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LLCE2016: Súčasné výzvy vo vyučovaní jazykov: Ako ďalej?

Zborník prípevkov

Editorky: Zuzana Šimková & Daniela Sorádová

s vybranými príspevkami z medzinárodnej vedeckej konferencie

with selected conference papers from the international conference

CLEaR2016 Prague, 15 – 17 September 2016

Zborník vedeckých prác Conference Proceedings

LLCE2016: Súčasné výzvy vo vyučovaní jazykov: ako ďalej? & CLEaR2016 Stará Lesná, Slovensko, 28. - 29. apríl 2016 Prague, 15 – 17 September 2016

Nitra: SlovakEdu. ISBN 978-80-89864-00-3

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Organizátori konferencie/Conference Organizers:

Európska komisia - zastúpenie na Slovensku

Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu Slovenskej republiky

Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy České republiky

Štátny pedagogický ústav v Bratislave

Národný ústav certifikovaných meraní vzdelávania v Bratislave

Národní institut pro další vzdělávání v Praze

Európske centrum pre moderné jazyky v Grazi, Rakúsko

Katedra pedagogiky PF Univerzity Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre

Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry PdF Trnavskej univerzity v Trnave

Inštitút anglistiky a amerikanistiky FF Prešovskej univerzity v Prešove

Katedra anglistiky a amerikanistiky FF Univerzity sv. Cyrila a Metoda v Trnave

Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry FF Katolíckej univerzity v Ružomberku

Ústav moderních jazyků a literatur FHS v Zlíně, Česká republika

SlovakEdu, občianske združenie

Záštitu nad konferenciou prevzal Minister školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu SR prof. Ing. Peter Plavčan, CSc.




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Partneri- vystavovatelia/Partners - exhibitors Výstavy a prezentácie posledných noviniek z oblasti učebníc a učebných pomôcok pre vyučovanie jazykov, ako aj záverečnú tombolu pre účastníkov konferencie, organizačne a materiálne zabezpečili nasledujúci vystavovatelia (v abecednom poradí): AITEC, s.r.o. Bratislava CK Školní zájezdy, s.r.o. Brno dr. Josef Raabe Slovensko Edukácia@Internet, Partizánske Foreign Language Publications Goethe Institut, Bratislava Havava, s.r.o. Macmillan Education, Prešov Megabooks SK Bratislava Meggy, s.r.o. Nadácia Volkswagen Slovakia Nakladatelství Infoa Orbis Pictus Istropolitana, s. r. o. Bratislava Oxford University Press Bratislava Oxico Bratislava Polyglot, s.r.o., Praha Slovak Ventures, s.r.o. SNM - Múzeum kultúry karpatských Nemcov Vydavateľstvo Terra




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Editori/Editors

Mgr. Zuzana Šimková(Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko)

Mgr. Daniela Sorádová (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko)

Recenzenti/Reviewers Recenzentmi všetkých zaslaných abstraktov a konferenčných príspevkov/posterov/workshopov boli

členovia Medzinárodného vedeckého výboru konferencie, čím prevzali zodpovednosť za kvalitu všetkých konferenčných vystúpení a publikácií. Pri príprave tohto zborníka sa uplatnila metóda dvojitého anonymného posudzovania, ktorá sa považuje za všeobecne akceptovanú metódu vedeckého posudzovania a je nevyhnutnou súčasťou vedeckého publikačného procesu.

All papers published in the Conference Proceeding were peer-reviewed through a double-blind system by two members of the International Scientific Conference Committee. The reviewers' identities remain anonymous to authors.

Medzinárodný vedecký výbor konferencie/ International Scientific Conference Committee doc. Mgr. Vladimír Biloveský, PhD. (Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Slovensko) doc. PhDr. Jana Bérešová, PhD. (Trnavská univerzita, Slovensko) doc. PaedDr. Jana Bírová, PhD. (Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave, Slovensko) PaedDr. Katarína Bockaničová PhD. (Štátny pedagogický ústav v Bratislave, Slovensko) doc. PaedDr. Ivana Cimermanová, PhD. (Prešovská univerzita v Prešove, Slovensko) PhDr. Eva Farkašová, CSc. (Výskumný ústav psychológie a patopsychológie dieťaťa v Bratislave,

Slovensko) PaedDr. Danica Gondová, PhD. (Žilinská univerzita, Slovensko) doc. PaedDr. Ctibor Határ, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) doc. PaedDr. Dana Hanesová, PhD. (Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Slovensko) doc. PhDr. Eva Homolová, PhD. (Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Slovensko) doc. PaedDr. Zdena Kráľová, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) doc. PaedDr. Monika Máčajová, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) Ing. Beata Menzlová (Štátny pedagogický ústav v Bratislave, Slovensko) prof. PhDr. Gabriela Petrová, CSc. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) prof. PhDr. Anton Pokrivčák, PhD. (Univezita sv. Cyrila a Metoda v Trnave, Slovensko) prof. PaedDr. Silvia Pokrivčáková, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) doc. Zuzana Straková, PhD. (Prešovská univerzita v Prešove, Slovensko) doc. PhDr. Ivana Šimonová, Ph.D. (Univerzita v Hradci Králové, Česká republika) PhDr. Nadežda Zemaníková, PhD. (Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Slovensko)

Medzinárodný organizačný výbor konferencie/International Organising Conference Committee Mgr. Mária Babocká, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) Mgr. Michal Bodorík (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) Mgr. Roman Čančinov (Prešovská univerzita, Slovensko) PhDr. Marie Černíková (Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy ČR v Praze, Česká republika) Mgr. Juraj Datko (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) PhDr. Denisa Ďuranová (Štátny pedagogický ústav v Bratislave, Slovensko) PaedDr. Michal Hudec (SlovakEdu, o.z.) Mgr. Ľudmila Hurajová, PhD. (Slovenská technická univerzita v Bratislave, Slovensko) Mgr. Nina Kozárová (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) Mgr. Zuzana Lichá (Štátny pedagogický ústav v Bratislave, Slovensko) PaedDr. Eva Obžerová (Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu Slovenskej republiky v

Bratislave) Mgr. Jana Puschenreiterová, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) Mgr. Michaela Sepešiová, PhD. (Prešovská univerzita v Prešove, Slovensko) Mgr. Veronika Szombatová (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) Mgr. Zuzana Šimková (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko) PaedDr. Jana Trníková, PhD. (Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre, Slovensko)




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pred jeho podaním.

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Ako citovať/How to quote: ŠIMKOVÁ, Z. & SORÁDOVÁ, D. (Eds.) (2016). LLCE2016: Súčasné výzvy vo vyučovaní jazykov: ako ďalej? Nitra: SlovakEdu. ISBN 978-80-89864-00-3




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OBSAH/ TABLE OF CONTENTS Úvod .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7

Jazyky a vzdelávanie v medzinárodnom kontexte / Languages and Education in

international context

Lifelong Learning and Adult Education in the State of Qatar Alan S. Weber, Qatar……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8 La consolidation de l’enseignement / apprentissage du vocabulaire du français langue étrangère en Libye Alsadag H.E Alsadag, Libye ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……. 16 Teachers’ Professional Identity and Iranian EFL Instructors’ Perceptions Mahdieh Shafipoor, Iran …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21 Iranian EFL Learners' Attitude towards Culture Teaching Ghazaleh Cheraghpour Samvati, Iran …………………………………………………………………………..…………………….. 28 Health Discourse in Media: the Language of Breast Cancer Prevention Anna O. Stebletsova & Valeria V. Enkova, Russia ………………………………………………………………………………… 35

British and American Varieties in Legalese Jana Spálová, Slovakia ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……….. 43 Subordinate Causal Clauses in Albanian Language Fabiana Velencia, Albania …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…….. 47 Causative Sentence Characteristic’s Based on its Semantic Structure (In English and Albanian language) Fabiana Velencia, Albania ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 51

Odborné jazykové vzdelávanie a CLIL / Language education for jobs & CLIL Výuka cizích jazyků s odborným zaměřením Marie Černíková, Česká republika …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57 Bilingual Education vs. CLIL Veronika Szombatová, Slovakia ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 59 CLIL lesson from the point of view of an ESP teacher Gabriela Chmelíková, Slovakia ....................................................................................................................................................... 69 Via International Cooperation towards CLIL Teacher Competence Enhancement Ľudmila Hurajová, Slovakia ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 76




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Jazyk a komunikácia vo výskume / Language and communication of research Rozvíjanie prirodzenej komunikačnej kompetencie ako predpoklad pre vstup do sociovedeckej komunikácie Zdenka Schwarzová, Slovakia ......................................................................................................................................... 84 Content analysis in pedagogical research

Zuzana Šimková, Slovakia ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 95

The Semi - structured Interview in Foreign Language Education Research

Veronika Szombatová, Slovakia ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 109

Dobrá prax vo vyučovaní jazykov / Good practice in teaching languages Cudzí jazyk a rómski žiaci zo SZP Eva Farkašová, Slovensko ……………………………………………………………........................................................................ 121 Seriál a sitkom na hodine anglického jazyka Ester Demjanová, Slovensko ......................................................................................................................................................... 127 Making English Spelling and Pronunciation Logical Daniela Sóradová, Slovakia ............................................................................................................................................................ 139

Zamerané na literatúru a hudbu / Focus on literature and music Society's Role on the Construction of Individual Identity in Jane Eyre & The Picture of Dorian Gray Ayse Ekici, Turkey ……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………… 153 The Aspects of a Young Adult Novel in Homer's The Iliad (New Interpretive Viewpoint) Mihaela Majetić & Tina Varga Oswald, Croatia .................................................................................................................. 159 Learning Languages through Music, Teaching Music through Languages Elena Kováčiková, Slovakia …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..172




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Úvod

Predkladaná publikácia prináša výberkonferenčných príspevkov, ktoré odzneli na medyinárodnej

vedeckej konferencii LLCE2016: Súčasné výzvy vo vyučovaní jazykov: ako ďalej? Konferencia bola určená pre riaditeľov a učiteľov materských, základných a stredných škôl, jazykových škôl a centier, školských manažérov, expertov, akademikov, autorov a vydavateľov učebníc, ako aj iných odborníkov zapojených do jazykového vzdelávania. Jej cieľom je vytvoriť platformu pre výmenu názorov, skúseností, príkladov dobrej praxe, ale aj kritických poznámok na tému súčasného vývoja v oblasti vyučovania materinských jazykov a cudzojazyčného vzdelávania na Slovensku, v Českej republike a v iných krajinách. Počas konferencie sa účastníci oboznámia s novinkami z oblasti učebníc a učebných materiálov pre výučbu materinského jazyka a cudzojazyčné vzdelávanie.

Hlavné témy konferencie:

inovácie v jazykovom a cudzojazyčnom vzdelávaní v MŠ, ZŠ a SŠ odborné jazykové vzdelávanie pre budúce povolania a CLIL príprava učiteľov pre vyučovanie materinského jazyka a cudzojazyčné vzdelávanie bilingválne vzdelávanie a rozvoj plurilingvizmu

Ďalšie témy:

počiatočný rozvoj gramotnosti, počiatočné jazykové a cudzojazyčné vzdelávanie jazykové a cudzojazyčné vzdelávanie na predprimárnom, primárnom a sekundárnom stupni

vzdelávania plánovanie a hodnotenie kvality jazykového a cudzojazyčného vzdelávania celoživotné cudzojazyčné vzdelávanie príprava učiteľov materinského, druhého a cudzieho jazyka digitálne a počítačmi podporované jazykové a cudzojazyčné vzdelávanie materiálne zabezpečenie jazykového a cudzojazyčného vzdelávania ostatné problémy týkajúce sa súčasného stavu jazykového vzdelávania na Slovensku a vo svete

Konferencia LLCE2016: Súčasné výzvy vo vyučovaní jazykov: ako ďalej? sa realizovala ako súčasť nasledujúcich projektov a prezentuje ich priebežné výsledky:

055UKF-4/2016: Tvorba digitálnych vysokoškolských učebníc a multimediálnej didaktickej podpory pre skupiny predmetov Metodológia lingvodidaktického výskumu a Metodológia literárnodidaktického výskumu

VEGA č. 1/0637/16 s názvom Vývoj diagnostického nástroja na hodnotenie úrovne fonematického uvedomovania u detí v predškolskom veku

Experimentálne overovanie: Metodika CLIL v nižšom sekundárnom vzdelávaní (č. 2013-17361/52642:3-922)

ERASMUS+ 2015-1-SK01-KA201-008937 Transnational Exchange of good CLIL practice among European Educational Institutions

Do publikácie boli takisto zaradené vzbrané príspevky z medzinárodnej vedeckej konferencie CLEaR2016, ktorá v širšom medzinárodnom kontexte pokrývala rovnakú škálu výskumných otázok. Veríme, že takéto spojenie pohľadov a perspektív prispeje k presnejšej analýze skúmaných problémov a zároveň napomôže zintenzívneniu medzinárodného vedeckého dialógu.

Editorky




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Lifelong Learning and Adult Education in the State of Qatar

Alan S. Weber, Qatar

[email protected]

Abstract The State of Qatar has embarked on large scale educational changes as it transitions from a resource-based to a

knowledge economy. Approximately 75% of GDP derives directly from hydrocarbons and related industries. Innovations include the education hub of Education City (a consortium of international branch campuses) and K-12 reforms entitled Education for a New Era. Qatar also awards the annual international Wise Prize for education. Thus all international pedagogical best practices are being carefully reviewed by Qatar Foundation and the Supreme Education Council for adaptation to a culturally conservative Muslim nation. This contribution reviews the current Adult Education (AE) and Lifelong Learning (LLL) initiatives in the State of Qatar and situates these pedagogies within Qatar’s strategic plans for future growth and economic diversification. With a small population, moderate workforce participation rate, and prevalence of early retirement, LLL holds promise to improve the workforce and to develop citizens who pursue knowledge for purposes such as personal and social development, innate curiosity and cultural preservation.

Keywords: lifelong learning; adult education; State of Qatar

Introduction In the field of adult education (learning that occurs outside of formal compulsory education,

normally beyond the childhood years), a large array of definitions and theoretical approaches have developed historically. The classification of Informal learning / Nonformal learning / Formal learning has been useful since it recognizes several key criteria for differentiating various forms of learning: most importantly, the awarding of legally and socially recognized certifications and degrees that lead to employment and the establishment of expertise, and the compulsory nature of some forms of learning. Due to Adult Education and Continuing Education classes that are now offered through most institutions of higher learning in the developed world, formal learning can be extended throughout the life course (degrees and certifications continued into adulthood after the compulsory childhood years of education). Informal and self-directed (autonomous) learning are also important aspects of Lifelong Learning. Although informal learning is sometimes structured and can lead to a degree or certification, “informal” holds the pejorative implications of less structured, less intensive, and less rigorous (i.e. “amateurish”), although of course this is not always the case. Motivations for learning can be various, either intrinsic or extrinsic.

One international authority on Lifelong Learning, Peter Jarvis, notes that there is considerable ambiguity in this term and related terminology. As Jarvis explains, Lifelong Learning “is not a single phenomenon – it is both individual and institutional; it appears to be both a social movement and a commodity; it carries value connotations that are sometimes misleading; in one form it is a Western idea that we have tried to universalise in the light of globalisation; it is both a policy and a practice; it might be a gloss on social change or something more permanent” (Jarvis, 2009, p. 9). A simple definition, also provided by Jarvis, allows us to define the area for the purposes of discussion while recognizing the complexity and contested nature of this kind of education: Jarvis indicates that a commonsense definition of Lifelong Learning might be simply “learning from ‘cradle to grave’” (Jarvis, 2009, p. 9).

Although recent Lifelong Learning research has been increasingly used by international development agencies such as the World Bank to emphasize that the knowledge economies of the future will require a flexible workforce subject to constant retraining, the original concepts of Lifelong Learning (which stretch back to the 18th century or even earlier) were more focused on the social, cultural and personal dimensions of education. These benefits include social inclusion and harmony, the leveling of wealth inequities, developing knowledgeable citizens




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with better decision-making ability and contributing to personal happiness and well-being. According to Gallagher, Edwards, and Whittaker, “in the U.K. and more broadly in Europe, there has been a growing emphasis on policies designed to promote lifelong learning and, within this, informal or non-formal learning has been given considerable prominence. Helen Colley and her colleaugues suggest that this focus on non-formal learning was underpinned by two major concerns: the need for increased social cohesion and engagement; and the need to improve economic competitiveness. While this led to increased interest in learning outside formal educational institutions, the focus was primarily on learning in the workplace rather than in wider family or community contexts” (2006, p. 225). A more recent emphasis on the economic implications of Lifelong Learning has narrowed its theoretical focus and diluted the richness of the original concepts.

There is very little research on Lifelong Learning in Qatar. Manochehri et al. in 2012 investigated the use of the iPod nano and educational resources on iTunes to enhance Lifelong Learning skills among a small sample of nine Arabic-speaking females. Using a case study and weekly survey methodology, the researchers found the educational intervention to be beneficial (Manochehri, Gromik & Aw, 2012, p. 128). Pharmacy educators in Qatar have been active in continuing professional development of licensed pharmacists. Wilbur carried out the first needs assessment of the continuing education needs of pharmacists in Qatar in 2010. Although educational needs mirrored common concerns in other countries, employer, technology and language barriers specific to Qatar emerged (Wilbur, 2010). The need for further professional development of pharmacists in Qatar is acute, as “progress towards implementation of ‘advanced’ practice (pharmaceutical care) [in Qatar] lags notably behind that of developed countries, most of which also face the challenge that existing practising pharmacists have not been trained according to these expectations” (Wilbur, 2010, p. 240).

Background on the State of Qatar Qatar is a small gas and oil producing nation in the Persian Gulf. Highly arid with few natural

resources beyond hydrocarbons, liquid natural gas export and petroleum related industries are the main sources of income generation. A highly socialized nation governed by a hereditary monarch, social services and oil wealth are distributed to passport holding citizens via free education, water, and electricity, almost guaranteed government employment, and extensive programs for social well being. The country is a major U.S. ally, with a U.S. CENTCOM forward headquarters military base located outside of Doha. Qatar ranks as one of the wealthiest countries in the world and despite the economic downturn of 2008, government profits were sequestered in a large Sovereign Wealth Fund that has been invested internationally to provide fiscal stability against the rise and fall of the oil and gas markets. Qatar is part of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) of Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates and it shares many historical, cultural, economic, and political commonalities with its neighbors.

Education in Qatar Qatar among the Gulf nations has made the most innovative and far-ranging reforms and

refinements to its educational system among all of the GCC member states. Although significant increases in educational spending have occurred in neighboring countries such as Saudi Arabia, the main trends in that country have been to expand the existing university system, to increasingly privatize higher education, and to introduce one innovative graduate school for STEM training, King Abdullah University for Science and Technology (KAUST). In order to diversify the economy, Qatar began substantial investments in education and research and development through the founding of Qatar Foundation for Science, Education and Community Development in 1995, chaired until recently by Sheikha Moza bint Nasser, wife of the former Emir and an internationally known education advocate. Qatar Foundation subsequently built




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Education City, a consortium of nine American, British, and French university branch campuses including Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Carnegie Mellon University in Qatar, Texas A&M University-Qatar, HEC Paris, and University College London-Qatar. Each satellite campus typically offers 1-4 undergraduate degree programs to nationals and expatriates on a highly selective basis. In addition, Qatar Science and Technology Park provides business incubation for Education City research ideas and Qatar National Research Fund is the recently established national research fund modeled after the NSF in the United States. Along with higher education reform, the Supreme Education Council launched Education for a New Era in 2001-2, a complete overhaul of the K-12 education system prepared by RAND corporation. The programs changed teacher training, national curricula, and assessment and impacted every facet of the educational system. These investments in education are partially designed to transition Qatar away from natural resources production, which dominates the economy, towards knowledge economy initiatives (Weber, 2014; 2011).

Lifelong Learning Initiatives in Qatar Interest in Lifelong Learning in Qatar dates back to 1982 when Dr. Nabil Ahmed Amer Sobeih

delivered a paper entitled “Lifelong Education in University Life in the Arab Countries: The Qatar University Experience” at the Annual Meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society in New York City. The speech discussed in detail “various views of the relative functions, content, and duration of initial and higher education; new procedures of admission and the evaluation of experience; new organizational patterns required for the purpose of lifelong education (e.g., recurrent education, credit system); special problems arising in the organization of short courses, refresher courses, and other options at the higher education level; ways of ensuring that the underprivileged socioeconomic classes take advantage of widening opportunities for higher education; means of ensuring high participation by the teaching staff in efforts to make lifelong education a reality in universities; the community service function of higher education, including the role of university extension services; and the contribution of higher education to reform of primary and secondary education” (Sobeih, 1982). Due to the sparse information on the history and development of education in Qatar in the 1980s and 1990s, it is unclear how many of these suggestions were implemented.

The Supreme Education Council which oversees education in the State of Qatar recently announced reforms in Adult Education to service Qatari adults who have dropped out of the regular education system or who have left school for reasons such as marriage. The new Adult Education system will not require class attendance but will offer home study and participants will be able to sit for examinations. The SEC also provides an existing parallel system of evening Adult Education classes. Saad Al Dirham, who directs the Independent Schools Office in Qatar, indicated that “adult education is a complementary education system comprising three levels and extending 10 years in total” (Peninsula, 2015).

One of the earliest informal learning opportunities in Qatar was the Qatar Scientific Club established in 1987. Divisions of the club include aviation science, astronomy, electronics and electricity. Young scientists and other interested amateurs can engage in workshops and seminars on a variety of scientific topics (due to gender segregation in the society, women can join the separate Scientific Girls Club). The purpose of the club is to “promote a supportive and innovative scientific environment for young people to learn and create to serve the Qatari society” (QSC, 2016).

Private museums have also provided learning opportunities for local residents. Sheikh Faisal’s museum in Al Rayyan is well known and is open to interested parties by special appointment. Growing out of the Sheikh’s wide-ranging interests in Quranic learning, the ecology, botany and geography of Qatar, as well as classic cars and traditional Qatari culture, the exhibits document Qatar’s transition from a traditional Bedouin society into a modern Gulf state. Similar institutions have arisen from the individual interests among wealthy Qatari




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patrons, such as Sheikh Saoud Bin Mohd. Bin Ali Al-Thani’s Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation. The research and conservation institute provides learning opportunities for technicians involved in international wildlife conservation. Al Wabra has been a pioneer in efforts to study, breed, and reintroduce threatened species such as the Imperial Amazon, Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco, Swayne’s Hartebeest and the Blue Headed Quail Dove (Al Wabra, 2016).

The internationally recognized efforts of Sheikh Saoud, who fits well the paradigm of the lifelong learner, form part of what Determann calls “islands of efficiency” in the scientific culture of the Gulf (Determann, 2015). Due to sometimes inefficient government bureaucracies and the lack of a scientific culture, scientific research initiatives in the GCC can be tenuous, but individual sponsorship of specific projects driven by personal interest and wealth can achieve impressive results or “islands of efficiency” in Determann’s terminology – Sheikh Saoud’s advancement of environmental learning and his contributions to scientific knowledge outside of formal and state-supported institutions such as universities demonstrates the value of Lifelong Learning for both a community and an individual. Visitors to the Al Wabra center are often greeted by Sheikh Saoud himself who reveals great satisfaction in his conservation endeavors.

Qatar’s WISE education initiative which offers education conferences and an annual education laureate prize to international educators, has been in the forefront of Lifelong Learning in Qatar. Lifelong Learning was featured on Learning World, “a series of weekly TV programs on education developed in the framework of a partnership between WISE and Euronews. It broadcasts 16 times a week to all continents in 13 languages. Most programs revolve around 3 stories of 2-3 minutes each, and highlight education issues from around that globe that surprise, inform and entertain” (WISE, 2016). A series of videos was produced including a pilot project ‘Recognition of Experiential Learning in Mauritius’ in partnership with UNESCO “to develop a national approach to help people needing to formalize their skills. Thanks to Caritas's functional literacy and life skills classes, the program allows people who have been barely exposed to school to gain self esteem and professional development” (WISE, 2016). The program featured two videos specifically related to Lifelong Learning, for example an interview with Yves Attou who is the President of the World Committee for Lifelong Learning.

As part of economic diversification strategies into tangible and intangible heritage preservation, (University College London in Qatar offers several graduate degrees in museums, conservation, librarianship, etc.), two newly opened museums of art in Qatar are promoting both Lifelong Learning and Adult Education. For example the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha designed by I.M. Pei does not as of 2016 charge admission to its collections and offers many opportunities for members of the public to increase their knowledge of Islamic art and Islamic science (the museum houses one of the largest collections of astrolabes in the world). Workshops include calligraphy and various visual art programs and patrons can join the Majlis Book Club with both Arabic and English sections. The museum houses a library open to the public and researchers regularly deliver both scholarly and general public lectures in the atrium and lecture theatre. When the biennial Hamad bin Khalifa Symposium on Islamic Art is held in Doha, it is scheduled in the facilities of the MIA. The MIA specifically situates its programs within the Lifelong Learning paradigm: according to its Lifelong Learning statement on its website, “Learning at MIA is a natural complement to learning in the classroom. MIA is an enriching environment in which children can experience a different approach to learning through engagement with objects. We provide teacher training sessions on this unique perspective on education. This supports lifelong learning for teachers in Qatar” (MIA, 2016).

