply is, "No!" "Come here, just a moment." His reply is,

"No!"

No/No; he’s not going to listen to reason; let the event come to its own conclusion

(assuming that he’s not hurting himself or another). Then after “leave me alone,” talk

about early recognition of the loss of control and work on prevention.

10. A 6th grade girl tears up her test in social studies, then begins to flip all the contents of her

desk out onto the floor, with loud banging. "Mary, please stop!" you say. The response is,

"No!" "Would you like to go out in the hall until you feel better?" Her response is, "No!"

Bad move! Do not let such a child out of your sight. You don’t know what might happen

next. See question #9.

11. A 1st grade boy has destroyed a mural that other children were working on by ripping it

off the board. He screams at you and the other children that he hates all of you. The other

children are upset by the destruction of their work. While you calm them, you hold the boy

on your lap. He quiets down, and then goes to his desk and puts his head down.

“Leave me alone”; the calm after No/No; prepare your approach to talking with him when

he’s out of that stage.

12. A 7th grade girl fails to be chosen as a cheerleader. In anger, she pulls apart the pom-pom

collection for the team. Of course, this angers the other girls, who attack her verbally for the

outrage. She cries for some time in a corner of the gym, but finally stops.

Leave-me-alone; her withdrawal; wait until she shows signs of returning to the regular

class-work. Then talk about it.

Answers to Practice Exercises: Conflict Resolution

A. Stages of Conflict Resolution

Directions: Use numbers 1 through 6 to place the following steps in conflict resolution

in the proper order.

___#4 Teacher points out the school rules and explains what the consequences of the

behavior if it happens again.

___#1 Teacher asks each student to tell their understanding of what happened.

___#6 A follow-through plan is developed that discusses alternative ways of handling a

problem if it occurs again. Consequences are clearly described by the teacher.

___#5 Teacher talks to students and tries to assess their motivation to change. Teacher

may make suggestions at this point, if students are unable to decide on a remedy.

___#3 Students are asked what they feel should be done about the problem situation. If

suggestions for remedy are acceptable to students and teacher, the process stops here.

___#2 Teacher tries to determine, through questioning, if the student explanations of the

problem are really what is bothering them.

B. Practice Situations

Directions: How would you respond to the following situations? Be as specific as possible:

what would you say or do?

1. You walk into the school gym a few minutes before the first bell for classes rings. You

discover two boys tussling on the floor. It is immediately obvious they mean to hurt each

other.

Each boy gives his explanation of why the event occurred. You ask them where we should

go from here.

2. A fourth-grade teacher is having trouble getting the class to concentrate on the lessons. At

recess you learn that two girls are angry at each other and are telling all sorts of stories about

each other.

Get the two of them together and away from others. Then follow answer to #1.

3. Upon entering the classroom, two red faced, tenth graders are stating how they are going to

hurt each other at lunch. When they see you, they become quiet, as does the rest of the class.

Pursue the problem. Ignoring it means that it is likely to erupt somewhere else at school.

Also, remember that they will be thinking about this all day—or through your class—get

their minds back by helping them resolve the problem as soon as possible.

Answers to Practice Exercises: Chronic Disruptions

Directions: Consider the following cases. (1) Make a diagnosis of the student's goals.

(2) State what you take to be evidence for that diagnosis. (3) Prescribe the best teacher

action for that case. Please describe what you would say and do as completely as

possible.

1. Tom, a freshman in Algebra, tries to be the first one finished on every quiz. Moreover,

he corrects the teacher whenever Mr. Smith makes the slightest mistake. If a student asks

a question in class, Tom tries to answer it before Mr. Smith can say a word.

Attention/Star; he’s trying to outperform the class. Give him attention when he’s not

using math as the means. Try to get him to see that math has values beyond being a

means to getting attention.

2. Joe sits in the back of the room and never causes any trouble. He rarely opens a book

or writes anything. He day dreams often but never acts bored. The teacher gives him D's

and never calls on him.

Concealing feelings of inadequacy; he’s not calling attention to himself in any way.

Give him small assignments that you know he can complete. Bit by bit, get him

confident that he can do this work. From my experience as a 7th and 8th grade

teacher, I came to see that these students could do the work if you expected them to do

what was within their capability—which, by the way, was never as low as other

teachers told me it was.

3. Harry is truly the class clown. He makes jokes at every opportunity. Mrs. Brown likes

him and usually laughs at his jokes. She told his mother at Open House that Harry

brightens her day. Harry cannot read at grade level nor can he do basic math.

Attention. His grades are low indicating that class-time is being used for the wrong

ends. Teacher is giving too much attention at the wrong times. Give him attention

when he’s on track, so to speak. Laugh at a truly funny joke, but monitor your

teacher behavior.

4. All of the teachers think that Jenny is charming. She is very polite and has the best of

manners. Her grades are B-/C+. An observing student teacher wrote that Jenny tries to

use her personality to get by without turning in assignments.

Attention/nice girl; attention is more important than doing school work. Give her

attention when she’s not being Miss Perfect.

5. Carol's homeroom teacher says that she "is always in trouble." She was accused of

stealing a student's coin collection and another student's lunch money. Lately, she seems

sullen in class and refuses to do any written work.

She’s both feeling powerless and revengeful toward other students. Avoid causing

her further pain. Analyze the situation for instances where she can feel empowered

in some way. Recognize that this is going to be a tough case to deal with.

6. The teachers used to call Bill a non-conformist. But now they call him "the rebel

without a cause." Bill loves to defy authority and the other students respect his ability to

put down teachers. He has been known to throw temper tantrums but they seem forced.

Bill is often in fights. He makes low grades though he seems intelligent.

Power--he’s not able to deal with authority figures, i.e., he feels powerless in relation to

them. Get him empowered by finding a job for him. Put him in charge of something—

but not in a place where he can make other students’ lives miserable. When I taught

chemistry, I put such a student in charge of the glassware. I had very clean materials

and the other students liked his work. He was happy to have significance—he did keep

the glassware glistening.

Comments are welcome: profpopp@live.com

References

Bly, Robert. (1990). Iron John: A Book about Men.

Dinkmeyer, Donald. (1971). The 'C' group: integrating knowledge and experience to

change behavior: an Adlerian approach to consultation. The Counseling Psychologist,

Vol. 3, No. 1, 63-72.

Hart, Leslie. (1983). Human Brain and Human Learning. New York: Longman.

Long, N. J., and Newman, W. C., (1961). A different approach to the management of

surface behavior of children in school. Bulletin of the School of Education, 37, 47-61.

Maag, John W. (2001). Management of surface behavior: A new look at an old approach,

Counseling and Human Development. May 2001.

Redl, Fritz, and Wattenberg, William W. (1959). Mental Hygiene in Teaching,

Harcourt, Brace and World.

Schrumpf, Fred., et. al. (1991). Conflict Resolution In Schools. Champaign, IL: Research

Press Co.

Trieschman, Albert. E., Whittaker, J. K. and Brendtro, L. K. (1969). The Other 23 Hours.

New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction, third printing, 2010.

Wilson, James Q. (1993). The Moral Sense.

(Note, that the three publications by Dinkmeyer, Long and Newman, Redl and

Wattenberg, and Trieschman are underappreciated classics.)