Lifelong Learning at Qatar Foundation and Education City Several of the branch campuses of Education City, the consortium of international branch

campuses in Doha which deliver programs in Medicine, Arts and Design, Political Science, and Business and Computer Science, endorse Lifelong Learning and most of the campuses have




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developed programs, workshops or other opportunities in the area of adult education, such as academic conferences open to the public. Virginia Commonwealth University in Qatar, for example, offers extensive community adult education courses in many branches of the arts, such as jewelry design, painting, and computer graphics.

The President of Qatar Foundation Engineer Saad Al Muhannadi believes that Lifelong Learning is critical for the future since much of Qatar’s wealth derives from the advanced technology related to Liquefied Natural Gas that is employed at the state-owned LNG production companies Qatar Petroleum and RasGas. According to Al Muhannadi: “the Foundation's success so far is, ‘in-line with its mission to unlock human potential and help Qatar in its journey to build a knowledge-based economy. Qatar Foundation has succeeded in creating a comprehensive campus at Education City that has enabled thousands of young men and women to actively participate in the successful development of Qatar. Our unique concept ensures QF's graduates will become the nation's next generation of leaders; adept in critical thinking, and with a desire for lifelong learning’" (U.S. Newswire, 2015).

According to Faisal Al Kuwari, a proponent of Lifelong Learning who graduated from HEC Paris in Qatar in 2016 with an Executive Master’s Degree in Business Administration, continual skills development is a national priority due to the national developmental plan outlined in the Qatar National Vision 2030, and due to the small size of the Qatari population, estimated at 250,000 passport holding individuals: “It is important to ensure that we continue to learn and develop so that Qatar can remain a competitive international economy,” Faisal explained in an interview. “If we do not sustain learning as an ongoing process of development, then we will fail to equip Qatari professionals with the skills and tools they need to succeed, both nationally and internationally” (Qatar Foundation News, 2016).

The Education Development Institute (EDI) was established in Qatar to support Lifelong Learning and professional education for teachers in the State of Qatar. According to their mission statement: the “Education Development Institute (EDI) serves as a center of excellence in professional development and lifelong learning, by supporting the growth and development of the educational community within Qatar and internationally. EDI supports educators in Qatar by hosting the educational community, including faculty, administrators, and staff which are seeking to engage in the best and most promising practices which have been designed to improve student achievement and increase success. EDI is a member of Qatar Foundation for Education, Science, and Community Development (QF), which proudly boasts around 50 centers, all committed to the goal of unlocking human potential, nurturing Qatar’s next generation of leaders, and playing a pivotal role in ensuring a bright and prosperous future for the nation” (EDI, 2016).

Some of the workshops that have been offered by the EDI in 2015 include “Best Practices in Primary Mathematics,” “Creating a Balanced Literacy Program in Your Classroom,” and “A positive and Proactive approach to Classroom Management.” The EDI has partnered with the International Baccalaureate Program to provide ongoing teacher training as well. The EDI supports Lifelong Learning not just for furthering professional skills development in teachers, similar to Continuing Medical Education (CME) in the health sciences, but also for general teacher well being: “QF believes that professional development should be ongoing for all educators, irrespective of experience ̶ not only for continuous professional and personal growth, but to ensure that educators keep improving the learning experiences and outcomes of all their students” (EDI, 2016).

Lifelong Learning was part of Texas A&M in Qatar’s strategic plan for 2010-15. In line with its mission to develop “the desire for lifelong learning,” “Texas A&M University at Qatar has long been a pioneer in lifelong learning in Education City by developing distinguished speaker series, industry sponsored workshops, seminars, symposia, and conferences aimed at advancing the lifelong learning desire of students” (TAMU-Q, 2016). Additionally, Northwestern University in




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Qatar, which provides Communications and Journalism programs in Education City, will have a dedicated Lifelong Learning center in its new facilities in 2016-17.

Carnegie Mellon University, the parent institution of the Qatar satellite campus which offers programs in Business and Computer Science in Doha, has been involved with community Lifelong Learning through its affiliate institution the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute in Pittsburgh, PA. According to its mission statement, the “Osher Lifelong Learning Institute (OLLI), formerly the Academy for Lifelong Learning, is a gathering of people eager to enhance their education by attending classes in a pleasant atmosphere on the campus of a great university. Any adult in the Pittsburgh area is eligible to join the Osher Institute at Carnegie Mellon” (CMU, 2016).

Weill Cornell Medicine in Qatar (WCM-Q), Qatar’s first medical school, has recently introduced Continuing Medical Education (CME) into its programs open to local health practitioners as well as WCM-Q faculty in line with new regulation requirements in the State of Qatar from the Supreme Council of Health (SCH). However as Weber has argued, CME–while sharing many attributes of Lifelong Learning–does not simply represent a subset of Lifelong Learning, but is more skills- and professions-based (updating of previous professional skill sets). But the general philosophy that learning should not stop at the end of the normal compulsory period in childhood is shared by both CME and Lifelong Learning (Weber, 2016).

E-learning has been promoted in Qatar as a means of efficiently providing Lifelong Learning opportunities to the entire population, particularly for homebound individuals. The Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC) developed a national e-learning portal for learners of all levels in the fields of business and communications which offers over 3,000 online courses (MOTC, 2016). No data, however, could be obtained from the Ministry on the enrollment numbers or usage rates of the courses.

Qatar Foundation’s 3rd Annual Teaching and Learning Forum conference was specifically devoted to Lifelong Learning in 2016. Opened by H E Sheikha Hind bint Hamad Al Thani, CEO and Vice- Chairperson of Qatar Foundation (QF), the conference featured such Lifelong Learning experts as Andy Hargreaves, the Thomas More Brennan Chair in the Lynch School of Education and Professor in the Carroll School of Management at Boston College and Dr Simon Breakspear, founder and CEO of LearnLabs (Peninsula, 2016). Both speakers emphasized that Lifelong Learning must be implemented at all levels and that learning outcomes and targeted strategies should be placed foremost as oftentimes when institutes rush to develop Lifelong Learning and Adult Education opportunities, failed simplistic strategies such as only offering online modules and portals to the public can be the result.

Conclusion Although a relatively recent concept in education in the State of Qatar–but one that was

recognized as early as the 1980s–the Lifelong Learning paradigm has been widely adopted in a variety of institutional contexts as a best practice to meet the human resource needs of the rapidly developing State of Qatar, as well as to enrich its citizens personally and socially. Qatar’s focus on education and social development funded by surplus government revenues from its tremendous natural gas resources (estimated the third largest in the world) has produced several tangible results such as Education City, Qatar Science and Technology Park, and Education for a New Era. Since high quality K-12 and tertiary education is a new phenomenon in Qatar, educational development has been driven by international best practices developed by external consultants. Human capacity development as well has been specifically targetted as a priority area for governmental investment. The small population of Qatar and its large GDP allows the government to provide universal free basic and higher education to all of its citizens, and the Supreme Education Council as well as the former Emir H.E. Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani and and his wife Sheikha Moza bin Nasser have been strong advocates for high skills attainment for all citizens. Also, due to high levels of personal income, many adults are able to




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retire from the workforce at an early age in Qatar, thus Lifelong Learning can provide the satisfaction, social opportunities and personal growth normally found in the workplace for most adults. High youth unemployment in Qatar is also a challenge where Lifelong Learning can serve as a bridge to stimulate interest in young adults to pursue the many formal educational oppportunies available to them, including community college and technical and vocational training (Weber, 2013).

Acknowledgment & Permissions The author reports no financial, research or personal conflicts of interest related to this

research. The views expressed are those of the author and not necessarily those of Weill Cornell Medicine – Qatar (WCM-Q), Cornell University, or Qatar Foundation for Science, Education and Community Development. No human or animal subjects were used in the research. References Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation. (2016). Conservation. Retrieved from

http://awwp.alwabra.com Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). (2016). Osher lifelong learning institute. Retrieved from

http://www.cmu.edu/osher/ DETERMANN, J. M. (2015). Researching biology and evolution in the gulf states: Networks of

science in the middle east. London: I. B. Tauris. Education Development Institute (EDI). (2016). About EDI. Retrieved from

http://www.edi.qa/about-edi GALLACHER, J., EDWARDS, R., & WHITTAKER, S. (Eds.). (2006). Learning outside the academy:

international research perspectives on lifelong learning. London: Routledge. JARVIS, P. (Ed.). (2009). The Routledge international handbook of lifelong learning. London:

Routledge. MANOCHEHRI, N-N., GROMIK, N., & AW, S.L. (2012). The integration of portable technology to

enhance lifelong learning skills. Business Education Innovation Journal 4(2), 128-35. Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC). (2016). Qatar national e-learning portal.

Retrieved from http://www.elearning.ictqatar.qa/ Museum of Islamic Art (MIA). (2016). Lifelong learning. Retrieved from

http://www.mia.org.qa/en/ learning /teachers/lifelong-learning The Peninsula. (2015, September 8). SEC for reforms in adult education system. Retrieved from

http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/news/qatar/351903/sec-for-reforms-in-adult-education-system

The Peninsula. (2016, May 1). Qatar foundation organises 3rd annual teaching and learning forum. Retrieved from http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/news/qatar/380324/qatar-foundation-organises-3rd-annual-teaching-and-learning-forum

Qatar Foundation News. (2016, May 4). QF students personify lifelong learning. Retrieved from http://www.qf.org.qa/news/qf-students-personify-lifelong-learning

Qatar Scientific Club (QCS). (2016). Nabdhat an al-nadi [about the club]. Retrieved from http://qsc.org.qa/

Texas A&M University in Qatar (TAMU-Q). (2016). Teaching and learning. Retrieved from http://www.qatar.tamu.edu/about/mission-vision/strategic-plan/progress-report/teaching-learning/

SOBEIH, N. A. A. (1982). Lifelong education in university life in the arab countries: The Qatar university experience. UNESCO. Paper presented at the 26th Annual Meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society (New York, NY, March 18-21, 1982).

U.S. Newswire. (2015, November 11). From the first lady's visit to scholarship for a 'clock making' texas teenager, how qatar foundation's world class education is becoming globally recognized. Retrieved from http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/from-the-first-




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ladys-visit-to-scholarship-for-a-clock-making-texas-teenager-how-qatar-foundations-world-class-education-is-becoming-globally-recognized-300176935.html

WEBER, A. S. (2011). What is a knowledge economy? Oil-rich nations post-oil. The International Journal of Science in Society, 2, 1-9.

WEBER, A. S. (2013). Youth unemployment and sustainable development: Case study of qatar. Revista de Asistenţă Socială, 12(1), 1-11.

WEBER, A. S. (2014). Education, development and sustainability in Qatar: A case study of economic and knowledge transformation in the Arabian Gulf. In: Wiseman, A.W., Alromi, N.H., & Alshumrani, S., (Eds.). Education for a knowledge society in Arabian Gulf countries (pp. 59-82). London: Emerald Group Publishing.

WEBER, A. S. (2016). Continuing medical education (CME) and lifelong learning (LLL): A Semantic ontology for two learning modalities. International Journal of Human Sciences, forthcoming.

WILBUR, K. (2010). Continuing professional pharmacy development needs assessment of Qatar pharmacists. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 18, 236-41.

WISE. (2016). Learning world. Retrieved from http://www.wise-qatar.org/learning-world-lifelong-learning

Contact Alan S. Weber, Associate Professor of English Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar Box 24144 Education City Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development Doha, State of Qatar 24144 [email protected]




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La consolidation de l’enseignement / apprentissage du vocabulaire du français

langue étrangère en Libye

Alsadag H. E Alsadag, Libye [email protected]

Résumé

L'enseignement du vocabulaire occupe une place très importante dans l'enseignement ainsi que l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère. La pauvreté lexicale est l’une des causes essentielles des difficultés de production, expression orale et écrite chez les étudiants de français aux départements de français aux universités en Libye, Dans notre recherche, nous allons essayer de savoir comment nous pourrons renforcer l’enseignement / apprentissage du vocabulaire ou du lexique du français dans un pays arabophone ? Comment faciliter la mémorisation des vocabulaires ? Comment l’étudiant acquiert-il des mots ? Comment les étudiants surmontent leur incompréhension, leur fermeture et leur peur ? Comment pourrons-nous aider les étudiants à savoir utiliser des mots dans le discours de la manière correcte ? Nous avons opté pour la méthode audio-visuelle (MAV) parce que nous pensons qu’elle est adaptée à la situation de tout étudiant de langue maternelle autre que le français. Elle se caractérise par l’utilisation de deux sens le plus important : l’ouïe et la vision. L’étudiant est obligé de prêter attention. Ses capacités intellectuelles interviennent pour saisir le sens de chaque mot et de chaque phrase afin de les rendre compréhensibles.

Mots-clés : FLE, MAV, Lexique et Vocabulaire, Utilisation, Acquisition, connaissances Abstract The Vocabulary learning and teaching occupies a very important place in education as well as learning a foreign

language. Lexical poverty is one of the main cause’s production difficulties, oral and written expression among students of French departments at the universities in Libya, in our research; we will try to find out how we can strengthen the teaching / learning vocabularies or the French lexicon in Arabic-speaking country.? How to facilitate vocabulary memorization? How the student acquires words? How can we help students overcome their misunderstandings, their closure and fear? How can we help student to learn to use words in the speech in the correct manner? We opted for the audio-visual method because we believe it is appropriate to the situation of any student having other mother tongue than French. It is characterized by the use of two most important senses: hearing and vision. The student is obliged to pay attention. Intellectual capacity involved to grasp the meaning of each word and each sentence to make them understandable.

Key words: French foreign language, audio-visual method, lexicon and vocabulary, use, acquisition, knowledge.

Introduction nous avons remarqué durant notre travail aux département de français aux universités en

Libye les grandes difficultés dans l’apprentissage du vocabulaire et dans son utilisation pour les apprenants adultes libyens.

L’apprentissage du vocabulaire français en Libye a toujours connu des difficultés, les étudiants se trouvent face à un mot inconnu, leur compréhension du document est bloquée, car ils ignorent la notion de la compréhension globale. Ils se trouvent devant quelques mots incompréhensibles dans un texte écrit ou oral.

La consolidation de l’enseignement / apprentissage du vocabulaire du français au département de français en Libye chez des étudiants pour lesquels le français est langue étrangère est évidemment nécessaire.

Elle nécessite la capacité de mémoriser et comprendre les vocabulaires, de bien les prononcer et de les utiliser oralement et par écrit. Pour cela il faut passer par différents stades de formation et d’apprentissage plus ou moins longs selon la progression des apprenants.

Pourquoi avons-nous opté pour la méthode audio-visuelle dans l’enseignement du

vocabulaire en Libye ? Les étudiants libyens entament l’apprentissage de la langue française à un âge avancé alors

qu’ils ignorent tout de cette langue. Ils ont besoin d’un soutien considérable pour progresser rapidement dans leurs connaissances linguistiques. La méthode audiovisuelle permet de progression assez rapide dans l’enseignement de la nouvelle langue. Cette méthode contribue




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surtout à la résolution des problèmes de la prononciation et de l’articulation. Les divers moyens et techniques utilisés permettent de saisir et de lire le texte (l’illustration comme les dessine et les photos.. ou le dialogue) dans un premier temps, de le comprendre, de le prononcer et de le répéter si nécessaire. L’enregistrement de la prononciation permet par la suite de se corriger.

L’enseignement du vocabulaire Français par la méthode audiovisuelle Les mêmes techniques sont utilisées pour enseigner le vocabulaire. Elles sont plus

appropriées pour la pratique orale de la langue. Les compétences linguistiques se développent progressivement sous le contrôle de l’enseignant. L’apprenant doit écouter/regarder, puis parler, ensuite lire puis écrire. Les mots sont introduits dans des textes et les apprenants sont invités à les lire (prononciation) comprendre leur sens, chercher les mots de la même famille et leurs significations. Enfin l’élève est encouragé vers l’utilisation de ces mots dans des phrases correctes. Dans tout ce processus, on est obligé de recourir à la grammaire et à la conjugaison pour connaitre les différentes situations de ces nouveaux mots(le pluriel des noms par exemple) ou les différents changements lors de leur conjugaison quand ils sont des verbes.

L’assimilation du vocabulaire français dans le milieu libyen Le français est pour les libyens une vraie langue étrangère. Contrairement aux voisins

tunisiens et algériens, ils ignorent totalement cette langue avec laquelle ils n’ont aucun lien historique. Ils n’en connaissent que les lettres et pas du tout leur prononciation. Ils doivent donc tout reprendre à zéro ; d’où l’énormité de la tâche. Le bagage linguistique (arabe et anglais) ne peut leur être d’aucune utilité. Chaque mot nouveau constitue pour eux une nouvelle difficulté qu’il faut surmonter tant au niveau de la prononciation qu’à celui de la compréhension et l’utilisation.

Le Rôle de l’ouïe et de la vision dans l’enseignement du vocabulaire en Libye L’ouïe et la vision sont les sens principaux sur lesquels repose et se base la méthode

audiovisuelle. Leur rôle est primordial. Il va sans dire que la méthode en question n’est nullement adressée aux personnes ayant des difficultés visuelles ou auditives. La méthode concerne uniquement les personnes bien portantes et jouissantes d’une bonne ouïe et d’une bonne vision. Ainsi, elles seraient en mesure de bien visionner les textes les dessins les photos et les séquences vidéo. De même seraient-elles capables de capter tous les sons dialogues ou bruits divers… L’ouïe et la vision sont les moyens d’approche de la langue enseignée. Elles permettent la lecture, la saisie du texte ou de l’illustration afin d’en comprendre presque simultanément le sens et le contenu.

Surmonter l’incompréhension, l’enfermement et la peur chez les étudiants dans

l’enseignement du vocabulaire en Libye Le maniement du matériel audiovisuel dans un bureau individuel éloigne l’élève libyen de

tous les inconvénients de l’enseignement classique à savoir la présence d’autres personnes dans une même classe. L’élève est constamment soumis à des pressions négatives. Il a peur de ne rien comprendre de mal prononcer et d’émettre de mauvaises réponses. Pour toutes ces raisons, il s’enferme et refuse de communiquer e ou de participer au cours. Le résultat est très médiocre pour la plupart des élèves ou des étudiants. Avec la méthode audiovisuelle : l’apprenant se sent seul et jouit d’une certaine liberté face au matériel qu’il manipule. Il est sûr qu’il n’est écouté et contrôlé que par son professeur. Du coup il n’a plus peur de communiquer d’articuler de répondre aux questions et de faire des exercices. Il n’a plus peur de faire des fautes, personne ne se moquera de lui !! Son professeur lui expliquera ses fautes et l’ordinateur lui montrera les bonnes réponses. Donc, du côté psychologique, cette méthode est très importante puisqu’elle met en place par ses techniques diversifiées, des conditions très favorables à l’apprentissage de




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la langue en général et de du vocabulaire en particulier. L’apprenant se comporte avec le matériel mis à sa disposition comme il s’agissait d’un jeu. Il s’amuse à répéter, à lire et à écrire les mots proposés et à exécuter les exercices demandés.

L’utilisation correcte du vocabulaire Le vocabulaire constitue l’ensemble des mots d’une langue. Dans cet ensemble, on distingue

les noms, les verbes, les adjectifs, les pronoms personnels, les conjonctions de subordination ou de coordination, les interjections les adverbes de temps, de manière ou de lieu etc…

L’utilisation correcte du vocabulaire suppose pouvoir manier ces mots à l’écrit et à l’oral. L’apprentissage doit commencer assez tôt. Plus tôt on le commence, plus le résultat est meilleur. L’apprenant est appelé à connaitre le mot, son écriture, sa prononciation, ses différentes utilisations sa signification, ses différents changements et accords (genre et membre pour les noms par exemple…), ses racines et les mots qui en sont dérivés (les adverbes extraits des adjectifs par exemple…). Pour les verbes il faut savoir les conjuguer. Mais tout cela n’est pas suffisant car il faut savoir quel temps utiliser et quand. Bref l’utilisation correcte exige des cours de grammaire, de conjugaison et de construction de phrases…

L’usage du laboratoire résout les problèmes de la prononciation, de l’écriture et de l’enseignement de la grammaire en multipliant les exercices oraux et écrits qui ont une relation avec le placement des mots, leurs accords et leurs différentes significations.

Le temps nécessaire dans les laboratoires pour la mémorisation du vocabulaire. Le travail en laboratoire est surtout indispensable durant les deux premières années

d’apprentissage. Il faut compter au moins deux heures de laboratoire par semaine pour chaque groupe d’élèves. On pourrait aussi consacrer la moitié des séances de l’apprentissage de la langue française au travail en laboratoire ; par exemple trois séances de deux heures par semaine et leur équivalent au travail en groupe. L’utilisation du matériel de laboratoire assure une certaine efficacité car il fait appel à l’ouïe et à la vision c-à-dire les sens les plus importants pour la connaissance. Ainsi les séances du travail en classe seraient consacrées aux cours classiques (en groupe) où tous les élèves assistent aux explications du professeur et à ses consignes qu’ils doivent appliquer. Ces séances attisent la concurrence entre les apprenants, car chacun d’eux veut montrer qu’il a compris la leçon et que ses réponses sont justes. C’est à cette occasion que les problèmes de la timidité et de la peur de mal répondre devant les camarades de classe pourraient surgir.

Les séances de laboratoires sont l’occasion pour l’étudiant d’être tout à fait libre et de se sentir seul. Il apprend à son aise et s’amuse à répéter quand il s’agit de lecture et de correction de la prononciation. Il peut répondre aux questions par écrit, l’ordinateur se charge de lui corriger ses fautes, alors que le professeur pourrait le contrôler à tout moment et lui prodiguer des conseils.

Cependant, il est conseillé de ne pas utiliser l’audiovisuel au-delà de deux ans d’apprentissage car l’étudiant est jugé à ce stade capable de lire et d’écrire. C’est l’approfondissement des connaissances linguistiques qui à travers des lectures à thèmes. A ce moment-là, il s’agit d’acquérir du vocabulaire tout en s’initiant en progressant dans les cours de grammaire et de conjugaison.

L’acquisition des connaissances lexicales chez les étudiants libyens Le français pour les étudiants libyens est une langue tout à fait étrangère ; Ils n’en

connaissent que les lettres latines mais pas du tout leur prononciation en français du moment qu’ils les ont déjà connues en apprenant la langue anglaise. Cette situation pourrait avoir des conséquences négatives sur la prononciation du français.

Deux cas pourraient néanmoins aider l’étudiant libyen à avancer rapidement dans la connaissance de la langue française en général et de son vocabulaire plus particulièrement :




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L’enseignant connaît et maîtrise la langue arabe : cette situation est très bénéfique pour

l’étudiant car son professeur pourrait avoir recours à la langue arabe pour expliquer certains mots ou certaines situations.

L’enseignant est étranger (français par exemple) mais maîtrise la langue anglaise. C’est également très bénéfique pour les apprenants : Dans ces deux cas le professeur recourt à une autre langue que les étudiants connaissent ou

maitrisent pour des explications très amples quand c’est nécessaire surtout pour du nouveau vocabulaire. Ainsi on évite l’incompréhension et le blocage qui engendrent la peur, la no- participation ou même l’enfermement.

Comment renforcer l’enseignement / l apprentissage du vocabulaire ou du lexique du

français dans un pays arabophone ? Il y a des arabophones comme le Maroc, l’Algérie, la Tunisie et le Liban dans une moindre

mesure, et pour des raisons historiques (le colonialisme), où la langue française est bien ancrée. Pour presque tous les autres pays arabes, cette langue reste toujours étrangère difficile d’accès et négligée à cause de la forte pénétration de la langue anglaise dans les traditions éducationnelles, dans la société et dans les rouages économiques.

C’est dans cette deuxième catégorie de pays qu’il demandé de d’approfondir et de renforcer l’apprentissage du vocabulaire ou du lexique français. Pour cela, il faut disposer la volonté officielle et mettre en place une vraie politique de l’enseignement des langues. Il va falloir choisir entre enseigner le français à une élite ou bien généraliser pour le réaliser pour toutes les catégories sociales, donc l’enseigner dans toutes les écoles. D’autre part, faudrait-il choisir entre l’utilisation du français e tant que langue de communication ou bien en tant que langue de transmission du savoir et ses sciences. Dans ce dernier cas, il faudrait une maîtrise très approfondi de cette langue. Ainsi les perspectives de poursuites des études dans les universités francophones s’ouvriraient largement devant les postulants susceptibles.

De même faudrait-il engager de grands investissements afin de passer à l’action et à la réalisation des objectifs tracés, c-à-dire établir des programmes d’enseignement adéquats et commencer par l’enseignement des élèves dans les écoles et à l’université. Mais tout cela devrait s’accompagner par d’autre actions tel le recrutement des enseignants, la mise en place des infrastructures (laboratoires, classes, matériel didactique etc…) et la préparation des programmes et des livres scolaires. .

L’engagement d’un corps professoral adéquat et connaissant les spécificités des pays arabes et de leurs traditions et leur patrimoine linguistique, constitue la priorité numéro un de cette voix d’éducation. La seconde réside dans l’utilisation des moyens techniques le plus modernes pour assurer le renforcement de de l’apprentissage du vocabulaire et en premier lieu les laboratoires des langues.

La troisième priorité n’est que l’obligation de choisir une méthode pédagogique en harmonie avec les objectifs de la politique de l’enseignement des langues.

Comment utiliser correctement des mots selon le contexte Utiliser des mots correctement selon le contexte à travers la production d’une phrase, veut

dire tout simplement maitriser la façon de s’exprimer en français au moins partiellement. L’apprentissage de cette langue n’est autre qu’une évolution progressive dans la connaissance de ses secrets et dans la maitrise de ses structures et de ses règles. C’est un édifice qui se construit petit à petit pour aboutir à la perfection d l’usage de la langue à l’écrit comme à l'oral.

La procédure consiste à connaitre le nouveau mot sur le plan de l’écriture, la prononciation et la signification. Ensuite on le met dans un contexte donné (en l’utilisant dans une phrase) pour savoir comment l’employer. L’étudiant est appelé par la suite à l’utiliser lui-même dans une ou plusieurs phrases (en cas de plusieurs significations) pour bien le comprendre et le




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retenir. L’enseignant doit corriger les usages maladroits et veiller à la bonne utilisation du vocabulaire.

S’il s’agit d’un verbe, le travail demandé est beaucoup plus approfondi car toutes les étapes qu’on vient de relater, l’enseignant est appelé à montrer aux apprenants comment il est conjugué à tous les temps. De même serait-il intéressant d’exposer les différents autres mots qu’on pourrait extraire de ce verbe comme le nom, l’adjectif, et l’adverbe exemple pour le verbe calmer (le calme, calme, et calmement…). Tout cela enrichit l’acquis linguistique de l’apprenant.

CONCLUSION L’apprentissage du vocabulaire pour les étudiants libyens est une tâche très difficile parce

qu’il commence tardivement c’est-à-dire à un moment où les apprenants sont âgés de vingt ans. Mais l’utilisation de la langue arabe ou la langue anglaise comme une langue de référence et de soutien, pourrait être bénéfique si les enseignants maitrisaient l’une de ces langues. Cet apprentissage rencontre également d’autres obstacles tels la prononciation ou le manque de la pratique dû à l’usage limité de la langue (uniquement en classe). Cependant la méthode audiovisuelle pourrait faciliter énormément la compréhension des cours et l’avancement rapide dans l’acquisition du vocabulaire. Bibliographie BOGAARDS, P. (2008). Le vocabulaire dans l’apprentissage des langues étrangères. Paris:

Didier CALAQUE, E. & DAVID, J. (2004). Didactique du lexique. Contextes, démarches, supports.

Bruxelles : de Boeck. CALAQUE, E. (2002). Les mots en jeux. L’enseignement du vocabulaire. Grenoble: CRDP CAVALLA, C., CROZIER, E., & DUMAREST, D. et al. (2009). Le vocabulaire en classe de langue.

Paris : CLÉ International CUQ, J. P., & GRIECA, I. (2005). Cours de didactique du français langue étrangère et langue

seconde. Grenoble : Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. ELUERD, R., & FRANÇOIS, J . (1991). Vocabulaire, 350 exercices niveau avancé. Paris :

Hachette. GALISSON, R. (1979). Lexicologie et enseignement des langues. Paris : Hachette LARGER, N., & MIMRAN, R. (2004). Vocabulaire progressif du français. Paris: CLÉ International MIQUEL, C. (2002). Vocabulaire progressif du français niveau débutant avec 250 exercices.

Paris : CLÉ International TRÉVILLE, M.-C., & DUQUETTE, L. (1996). Enseigner le vocabulaire en classe de langue,

autoformation. Paris : Hachette. Contact ALSADAG H.E ALSADAG University of Sirt , Libya Street Rass Lamin, Waddan, El-jufra, Libya [email protected]




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Teachers’ Professional Identity and Iranian EFL Instructors’ Perceptions

Mahdieh Shafipoor, Iran [email protected]

Abstract This study explored Iranian university instructors’ perceptions toward their professional identity. To do so, 90

EFL university instructors in Tehran were selected and three main constructs of identity, namely a degree of difficulty in classroom situations, daily teaching work, and teaching profession were adopted from Hasegawa and Kudomi’s (2006) Teacher Professional Identity Questionnaire. Based on these three constructs a questionnaire was developed and validated. The results depicted that in terms of instructors’ teaching daily work and their teaching profession, they had positive perceptions about their professional identity while in terms of the difficult classroom situations, instructors’ positive perceptions decreased as learners were not enthusiastic enough to do their assignment and as a result they faced poor academic achievement. This factor besides instructors’ poor economic conditions could be demotivating and somehow threatening their professional identity.

Keywords: Instructors' perceptions, professional identity

Introduction The last few years have seen the manifestation of an important field of applied linguistics

research devoted to the topic of language teacher identity (e.g., Duff &Uchida, 1997; Morgan, 2004). Meanwhile, researchers began to discover the sociocultural and sociopolitical dimensions of teaching (Norton, 1997). These researches as Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, and Johnson (2005) assert, indicated that many facets of teachers’ identity such as race, gender and sexual orientation and so on, were of the great importance in language teaching. Therefore, the instructor’s own identity came to be seen as a vital factor in the sociocultural and sociopolitical perspective of the language classroom. In line with the studies conducted in this regard, the present study aimed at delving into the issue of Iranian university instructors’ perceptions toward their professional identity.

2. Review of related literature 2.1. Identity Identity is a complex and varied concept (Block 2007; Wenger 1998,) and is formed by how

one perceives oneself and how one is perceived by others; it also consists of how one positions oneself in relation to the native culture and the new culture (Wang, 2010).

Norton (1997, p. 409) applies the term identity to refer to “how people understand their relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how people understand their possibilities for the future”.

The new comprehension of identity rotated around specific focal ideas: First, identity is not an unchangeable, permanent, unitary, and inwardly coherent event but seems to be a public phenomenon, a performance or structure which is multiple, changing, and is interpreted by others (Norton Peirce, 1995). A vital element here is that of the priority of agency-the individuals’ capacity to operate autonomously and to make their own independent choices-in identity formation, a movement away from a structurally deterministic perspective of the devising of people to comprehend human as intentional beings.

Second, identity is not a context-free phenomenon but is vitally connected to social, cultural, and political situation such as interlocutors, institutional settings, and so on. Identity is context-dependent and context-producing phenomenon (Norton, 2000; Wenger 1998; Canagaragah, 1993). A significant facet of this is the connection between assigned identity which is the identity imposed on an individual by others, and claimed identity, the identity or identities a person admits or asserts for oneself (Varghese, Morgan, Johnston & Johnson, 2005).




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Third, identity is built, maintained, and discussed to a considerable amount through language and discourse (Gee, 1996). In post-structural theory, discourses establish a teacher’s identity. Teacher is regarded as a fully independent, self-conscious subject, who is able to independently select which facets of his or her identity are of instructional value or to know beforehand how his or her identity corresponds with a specific group of learners (Norton, 2000; Pennycook, 2001).

Identity is linked to desire, the desire for recognition, for affiliation, and for security and safety which cannot be separated from the distribution of material resources in society (West, 1992). West also asserts that for those a broad range of resources in a society is accessible, will have possess power and privilege and in turn it affects how they comprehend their relationship to the world and their opportunities for the future. Therefore the question “Who am I?” is not independent from the question “What can I do?”

2.2. Types of identity Huntington (cited in Hortobagyi, 2009, p. 259) identifies the sources of identity as follows:

• "Ascriptive (age, ancestry, gender, kin, ethnicity , race) • Cultural (clan, tribe, ethnicity ,language, nationality, religion, civilization); • Territorial (neighborhood, settlement, country, geographical area, hemisphere, etc.); • Political (faction, clique, leader, interest group, movement, party, ideology, state, etc.); • Economic (job, occupation, profession, work group, employer, industry, economic sector, labor union, class); • Social (friends, club, team, colleagues, leisure group, status)".

2.3. Identity and language learning Considering the contemporary theory on language learning and teaching, the identity of the

language learner is described as “the ways in which language learners understand their relationship to the socio-cultural contexts, how that relationship is developed or constructed across time and space, and how the learner understands their reflections for the past and possibilities for the future” (Norton cited in Huang, 2011, p.1).

As Brown (2014) claims foreign language learners are also involved in the construction and negotiation of identity.

Kramsch (cited in Brown, 2014) furtheremore, argues against the notion that foreign language learning has little effect on identity and she also links emotion to the manner in which learners build their own social reality.

In addition, Little and Erickson (2015) propose that education is a process of people shaping that looks for to engage and apply the individual’s agency while extending or modifying his or her identity.

2.4. Teacher professional identity The notion of professional identity is applied in diverse ways in terms of teaching and

teacher education. Sometimes the notion of professional identity is connected to teachers’ notions or images of self (Knowles, 1992). It is also argued that these notions of self strongly specify the way instructors teach, progress, and their attitudes toward educational shifts. From another point of view, professional identity mainly deals with instructors’ roles (Goodson & Cole, 1994; Volkmann & Anderson, 1998).

Moreover, as Tickel (2000) claims professional identity refers to the effect of the conceptions and expectations of others as well as what instructors themselves see significant in their professional duty and lives concerning both their experiences in practice and their personal backgrounds.

Moereiver, Knowles (1992) defines professional identity as a blurred notion in the sense of what, and to what amount, things are unified in such an identity. Thus, while it is believed that




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instructors’ professional identity is looked at as an independent research area, it is conceptualized variously and it follows follow a variety of goals. Pöyhönen (2004, p. 132-157) highlights four different interpretations of professional identity; psychosocial, discursive, narrative and dialogue-based.

In psychosocial theory, professional identity is viewed “to be developed and internalized gradually”; it is also a part of one's individual development (Pöyhönen 2004, pp. 135-136).

In language teacher identity, the psychosocial theory highlights the role of personality. Nevertheless, the choice of profession is strongly related to the personality (Jalili & Nosratzadeh, 2015). The discursive theory considers identity to be “under constant reformulation” (Pöyhönen, 2004, p. 140). Pöyhönen further states that one's past, present and future have paramount roles, affect the formation of identity and believes that professional identity is constantly in process, it is “socially constructed and molded by interactive situations” (p.140-141).

From the point of view of the narrative approach, “professional identity is comprised of life stories that are born in interactional settings. These stories have a plot that remains the same even though the stories change due to time and place (Pöyhönen. 2004, p.144).

And finally, the dialogical approach has similarities with the socio-cultural approach and emphasizes the role of oneself and others in interactional situations; then, it is claimed that identity is constructed in dialogues (Pöyhönen. 2004, p. 149-154).

3. Methodology 3.1. Participants In this study, 90 University instructors with six years of teaching experience were selected.

This selection was based on purposive sampling. First, in the first phase of the study, 20 experts in the feild of EFL were interviewed. The purpose of this interview was to scrutunize the concept of teacher idendenty from instructors' points of view.

Next, the coded ideas derived from the first phase were utilized in the second phase to design a semi-structured interview. And 4 instructors took part in the interview to investigate their perceptions in terms of professional identity. Finally, in the last phase, the classes of these instructors were observed. And, finally, the whole 90 instructors answered a 4-scaled Lickert questionnaire to generalize the findings of the study.

3.2. Instruments In this study, first a semi-structured interview was conducted and then an observation

checklist was utilized and finally a 4-scaled Lickert questionnaire was distributed.

3.3. Design The design of this study was a mixed method one which includes both qualitative and

quantitative methods. According to Sandelowski (2003), combining qualitative and quantitative research methods

may have various purposuses. In addition, from 1970s, scholars prefer to conduct a research which includes both qualitative and quantitative research methods. To do so, a new concept called ‘Triangulation’ was introduced in which data are combined through multiple methods. This method takes into account both the internal and external validity of research and diminishes the weaknesses of single methods (Dornyei, 2007).

3.4. Procedure In this study, 20 EFL instructors were interviewed to reveal their ideas about the concept of

professional identity. The questions in the interview section were adopted from three main constructs of identity introduced by Hasegawa and Kudomi’s (2006) Teachers’ Professional Identity Questionnaire. They include a degree of difficulty in classroom situations, daily teaching work, and teaching profession. Then, the obtained data was coded with the purpose of




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preparing a semi-structured interview. Next, 10 instructors teaching different courses of English Language Translation and English Language Teaching at Islamic Azad University in Tehran were interviewd. Then, an observation checklist was designed to check the instructors' performance. And the checklists were analyzed to prepae a 4-scaled Lickert questionnaire which was distributed among 90 EFL instructors to generalize the findings. The instructors were required to respond to each question on a 4-point Likert basis, 1 representing often, 2 standing for sometimes, 3 representing rarely, 4 standing for never.

4. Result 4.1. Interview Initially, 20 EFL instructors were interviewed to scrutinze their ideads in terms of the

concept pf professional identity. The obtained ideas and responses were coded to device a semi-structured interview.

Consequently, the questions were used to interview 4 selected University instructors to learn about their ideas in terms of the concept of professional identity.

The results of the interview with 4 university EFL instructors are depicted in the following table:

Table 1. The results of Interview with 10 university EFL instructors toward their professional identity

4.2. Observation In this phase, an observation checklist was made to observe the instructors’ behaviour in

practice. Table 2 shows the result:




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Table 2. The result of observation analysis of the 4 EFL university instructors

Considering the majority of the items, it was concluded that there was almost a direct relationship between what the university instructors had in mind and what they performed in in the classroom. The exceptions in the first part went with items 2, and 5 which were mainly concerned with learners’ help and support toward each other, and disrupting the classroom. In terms of the second and third parts, there was no mismatch between what the instructors claimed and what was observed in the classroom.

4.3. Questionnaire survey A 4-scaled Lickert questionnaire was prepared to reveal 90 EFL instructors' perceptions of

their professional identity to generalize the findings of the study. The result is shown in table 3: As it is revealed in table 3, considering the first part which dealt with the difficult situations

in the classroom, most of the instructors believed that learners were not enthusiastic enough in taking part in classroom activities but they helped each other in managing different tasks. In addition, although they engaged in classroom management and rarely disrupted classrooms, they were often poor academic achievers and tended to be chronically absent.

In terms of the second and third sections, instructors had positive ideas toward their daily teaching work and their teaching profession.

Conclusion In this study, Iranian University instructors’ professional identity was explored. To do so,

three main constructs of identity were adopted from Hasegawa and Kudomi’s (2006) Teachers’ Professional Identity Questionnaire, namely, a degree of difficulty in classroom situations, daily teaching work, and teaching profession and based on these three constructs a questionnaire was developed and validated to investigate instructors’ professional identity. The results depicted that in terms of instructors’ teaching daily work and their teaching profession, there were positive perceptions toward their professional identity, while considering the difficult situations in the class, most of the instructors were demotivated and revealed low identity and that was due to learners’ low enthusiasm in terms of doing the assignment which led to their




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poor academic achievement. This factor besides instructors’ poor economic conditions could be somehow threatening their professional identity.

These results are in line with Hasegawa and Kudomi’s (2006) study in which the roles of culture and economic conditions played a paramount role in teachers’ professional identity.

Table 3: The results of the questionnaire survey

References BROWN, H. D. (2014). Principles of language learning and teaching: A course in second language acquisition (6th ed.). New York: Pearson. CANAGARAJAH, A. S. (1999). Interrogating the “native speaker fallacy”: Non-linguistic roots,

non-pedagogical results. In G. Braine (Ed.), Non-native educators in English language teaching (pp. 77-92). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

DORNYEI, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford: OUP. DUFF, P. A., & UCHIDA, Y. (1997). The negotiation of teachers’ sociocultural identities and

practices in postsecondary EFL classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 31 (3), 451-486. doi: 10.2307/3587834

GEE, J. P. (2001). Identity as an analytic lens for research in education. In W. G. Secada (Ed.), Review of research in education, (Vol. 25, pp. 99-125). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

GOODSON, I. F., & COLE, A. L. (1994). Exploring the teacher’s professional knowledge: Constructing identity and community. Teacher Education Quarterly, 21(1), 85-105.

HASEGAWA, Y., & KUDOMI, Y. (2006). Teachers’ professional identities and their occupational culture: Based on the findings of a comparative survey on teachers among five countries. Hitotsubashi journal of social studies, 38(1), 1-22.




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HORTOBAGYI, I. (2009). The role of identity in intercultural communication. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov , 2(51), 257-262.

HUANG, W. C. (2011). The EFL learner identity development: A perspective of metaphor. International Journal of Innovative Interdisciplinary Research, 1, 1-13.

JALILI, T., & NOSRATZADEH, H. (2015). The Relationship between current and prospective Iranian English language teachers’ professional identity. International Journal of Language and Applied Linguistics, 1(3), 62-671.

KNOWLES, G. J. (1992). Models for understanding pre-service and beginning teachers’ biographies: Illustrations from case studies. In I. F. Goodson (Ed.), Studying teachers’ lives (pp. 99-152). London: Routledge.

LITTLE, D., & ERICKSON, G. (2015). Learner identity, learner agency, and the assessment of language

Proficiency: Some reflections prompted by the common European framework of reference for languages. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 120 139.doi:10.1017/S0267190514000300

MORGAN, B. (2004) Teacher Identity as Pedagogy: Towards a Field-Internal Conceptualization in Bilingual and Second Language Education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 7(2-3), 172-188. doi: 10.1080/13670050408667807

NORTON, B. (1997). Language, identity and the ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 409-430.

NORTON, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Pearson Education.

NORTON PEIRCE, B. (1995). Social identity, investment, and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 9-31. doi: 10.2307/3587803

PENNYCOOK, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics: A critical introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

PÖYHÖNEN, S. (2004). Ethnic duty and other obligations? Negotiation of identities of Ingrian Finnish language teachers in Russia. Retrieved from citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.571.6307&rep=rep1&type=pdf

SANDELOWSKI, M. (2003). Tables of tableaux? The challenges of writing and reading mixed methods studies‘ in A. Tashakkori and C. Teddlie(Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (PP. 321-350). Thousand Oaks, Califs: Sage.

TICKLE, L. (2000). Teacher induction: The way ahead. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open University Press.

VARGHESE, M., MORGAN, B., JOHNSTON, B., & JOHNSON, K. A. (2005). Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspectives and beyond. Journal of language, Identity, and Education, 4(1), 21-44.

VOLKMANN, M. J., & ANDERSON, M. A. (1998). Creating professional identity: Dilemmas and metaphors of a first-year chemistry teacher. Science Education, 82(3), 293-310.

WANG, C. L. (2010). Toward a second language socialization perspective: Issues in study abroad research. Foreign Language Annals, 43(1), 50-63. WENGER, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge,

England: Cambridge University Press. WEST, C. (1992). A matter of life and death. October, 61, 20–23. Contact Mahdieh Shafipoor, Ph.D. Candidate Shahr-e-Qods Branch Islamic Azad University Tehran, Iran [email protected]




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Iranian EFL Learners' Attitude

towards Culture Teaching

Ghazaleh Cheraghpour Samvati, Iran [email protected]

Abstract In the communicative era, where employing authentic teaching material is the de rigueur, culture plays a

paramount role. This paper was an attempt to capture some of EFL learners' attitudes towards culture learning. To this end, a semi-structured interview was conducted among 9 EFL learners, all studying Top Notch as their English textbook. The aspects that were highlighted in the interview were, the importance of 'culture' in studying English and maintaining its balance with linguistic contents; the importance of being culturally literate in different cultures, focusing on whether to accentuate the culture of Inner circle, Outer circle, or the Expanding Circle; participants brief evaluation of Top Notch series on the basis of its focus on the above mentioned cultures and how they felt towards this; and last, the aspects of culture that should be focused on in English language courses.

Keywords: Culture, Textbook, World Englishes

Introduction During the 21st century Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has taken the lead

(Savignon, 2005). The underpinnings of CLT as Savignon (1991) explains dates back to the introduction of 'communicative competence' proposed by Hymes which was a reaction to Chomsky's characterization of the linguistic competence of the ideal native speaker and attempted to "represent the use of language in social context, the observance of sociolinguistic norms of appropriacy" (p. 264). More to the point, Hymes' theory of competence includes the language user's knowledge of and the ability to use the rules of language in context (Canale & Swain, 1980). Having highlighted the importance of being aware of the sociolinguistic norms in communication across different contexts, the issue of inclusion of culture in teaching materials gained paramount importance.

Thus, in the communicative era, the purpose of teaching the language is no longer the mastery of structure but the ability to use the language for communicative purposes and interaction in the 'real world' (Howatt & Smith, 2014). For such purposes 'authentic language' is to be introduced in the classroom to create a learning environment that closely resembles how students will use language in real-life situations (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Authentic material not only introduces real-life situations in the course of an English class, but is also culturally-loaded.

Regarding this issue from another perspective, Alptekin (1993, p. 136) distinguishes two types of knowledge: Systemic knowledge which is "the formal properties of language, comprising its syntactic and semantic aspects"; and Schematic knowledge which is socially acquired through interactions with others and watching other interact with one another. Schematic knowledge goes beyond the language itself and entails culture.

On the basis of the above mentioned points, this paper attempts to investigate Iranian EFL learners attitude towards and perspective on culture learning in the Top Notch series textbooks. Through employing a semi-structured interview, first the participants general attitude towards culture learning is investigated, then their opinions on representation of culture in Top Notch series is elicited. Following is an account of what is meant by 'culture' and literature review of studies done to investigate this construct in textbooks.




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What is culture? Goodenough (cited in Wardhaough, 1986) views a society's culture as consisting of

"whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves" (p. 210).

Kramsch (1998) defines culture as "a system of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, and acting" (p. 10). To her, culture is grown and groomed; culture is what a speech community regard as norm and appropriate way of doing something. She proposes this as discourse community which is "the common way in which members of a social group use language to meet their social needs" (p. 6).

To Brown (2000) culture is "a way of life... It is the context within which we exist, think, feel, and relate to others. It is the 'glue' that binds a group of people together" (p. 176). Brown also mentions that culture is among the mental constructs that enable us to survive.

Richards and Schmidt (2010) define culture as "the set of practices, codes and values that mark a particular nation or group: the sum of a nation's or group's most highly thought of works of literature, art, music, etc." (p. 151). They also distinguish between the 'High' culture of literature and the arts, and small 'c' culture of attitudes, values, beliefs, and everyday lifestyle.

Bayyurt (2006, p. 235) cites Adaskou, Britten, and Fahsi who categorize the definition of 'culture' as a concept with four dimensions. These are: the aesthetic sense (media, cinema, music and literature); the sociological sense (family, education, work and leisure, traditions); the semantic sense (conceptions and thought processes); and the pragmatic, or sociolinguistic sense ('appropriacy' in language use).

As all the above mentioned definitions highlight, culture cannot be excluded from language teaching. In the words of Byram (1991), "if language is taught without culture, it cannot be said that students are learning a second language in the proper sense; they are learning a codified version of their own" (p. 18).

Which culture is to be taught? In language learning contexts, it is crucial to instill within learners an intercultural

competence. Sercu (2005) claims that foreign language education is, by definition, intercultural, since bringing a foreign language to the classroom means linking learners to a world that is different in terms of its culture from their own. But the question that arises is 'which culture is to be taught'?

The question of which culture is to be taught, pertains to the notion of ownership of English and considering English as a global lingua franca. Kachru (1989) created a model of "three concentric circles" of English. He holds that "these circles represent the types of spread, the patterns of acquisition, and the functional allocation of English in diverse cultural contexts" (p. 16). In his framework, English speakers are classified into three groups: the Inner Circle entailing "the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English"; the Outer Circle relating to "the institutionalized usage of English"; and the Expanding Circle pertaining to users of English as an international language.

It has been argued that since English is used as a lingua franca, the cultural content of ELT materials should not be limited to native English speaking cultures, or the Inner circle countries (Alptekin, 2002). This, however, is not always the case: as Alptekin (1993) explains due to native speakers' face validity in EFL circles, "most textbook writers are native speakers who consciously or unconsciously transmit the views, values, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of their own English-speaking society—usually the United States or United Kingdom" (p. 138).

As a panacea to this problem, intercultural language learning has been proposed, whose purpose is to "raise students' awareness of their own culture, and help them to interpret and




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understand other cultures. In this method, no specific culture has been paid attention, but a variety of cultures has been included in the curriculum" (Kilickaya, 2004, p. 40). In other words, regard for Kachru's all three concentric circles is the key.

Culture teaching in textbooks In a study on cultural load in English textbooks, Zarei and Khalessi (2011) found that

Interchange Series are strongly grounded in cultural biases and assumptions. In their analysis of the content of these books, it was revealed that "instructional materials are laden with cultural values unique to the Western world" (p. 299).

In another study, Abdollahzadeh and Baniasad (2010) investigated the ideological values presented in the English textbooks Spectrum and True to Life. They concluded that imported textbooks tend to represent particular ideologies and cultural values, the most prevalent of which were "hegemony of English, sexism, consumerism, and cultural stereotypes" (p. 11).

Rajabi and Ketabi (2012) examined the cultural elements in four English language textbooks: Interchange, Headway, Top Notch, On Your Mark, which are all popular currently in Iran and determined the most prominent cultural dimension. They found that most of the culture distinctive occurrences are sociological in nature. Also, they found that the characters portrayed in these textbooks are mostly local characters from the different ethnic groups.

Naji Meidani and Pishghadam (2012) aimed to find out to what extent English language textbooks demonstrate the international status of the language through comparing the following textbooks: New American Streamline, Cambridge English for Schools, Interchange Series Third Edition, and Top Notch. The criteria which were taken into account were: references to Inner Circle countries, references to Outer and Expanding Circle countries, non-native accents, dialogues in non-English speaking countries, place of home culture and famous people. Since these textbooks were published in different years, it was revealed that the recent textbooks written for English language learning adhere more to the principles of English as an international language, through more reference to Outer and Expanding circle countries and through the use of more non-native accents.

To sum it up, there are three major patterns of reflecting culture in English textbooks (Cortazzi & Jin, cited in Aliakbari, 2004). These patterns are: Textbooks that mirror the source culture; Textbooks based on the target culture; and, textbooks aimed at the international target cultures.

Methodology Participants Participants of the present study were 9 English language learners who attended a language

institute in Tehran. Their classes were held once a week on Fridays. Each class sitting consisted of three 90-minute sessions. The course book being taught in this institute was Top Notch series by Saslow and Ascher. The participants were all male and were selected through convenience sampling. Participants' age ranged from 18 to 40 years old. They were all Iranian native speakers residing in Tehran. Their educational background ranged from being undergraduate students to Master's holders in different majors. They had different occupations and different motives for studying English. Among their motives to study English the following was mentioned: having interest in English language, becoming able to travel or immigrate, becoming able to comprehend movies and books, and becoming able to perform well on language proficiency tests, e.g. IELTS.

The participants of this study were selected based on their proficiency level pertaining to each Top Notch book. Top Notch is a six-level communicative course, designed for international communication. It consists of 3 main books, each divided into book A and book B. Book 1 is




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designed for elementary levels, book 2 for pre-intermediate levels, and book 3 for intermediate levels. Three of the participants had studied books 1A and 1B, three had studied books 2A and 2B, while the other three had studied books 3A and 3B.

Procedure Permission was asked from the teachers of each class to borrow three of their students for an

interview. Participants volunteered to take part in the study. Before conducting the interview, the researcher herself briefly explained the objectives of the study to the participants. They were also ensured that their identities were kept anonymous.

A semi-structured interview, descriptive and exploratory in nature, was employed to elicit learners' views on the following issues (see Appendix 1): The importance of 'culture' in studying English The importance of being culturally literate in different cultures Evaluation of Top Notch series on the basis of its focus on different cultures The aspects of culture that should be focused on in English language courses

Each interview session was conducted in one sitting, lasting between 25 to 30 minutes.

Participants were interviewed in three groups of 3, clustered based on their proficiency level. The interview was conducted in participants' native language, Farsi. The sessions were audio recorded. Some highlighted comments were translated into English. Each participant was given equal time to express his idea; moreover, participants gave comments on each others' responses at times.

Results The first set of interview questions had to do with the importance of 'culture' in studying

English. All the 9 participants believed that the inclusion of cultural material in their course of study was important. They all agreed that linguistic content was as important as cultural content if not more. To them the balance between linguistic content and cultural content would be restored once the focus of the class was on linguistic aspects of the language, with marginal explanations of culture as well.

“Culture should be included within linguistic content... how can we communicate effectively without some knowledge of culture. (Participant 3)

“Of course culture is important. I've been to the United States and knowing the language was not enough. I couldn't communicate well with the native speakers... I thought I was telling them what I meant but it wouldn't seem so... Of course I picked up some points when I was there.” (Participant 9)

The second set of interview questions dealt with the importance of being culturally literate in different cultures. The participants were mostly entitled to two sets of opinions. They either favored learning about the culture of English-speaking countries or they preferred being able to talk about their own culture in English. Only one participant expressed interest in being aware of non-English speaking countries culture through inclusion of it in English teaching materials. The rest felt that despite being valuable to know about other cultures, one can study this through other medium, not necessarily in the course of an English language lesson.

“When I watch a movie there are so many instances where I can understand the words, but I don't get for example why they are laughing or why they use certain body gestures.” (Participant 8)

“Because I like the English language, so I like to know about their culture in particular.” (Participant 2)

“My job requires me to travel around... and you see, I like to be able to talk about Persian culture ... they don't know how rich our culture is, and I like to be able to tell them about our




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traditions and customs... [foreigners] like historical things and they get excited when we tell them about our background and culture.” (Participant 7)

The third set of interview questions pertained to evaluating Top Notch series on the basis of its focus on different cultures. All the participants confirmed that Top Notch books (irrespective of which book they had studied) included a variety of accents in listening comprehension sections. Moreover, the pictures of people used in the books and their names were from different ethnical groups. Some of the participants even expressed difficulty in pronouncing the names or understanding the listening excerpts where the speaker had an accent. Two of the participants appreciated being exposed to various accents and believed that it enabled them to cope with speakers from different countries. One of the participants expressed dissatisfaction that Top Notch book includes many aspects of Eastern cultures, but not Iran. The other two participants who were being interviewed with him also disapproved of the absence of Iranian culture in the book.

“It is good that we get to know different accents but I think it would be better for us, in our proficiency level, only to be exposed to native-like accent.” (Participant 1)

“You know, with people from other countries, one way or another, we can get the message across (He referred to resorting to body language, or negotiation of meaning, or using pidgin language)”. (Participant 2)

The last set of interview questions focused on which aspects of culture to be focused on in English language courses. The participants were given a list of options to choose from. The aspects were as following: History; Education; Politics and Economy; The arts; Food and Life style; Holidays and customs; and Beliefs, values, and ideologies. The top 4 aspects of culture chosen by the participants were as follows: First, beliefs, values, and ideologies; Second, politics and economy; Third, food and lifestyle; and Fourth, education.

Discussion and Conclusion This paper was an attempt to capture some of EFL learners' attitudes towards culture

learning. To this end, a semi-structured interview was conducted among 9 EFL learners, all studying Top Notch as their English textbook. The aspects that were highlighted in the interview were, the importance of 'culture' in studying English and its balance with linguistic contents; the importance of being culturally literate in different cultures, focusing on whether to accentuate the culture of Inner circle, Outer circle, or the Expanding Circle; participants brief evaluation of Top Notch series on the basis of its focus on the above mentioned cultures and how they felt towards this; and last, the aspects of culture that should be focused on in English language courses.

It is concluded that culture is inherent in any attempt to teach language, however opinions differ on which culture to be taught and whether considering English as an international language that belongs to everyone is favorable or not. There do exist learners who favor native-like accent and would rather fully adhere to the culture of English-speaking countries. On the other hand, though, other learners express the importance of being able to interact with people from various cultures and countries and being able to discuss local customs and traditions with them.

Implications of the present paper is for teachers to be aware of the diverse viewpoints of learners with respect to the multifaceted notion of 'culture'. The present study was, however, narrow in scope since it only investigated 9 participants all male. It order to enrich the literature on the same topic, it is suggested that other methods of study (e.g. employing questionnaires) be applied with female learners who study other textbooks or come from other parts of Iran.




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References ABDOLLAHZADEH, E., & BANIASAD, S. (2010). Ideologies in the imported English textbooks:

EFL learners and teachers’ awareness and attitude. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 2(217), 1-17.

ALIAKBARI, M. (2004). The place of culture in the Iranian ELT textbooks in high school level. Retrieved from http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/2004/Aliakbari.pdf

ALPTEKIN, C. (1993). Target-language culture in EFL materials. ELT Journal, 47(2), 136-143. ALPTEKIN, C. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT

Journal, 56(1), 57-64. BAYYURT, Y. (2006). Non‐native English language teachers’ perspective on culture in English as

a foreign language classrooms. Teacher Development,10(2), 233-247. BROWN, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). NY: Pearson

Education Company. BYRAM, M. (1991). Teaching culture and language: Towards an integrated model. In D. Buttjes &

M. Byram (Eds.), Mediating languages and cultures: Towards an intercultural theory of foreign language education (pp.17-30). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

CANALE, M., & SWAIN, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of com-municative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.

HOWATT, A. P. R., & SMITH, R. (2014). The history of teaching English as a foreign language, from a British and European perspective. Language & History, 57(1), 75-95.

KACHRU, B. (1989). Teaching world Englishes. Cross Currents: An International Journal of Language Teaching and Cross-Cultural Communication, 16 (1), 15-21.

KILICKAYA, F. (2004). Guidelines to evaluate cultural content in textbooks. The Internet TESL Journal, 10(12), 38-48.

KRAMSCH, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching (2nd ed.). Oxford,

England: Oxford University Press. NAJI MEIDANI, E., & PISHGHADAM, R. (2012). Analysis of English language textbooks in the light

of English as an International Language (EIL): A comparative study. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 2(2), 83-96. doi: 10.5861/ijrsll.2012.163

RAJABI, S., & KETABI, S. (2012). Aspects of cultural elements in prominent English textbooks for EFL setting. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2(4), 705-712. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.4.705-712

RICHARDS, J. C., & SCHMIDT, R. (2010). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (4th ed.). Essex, England: Longman.

SAVIGNON, S. J. (1991). Communicative language teaching: State of the art. TESOL Quarterly, 25(2), 261-277.

SAVIGNON, S. J. (2005). Communicative language teaching: Strategies and goals. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 635-652). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

SERCU, L. (2005). Teaching foreign languages in an intercultural world. In L. Sercu & E. Bandura (Eds.), Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: An international investigation (pp. 1-18). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

WARDHAUGH, R. (1986). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Inc. ZAREI, G. R., & KHALESSI, M. (2011). Cultural load in English language textbooks: An analysis of

interchange series. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 294-301. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.089




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Contact Ghazaleh Cheraghpour Samvati, Ph.D. Candidate Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Appendix: Interview Questions Demographic Information

1. How old are you? 2. What is your educational background? 3. What is your occupation? 4. How long have you studied English? 5. Why do you study English?

The importance of 'culture' in studying English 1. How important do you think teaching cultural content in English courses is? 2. How important do you think teaching linguistic content in English courses is? 3. Which one is more important to you? Can you find a balance between these two

aspects of the curriculum? The importance of being culturally literate in different cultures

1. How important is being culturally literate to you? 2. Which culture do you consider as being crucial to study? The culture of English-

speaking countries? Your own culture? Or the culture of other non-English speaking countries? (Bring reasons for your answer)

Evaluation of Top Notch series on the basis of its focus on different cultures 1. Up to what extent do you think that Top Notch encompasses aspects of different

cultures? 2. How do you feel about this? (Based on your answer to the previous question)

The aspects of culture that should be focused on in English language courses 1. Among the following aspects of culture, which one do you think should be more

focused on in English courses? History Education Politics and Economy The arts Food and Life style Holidays and customs Beliefs, values, and ideologies




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Health Discourse in Media: the Language of Breast Cancer Prevention

Anna O. Stebletsova & Valeria V. Enkova, Rusia [email protected]

Abstract The paper focuses on social media discourse covering a major health-related issue - breast cancer prevention.

Medical topics seem to have gone far beyond a professional domain and become part of a multimodal discourse which appears to comprise medical, educational and social purposes. The objective of the research is to identify certain discourse strategies and language means which social media involves for a stronger impact on the audience. The material has included verbal and visual data (texts, graphs, videos) collected from the official websites of British and American breast cancer foundations. In the framework of the pragmatic and discourse analysis the authors have indicated three discourse strategies: to inform, to urge for action, to inform + to urge for action involved in breast cancer discourse. Consequently, these strategies have been studied from the language perspective to identify their lexical and syntactical manifestation. The authors have made a conclusion that particular vocabulary, grammatical, pragmatic and stylistic means can produce a stronger communicative impact on the target audience and transform a conventional health discourse into a multimodal one.

Keywords multimodal health discourse, medical discourse, the language of breast cancer, communicative purpose, discourse strategies, linguistic manifestation

Introduction Medical discourse can take various shapes and occur in various domains. Doctor-patients

encounters have been thoroughly investigated in a number of studies (Candlin, 2002; Atkinson, 1999; Roberts & Sarangi, 1999). Considerable research has been done in pharmaceutical settings regarding drug information as a linguistic challenge for patients (Askehave, 2002). There is an increasing trend indicating that medical discourse has been transforming into a multimodal one which uses linguistic instruments to promote health related issues outside professional discourse community, namely medical practitioners and researchers. In order to effectively address society with crucial health topics, medical community has to possess a clear understanding of their target audience and consistent linguistic support (Fox, 2009; Moorhead, 2013). This paper focuses on breast cancer media campaign which appears to comprise medical, educational and social discourses to fight against one of the major public health concerns – breast cancer.

Nowadays we can observe a novel cultural phenomenon: a medical problem, e.g. breast cancer, has moved beyond its traditional medical domain and become a part of health education and even of mass media discourse. There are obvious medical and social reasons for such a turn. Breast Cancer UK, a big research and charity foundation in the United Kingdom, has defined breast cancer as an epidemiological disease and declared a “move beyond breast cancer awareness to preventative action” as their mission. This is common knowledge that prevention is more effective than treatment. Another important aspect concerning prevention is that it involves ordinary population who needs to be reasonably informed about the disease, its risk factors and possible actions for the risk reduction. Moreover, the population awareness level is to be high enough to act in cooperation with medical community in breast cancer prevention cause. Thus, there is a distinct correlation between professional efforts of medical practitioners and the communicative tools they use to inform, educate, and influence non-professional community. In other words, this is the point where medical discourse exceeds its boundaries and overlaps with advertising, propaganda, and any other types of social discourse commonly attributed to public campaigns. Moorhead, Hazlett et al. (2013) argue that social media and




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healthcare community can be mutually beneficial to each other and, more importantly, to patients promoting better health outcomes.

The objective of this paper is to identify certain strategies which medical discourse involves attempting to achieve a stronger communicative impact on the audience. The paper also aims at presenting particular discourse markers in the medical discourse of breast cancer and their role in the medical discourse transformation into a multimodal one.

The material for the research is verbal and visual data (texts, graphs, videos) collected from the official websites of British and American breast cancer foundations. They are as follows:

http://www.breastcanceruk.org.uk/ http://pinkribbon.org/ http://mainecancer.org/grants/breast-cancer-awareness-campaign http://stop.breastcancercare.org.uk These websites represent most influential breast cancer care, research and prevention

campaigns: Pink Ribbon, Maine Cancer Foundation, Breast Cancer Care, Breast Cancer UK. These foundations have been selected as they are “organized exclusively for charitable, educational and scientific purposes” (Pink Ribbon) and they “provide information, resources and support” (Pink Ribbon). In this research we have looked at their discourse from the target audience perspective having analyzed the strategies and linguistic means which were common readers’ oriented.

We have also studied health discourse in Russian social media with a specific focus on breast cancer prevention. These are as follows: https://nenaprasno.ru - Фонд профилактики рака «Живу не напрасно» (Cancer Prevention

Foundation “Life Well-Spent”) http://www.pror.ru Противораковое общество Роcсии (Russian Cancer Society) http://www.help-patient.ru/ - education and information website on oncological diseases http://www.aif.ru/health/life - digital version of a popular newspaper “Arguments and Facts” http://www.raka-grudi.net – Центр помощи: лечение рака груди (Breast Cancer Management

Centre) The research procedure involved pragmatic, linguistic and stylistic analysis of the website

contents. Communicative Strategies in Breast Cancer Prevention Discourse Both British and American breast cancer prevention foundations devise their media and web

campaigns on the basis of three communicative purposes: 1. To inform the audience about breast cancer. 2. To urge for action in terms of breast cancer prevention. 3. To inform about breast cancer + to urge for action.

It is necessary to note that in natural discourse practice these purposes are most commonly

intertwined, however, we will discuss them separately for the analytical reasons. The first communicative purpose can be also called educative because informing about the

issues presupposes brining new knowledge to the audience, i.e. educating it. Pink Ribbon and BC UK (Breast Cancer UK) inform their audience (mainly female) about breast cancer, its risk factors, ways of reducing the risks, breast cancer treatment and prevention. The discourse strategies used to achieve this purpose involve the following. providing scientific facts strategy

“In order to understand how breast cancer can develop, it is important to know what the female breast is made of. The mature female breast is made up of four essential structures: lobules (glands); (milk) ducts; fat; and connective tissue.” (Pink Ribbon international)

“Once breast cancer cells spread, the cancer cells are often found in lymph nodes near the breast. But, breast cancer can spread to almost any other part of the body. The most common




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places where breast cancer spreads to are the bones, liver, lungs, and brain.” (Pink Ribbon international)

“All women are at risk when it comes to breast cancer, but no one knows what exactly causes breast cancer. Doctors often cannot explain why one woman develops breast cancer and another does not. Research has shown that women with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop breast cancer. Some examples of risk factors are:

Cancer is hereditary; if your sister, mother, or daughter developed breast cancer, then you have a higher risk of developing it yourself.” (Pink Ribbon international) providing figures and statistics strategy

“Breast cancer rates are rising rapidly. Today, 1 in 8 women will be diagnosed with the disease at some point in their lives. In England, incidence rates have increased amongst women by 90% and amongst men by as much as 60% in just one generation” (Breast Cancer UK)

“Could we do more to prevent cancers? 50% the lifetime risk of getting cancer for those of us born since 1960. 3.5% the percentage of cancer research funding spent on prevention in 2014” (Breast Cancer UK) providing anecdotal evidence of cancer survivors strategy

“There are many publications and sites that write about cancer. We want you to know we don’t produce the news items you can read in this section, they belong to the MD Anderson Cancer Center. This section only intents to inform you about what is out there.” (Pink Ribbon international) providing guidelines on personal prevention strategy

“How many times have you heard of the importance of prevention related to breast cancer? It maybe not the only factor to take on account, but regular breast self exams (BSE) can help you to detect if something abnormal is happening to your breast” (Pink Ribbon international)

“Prevention starts at home. These simple tips will reduce your family’s exposure to hazardous chemicals commonly found in the home” (Breast Cancer UK)

The second communicative purposes – urge for action – is most pragmatic as it is aimed at urging the audience to donate to breast cancer charities, to participate in particular campaigns and to take other practical steps. The most common communicative strategies here involve various rhetoric functions, such as persuasion, social appeal, etc. Below are the examples of their linguistic manifestation. direct urge to action

“Write to your local Member of Parliament today and ask them to pledge their support to prevent breast cancer” (Breast Cancer UK))

“We want action to: Prioritise the primary prevention of breast cancer Improve the regulation of chemicals Protect the unborn child by offering advice to pregnant and breast feeding women Ban the use of Bisphenol A in food and drinks packaging Improve labelling laws and implement our ‘right to know’ about harmful chemicals” (Breast Cancer UK)

“Join us in the fight against breast cancer, and become a part of the cure. Your personal contribution will help in the ongoing effort to stomp out breast cancer for good. Giving has never been so rewarding!” (Pink Ribbon international) indirect urge to action or to reflection

“Our ‘You do the Maths’ campaign asks whether we could invest more to help prevent breast cancer and highlights the comparatively tiny amounts currently spent on preventing and understanding the causes of cancers” (Breast Cancer UK)




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“We need your help to put pressure on policy makers to make the changes necessary to stop breast cancer before it starts.” (Breast Cancer UK)

“The more people that take action to raise political awareness of these issues, the more likely we are to make a difference.” (Breast Cancer UK)

“There are a number of actions that you can take to make your voice heard… “(Breast Cancer UK)

“We believe far more can be done to help prevent breast cancer. That's why we think it's time to move beyond breast cancer awareness to preventative action.” (Breast Cancer UK)

The third communicative purpose – to inform about breast cancer + to urge for action – is a more complicated one. It involves developing a particular public attitude to breast cancer which should naturally stimulate the audience to undertake particular actions in terms of breast cancer prevention. Until recently this disease was not in the focus of public attention, neither was it a conventional topic for a wide discussion or media coverage. Breast cancer patients and their doctors were to struggle with this life-affecting disorder supported by their families. The situation changed when in October 1997, American citizen Paul Davidson registered pinkribbon.com and launched a website directed to and available for all people in the world engaged with breast cancer. The website was dedicated to raising awareness and funding for breast cancer. Throughout the years this initiative has grown into the international platform covering more than 30 countries over 5 continents.

The discourse strategies used to achieve this purpose involve the following: breast cancer awareness promotion through verbal symbol, images, logo, associated with

breast cancer campaign: Pink ribbon Think pink Pink awareness breast cancer awareness promotion through popular film or soap operas characters. Samantha, one of the characters of popular serial Sex and the City, was diagnosed with breast

cancer, underwent lumpectomy and chemotherapy, and, finally, participated actively in breast cancer awareness campaign.

breast cancer awareness promotion through ‘diagnose coming out’. This is the case when public people or celebrities share their cancer struggle and survival

stories with the public. A sensational case of Angelina Jolie’s double mastectomy and its wide media coverage can be an illustration of this tendency.

All the examples above have clearly demonstrated that a large number of communicative strategies have been employed to influence the target audience. These strategies, in turn, are built on particular discourse markers which need to be enumerated.

Language Means and Discourse Markers in Breast Cancer Prevention Discourse Once medical discourse has shown a distinctive shift towards public or social domains, there

will be definite language signals to mark this shift. Below we will address the most typical discourse markers.

It is generally acknowledged that certain vocabulary choice might significantly influence the general style of the discourse. Breast cancer campaign discourse is characterized by dominant use of common (non-technical) vocabulary: want to know, stop, chemicals, tiny

amounts, rise rapidly; wide use verb+ noun phrases as markers of colloquial language: take action, make an change,

put pressure, make a difference, do maths; common use of emotionally marked words: harmful chemicals, trustworthy institutions, fair

use, pink abuse limited use of terminology (technical vocabulary): cancer cells, metastasis, lymph nodes;




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dominant use of you and your pronouns for a direct appeal to the audience: we need your support… we want you to think….

common use of contractions as a marker of colloquial language: We couldn't do our work without the generous support of members of the public…

We don't receive funding from the Government… We're all exposed to synthetic chemicals on a daily basis

use of direct rhetorical questions as a marker of a direct appeal to the audience: Do you know what’s in your cosmetics? common use of imperative sentences as a marker of direct urge to take action or strong advice:

Reduce your family’s exposure to some of the chemicals in your food and drink that are linked with breast cancer.

Avoid some of the hazardous chemicals commonly found in household cleaners. The Pragmatics of Breast Cancer Prevention in Russian Health Discourse Breast cancer prevention is a burning issue for Russian healthcare. According to the Russian

Ministry of Health breast cancer is diagnosed in 54 000 women annually, which makes 19 % of all oncological diseases and the third cause of women deaths in Russia. We have searched various social media in ru.net to determine specific ones devoted to breast cancer prevention. It has been discovered that there are not many websites which specifically focus on breast cancer. Most of them cover all oncological diseases and their prevention.

It should also be pointed out that most Russian websites, raising cancer prevention topic, fall in two categories. The first category comprises information resources with either direct or indirect educative focus. The second category is represented by health centers and private clinics’ websites performing overt marketing of their services. Although health discourse in Russian demonstrates the same communicative purposes as in British and America discourse, their discourse strategies differ significantly.

The first communicative purpose – to inform the audience about breast cancer – is mainly achieved by the following discourse strategies. providing scientific facts and data

Usually this strategy is implemented by a lengthy narrative which could be reposted from an international article or medical websites. Below is an authentic fragment of an article informing readers about the importance of breast cancer early detection, screening tests (mammography, ultrasound examination), breast cancer symptoms, etc. The vocabulary and the register sounds rather professional and formal.

“Ранняя диагностика рака молочной железы является залогом успешного лечения. Гарантированный результат выявления заболевания даёт ежегодный профилактический осмотр маммологом или онкологом, маммография (особенно для женщин старше 40 лет) и УЗИ молочных желез. Признаками ранних форм рака молочной железы можно считать следующие симптомы…” (Фонд профилактики рака «Живу не напрасно») appealing to authority

This is a common strategy usually implemented in a form of an interview with an expert, a professor of a medical university, a well-known oncologist, etc. An interviewer generally asks questions about causes of the disease, its symptoms, treatment, and preventive measures. An essential part of the interview will be ‘myths and stereotypes’ about breast cancer, where the expert acts as an educator breaking the myths and raising their audience awareness about the issue.

The second communicative purpose – to urge for action – has been mostly detected in breast cancer treatment context and can be illustrated by the logo of Breast Cancer Management Centre – “Мы знаем, как вам помочь” (We know how to help you). Like in British and American




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discourse, two main discourse strategies are used here. They are a direct and an indirect urge for action. The difference, however, is rather significant. Direct imperative ‘do it’ in British and American discourse conveys the prevention appeal: the authors have the right to be categorical as they urge the audience to take preventive measures. The direct imperative in Russia discourse is mainly used to engage the audience into a closer search of the website which will stimulate them to use the clinic services:

“Узнайте больше об услугах нашего центра” (Learn more about the services we provide) “ Задайте вопрос нашим специалистам” (Talk to our consultants) The indirect urge for action is implemented in the form of a forum. It may represent a

patient-consultant interaction in which the ‘patient’ wants to know e.g. why exactly they should seek help in this private centre while the oncological services are guarantied by the national law. ‘The consultant’s answer has all the markers of marketing discourse. First, the author describes a time- and effort-consuming procedure of applying for free hospital treatment (a long waiting list, limited insurance cover), then they stress the crucial importance of time in breast cancer treatment and individual approach to patients. Finally, the advantages of the centre are enumerated (high quality treatment, immediate hospitalization, economic expertise of treatment expenses). Below is an authentic fragment of such an interaction:

“Вопрос: Почему мне нужно обращаться к вам за помощью, ведь медицинские услуги

бесплатны в нашей стране и онкологическая помощь по закону бесплатна. (Q: Why should I seek help with you although medical services including oncological treatment

are free in this country?) Ответ: К сожалению, процедура получения бесплатного лечения отнимает много времени и

сил. И даже при получении квоты, скорее всего, госпитализации придется ждать месяцами из-за имеющихся очередей. В таких вопросах как онкология время слишком дорого стоит. Мы можем организовать Вам лечение в кратчайшие сроки именно в том стационаре, который подходит именно Вам. Эксперты нашей службы проведут медико-экономическую экспертизу в случае, если Вы не будете согласны со счетом лечебного учреждения. Мы гарантируем Вам качество оказанных услуг, обращение в нашу службу – это уникальная возможность воспользоваться всеми преимуществами платной медицины.” (Центр помощи: лечение рака груди)

(A: Unfortunately, access to free treatment is a time and effort-consuming process. Sometimes, hospital admission might take months because of the long waiting list. However time is too precious in oncological management. We can provide hospital admission within the shortest possible time in the most suitable clinic. Our experts can perform financial assessment in case you disagree with the hospital bill. We guarantee our medical services quality. Our center is a unique opportunity to take the advantages of private healthcare”)

The third communicative purpose – to inform + to urge for action – is a complicated

mixture of informing the audience, raising their awareness about their personal responsibility for their health and offering them particular actions in terms of breast cancer prevention. This could be illustrated by an on-line Screen test project designed by Cancer Prevention Foundation “Life Well-Spent”. The readers are introduced into some general facts about breast cancer and then are invited to learn whether they have any hereditary risk factors or other predisposition to the disease. The interactive Screen test gives food for thoughts and motivation to take preventive measures.

The language of Russian breast cancer prevention discourse is rather heterogeneous. It reflects stylistic markers of various genres and registers. There have been identified vocabulary and syntactic structures referring to social essay style:




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Внедрение инновационных технологий диагностики и лечения опухолей все дальше уводит нас от тех времён, когда онкологический диагноз воспринимался как приговор. (Innovation technologies in cancer diagnostics and treatment have brought us far away from the time when cancer diagnosis was considered to be fatal)

Рак – это заболевание, которое поддается лечению, и Ваше желание бороться против рака является половиной той победы, к которой Вы придёте вместе с врачом. (Cancer is a curable disease, your desire to fight it is half the victory which you and your oncologist will gain together) We have also been able to identify clear vocabulary and syntactic marker of marketing style:

a unique opportunity, benefits of private healthcare, no bureaucracy, hospital admission at short notice, we guarantee a patient-centered approach…

There have also been distinctive vocabulary and syntactic markers of colloquial style: Пожалуйста, не забывайте оставлять ваши контактные координаты, чтобы наши

специалисты могли ответить вам персонально (Please, don’t forget to fill in you contact information so that our expects could contact your personally).

Conclusion The research of breast cancer prevention discourse in English and Russian social media has

proven that medical issues have become a significant part of social discourse as well as social media, in turn, has started to play a significant role in health promotion. This situation clearly demonstrates that the boundaries between medical, social and even marketing discourses are becoming less obvious. The overlapping of communicative strategies, pragmatic functions and stylistic devices has shown that breast cancer prevention language is a multimodal discourse integrating medical, educative and marketing types of discourse. We have also indicated some universal pragmatic characteristics such as communicative purposes and similar discourse markers which British, American and Russian health discourse share. At the same time, a number of specific features showing difference in linguistic manifestation between English and Russians discourses have been discovered. While breast cancer prevention in English has demonstrated informal register, emotionally expressive vocabulary and colloquial style, the Russian discourse has tended towards social and marketing stylistics. These national specifics, however, do not contradict the heterogeneous nature of health discourse and fully correlate with the concept of a multimodal health discourse integrating medical, educational, social and marketing types of discourse. Bibliography ATKINSON, P. (1999). Medical discourse, evidentiality and the constraction of professional

responsibility. In Sarangi S., Roberts C. Talk, Work and Institutional Order: Discourse in Medical, Mediation and Management Settings (Eds.). Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, p. 75-109

ASKEHAVE, I. (2002). Drug Information for Laymen: Good or Bad Medicine? In Candlin N. Research and Practice in Professional Discourse (Ed.). Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong, p. 279-293.

CANDLIN, S. (2002). A Triple Jeopardy: What can Discourse Analysts Offer Health Professionals? In Candlin, N., Research and Practice in Professional Discourse (Ed.). Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong, p. 293-309

FOX, S. & JONES, S. (2009). The Social Life of Health Information. http://www.pewinternet.org. MOORHEAD, S. A. & HAZLETT, D. E et.al. (2013). A New Dimension of Health Care: Systematic

Review of the Uses, Benefits, and Limitations of Social Media for Health Communication. J Med Internet Res. Apr. 15 (4), doi: 10.2196/jmir.1933




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SARANGI, S. & ROBERTS, C. (1999). Introduction: Discursive hybridity in medical work. In Sarangi S., Roberts C. Talk, Work and Institutional Order: Discourse in Medical, Mediation and Management Settings (Eds.). Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, p. 61-75

VENTOLA, C. L. (2014). Social Media and Healthcare Professionals: Benefits, Risks, and Best Practices. P & T, July, 39(7), 491-520.

Internet sources http://www.breastcanceruk.org.uk/ Breast Cancer UK http://pinkribbon.org/ Pink Ribbon international www.breastcancercare.org.uk Breast Cancer Care http://mainecancer.org Maine Cancer Foundation https://nenaprasno.ru/test/ Фонд профилактики рака «Живу не напрасно» http://www.help-patient.ru Help-Patient.ru http://www.aif.ru/health Аргументы и факты. Здоровье http://www.raka-grudi.net Центр помощи: лечение рака груди Contact Anna O. Stebletsova, PhD 162, 14a Ul. Domostroiteley Voronezh 394051 Russia [email protected]




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British and American Varieties in Legalese

Jana Spálová, Slovakia

[email protected]

Abstract Briticisms and Americanisms have been described by many linguists. However, British and American varieties in

legalese (in legal language) have not been elaborated yet. There are many discrepances not only in spelling, pronunciation but also on a lexical level - e.g. the word bailiff in British English means an officer of the sheriff who makes arrests and serves writs but in American English it means a court officer who keeps order during court proceedings. The Czech, Slovak and English legal dictionaries do not provide the British or American equivalents. Even, in famous Black` s Law Dictionary these ones cannot be distinguished - they are sometimes provided as legal synonyms, what can be miscellaneous. The author tries to provide the list of both varieties in legalese based on the research of English legal textbooks and tries to analyse them.

Keywords: variety, legalese, Briticisms, Americanisms, legal synonyms

The English language is used as the national language of the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia

and New Zealand. It is the official or semi- official language of communication in many countries throughout the world. A closer look at English in these countries reveals that there are many regional differences – particularly in the area of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. When discussing geographical variations of English we use different terms: Standard English, geographical varieties (national standards), regional variants and local dialects. Two main geographical varieties of English sometimes called national standards (Quirk et al. 1972) are British and American English. “These varieties are characterized by differences especially in vocabulary, less in grammar and spelling. They have different pronunciation, as well. In this connection we speak of Americanisms and less frequently of Briticisms. The term Americanisms refers to a word, phrase, speech sound and grammatical form of English as spoken in the USA. The term Briticism is a word, phrase, speech sound and grammatical form typical of the USA” (Kvetko, 2011, p. 84-85).

Spelling. “The spelling differences between British and American English were noted as one of the chief sources of variation. Several of them are productive, applying to the large numbers of words, such as BrE-re, AmE-er (center, centre); BrE our, AmE-or (colour, color) and BrE – ogue, AmE-og (catalogue, catalog). Many more apply to individual items, including: BrEaeroplane/AmEairplane, aesthetics/ esthetics, doughnut/donut, boloney, baloney, cigarette/ cigarette, gauge/ gage, chequer/ checker, connexion/ connection, scallywag/ scallawag, throughway/ thruway, tyre/ tire” (Crystal, 1995, p. 307).

Pronunciation. There are several regular differences between Received Pronuncation and General American, such as the pronunciation of the final /-r/ in the latter. In addition, several words have individually different pronunciation – e.g. anti- (RP anti:, GA antai), ate ( et/ eit), gooseberry ( guzberi/ gu:sberi) vase( va:z, veis), z (zed/ zi:)

Short and long A. RP has many words in /a: / which are pronounced with /a/ in GA. They include the following: advance, mask, banana, passport, castle, plant, fasten, reprimand, sample, slander, bath, blast.

Stress differences. “There are many words whose stress varies between the two accents. Some of them can be grouped into patterns such as those ending in –ary/ -ory (e.g. secretary, laboratory) or –et (ballet, beret), which attract stress on the final syllable. Some of the words vary, depending on their sentence position – e.g. Princess Anne is a princess” (Crystal, 1995). We provide the first word in RP and second one from the pair in GA. (address/ address; ballet/ ballet; translate/ translate; weekend/ weekend).




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What we are interested in our article will be lexical differences. Some words (lexemes) are found only in American English, some only in British English and some have become established throughout the world as a part of Standard English. As we could see, there are many discrepances not only in spelling, pronunciation but also on a lexical level - e.g. the word bailiff in British English means an officer of the sheriff who makes arrests and serves writs but in American English it means a court officer who keeps order during court proceedings. The Czech, Slovak and English legal dictionaries do not provide the British or American equivalents. Even, in famous Black` s Law Dictionary these ones cannot be distinguished - they are sometimes provided as legal synonyms, what can be miscellaneous, because legal synonyms are triplets or doublets used in both varieties – e.g. Black´s legal dictionary provides the definition of plaintiff through the word claimant but does not explain that this is just a word used in another variety: “Definition of third party plaintiff - Party brought in as claimant by the defendant in a law suit.” (Black´s law online dictionary). Crystal (1995) says that words Congress and Parliament originate one in England one in America but from the linguistic point of view. There are many items where the lexeme is a part of Standard English, though the entity being referred to, differs in certain respects from country to country. Many legal terms fall into this category. We will point out at the synonyms that are true synonyms as well as those that have different definitions.

Some words reflect cultural differences but are not a part of Standard English – e.g. Groundhog Day (AmE) and A-levels in British English. The other words have a single sense and a synonym in another variety – candy (AmE) and sweets (BrE). “Some words have at least one meaning in Standard English and then additional meaning – e.g. the word caravan means in both varieties a group of travellers in a desert but in the meaning a vehicle towed by a car is in British English caravan whereas in American English a trailer” (Crystal, 1995, p. 308). ”There is a group of words that have one meaning in one variety or both varieties – e.g. pharmacy is in BrE chemist´s but in AmE it is a drugstore. The last group create the words that have one meaning in Standard English but different meaning in both varieties e.g. AmE flyover = flypast, however BrE flyover = AmE overpass” (Crystal, 1995, p. 308).

In the following columns we provide the legal terms in both varieties- they are “true synonyms”. The words were taken from the textbook – International Legal English by Amy Krois-Lindner.

BrE AmE

claimant plaintiff

appellant petitioner

bye-law ordinance

CV resumé

company corporation

lift pierce

memorandum of association articles of incorporation/certificate of incorporation

annual general meeting annual meetings of shareholders

extraordinary general meetings special meetings of shareholders

accounts financial statements

profit - and - loss account profit-and-loss statement or income statement

bonus stock dividend

capitalisation issue cash dividend

authorised share capital authorized shares




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ordinary shares common shares

preference shares preferred shares

share subdivision stock split

share consolidation reverse (stock) split

pre-emption rights preemptive rights

takeover-bid tender offer

compulsory winding-up involuntary bankruptcy

voluntary liquidation dissolution or winding-up

entire agreement merger

redundancy dismissal layoff

trade union labor union

labour law labor law

charge security interest

trade marks trademarks

negotiable instruments commercial paper

certificates of deposit and cheques checks

endorsement indorsement

bills of exchange drafts

book debts accounts receivable

covering letter cover letter

competition law antitrust law

abuse of dominant position abuse of monopoly power

However, there can be another group created from these words. They are marked in the above mentioned textbook as the words that exist in both varieties but can be in another variety expressed also as another word – e.g. voluntary liquidation can be in American English expressed by this British word but also by the word dissolution or winding-up. Other examples include: BrE entire agreement in AmE also as Merger, BrE Bills of exchange in AmE also as drafts, BrE appellant in AmE also as petitioner.

Then, we can speak about the words that have different inner meaning or different cultural background in both varieties- e.g. the word the certificate of incorporation (BrE). In the USA generally no official certificate is issued. “Companies are formed upon the filing of the articles/ certificate of incorporation. A fixed charge is in USA only security interest in specific assets. Another cultural difference is when we speak about contracts for the sale of goods. They are governed in the USA by the Uniform Commercial Code and in the UK by the Sale of Goods Act, though it all falls under common law.” (Krois-Lindner, 2006, p. 64). Another example of this group is fair dealing (BrE) and right of fair use recognised in the USA. “Fair dealing is more restrictive than the US doctrine of fair use; in order to be protected, the use has to fall into one of several categories, while in the USA it is open-ended” (Krois-Lindner, 2006, p. 149). British word debentures has an equivalent in AmE in bond or secured debentures (both are secured debt instruments). “A debenture in the USA is a debt instrument which may be secured or unsecured, whereas in the UK a debenture is usually a secured debt instrument evidenced by a document under seal (a deed) and protects the rights of debenture holder” (Krois-Lindner, 2006, p. 164).

The British word undertaking can be expressed in the USA by a number of terms – business, firm or enterprise. So, as we can see the word in one variant has many possibilities in another variant.




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The last word that deserves mentioning is the word goods in BrE. In AmE goods can be used in the singular – good. Moreover, in spelling we can mention different spelling BrE labour/ labor AmE.

Conclusion Though David Crystal in his Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English language does not pay

attention to varieties and legalese, we tried to do so. However, we followed Crystal´s division of lexemes according to the varieties. We found out that legal English creates all groups of words that occur in both varieties in general vocabulary. We proved that there are “true synonyms” in legal English, then there are words that have another option in one variety, the words that have completely or partially different meaning under one notion in both varieties, or there is a possibility that there exist more than one lexeme in one variety and last but not least, that they may have different grammatical or spelling form. Bibliography CHROMÁ, M. (2003). New Introduction to Legal English, volume I. Praha: UK v Praze, Karolinium. CHROMÁ, M. (2003). New Introduction to Legal English, volume II. Praha: UK v Praze,

Karolinium. CRYSTAL, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP. KROIS-LINDNER, A. (2006). International Legal English. Cambridge: CUP. KVETKO, P. (2011). English Lexicology. Trnava: UCM. QUIRK, R., GREENBAUM, S., LEECH, G., & SVARTVIK, J. (1972). A Grammar of Contemporary

English. London: Longman. http://thelawdictionary.org/ Contact Mgr. et Mgr. Jana Spálová, PhD. Katedra anglistiky a amerikanistiky Filozofická fakulta Univerzita Sv. Cyrila a Metoda v Trnave Slovensko e-mail: [email protected]




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Subordinate Causal Clauses in Albanian Language

Fabiana Velencia, Albania

[email protected]

Abstract Causative connectors viewed in different aspects and analyzed in different subordinate causal clauses. The Albanian scholar Mehmet Celiku (2012) explains that the causative sentences should express relation

between the main clause and the subordinate one, where the main clause gives the effect and the subordinate one gives the cause. In this case, we have cause-effect. In the Albanian language there are three groups of connectors divided based on a) the semantic–function derivation; b) time related connectors but in the same case gives causative meaning; c) the last group is the comparative connectors but in the causative sentences they gain causative meaning.

In the second part the researcher’s focus will be the Albanian syntax, where are known two main types of the subordinate causative clauses; a) ascertaining causal connectors and b) reasoning causal connectors. It is not very easy the analyses of the given subordinated causal clauses but they can be defined by the position of the causal clause. The first type is positioned after the main clause and the second type the subordinate clause is positioned in front or in the middle of the main clause.

Keywords: causative connectors, Albanian syntax, subordinate causal clause.

Introduction The Albanian scholar Mehmet Celiku has explained the usage of the causative sentences,

what should they express, such as relation between the main clause and the subordinate one, where the main clause gives the effect and the subordinate one gives the cause. In this case, we have cause-effect. In the Albanian language there are three groups of connectors divided based in: a) The semantic–function derivation; b) Time related connectors but in the same case gives causative meaning; c) The last group is the comparative connectors but in the causative sentences they gain

causative meaning. Compound subordinate sentence with causal clause: When we form a causal sentence it should express causal relationship between the main

clause and subordinate clause (Çeliku, 2012, 379); where the main clause shows the effect and the subordinate one shows the cause, so the relationship result + cause. - We could not meet, because two months before happened the accident. - No, mom, I will go because I promised to my friends. - He is not pleased, because he has large claims. - I do this detailed report, because we are dealing with one of the largest families of the

principality. - We are sorry that you are not staying for dinner tonight.

The causal phrases and conjunctions are:

a) that, because, because (since), because of (because of that), for the reason that, because, fearing that.

a) se, sepse, ngaqë(ngase), nga shkaku se (nga shkaku që), për shkaku se, për arsye se, nga frika se.

b) because, since (meqënëqë), given that (being that) given that (considering) while. b) meqë, meqënëse ( meqënëqë), duke qënë se (duke qënë që) duke marrë parasysh se (duke

marrë parasysh që) përderisa.




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c) after (after) until (until, since) when, how. c) pasi (mbasi) derisa (gjersa, përderisa) kur, si. d) as, as, as ... .that d) siç, si , si….që

The first two groups are grouped by semantic- functional origin, the third group with the

conjunction of time that in certain structures get a causal sense and the last group are the comparative conjunctions in causal terms.

Çeliku (2012, p. 379) in the Albanian syntax recognizes two main causal subtypes of periods with causal subordinate sentence: a) Ascertaining causal connectors b) Reasoning causal connectors.

In the first case, the cause is given directly and in the second case the cause is given as a fact,

a truth that behaves as an argument. (The sentences are written in English and Albanian language): a) We are seeking innocence as we are innocent. a) Ne kërkojmë pafajsinë se jemi të pafajshëm. b) The land trembled; he was in there as he was not rocked by the earthquake. b) Vendi dridhej, ai mbeti se s’tronditej nga tërmeti. c) We were ready to go that it was coming up to midnight. c) U ngritën se po vinte mesnata. d) As the two brothers had died earlier, for the throne, there remain no living contenders. d) Meqë të dy vëllezërit kishin vdekur më parë, rreth fronit nuk mbetej asnjë pretendent i gjallë. e) Since he did not tell the truth, he endured that. e) Meqënëse nuk tregoi të vërtetën, e pësoi. f) Rita, while she did not hear the speech she had nothing to say more. f) Rita, përderisa s’e dëgjoj fjalimin nuk kishte ç’te thoshte më.

If we consider the difference of the usage of these two types of the periods (sentences) with causal clauses we are going to see that it is tight. The positioning of the period, as Çeliku (2012, p. 380) uses, with the ascertaining causal clause is after the main clause and reasoning causal can be placed in front of or in the middle of the main sentence.

Moreover, Çeliku (2012, p. 381) explains that the causal relationship is expressed by the conjunctions of time, because, until, when, etc. Where given clause with this conjunction is given as a motive of an action or a new situation or abnegation is given in the main clause.

- This trip is worth to taste, after the landscape that accompanies, it is stunning. - Ky udhëtim ia vlen të shijohet, pasi pejsazhi që të shoqëron, është mahnitës.

- As you have decided to escape, I will forbid you. - Përderisa ti ke vendosur të ikësh, unë do të pengoj.

- He would come later, after he had to go to the water well of Kavalon, in order to catch Pac. - Do të vinte më pas, mbasi të kishte për të shkuar gjer te pusi i Kavalonës, për të kapur Pacin..




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The conjunctions that express causal relationships is when in the main clause we have the

usage of verbs or phrases words of main clause, such as: do something good, do something wrong, go wrong, I am right, I have nothing, wish, curse, thank, scold, fear, joy, delight, angry, surprised, feel angry, upset, disappointed, I feel good (bad, heavy, shame, anger). The above verbs or expressions give assessment of the situation, feeling and the internal sense. - We are sorry that you are not staying for dinner tonight. - Na vjen keq që s’rrini për darkë sonte. - He could get angry that we didn’t wait for them. - Do të zemërohej që nuk i pritëm. - Why are you getting upset for nothing!? - Ç’ke që mërzitesh kot!?

Further, Çeliku cites "the isolated parts of the sentence can ever be expanded with causal clause that it is led by the conjunctions as ... .. that , this looks like an embedded structure." - Niko, as upset that he was, stood up from the table without putting any morsel in his mouth. - Nikoja, i mërzitur që ishte, u ngrit nga buka pa vënë asnjë kafshatë në gojë.

- Besim, as an old resident that he was, was known by all.

- Besimin, si banor i vjetër që ishte, e njihnin të gjithë.

A group of particles can provide us with various; causal relationship: precisely (booster) only, (due out, due only), especially (on everything emerges as the predominant cause), probably (due out how uncertain), supposedly (due out as false). - Was raised only that the midnight was coming. - U ngritëm vetëm se po vinte mesnata.

The positioning of the causal clause linked with the main sentence with these conjunctions or verbal expression (Çeliku, 2012, p. 382):

In front of the main clause After the main clause In the middle of the main clause

- Being That (causal) - 'If (Time) - Well done that (evaluation

sheet) - will get angry that - the fault was mine that

(state) - was happy that (feeling) - Thank you for - Shall declare that (internal

state) - Fear that (internal state) - Fear that (internal state)

- That (Causal) - Because (Causal) - After (time) - Until (time) - When (time) - (And) came rampage that

(feeling) - Ostensibly the reason that

(due to false) - Only that ... (the reason given

alone) - Maybe that ... (the reason

given as insecure)

- While (time) - Creepy as it was (able) - As the only resident - Glad (domestic situation, sense)

-because - while - since - until Separated by commas in the middle of the main clause: - that




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- What (internal state) - because - In that - since - until - 'If (until)

- Only because (reason given alone)

- because - while - since After the main clause and it us separated by commas: - because - because the - because - fearing - given that - considering that

- because - because - Because the - Based on the reason that - Fearing - Given that

Conclusion As a conclusion, the Albanian causative sentence is analyzed by different scholars. Based on

the researched we come to the idea that the causative sentences should express relation between the main clause and the subordinate one, where the main clause gives the effect and the subordinate one gives the cause. In this case, we have cause-effect.

On the other hand, we should consider the connectors and define the meaning they give to the subordinate causative clause. It is not very easy the analyses of the given subordinated causal clauses but they can be defined by the position of the causal clause. Literature CABEJ, E. (1981). Per pastertine e gjuhes.2 CABEJ, E. (1977)- Studime gjuhesore. Prishtine, I,II,III,1976,IV,1977,V,1975,VI,1977 ÇELIKU, M. (2012). Sintaksa e Gjuhës shqipe. Tirana: Ilar.

ÇELIKU, M., KARAPINJALLI, M.. & STRINGA, R. (2004)- Gramatika praktike e gjuhes shqipe. Tirane.

MANN, S. (1948). An Historical Albanian- English dictionary. THOMAI, J. (1964). Mbi menyren e pasqyrimit te sistemit te kuptimeve dhe te perdorimeve te

fjaleve ne fjalorin shpjegues te gjuhes shqipe. XHUVANI, A. (1956). Studime Gjuhesore. XHUVANI, A. (1956). Per pastertine e gjuhes shipe. XHUVANI, A. (1980). Vepra, I. Contact Fabiana Velencia L“28 Nëntori” Rr. “Esat Bordi” Shtëpi private pranë pallatit nr. 422/3 Elbasan. ALBANIA POSTAL CODE 30001 [email protected]




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Causative sentence characteristic’s based on its semantic-structure (In English and Albanian language)

Fabiana Velencia, Albania [email protected]

Abstract The paper discuses the basic characteristics of the causative connectors based on the Albanian scholars and in

comparison with the research studies of Kallmeyer, who analysis how these connectors connect the first part of the sentence with the second part of it. In addition, Halliday and Hasan, they have included the semantic relation between words, where the connector reaches the link between the first part of the sentence with the second one; connectors that gives specific meaning of the same saying but can be analyzed and used in different contexts.

The Albania scholar Floqi has divided in seven types the causative sentence characteristic’s based on its semantic-structure: a) direct causative sentences; b) argumentative causative sentences of conclusion; c) argumentative causative sentences of order; d) causative sentences of conditional saying; e) additional and middle causative sentences; f) evaluative causative sentences; g) feelings (emotional) causative sentences.

The causative sentences are grouped based on the connector that connects the two sentences, one of the sentences is the main one and the other is the subordinate one. 1- Causative sentences linked with the connector se (that, but) 2- Causative connectors pse (wherefore) less used nowadays 3- The causative connector që (that) can be substituted with se (that) 4- The causative connector sepse (because) can give all the nuances of the cause 5- The connectors: se, sepse, që (that, because, that…) in the spoken language are parallel.

However, researcher’s attention in this paper will be on causative connectors used in English and do they have a corresponding connector in Albanian language.

Keywords: causative connectors, Albanian language, types, characteristics, semantic relation.

Introduction It is not easy to define the term connectors in Albanian language, the unlike term

conjunctions given by Rokaj (2011) in his paper in which he quotes the term "conjunctive snatch a whole greater means than what linguistics source describes by the term connectors. Conjunctions are linguistic tools that guarantee phrasal interdependence to create a full self-sufficient part called text”.

In addition, Floqi quotes: 1 - "The conjunction uniting two sentences in a period in which it is set an object relationship

rich of cause nuances. This occurs when the main verb of the sentence shows an internal state, a feeling. The subordinate sentence shows the cause of the new cause in this case is the sheer of mixed relations of the object-causal, which has a great importance for the structure and the value of constitution" (Floqi, 1996, p. 9).

2 - "Key words can express a desire, a wish, etc., and then the subordinate sentence expresses the motive, the reason for which the congratulation is said" (Floqi, 1996, p. 9).

3 - "When the main sentence is an interrogative sentence, the subordinate sentence expresses that fact, rise, cause due to the effect of which is asked through the main sentence” (Floqi, 1996, p. 10).

4 - "When the main period opens with an interrogative sentence that has the necessary structural pronoun element ç’ (what) inquiring after which comes the main verb have at various tense (usually the present tense) subordinate sentence with the conjunction that shows the fact, phenomena, real state that inspire the question", in this case the question requires the because that brings the consequence and the author quotes" main clause- interrogative sentence requires the knowledge on the cause that had brought consequences expressed in the subordinate sentence (Floqi, 1996, p. 11).




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Many authors have addressed the connectors as one of the main mechanisms of text building cohesion. Kallmeyer examines how these tools specify links of the previous part of the text with the text that follows.

Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976) included semantic relationship between words, where the connectors make the connection between the following sentences given in the text with the previous part of the text. So connectors; conjunctions are the main tools in forming the cohesion of the text, they provide certain meanings in different contexts.

The first example provides the connector that shows semantic relationship between the first and second part. Furthermore, we quote that semantic relationships provided through connectors are not defined by their nature, but Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan´s (1976) subcategories the conjunctive relations. Different implemented approaches that provide the connectors’ relationships do not come in the same conclusion, but we will examine one of the basic relationships that carry connectors; causal relationship.

Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976) highlight the difference between external conjunction and internal one. Furthermore, we quote: "When we use conjunctions as a means to use the text, we can use the internal relationships to the phenomena for which the language is used to talk about them, or they are inherent in the process of communication, in the forms of interaction between speakers and listeners" Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976, p. 242).

Conjunctions can be used to express the internal relations in the process of communication and external reality relations. The following example is illustrated by Halliday and Hasan; causal connectors Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976, p. 238-239). 1- For the whole day he climbed up the steep mountainside, almost without stopping. 2- Gjatë gjithë ditës, ai ngjiti brinjën e pjerrët të malit, pothuajse pa ndaluar. (Albanian

translation) 1a- So by night time the valley was far below him. Kështu që në darkë, lugina ndodhej shumë poshtë tij.

The connector so gives the because of the second sentence under the first sentence. Let's look at another example of the interior and exterior causal relationship. 2a - She was never really happy there. So, she is leaving. a - Ajo nuk qe kurrë e lumtur këtu. Pra, ajo po largohet. b - She'll be better off in a new place. So, she's leaving? (Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan, 1976, p.

240). b - Ajo do të jetë më mirë në një vend të ri. Pra, ajo po largohet?

On the basis of these two examples in the use of same conjunction so, Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976) give interior and exterior relationship of the causal conjunctive, with the meaning of "as she is not happy she is leaving" in 2a it is realized the external relation and 2b can be reached the conclusion that "since she will have a better life in another country she is leaving”. In this case 2b is realized the internal causal relationship, within the process of communication.

Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976, p. 240) analyze the internal relationship in some of the situations as follows: a - In organizing the lecture by the speaker b -As steps of argument c - Among the various stages in the discovery of the communicative role of the speaker - a sense

that he/she assigns himself/herself as a participant in the whole situation. d - Among the meaning in the sense of showing the "seal" of the speaker itself in a situation,

chosen by him, the role of speech and rhetorical channel, his behavior, his judgments. e - Internal in the situation of communication f- A feature …….of the linguistic interaction process




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g - Within the process of communication (Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan,1976. p. 241) h - Within the process of communication, forms of interaction between speakers and listeners.

The internal causal relationship can appear in English with thus (kështu që), hence (prandaj) and therefore (prandaj) by giving the cause of an argument in the same notion we can find expressions: arising out of this (duke u nisur nga kjo), following from this (duke rrjedhur nga kjo) or it follows that (vijon që), from this it appears that (nga kjo duket se), we may conclude that (mund të arrijmë në përfundimin se).

We come to a conclusion that the same connector can be used in different semantic relationships in a text and different connectors can be used in the same sentence.

Another type of conjunctive relationship of cause is the conditional type. By the linguistic case they may be closely related. Where a cause means a so b, where the conditional mean if yes a1 then possibly b1, and since then, although not related by logic can be exchanged and a can cause b1 as cohesive form.

The following examples are given by Halliday, Kirkwood, & Hasan (1976): a) The next morning she was glad and proud that she had not yielded to a scare. For he was

most strangely and obviously better. Mëngjesin tjetër, ajo ishte e lumtur dhe krenare që nuk ishte llahtarisur. Për shakak se ai ishte

çuditërisht dhe dukshëm mirë. b) “I see somebody now!’ she exclaimed at last. But he's coming very slowly and what curious

attitudes he goes into!’( For the Messenger kept skipping up and down, and wriggling like an eel, as he came along with his great hands spread out like fans on each side)

‘Shoh dikë tani!’ thirri ajo më në fund. ‘Por ai po vjen ngadalë dhe me çfarë sjelljeje ai po futet’. (Për shkak se lajmëtari vijonte së kapërcyeri lart edhe poshtë, dhe duke u përdredhur si ngjalë, ndërsa vinte me duar të hapura si freskore në të dyja anët)

c) You aren't leaving, are you? Because I've got something to say to you. Ju nuk po largoheni, apo jo? Sepse kam diçka të rëndësishme për t’ju thënë ç) ‘And what does it to live on?' ‘Weak tea with cream in it.' A new difficulty came into Alice's

head. Supposing it couldn't find any?' she suggested. Then it would die, of course. ‘Dhe me se jeton?’. ‘Çaj dhe krem.’ Një vështirësi tjetër i erdhi Alisës në kokë. ‘Pra, nuk mund

të gjente ndonjë gjë?, sugjeroj ajo. Atëherë, do të vdes sigurisht’. d) Have some wine, the March Hare said in an encouraging tone. Alice looked all round the

table, but there was nothing on it but tea. I don't see any wine,' she remarked. There isn't any’ said the March Hare. "Then it wasn't very civil of you to offer it,' said Alice angrily.

Merr pak verë, tha Març Har-i me një ton nxitës. Alis pa në tavolinë, por nuk kishte asgjë mbi të, përveç çajit. “Nuk shoh verë, ‘ tha ajo. ‘Nuk ka,’ tha Març Har-i. ‘Atëherë nuk kishte shumë qytetare prej jush që ta ofronit atë, ‘tha me zemërim Alis.

Other units include in that case (në atë rast), in such an event (në një situatë të tillë); and if

do (nëse është kështu). Below we will give the overlapping of cause and conditionsal with "if, as in the case" (nëse, ky është rasti, atëherë). But the relationship can be equivalent if (nëse), since (dukë qenë se) seeing that (duke parë se).

Theoretical basis for connectors with causal relationship. The relationship between the connectors with causal conjunction can be carried with the

articles or different forms such as adverb, conjunction, etc. The above mentioned authors have addressed conjunctions or connectors (the connectors in

Dijk. 1977) in various ways: the findings send some points in common. a) Connectors are important in the construction of the text. b) Connectors connect two things or parts of the text. c) The relationship of connectors is used more to the semantics relationship than structural.




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d) The internal relationship and external to observe the internal relations of the communication process and relationship of external reality.

e) Initial placement or not of the connectors and the connections between the acts of speaking realizes the difference of pragmatic and semantic connectors.

In addition in 1966 Floqi (p. 9) realizes a study examining his previous works and represents

the means by which is realized the causal sentence. The author distinguishes semantic- structural types of sentences connected with the conjunctions: that, though, because: a) Direct causal sentences; b) Argumentative causal sentences of conclusion; c) Argumentative causal sentences of order; d) Causal sentences of conditional saying; e) Additional and middle causal sentences; f) Evaluative causal sentences; g) Feelings (emotional) causal sentences.

Floqi (1996) writes in his paper: 1 - Causal sentence with the conjunction that(se) has to do with the entire main sentence in contrast to other types of sentences. 2 - The conjunction though (pse) is less used, and can be used to give the answer because (although { edhe pse}). 3 - The conjunction that (që) can replace that (se),these sentences are closely related to the main sentence and are post positive. 4 - In the case of the conjunction because (sepse), we can say that cannot be used in intermediary sentences and can provide all the nuances of the cause. 5 - In spoken language conjunctions that (se), because (spese) and that (që) have parallels and splicing and are becoming more and more in formative use.

Floqi (1996) deepen his study of the causal subordinate clauses that join with the main sentence with simple causal conjunctions, with conjunctive expression of cause, linking words that have the sense of cause. a) A group of conjunctive expression with the nuance of cause: that (nga që), of that (nga se), for

that( prej se), from the work that (nga puna që), from work that (nga puna se) , due to the fact that (nga shkaku që), due to the case that (nga shkaku se), because (për arsye se), for the reason that because (për arsye që), which can be substituted for the work that (për punën që), the fact that (për faktin që). In this case the subordinate sentence submits a fact that definitely shows the cause.

b) Another group with causal conjunctive phrases that gives a fact which can be either in the main clause or subordinate one, a fact which is taken into account in a drawing conclusion. Expression: by considering the work that (duke marrë parasysh punën se), given the fact that (duke marrë parasysh faktin se, considering that (duke marrë parasysh se). Moreover Floqi (1996, p. 56) states: "These conjunctive expressions have in common the fact that they have in their morphological composition, a part of the other elements, preposition (or prepositional phrase of cause that expresses these prepositions, the conjunctive expressions can be divided into two groups:

1 - Conjunctive expression with the preposition of (nga) and from (prej) 2 - Conjunctive expression with the preposition to (për).

Special nuances of cause are given by the preposition of (nga)(and from {prej}) through a fact that is cause as starting point of another fact "on the other hand with the preposition for the nuance of the reason has to do with the origin an target -object, which is reinterpreted as a link of cause. "




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In the case of the conjunctive expression of that (nga që), is given the starting point or origin of the causal in the subordinate sentence based on Floqi’s studies.

The third singular, based to the two other cases has a wider use in Albanian language. This is because the third singular has three gender that of male, female and not given gender. / Son / He spoke even with the old women in this way, she strongly encouraged him some more,

since she also took positive words by him. /Djali/ Foli edhe me plakën kështu, e ajo e nxite ca më fort atë, nga që edhe ajo mirte darova

prej tij. Ngaqë asgjë nuk dëgjohej më (Kadare, p. 278). Nothing else could be heard and so it was… (Kadare, p. 264).

The sentence with the conjunction of that (nga që) and from that (prej se) can be placed in

three positions at the start of the main sentence, at the end or in the middle of it; whenever the sentence has nothing to do with feelings on the contrary is only positioned after the main sentence.

The subordinate sentence could be positioned: at the beginning, the end or in the middle of the main sentence. According Floqi the causal sentence that is linked with the conjunction (since that) can be positioned in front of the main sentence. - Do we know why are we gathered here today? - Since that you do not know, the mayor is going to explain this.

In addition, he adds that the conjunctive was that since, it is imposed after the main sentence and it is divided by a comma. But today these expressions are substituted with that and being that. These conjunctives are used more in scientific and legal materials, they give the fact and in the main sentence is cause to raise conclusion.

Conclusion As a conclusion, connectors are analyzed and specified in English and Albanian language by

giving the corresponding connector in each case. The Albanian scholar Floqi and the foreigner scholars Holliday and Hasan have come to some similar conclusions of the use of conjunctions that gives the nuances of causal to the sentence.

In addition, connectors are a major mechanism in forming text cohesion. In this paper was discussed the semantic relation between words, where the connector reaches the link between the first part of the sentence with the second one; connectors that gives specific meaning of the same saying but can be analyzed and used in different contexts. Literature BLAKEMORE, D. (2002). Relevance and Linguistic Meaning: The Semantic and Pragmatics of

Discourse. Cambridge University Press. CABEJ, E. (1981). Per pastertine e gjuhes.2 CABEJ, E. (1977) Studime gjuhesore. Prishtine, I,II,III,1976,IV,1977,V,1975,VI,1977 ÇELIKU, M. (2012). Sintaksa e Gjuhës shqipe. Tirana: Ilar. ÇELIKU, M. KARAPINJALLI, & M. STRINGA, R. (2004) Gramatika praktike e gjuhes shqipe. Tirane. FLOQI, S. (1996). Periudha me fjali tw varur shkakore I. studime filologjike N.2, HALLIDAY, M., KIRKWOOD, A., & HASAN, R. (1976). Cohesion in English, Longman Group Ltd, KADARE, I. (2008). The general of the dead army. London. Vintage books. MANN, S. (1948). An Historical Albanian- English dictionary. RROKAJ, Sh. (2011). Per nje tipologji te lidhezoreve te tekstit ne gjuhen shqipe. U.SH.T THOMAI, J. (1964). Mbi menyren e pasqyrimit te sistemit te kuptimeve dhe te perdorimeve te

fjaleve ne fjalorin shpjegues te gjuhes shqipe.




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XHUVANI, A. (1956). Studime Gjuhesore. XHUVANI, A. (1956). Per pastertine e gjuhes shipe. XHUVANI, A. (1980)Vepra,I, TOPALLI, T. (2011). Gjuhesi teksti. Shkoder Contact Fabiana Velencia L“28 Nëntori” Rr. “Esat Bordi” Shtëpi private pranë pallatit nr. 422/3 Elbasan. ALBANIA POSTAL CODE 30001 [email protected]




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Výuka cizích jazyků s odborným zaměřením

Marie Černíková, Česká republika

(príhovor za MŠMT ČR Praha)

Výuce odborného cizího jazyka se věnuje Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy (MŠMT) ve spolupráci s Národním institutem dalšího vzdělávání (NIDV) již několik let. Žáci odborných škol by neměli získávat pouze obecné cizojazyčné kompetence a osvojovat si témata z běžného života, ale měli by se učit především to, co má vztah k jejich odbornosti. Zatěžování „zbytečnou“ slovní zásobou může být pro některé z nich demotivující, proto je velmi důležité jasně definovat standardy toho, co by absolvent konkrétního studijního či učebního oboru měl minimálně zvládnout.

NIDV v rámci rezortního úkolu výuka odborného cizího jazyka proškolilo více než 500 učitelů. V roce 2014 zorganizovalo MŠMT ve spolupráci s NIDV seminář k výuce odborného cizího jazyka, na kterém školy prezentovaly vlastní výukové materiály a proběhla diskuse o požadavcích a nárocích se zástupci krajů i odborné veřejnosti. Potřeba zajistit sdílení již dostupných výukových materiálů, případně vývoj nových a stanovit koncepční rámec pro výuku odborného cizího jazyka – to jsou hlavní úkoly v této oblasti pro nejbližší období.

Pro výuku cizího jazyka zaměřeného na komunikaci v konkrétním oboru se v anglofonním prostředí užívá termín Language for Special Purposes (LSP) - výuka cizího jazyka pro specifické účely. V případě aplikace na výuku francouzštiny jako cizího jazyka se užívá termín Français sur objectifs spécifiques (FOS). V českém prostředí zdomácněl doslovný německý termín Fachsprache – odborný cizí jazyk.

Výuka odborného cizího jazyka se začala v didaktice cizích jazyků rozvíjet od 60. letech minulého století, viz definice autorů Picht & Draskau, Terminology: An introduction. Guildford: University of Surrey (1985) „a formalized and codified variety of language, used for special purposes with the function of communicating information of a specialist nature at any level in the most economic, precise and unambiguous terms possible“. Klíčová slova ve výše uvedené definici je výuka zaměřená na odbornost ve všech jazykových úrovních, tj. již od úrovně A1 dle SERR, samozřejmě v závislosti na oboru vzdělání. A dále výuka, která je efektivní, přesná a jednoznačná.

O výuce cizího jazyka zaměřeného na odbornost ve středních školách pojednává i Společný evropský referenční. V případě prvního cizího jazyka se uvádí doporučení „redukovat formální vyučování v prvním cizím jazyce a místo toho používat tento jazyk pravidelně nebo příležitostně pro výuku dalšího předmětu (forma „odborně zaměřeného učení“ a „bilingvního vzdělávání“).

Školy si uvědomují, že výuka odborného cizího jazyka je pro žáky motivací – předmět „Cizí jazyk“ se učí ve spojení s praxí. Díky tomu si žáci spontánně osvojují odbornou terminologii tak, aby ji rychle a správně dokázali používat: číšník při obsluze zákazníka nemá čas přemýšlet nad tím, jak se řekne anglicky příbor, technik si nesmí v němčině plést svařování a vrtání. Výuka odborného cizího jazyka rozvíjí koncept „uvědomělého učení“, (viz Společný evropský referenční rámec str. 176), a je tedy motivační.

Pro některé administrativní či ekonomické obory vzdělání existují učebnice, které zohledňují specifika daného oboru již od začátku výuky. Pro většinu oborů vzdělání, zejména technických, nejsou specificky zaměřené učebnice v České republice dostupné. Školy tedy používají klasické učebnice a doplňují je většinou vlastními výukovými materiály zaměřenými na odbornost. Tento způsob je pro učitele časově velmi náročný, školy navíc nemají k dispozici dostatečné technické a personální zázemí, aby vytvořily zajímavý výukový materiál. Pro učitele cizích




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jazyků, kteří většinou nemají odborné vzdělání, je výuka odborného cizího jazyka poměrně náročná.

Požadavek na znalost odborné terminologie je uveden i v rámcových vzdělávacích programech. V oborech středního odborného vzdělávání zakončených maturitní zkouškou by v případě prvního cizího jazyk měla představovat 20 procent, v případě druhého cizího jazyka 15 procent. Pro střední odborné školy se ve srovnání s gymnázii jedná o náročný úkol, neboť mají kontrolovatelnou výstupní úroveň v podobě maturitní zkoušky na stejné úrovni jako gymnázia při nižší hodinové dotaci. Obory vzdělání s výučním listem mají výuku dalšího cizího jazyka většinou nepovinnou, nicméně trh práce často alespoň základní znalosti např. německého jazyka v případě technických oborů, požaduje.

Cílem je tedy zefektivnit výuku cizích jazyků v odborných školách tak, aby byli žáci připraveni nejen na maturitní zkoušku, ale i pro odbornou komunikaci ve své profesi, a tedy i pro trh práce. Ve školství je nutné vytvořit takové podmínky, aby se žáci a studenti věnovali i dalším cizím jazykům, které jsou pro uplatnitelnost na trhu práce klíčové. Na základě příhraniční spolupráce se projevuje stále větší potřeba a nutnost znalosti německého jazyka v technických oborech zakončených výučním listem. Jednou z cest je zefektivnit výuku cizích jazyků, aby byla co nejvíce zaměřena na odbornost a navíc využila co nejvíce poznatky a postupy z výuky prvního cizího jazyka.

Pak se bezpochyby podaří zajistit například dostatečný počet techniků hovořících německy či recepčních, které se s hotelovými hosty domluví francouzsky.

Kontakt PhDr. Marie Černíková Odbor vzdělávání Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy Karmelitská 7 118 12 Praha 1 tel: +420 234 811 818 e-mail: [email protected]; www.msmt.cz




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Bilingual Education vs. CLIL

Veronika Szombatová, Slovakia

[email protected] Abstract The aim of the submitted paper is to introduce the term bilingualism, to propose its types as well as to

differentiate between bilingualism and CLIL (Content Language Integrated Learning). In addition, the paper outlines the position of English bilingual education in terms of its implementation in Slovakia. The types of implemented models of bilingual education vary throughout Slovakia by being tailored specifically for particular schools. In order to achieve the required outcomes of learners, which means to teach the learners effectively and in a qualified way, the role of the teacher has an irreplaceable position. Not only the teachers need to master the foreign language, but also they have to be professionals in their field. However, the quality of teachers remains one of the major problems.

Keywords: foreign language learning and teaching, types of bilingualism, Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), requirements for teachers and learners

Introduction In recent years, there has been noticed a continuous growth of bilingual schools motivated

by the guidelines of European Union that is trying to govern all its efforts towards a multilingual society. An increasing number of bilingual language schools as well as bilingual sections naturally invoke questions regarding this type of education. Currently, the ability to speak two languages is not seen just as a benefit of being privileged, but rather as a necessity to find a prosperous job. Therefore, it is understandable that there is an immense interest in bilingual education.

The topic of bilingualism and CLIL in quite new in Slovakia and as a result of this, there is still a lack of appropriate teaching materials, strategies and methodological resources that bilingual teachers could draw on.

The article defines the concept of bilingualism, provides its basic types as well as their description. It also looks closely at the differences between bilingualism and CLIL. Moreover, there are described the main demands for bilingual teacher to promote an effective learning process. In the end, it offers an overview of the roles of teachers as well as some crucial issues connected with supporting and managing successful bilingual education.

The concept of bilingualism The topic of bilingualism is one of the areas of contemporary linguistic studies. Current state

of bilingual education in Slovakia has not been examined yet, and therefore it entails a lot of unanswered questions for the experts in the field.

Talking about the issue of bilingualism as such, it is rather difficult to find one definition that would cover the term thoroughly. This may be due to the fact that even professionals are not united when it comes to the questions referring to bilingualism. In addition, the concept of bilingualism is also perceived differently in countries around the world. In some countries, bilingual education refers to educating language minorities and immigrants, while in other countries, it is seen as a privilege (Pokrivčáková, 2013).

There have been numerous attempts to classify bilinguals by various characteristics such as fluency, competence in speaking, age as well as context of acquisition. In the subsequent section, there will be discussed the most common types of bilingualism and their basic features in order to distinguish among different types of bilingualism.

In a broad sense, bilingualism can be defined as an ability to communicate in two languages fluently. The problem becomes even more complicated when trying to define fluency. This definition can be also applied to the person who has not acquired a full grammar for particular




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language yet, but may be able to construct meaningful sentences. In other words, this criterion also includes those speakers who only have fundamental expressions in the foreign language.

On the contrary, the narrow view sees bilingualism as a native - like control of two languages. This definition naturally excludes a beginning language learner and an individual who may comprehend the foreign language but is not able to produce utterances in it.

Taking both viewpoints into consideration, it must be highlighted that they are rather unsatisfactory. They represent a position at different ends of proficiency continuum, however, the majority of bilinguals fall somewhere in the middle. At one end on this continuum, there is a monolingual speaker who communicates just in one language and the other language is deactivated, while, at the other, there is a speaker with a native - like fluency who communicates in both languages. Therefore, the most relevant factor to classify bilingualism is according to the regular use of two languages, because it gives a more appropriate reflection on how bilinguals use both languages on daily basis (Grosjean, 2002).

Typology of bilingualism As it has been mentioned above, there have been several attempts to define bilingualism

according to several criteria. The next part deals with the description of different types of bilingualism by taking into account the following aspects, which usually relate to the level of proficiency in languages, the age of acquisition of both languages, the amount of exposure to both languages and last but not least, the way how both languages were learned.

Early and late bilingualism According to the age of language exposure, bilinguals can be put into two groups, namely

early and late bilinguals. The distinction between these two types is also based on their attainment of linguistic competence. Early bilinguals are regarded as native speakers, while late bilinguals have not attained the complete competence of the language, which is often accompanied by inadequacies in language. Late bilingualism refers to a state when a child starts to learn the second language after the critical period, after the first language is mostly acquired (Rosenberg, 1996).

In addition, early bilingualism can be classified into two types: Simultaneous bilingualism: occurs when a child learns two languages at once from the birth

which often results in a strong (pure) bilingualism. Successive bilingualism: occurs when a child has partially acquired the first language and then

starts to learn the second language early in the childhood usually after moving to another country. This mostly also results in the strong bilingualism, however, it takes some time to fully acquire the second language.

Balanced and dominant bilingualism Based on the relationship between the fluency and proficiency of particular languages, we

differentiate between balanced and dominant bilingualism. Individuals who master both languages on the similar level are called balanced bilinguals, while on the contrary, if one of the languages prevails and the individual is more competent in one language, then this is called a dominant (unbalanced) bilingualism. Only a few people are truly balanced in both languages, usually one language is dominant (Rosenberg, 1996).

Compound, Coordinate and Subordinate Bilingualism Weinreich (1963) classifies bilingualism in terms of the ways in which the concepts of a

language are encoded in the individual's brain. Based on this premise, he proposes three types of bilingualism: compound, coordinate and subordinate (Blanc & Hamers, 2000).

Regarding the compound bilingualism, the individual learns two languages in the same context and at the same time, therefore the representation of them in the brain is stored in one




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meaning unit. This means that the person has one system of meaning for words used for both languages. It is typical for people with this type of bilingualism to be fluent in the second language as well as to have very natural pronunciation.

On the contrary, coordinate bilingualism means that all linguistic elements such as words and phrases are stored in the person´s mind separately in two meaning units since the person learns two languages in separate environments. In other words, linguistic codes are organized separately with each word having its own specific meaning. As a result of this, the person has two systems of words, one for the words in the mother tongue and the other one they know in the other language. This also means that one person has different associations with the same word in different languages. Another typical characteristic for bilinguals of this type is that they use different intonation and pronunciation features.

When talking about subordinate bilingualism, it is presumed that the weaker language is interpreted through the stronger one. Linguistic elements of one language are only available through elements of the person´s other language. This is usually due to fact that the person may not have learned the languages equally or may have attained the bilingualism later in life.

It is believed that among the previously mentioned types of bilingualism, coordinate and compound bilinguals usually have a higher cognitive proficiency than subordinate bilinguals.

Folk and Elite Bilingualism Another criterion for the classification of bilingualism is cultural identity and language usage

according to which the bilinguals can be divided into folk and elite bilinguals. Folk bilinguals are those whose language is not of a high status and they have a minority language. On the contrary, elite bilinguals speak a dominant language in the community what provides them additional benefits within the community (Moradi, 2014).

Additive and Subtractive Bilingualism Depending on how individual´s second language influences the retention of their mother

tongue, bilinguals can be divided into additive and subtractive. Additive bilingualism occurs when learning the second language does not interfere with the learning of the mother tongue. This is a situation when the second language adds to rather than replaces the mother tongue. On the other hand, when the second language is learned at the expense of the mother tongue in the way that it gradually replaces it, we call this subtractive bilingualism. In other words, in case of additive bilingualism, both languages develop, while with the subtractive bilingualism, the mastery of the mother tongue diminishes and the second language is acquired at the cost of losing the mother tongue (May, 2011).

Factors affecting bilingualism Putting it simply, bilingual person is someone who speaks two languages. However, is

someone bilingual if they are fluent just in one language and their competence in other language is limited? Then, the person speaking two languages may use one of the languages just occasionally or even never. An individual can use one language just for speaking or writing, or reading. Clearly, not all of the previously mentioned people can be called bilinguals and nature of bilingualism seems to be quite ambiguous. Therefore, to understand the complexity of bilingualism, it is essential to differentiate between language ability and language use (Baker, 2011).

Baker (2011) points out the following significant dimensions of bilingualism, which overlap and therefore cannot be forgotten when talking about bilingualism: 1. Ability: The ability of bilingual speakers varies as some of them speak and write in both

languages fluently (productive competence), while others have an ability to read and




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understand in both language (receptive competence). For some, an ability to speak in one language is more developed than in other one.

2. Use: The use of languages mainly refers to the context where each language is acquired and then spoken. The purpose of the language being used might be different, in one case it can be used at home and school, whereas the other language may be used for phoning and mailing.

3. Balance of two languages: It happens quite rarely that bilinguals are equal when it comes to their ability of using the languages they speak. Usually, one language is dominant, although it can change over time.

4. Age 5. Development 6. Culture: When learning particular foreign languages, learners undergo a process of

acculturation, which means they tend to relate their knowledge, awareness, and emotions towards the foreign culture.

7. Context: If the speakers use both languages on daily basis, whether in face - to – face communication, via the Internet, phone, etc., the context is known as endogenous. On the contrary, when there is a lack of regular communication in particular language, the context become exogenous.

Tokuhama-Espinoza (2009) lists ten key factors influencing the development of bilingualism

in both ways, positive and negative. All of the mentioned factors are combined within an individual differently: 1. Timing (when exposure to both languages started, it represents a “window” of opportunity

for foreign language acquisition); 2. Aptitude (a predisposition to learn particular language, a language “gift”); 3. Motivation (both internal and external, positive and negative); 4. Strategy (how both languages are learned); 5. Consistency (how stable and consistent the exposure to both languages is); 6. Opportunity and support (opportunities to communicate in both languages in different

circumstances, e.g. home, school, within the community; people being responsible for language teaching);

7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages (languages that belong to the same language family are much easier to learn as they have similar features in terms of lexicology, syntax, grammar and graphology);

8. Siblings (as well as other relative´s influence, both positive and negative); 9. Gender (according to certain surveys, it is believed that girls are more likely to be biliterate

than boys, also because girls use more parts of the brain to consider similar stimuli (Piller, 2015))

10. Hand - use as a reflection of cerebral dominance for languages.

Differences between CLIL and bilingual education To avoid possible misleading and misinterpretation, CLIL and bilingual education cannot be

used interchangeably. In order to understand the differences between them, it is important to account for the origins of both terms.

When we talk about bilingualism in an educational context, in the past it was thought of as a method for teaching minorities in order to integrate into society by combining their mother tongue and the mainstream language. The contemporary concept of bilingual education is rather distinct as it is seen as something privileged that everyone can take part in.

Although the concept of CLIL might be new, this type of teaching has been practiced throughout the years since the Babylonian era, when children from ancient Roman upper-middle classes were taught in foreign language (Ball, 2015).




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The author of CLIL, Marsh (2002), defines it in a following way "CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning of content and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language." In other words, this educational approach means that certain content subjects are taught in foreign language, which is understood as the main vehicle of instructions, so one learns the subject content at the same time as the foreign language.

Despite the fact that CLIL has expanded quickly across the Europe and it has gained a considerable success, there are still insufficient resources regarding methodological issues that are undoubtedly essential to enable successful bilingual teaching.

In spite of being viewed as something revolutionary in the area of foreign language pedagogy, CLIL understandably brings certain challenges involving its implementation and professional teachers. In order to achieve successful CLIL implementation, the teachers are required to engage alternative ways of teaching as well as to develop methodologies for both the language and the subject being taught. Providing these issues are followed, it should solve the problem of language - content overlap.

Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has experienced a considerable growth in the recent years and it is slowly starting to be integrated into curricula all over the Europe. CLIL represents one of the methods within bilingual education, however, in case of CLIL the minimal language competence of students is not required, whereas in case of bilingual education the students´ level of particular language is of great importance. This means that regarding CLIL, the students acquire new knowledge of particular subjects simultaneously with improving their language competence.

Agudo (2012) states that the main objectives of the CLIL are: to allow students to broaden their knowledge of a subject to improve students´ abilities in a foreign language to give students an intercultural perspective of the subject, thus stimulating their interest in

and shaping new attitudes toward other cultures.

Menzlová (2010) provides some similarities and differences between CLIL and bilingualism and thus clearly differentiates between them:

The main characteristics of CLIL and bilingual education: CLIL Bilingual education

simultaneously supports knowledge of particular subjects together with knowledge and skills of foreign language

language plays a key role in all subjects in order to provide the students with knowledge as well as to exchange information, observe, discuss and describe

foreign language methodology and didactics are implemented into teaching, for instance active learning, cooperative learning, group work

the foreign language is not the centre of education, it can rather be seen as a way to obtain information and knowledge

an awareness of language principles is present

development of language functions

learning conditions are derived from constructivism




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Pokrivčáková (2010) claims there are two types bilingualism according to what extent is the

language used: 1. additive: It is characterized by low (5 -15 % of teaching time) or average (15 – 50% of

teaching time) exposure of foreign language. 2. immerse: It is typical for high (50 – 100% of teaching time) exposure of foreign language.

Essential teacher competences of a bilingual teacher One of the main concerns connected to bilingual education in Slovakia is the shortage and

need of qualified bilingual teachers to address students´ needs. Bilingual education is considered to be challenging and demanding and therefore it is recommended just for those students who are linguistically gifted and have higher intellectual skills.

As a result of the current situation, it is very likely that the demand for bilingual teachers will grow faster as the number of school with bilingual education increases. Successful implementation of bilingual education depends on variety of factors, however, one of the crucial issues is the role of the teacher.

The bilingual teacher can face several problems while teaching content subjects in foreign language. Foreign language education poses special requirements on the teachers, not just because they need to be professionals in the subjects they teach, but they also need to master particular foreign language. The question is if it is necessary to have a university degree or if it is enough to have a B2 state exam to teach students appropriately and effectively.

The questions related to the issue of bilingual education that are of our great concern are what competences a bilingual teacher should have in order to accomplish an effective bilingual teaching. Blanco (1977) provides the following attributes of foreign language teacher:

1. Proficiency The first essential competency for the bilingual education teacher is the proficiency in

foreign language as well as the taught subject. Since bilingual education is the teaching of subject matter through foreign language, it is not sufficient for the teachers to have just a passing acquaintance with the foreign language. The teacher must be able to provide clear instructions in the foreign language, so a solid base of foreign language competence is a necessity.

Regarding the linguistic issues, an ideal bilingual teacher should also be able to identify phonological, grammatical and lexical elements of foreign language.

2. Knowledge As bilingual education can be seen as a multidisciplinary, it is inevitable for the teacher to

have knowledge of foreign culture, ethnic studies and history of foreign language. Being aware of the previously mentioned crucial elements can help teachers to foster authentic foreign language environment.

3. Teaching skills In the bilingual education, children are exposed to the same subject matter as in traditional

education, however, all the instructions are given in foreign language. The bilingual teacher should provide students with clear instructions to make the most of the subject content. Effective instructions require mastering planning, implementing appropriate teaching techniques, presenting information with enthusiasm, monitoring students´ progress in order to help students to promote academic achievement. (Rodriguez, 2005)

Becoming a good content and language teacher requires mastering the content of particular subject as well as having a deep understanding of students´ individual features including their cognitive skills, psychological peculiarities and last but not least having basic methodological knowledge.




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If we mean to provide a successful bilingual language teaching, there needs to be a strong cooperation between language teachers and subject teacher in order to predict and also overcome possible problems.

The best procedure for the mutual collaboration would be if both types of teachers would discuss their perspectives about teaching particular subjects in order to see if there are any overlaps in the subject and language curriculum content. However, the opportunity to cooperate together is not as prevalent as it needs to be due to number of reasons. If we aim to maximize a successful implementation of particular bilingual program, the language and subject teachers cooperation should be our priority.

Clearly, both types of the above mentioned teachers have different perspectives about teaching their subjects. Kelly (2014) provides a list of teachers’ roles that language teachers should possess in order to support bilingual teaching. The list of roles is a result of a survey carried out after observing and discussing this topic with approximately 300 subject teachers.

Language teachers should be responsible for: coaching and mutual preparation : this reflects a need to for time and opportunity to plan

mutual meetings throughout the school year. So the language teachers should serve as a source of offering advices whenever it is needed.

vocabulary support: this means the request to help subject teachers with subject literature and vocabulary, to check and review the materials as language teacher can choose appropriate materials for particular proficiency levels. In other words, this should also include helping content teachers with specific terminology, its preparation and pronunciation.

feedback: not just on the materials but also on the lesson after the observation. methodology: this mainly refers to finding the most suitable techniques for teaching in

foreign language, work with all 4 language skills. team - teaching: this would also be a good opportunity to maximize the potential of

bilingual education, however, it is not realistic to expect it in our conditions.

Hurajová and Luprichová (2015) provide the following chart to depict various types of collaboration between subject and language teachers as well as the roles which result from the type of cooperation:




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Conclusion To sum up, the submitted paper provides a definition of bilingualism according to various

writers as well as a description of different kinds of bilingualism together with their main features. The criteria for classifying bilingualism were the following: the distinction between the level fluency and competence in the spoken languages, the context of languages, age as well as various individual and social elements. Many of these criteria are usually interrelated and therefore, it is rather difficult to determine clear boundaries between particular types of bilingualism. Another issue that we discussed was the requirements for bilingual teachers. From our point of view, the ideal situation occurs when bilingual education includes just those teachers who are qualified not only in the subject being taught, but also in the language in which they teach. To ensure the quality of bilingual education, it is advisable to establish courses for future teachers to get the basic insight into this issue and to provide them with didactically oriented courses that would enhance their qualification.




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References AGUDO, J. (2012). Teaching and Learning English through Bilingual Education.

Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 1st Unabridged edition. BAKER, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism: 5th edition. Multilingual

Matters. BALL, P. (2015). What is CLIL? Available on: http://www.onestopenglish.com/clil/methodology

/articles/article-what-is clil/500453.article BLANC, M. & HAMERS, J. F. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge University Press. BLANCO, G. M. (1977). Competencies Needed By Bilingual Education Teachers.

Available on: http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_197711_blanco.pdf BLOOMFIELD, L. (1933). Language. New York, University of Chicago Press. GROSJEAN, F. (2002). Your own life with two languages. Available on: http://www.francoisgrosje

an.ch/interview_en.html HURAJOVÁ, Ľ. & LUPRICHOVÁ, J. (2015). Being a CLIL Teacher. In: Pokrivčáková, S. et al. (2015).

CLIL in Foreign Language Education: e-textbook for foreign language teachers. Nitra: Constantine the Philosopher University.

KELLY, K. (2014): Cooperation between Language Teachers and Subject Teachers. Available on: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/keith-kelly-coop-e-clil-collaboration-between-language-teachers-subject-teachers

MARSH, D. (2002). Content and Language Integrated Learning: The European Dimension - Actions, Trends and Foresight Potential. Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Córdoba. 552 p.

MAY, S. (2011, September). The disciplinary constraints of SLA and TESOL: Additive bilingualism and second language acquisition, teaching and learning. Linguistics and Education, Vol. 22 (3), 233-247. Available on: www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898589811000143

MENZLOVÁ, B. (2010). CLIL – inštrument na podporu cudzích jazykov. Bratislava : ŠPU, 2010. Available on: http://www.statpedu.sk/sites/default/files/dokumenty/vyskumne-ulohy-experimentalne-overovania/clil_instrument_na_podporu_cudzich_jazykov.pdf

MORADI, H. (2014). An Investigation through Different Types of Bilinguals and Bilingualism. In: International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies. Vol.1 (II.),107-112.Available on: https://www.ijhsss.com/files/HamzehMoradi_6813z4a4.pdf ISSN: 2349-6959

PILLER, I. Bilingualism is good for you! … if you are a girl … Available on: http://www.languageonthemove.com/bilingualism-is-good-for-you-if-you-are-a-girl/

POKRIVČÁKOVÁ, S. (2010). Obsahovo integrované učenie sa cudzieho jazyka (CLIL) na 1. stupni ZŠ. In Straková, Z., Cimermanová, I. (eds.) Učiteľ cudzieho jazyka v kontexte primárneho vzdelávania. Prešov : Prešovská univerzita v Prešove, 2010. ISBN 80- 555-0232-8. s. 99-121.

POKRIVČÁKOVÁ, S. (2013). Príprava učiteľov na bilingválne vzdelávanie. In: Teória a prax prípravy budúcich translatológov a učiteľov anglického jazyka : http://www.fhv.umb.sk/katedry/katedra-anglistiky-a-amerikanistiky/medzinarodna-elektronicka-konferencia-25-26-jun-2013/

RODRIGUEZ, D. (2005). A Conceptual Framework of Bilingual Special Education Teacher Programs. Cascadilla Press, Somerville, MA. ISBN 978-1-57473-107-1 Available on: http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/152ISB4.PDF

ROSENBERG, M. (1996). Raising Bilingual Children. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II(6), Available on : http://iteslj.org/Articles/Rosenberg-Bilingual.html

TOKUHAMA-ESPINOZA, T. (2009). Multilingualism Across the Lifespan. Greenwood Publishing Group. 279 p. ISBN: 9780275999124




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Contact: Mgr. Veronika Szombatová Department of Language Pedagogy and Intercultural Studies Faculty of Education at Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra Dražovská 4, 949 74 Nitra, Slovakia E-mail: [email protected]




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CLIL Lesson

from the Point of View of an ESP Teacher

Gabriela Chmelíková, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract The paper provides a viewpoint of a CLIL lesson as seen by an English for Specific Purposes teacher. As in CLIL

the teaching of languages is based on the fact that the main emphasis is not on the ‘form’, but on the ‘content’, the author tries to look at what CLIL and ESP methodologies have in common and in what aspects they are different. The author works as an ESP teacher for more than 15 years and is rich in experience. The comparison is based on observations during the course of an international ERASMUS+ project Transnational exchange of good CLIL practice among European Educational Institutions which following the project plan comprises two trainings on CLIL methodology and a couple of observations of CLIL lessons. The contribution is based on CLIL lessons observations at elementary and secondary schools after the first run of training in Daugavpils, Latvia and on own ESP teaching experience.

Keywords: ESP, CLIL, project

Introduction During the last twenty-five years the situation within the foreign language teaching at the

Slovak universities overcame several stages: from total refusal of previous prevailing and obligatory teaching of the Russian language and quite limited variety of other foreign languages, through almost courteous and boost teaching of the English language while neglecting the other foreign languages, to balanced offer of various foreign languages. Nevertheless, recently, due to various reasons, mostly financial ones, the number of institutions at higher education face the fact of lowering the load of foreign language teaching. At some universities the language teachers are allotted to subject-specific departments and at the others the foreign language teaching is provided by outsourcing via Language Centres operating for more faculties. The original language departments and their teachers, which have built quite a complex and cooperative network, particularly in English language teaching, and which could be more independent in their research or decision making, are now more or less a history. Not to come to misinterpretation of the aforementioned, the author is commenting on foreign language teaching at non-philological institutions of higher education. And to be even more specific, at the Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology (the largest STU faculty with approx. 3,000 students), only the English language has been taught for more than five years, and the number of English language practitioners has been decreased to three people.

In this contribution the author tries to comment on possible solutions to the situation which might be seen in closer interdisciplinary cooperation with subject-specific departments via projects. The other possibility to implement more foreign language teaching into higher education is represented by CLIL method. The author tries to look at the issue from the point of view of own almost 15 years ESP teaching experience and also regarding the observations done within the course of an international ERASMUS+ project titled Transnational exchange of good CLIL practice among European Educational Institutions which comprises two trainings on CLIL methodology and a couple of observations of CLIL lessons. The first run of training has been already accomplished as well as the lessons observed at elementary and secondary schools in Daugavpils, Latvia.

What is ESP and what is CLIL? English for Specific Purposes (ESP) came into its existence prior to CLIL approximately in the

1960s. There are many authors and definitions of what ESP (which is more specific than LSP –




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Language for Specific Purposes) is and where it has its place, e.g. Hutchinson and Waters (1993) describe it as a tree (Fig. 1) “the tree of English Language Teaching/Learning is nourished by its roots which are learning and communication. As we go up the tree, we can see three branches of English Teaching/Learning. One of them is called English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It is divided into two branches:

General English (GE); English for Specific Purposes (ESP) “(Hutchinson, Waters, 1993, pp. 16-18).

Fig. 1 ESP tree model (acc. to Hutchinson & Waters, 1993, p. 17) We can see here that ESP is a separate branch of the English Language Teaching/Learning,

nevertheless, the classification goes on further as we have here: English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE), English for Social Science (ESS).

The other ESP categorisation is mentioned by Robinson (quoted by Dudley-Evans, John,

1998, p. 6), who classifies them depending on future needs of learners into: English for Occupational Purposes (EOP), English for Academic Purposes (EAP).




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Many ESP definitions share the fact that ESP is essentially based on needs analysis (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p. 53-64), and Dudley-Evans and St. John (1993, p. 87) attributed ESP some characteristics and features:

ESP characteristics: target group – prevailingly intermediate to advanced adult students, used methodologies, activities and techniques comply with the discipline it serves for, focus on language structures and vocabulary suitable for the target discipline, etc.

ESP features: use of authentic materials (modified by teachers when necessary), encouraging students to search for related materials (supporting thus students´ autonomy).

These characteristics and features quite define the implementation of ESP, and the situation

at STU MTF is just as described. We try to eliminate the beginners (although ESP can be applied also with such a group), so that we can go in depth with the materials related to the study programme in question. We also adopt the methodologies to the target and use such activities and techniques which are the most suitable, e.g. for IT study programmes we use more graphical and schematic materials, for future personnel managers we pick some authentic materials from regional companies. And, it is the same with structures, IT people would rarely need that much oral training as the managers. As for the features, e.g. for the semester output the students are encouraged to prepare presentations of their own materials they find on the Internet.

Obviously, there is a content, we do not teach a sole grammar or vocabulary. On the other hand, this does not mean the ESP teacher should become a teacher of subject related, but rather an interested student of the subject matter (Miština, 2010, p. 124). ESP teachers are professionals and they should also regard their students as professionals, and thus learn from each other (Dashestani and Stojkovič, 2015, p. 436).

Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) CLIL is a pedagogical approach which has an integrated aim: learning of the subject matter –

content and learning of the foreign language used as the medium of instruction for the content. This approach to teaching a foreign language represents the opportunity to work with a foreign language quite frequently as well as use it in authentic situations. The CLIL method has been seen as “an accessible compromise between traditional monolingual education (when content subjects are taught exclusively in a mother language and foreign languages are taught exclusively as individual academic subjects), and bilingual education (when, according to the Slovak legislation, at least three content subjects from the curriculum are taught exclusively in a foreign language)” (Pokrivčáková, 2010, p. 17).

CLIL is younger than ESP; when speaking about the beginnings of CLIL, it was maybe in late 70s, when the European Commission proposed “encouraging teaching in schools through the medium of more than one language” (Hanesová, 2010, p. 9), although the first attempts emerged in 1960s in Canada. In 1983, it was the European Parliament that challenged the EC “to forward a new programme to improve foreign language teaching” (Marsh, 2002, p. 52). In the last two decades CLIL has mainly been expanded mainly to primary and secondary schools over European countries. Nevertheless, there is a growing effort to provide courses or study programmes in English at the Slovak universities as well, so that they can attract more foreign students.

Observations of CLIL lessons During the project stay in Daugavpils, Latvia from 1 to 5 February 2016 we have observed

three lessons, one at primary school and two at secondary schools.




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As the author is not primarily a CLIL expert, she focuses mainly on things these too methodologies have in common, e.g. the ratio of native and English languages, the switch-code, required background knowledge, register, etc.

Observation No. 1: 2 Feb 2016, Geography, Russian Secondary School-Lyceum. Topic of the lesson: Japan. Age of students: 12-13 yrs. The lesson had two teachers – a language teacher and a geography teacher. It is necessary to add that attendance in CLIL lessons is voluntary at this school, nevertheless, very popular, and that the students´ native language is Russian, however, they have to speak and study in Latvian language as well. I appreciated the eagerness of students as they had to study this specific subject in English and in case of misunderstanding they were given instructions in Russian (or sometimes also in Latvian). The lesson was organised well and appropriately, the students learnt the basic geographical data, what the basic symbols of Japan are as well as some intercultural issues (for example the differences in non-verbal communication). In the end of the lesson they tried to make a simple origami. The involvement of Russian teacher was quite rare, the instructions were given in English, and so the switch-code was used at minimum. The new topic was introduced on the knowledge the students had, they had no obligation to study the topic in advance. The students worked in groups as well as individually.

Observation No. 2: 3 Feb 2016, Science at Saskaņas Basic School. Topic of the lesson: Washing liquids vs acidity and alkalinity. Age of pupils: 9-10 yrs. The lesson had again two teachers, a subject-specific one and a language teacher. The input (delivered by a song and a handout) was very difficult to understand even for the observers. Then the pupils were shown as well as encouraged to do some basic reactions based on using common detergents, so that they had better illustration of acidity and alkalinity. However, this lesson was quite disorganised as the pupils, in my opinion, did not quite catch the objective of the lesson. The teacher prepared too many materials for experiments, then couple of tasks which the pupils were not able to accomplish within the lesson. Nevertheless, they learnt which of the washing liquids they used were the least harmful to humans and environment. The pupils seemed to be interested, however, the final knowledge acquisition was, I suppose, quite smaller than the teacher intended. The overall impression of the lesson was a bit confused. The involvement of the language teacher was almost none, the subject-specific teacher tried to deliver all the knowledge and instructions in English by herself, nevertheless, with lower impact than in the previous lesson observed. The switch code was used again at minimum.

Observation No. 3: 4 Feb 2016, Biology at State Gymnasium. Topic of the lesson: Breathing. Age of students: 15-16 yrs. The lesson had only one teacher who was originally an English teacher, but not a subject-specific teacher, however she used to teach biology at the school for about ten years (and often consulted the subject matter with subject-specific teachers). The lesson was started with the presentation by one of the students who prepared it in advance. It is a good practice at the school that the teacher usually consults the presentation with the student to avoid having inappropriate information in the presentation. The students are also encouraged to include some interesting points to make the presentation delivery more attractive. The lesson was very well organised, interactive (the student was a very good presenter), in the last third of the lesson the students were given handouts and asked to do some exercises (filling in the new words related to breathing, some of them funny but edifying), the switch code from English to Latvian was again at minimum.

ESP or CLIL – what do they have in common/different English practitioners (or also other foreign language teachers) often ask where the ESP

stops and CLIL begins. We can conclude that both methodologies are built on the principles of effective learning where all decisions are based on learner´s needs.

Obviously, experts could find many common features or differences and classify them according to various aspects – requirements laid on students, or teachers, or from the point of




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material preparation, etc. Regarding my ESP teaching experience and the aforementioned observations carried out during the project stay in Daugavpils, Latvia, I provide my view of the subject matter and focus on background knowledge, authenticity of materials and then on language structures.

One of the most important need here is represented by the ability to transfer knowledge from one area to the other including the transfer of language (Sobhy, Berzosa, & Crean, 2013, p. 256). In other words, the students have to have some background knowledge when reading a subject-specific article, so that they can comprehend the content, relate what they read about to their own knowledge or schemata; knowing just the necessary vocabulary is just insufficient. And it is the subject to discussion where the knowledge has to go deeper, whether in an ESP or CLIL lesson as this depends on more factors.

The other thing these methodologies have in common is the authenticity of materials. The more authentic material, the better. It comes without doubt that e.g. at tertiary level the students work with materials related to their study programmes, however, the same material, if scaffolded appropriately and sufficiently can be processed in a CLIL lesson. By the way, scaffolding – the frequent technique to get the learners to the knowledge required – is used within ESP lessons as well.

The next common item is represented by the register. The vocabulary related to the topic can be delivered both in ESP or CLIL lesson by very similar (or by the aforementioned scaffolding) techniques.

There are not many differences between ESP and CLIL methodologies, some may be found in using the language structures or style as these are not the target of a CLIL lesson, similarly the pronunciation should be not corrected within the CLIL lesson, whereas ESP teachers deal with the language as a complex, and explain and train also grammar and style related to the programme or course studied as well as they correct the pronunciation if it is inappropriate.

One might object that the background knowledge in a CLIL lesson is not necessary to that extent as in an ESP lesson, and similarly, the authenticity of materials can be (but not necessarily) lower for a CLIL lesson, however, in my opinion, the situation can be also opposite. The situation may happen that in a CLIL lesson the teacher/learners go more in depth within the topic than in an ESP lesson. Again, it depends on many factors. Similarly, regarding the register, in my opinion, both lessons can be the same.

All in all, I consider both methodologies very useful, however, the objective is of both varies. ESP aims at building on known information whereas within CLIL lessons the learners can acquire both new information as well as learn foreign language which is the means of delivery.

Conclusion The ability to understand/speak a foreign language is one of the vital competences necessary

for living in EU countries. It is important not only for the mobility, it can also enhance the competitiveness of graduates in labour market. To conclude, whether we admit it or not, the language education at the Slovak universities is changing; it is no more understood only as a mastery of one or two languages. Instead, the aim has become the development of such a language register, where all the language skills find their place and meaning (Kováčiková, 2010, p. 70). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, mentions two terms multilinguism, which “means the competence in more languages or coexistence of different languages in a particular society” (CEFR for Languages, 2004, p. 4-5). The other term is plurilinguism which focuses on the fact that a study of a foreign language lies in a purposefully use of already existed language competences of a person.

Therefore, the solution to the difficult situation at the universities, which currently suffer from lowering the load of English lessons could be in close cooperation with subject-specific departments at the faculty or university in various interdisciplinary projects – e.g. our Department of Languages and Humanities is proud of being involved in two of the kind,




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Erasmus+ has been already mentioned, the other one – a bilateral one is also built on a close cooperation with young researchers and doctoral students from the Institute of Applied Informatics, Automation and Mechatronics. The other opportunity is represented by CLIL (Hurajová, 2015, p. 106). This methodology could open new horizons for the tertiary education in the field of foreign language acquisition.

Acknowledgement This chapter is published as a partial product of the international project

ERASMUS+ 2015-1-SK01-KA201-008937 Transnational Exchange of good CLIL practice among European Educational Institutions. The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

References DASHTESTANI, R. and STOJKOVIČ, N.: The Use of Technology in English for Specific Purposes

(ESP) Instruction: A Literature Review. In: The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, Vol.3, No3, 2015, online. ISSN 2334-9212, pp. 495-456.

http://espeap.junis.ni.ac.rs/index.php/espeap/article/view/304/199 DUDLEY-EVANS, T.; ST JOHN, M. J.: Developments in English for Specific Purposes. A multi-

disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-59675-0, pp. 6, 85-89.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-521-00531-0, pp. 4-5.

HANESOVÁ, D.: History of CLIL. In: Pokrivčáková, S. et al. CLIL in Foreign Language Education: e-textbook for foreign language teachers. Nitra: Constantine the Philosopher University, 2015. ISBN 978-80-558-0889-5, p. 9.

HURAJOVÁ, Ľ.: Content and Language - how to integrate them on tertiary level. In: R&E source. Special issue 4, 2015, online. ISSN 2313-1640, pp. 105-108.

http://journal.ph-noe.ac.at/index.php/resource/article/view/255/294. HUTCHINSON, T. -WATERS, A.: English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred approach. Eighth

printing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-31837-8, pp. 16-18, 53-64.

CHMELÍKOVÁ, G.: Doctoral students and necessary academic skills. In In: R&E source. Special issue 4, 2015, online. ISSN 2313-1640, pp. 28-31.

http://journal.ph-noe.ac.at/index.php/resource/article/view/241/280. KOVÁČIKOVÁ, E.: CLIL Methodology through Project Work within the Environment of English for

Specific Purposes. In: In: Horváthová, B. et al: New directions in teaching foreign languages. Brno: Masaryk University, 2012. ISBN 978-80-210-6003-6, pp. 103-122.

MARSH, D.: CLIL/EMILE – The European Dimension: Actions, Trends & Foresight Potential. Brussels: European Commission, 2002, p. 52.

MIŠTINA, J.: English for academic purposes course design for natural science doctoral candidates. In: Horváthová, B. et al: New directions in teaching foreign languages. Brno: Masaryk University, 2012. ISBN 978-80-210-6003-6, pp. 122-137.




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NASHAAT SOBHY, N., BERZOSA, C. and CREAN,F.M.: From ESP to CLIL using Schema Theory. In: Revista de Lenguas para Fines Especificos, 19, Universidad de San Jorge, 2013, pp. 251-267.

POKRIVČÁKOVÁ, S.: CLIL in Slovakia: projects, research and teacher training. In: Pokrivčáková, S. et al. CLIL in Foreign Language Education: e-textbook for foreign language teachers. Nitra: Constantine the Philosopher University, 2015. ISBN 978-80-558-0889-5, p. 17.

Kontakt Gabriela Chmelíková PJHV MTF STU Paulínska 16 917 24 Trnava [email protected]




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Via International Cooperation towards CLIL Teacher Competence Enhancement

Ludmila Hurajova, Slovakia

[email protected]

Abstract Setting an effective CLIL learning-teaching environment is a major responsibility of CLIL teachers. More than two

decades CLIL has been applied into education process at various schools around Europe. Supported by EU policy with aiming at enhancing foreign language competences of students, CLIL implementation process has thrived in diverse national, local, school and classroom environments. Scholars, practitioners and teachers are still in a vivid debate to define essential CLIL principles, to standardize CLIL application procedure and to turn all that into practice. Several years of CLILing Europe allowed diverse stakeholders in CLIL implementation process to start dealing with and analysing the results, practical outcomes, experience from the process on all level of education. There are many international project teams that worked or still working on CLIL issues. The paper aims at mapping project activities funded by EU that concers with CLIL approach. Some experience concerning CLIL teacher trainings, cooperation outside Europe is discussed. Particular outcomes of one ERASMUS+ project are presented. Finally some ideas for enhancing CLIL teacher competences are proposed.

Key words CLIL teacher, CLIL teacher competences, international projects, CLIL teacher training, diverse CLIL environment

Introduction More than 20 year-old period of implementing CLIL approach into education in EU states

boosted diversification of CLIL forms in various types of schools. This variety roots both in CLIL approach flexibility and wide range of education contexts within Europe. This might let teachers have different experience with CLIL implementation into education. The teachers with students are main stakeholders in CLIL learning-teaching environment. Teachers dealing with CLIL approach are those who are mainly responsible for setting as effective CLIL learning environment as they can. There are a lot of books, research articles written on CLIL issues. Teachers can find some recommendations how to apply CLIL approach into their lessons. However, the final responsibility is still on their shoulders. CLIL application initiative in Slovakia comes from “below” as Pokrivčaková states (2015,p.17) and she ads that many school started implementing CLIL into education trough various school projects. Several research projects were conducted and some recommendations were issued by Ministry of education - for schools on Primary level of education on CLIL application process. Some voices have been raised to call for establishing a set of standards for CLIL teachers and also for the teacher trainers to provide more homogenous CLIL practice around Europe. Without having such solid framework of standards for setting effective CLIL environment - how can CLIL teachers enhance their competences in CLIL environment setting? One way seems to be very practical – international projects. Via the projects CLIL teachers can observe and learn ways how the project partners apply CLIL approach into their lessons. They can recognize various learning – teaching contexts, they can exchange how to adapt materials for teaching in CLIL language and also provide useful projects’ outcomes for those teachers who are not partners in any projects but they are applying CLIL principles into their lessons at their schools. We believe, that sharing pedagogical and didactic view on CLIL environment settings can enhance CLIL teacher competences and the teachers can be inspired by others’ work. If you are a CLIL teacher no matter if a subject one or a foreign language one this paper might help you to have brief overview of the current projects dealing with CLIL issues within Europe. Besides outlining major projects and their objectives this contributions illustrates the aims of an ERASMUS+ project with the title “ Transnational exchange of good practice among European Educational Institutions” and some reasons are provided for teachers why is helpful to track this project’s outcomes.




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1. CLIL projects around Europe The projects aimed at developing CLIL application into education system on different level of

education - funded by the EU - deal with CLIL approach from different aspects. Common feature of those project is training/teaching teachers what CLIL is and how to apply it. Some projects’ outcomes provide teachers a database of CLIL study materials etc. Collaboration seems to be the crucial activity for CLIL teachers therefore teamwork should be one of the basic competence of CLIL teachers. This competence might be developed by working in local, national even in international teams sorting out some task dedicated to CLIL. As it is declared in Pokrivčaková (2015) there have been 4 international projects where Slovak teachers, researchers were involved within the last ten years. One of them - recently running project on ERASMUS+ project scheme will be described in details later in the section 2. Some other international projects whose running time is over and also some latest projects funded by EU were mapped to illustrate their objectives even their outcomes either partial ones or final ones.

The list of the projects dedicated to CLIL issues is provided below. Logo, website, major projects’ goals and assets of some projects are outlined within the section.

ECLIL European project building CLIL resources for language learning (http://e-clil.uws.ac.uk/) 2009 - 2011 The E-CLIL project aimed at establishing a Virtual European CLIL Resource Centre. The CLIL Centre has a three objectives: providing support to current and future CLIL education programmes all over Europe disseminatings high quality and already proven materials and resources for content and

language learning enriching teachers’ and children’s knowledge of other European cultures CLIL teachers find useful links to English resource sites, journals, multilingual resource sites, subject-related resource sites and also learning platform for CLIL teachers.

Curriculum development for Content and Language Integrated Learning (www.clil-

cd.ecml.at) 2008 - 2010 The project team intended to address CLIL teachers, CLIL teacher trainers, curriculum developers, national/regional education administrators, text book authors, publishers and certification authorities involved in all types of education level and provide them framework for CLIL teacher education. This key project output you can find here - European Framework for CLIL Teacher Education (EFCT).




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Language Network for Quality Assurance (www.lanqua.eu) 2007 – 2010 The project was enormous in numbers of participants. LANQUA involved 60 partners from 29 countries and it was funded by the EU. They worked together to map the current landscape for languages in higher education and to reflect on how a subject practitioner - led approach to quality assurance can inform quality assurance processes and enhance the quality of the learning experience for students. The reports on several themes are on the project‘ s website including the report on CLIL in the European Higher Education Area. They outlined the ways in which CLIL is currently integrated into curriculum in higher education. http://www.lanqua.eu/theme/content-language-integrated-learning-clil

Science, Maths and CLIL (www.sciencemaths-clil.eu ) 2008-2010 The project’s major objective was to enhance language awarness in mathematics and science

teaching/learning. To promote CLIL as a means for supporting the scienticfic literacy of learners. The project members set another goal – to contribute to gender sensitivity by implementing language into mathemathics and science lessons, as they stated girls are less confident at maths and science than in languages and they thought that language based lesson concept and tasks can attract bigger girls’ interest in maths and science then. For communication and dissemination purposes a platform was established where teachers can find materials and files for downloading to learn how to practically start CLIL implementation into maths or science lessons. Language support sheets for various discourses are also available on the website.

Architectural and Design based Education and Practice through Content & Language Integrated Learning using Immersive Virtual environments for 21st Century Skills

(www.archi21.eu ) 2011-2013 The project combined learning and teaching of, in and through the fusion of languages,

architecture and design. With a thematic focus on communication of ‘respecting fragile places’ in architectural design education , this project explored the areas of a) Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in higher and vocational education sectors, b) the inter-relationship between linguistic competence and design competence building in project-based learning and c) the intercultural issues were considered. Teachers who teach at vocational building schools or in Higher Education Instituitions majoring at design, architecture can find several publications in English, in French to study more about CLIL implementation in this study branch, a Framework for developing CLIL Programming at the Tertiary Level etc.




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CO – CLIL (COoperative CLIL) (www.co-clil.eu) 2014 -2015 CO-CLIL (COoperative CLIL) was addressed to educators who are willing to develop

advanced skills to tutor their colleagues in augmenting their motivation, their competences and strategies in teaching. In the project the acronym CLIL has a double meaning: Content and Language Integrated Learning and Coaching Lifelong Innovative Learning, because it was addressed to trainers who are willing to educate their trainees in teaching their subject/s in a foreign language, and in openness to innovation in education. The course main objectives were to reach a full exchange of good practices and educators between Italy and Austria, to organize a common training based on a direct professional collaboration based on team teaching and peer learning activities, to train skills to facilitate mentoring and teaching and to prepare quality observation and effective feedback The project's main outcome was preparing 'CO-CLIL train the trainer course'. The main project’s results can be seen here http://www.co-clil.eu/results.html Currently running projects

Playing CLIL – content and language integrated learning inspired by drama pedagogy (www.playingclil.eu) 2014-2016 Playing CLIL - is a two-year project which combines elements from the pedagogic theatre (game techniques) with the CLIL classroom, with the purpose of developing a new CLIL methodology. Major project’s objectives : defining main concepts and principles of the CLIL methodology, linking the principles to the educational contexts, writing and designing the games, training the teachers to test the games in the classroom, and cross-testing it again CLIL teachers can download ebook on combining CLIL and drama from the project’s website.

SET to CLIL: technology-enhanced Social Entrepreneurship Training based on Content and Language Integrated Learning (www.set2clil.tryavna.eu ) 2015 – The SET2CLIL project aim is to contribute to the development of entrepreneurial, language and digital skills in VET (Vocational Education and Training), to the enhancement of digital integration in VET and the promotion of easily accessible continuing VET, including for the rural areas, by creating three intellectual outputs: SET2CLIL Curriculum, e-repository and Trainer Guide.




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The project results are mainly for entrepreneurship, language and bilingual teachers on secondary level of education. There are 5 countries involved in this project (Bulgaria, Ireland, Romania, Spain and Turkey).

CLIL my open window on the world around me ( www.clilmyopenwindovontheworldaroundme.eu ) 2015 -

The project aims at promoting the pupils’ language learning and intercultural awareness through the CLIL approach. Teachers from the 8 partner Institutes will share their expertise in order to create CLIL teaching sequences and materials best suited for teaching in the mother tongue and the target language (English), taking into consideration the age of the pupils (3 to 14), the choice of contents included in participant’s National curriculum, and the language proficiency of the learners. Countries involved – Finland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Spain (2 partners) and Turkey.

CLIL Bilingual Education a step ahead ( www.beclil.eu ) 2015 – The project aims at helping teachers and students improve their key competences, language skills and motivate them for further development of international relations by means of EU projects like Erasmus+ and/or eTwinning. It also focuses on promoting CLIL methodology among other educators, students and their parents in participating countries and beyond them. Greece, Turkey, Romania and Poland are involved in the project.

CLIL for children (clil4children.eu ) 2015 – The aim of the C4C project is to support primary school teachers with a comprehensive

training program for CLIL teaching. C4C will carry out: a survey on the state of the art of using CLIL in primary schools, including

good practices and difficulties experienced by teachers; a review of existing web based Open and Educational Resources (OERs) for CLIL to be used in primary schools. Based on the outcomes of the survey and of the review of OERs, the project will develop: Guidelines on development and use of CLIL in primary schools, a set of CLIL materials and lesson plans for teaching science, mathematics and geography in English in primary schools and an E-course (online course) addressed to teachers on how to use CLIL methodology in primary




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schools. Countries involved in the project – Italy (4 members), Romania (2 members), Portugal (2 memebers ) and Poland (2 members).

Transnational Exchange of good practice among European Educational Institutions ( www.educlil.eu ) 2015 -

An International project coordinated by a Slovak University – Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra and one of the project members is another Slovak University – Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava. The project aims are described in the next section – section n. 2.

2. CLIL teacher cooperation within an ERASMUS+ project ERASMUS+ project – Transnational Exchange of good practice among European Educational

Institutions has been running since September 2015. Five countries are involved in the project activities – 2 members (universities) from Slovakia, 1 Vocational School from Sweden, 1 local Education Institution from Latvia, 1 Primary School from Lithuania and 1 Secondary School from Italy. Several objectives are to be met within the project. 1. Setting up essential components of good CLIL practice in the classroom based on face-to-face

observations in the partner countries. 2. Preparation of a Modular e-training course for European CLIL teachers. 3. Providing countries with none or less CLIL experience with the essential training

and learning opportunities so that they can commence implementing this approach in their schools.

4. Training teachers from the project partner countries on how to implement CLIL methodology.

5. Setting up an open database of methodological materials for CLIL teachers both at primary and secondary level of education.

6. Collecting research data and conducting comparative analysis of CLIL practice. 7. Providing universities and other public bodies dealing with educational research the results

and main conclusions of this project as a possible basis for future research on the topic. The project covers three dimensions – theorethical, practical and research ones as the

project members are education institutions providing different education service in the country they are based in.

The major project output from teacher point of view will be a web platform with an e-Modular training with a certification option for European teachers on Primary and Secondary level of education willing to apply CLIL into their lessons. The web platform www.educlil.eu will be promoted at conferences within EU states to inform teachers how to get their CLIL certificate. The web platform should be available in its final version and after piloting the e-Modular training course in fall 2016.

3. CLIL teacher competences enhancement When considering teaching a subject in L2 – especially a full time, long-term course, a teacher

needs to think about two main capacities: L2 ability and CLIL pedagogical ability (Ball, 2015, p. 251). He states that the essential aim of CLIL pedagogy is to amplify the content of lessons so that learners with low ability in medium of instructions can nevertheless make sense the chances that learners will understand for example, the style of teacher talks, the use visuals,




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listening and reading supportive tasks etc. As Ball ads the teaching strategies used to fulfill the mention aim of CLIL pedagogy are often fairly new to subject teachers. In case when CLIL environment for learning is set by language teachers – is demanding for them as well, as they need to understand subject content very well to be able to prepare suitable study materials for students. Both of them face a lack of instant study materials for their students when they apply CLIL principles into their lessons and they are supposed to spend a lot of time to prepare CLIL bank of materials which can be used at lessons. Ideal situation can occur when subject and L2 teachers can cooperate effectively. In some countries pair of teachers are responsible for running CLIL that might be a good example of cooperation. Hurajová (2013) suggests two sets of CLIL teacher competences: A) pre-CLIL set and B) CLIL implementation set. Looking at the list of the competences she has proposed we can ad another type of competence for CLIL teachers and they are teamwork/cooperation and project management competences. We think, that those competences allow teachers to establish effective CLIL learning environment and they can be enhanced in international teams who are working on CLIL issues. Observations of CLIL lessons conducted within international projects dedicated to CLIL might provide inspiration how to set CLIL into education better, more effective etc. The teachers participated in such projects can develop also their self-reflection and planning competences.

Diverse CLIL concepts in various education contexts around Europe provides bank of CLIL forms used at schools in EU states and also allow teachers to be open-minded when they consider CLIL application at their schools.

Conclusion Diverse education context, various objectives of CLIL application into learning process at

different types of schools within the EU lead to wide range of CLIL implementation forms/styles. If we agree on essential role of education as an environment for leading, inspiring, supervising, facilitating and preparing young generation for their future – we might also agree on considering CLIL as a great opportunity for preparing young generation to communicate and cooperate altogether to develop our living as human beings on the Earth. When teachers on lower level of education are able to implement CLIL into their lessons, they might help students be ready to study academic subjects at universities in foreign languages or even study their favourite subjects abroad. As Chmelíková (2015, p.1) states: obviously, at the tertiary level only rarely General English is taught. So students should be prepared before entering the tertiary sector. When we as teachers would like students to work in teams and cooperate while they are learning, we should be trained on teamwork and project work as well. One way how it can be done is to be involved in projects where teachers can work in international teams. Process of internationalizing of education system in EU calls for internationally-minded teachers.




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Acknowledgment The paper is published as a partial product of the international project ERASMUS+ 2015-1-SK01-KA201-008937 Transnational Exchange of good CLIL practice among European Educational Institutions. The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the content which reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

References BALL, P., KELLY, K., & CLEGG, J. (2015). Putting CLIL into Practice. Oxford: OUP, 2015. 299p

ISBN: 978-0-19-442105-8 HURAJOVÁ, Ľ. (2013). Professional Teacher Competences in CLIL. Doctoral thesis. Nitra:

Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa . HURAJOVÁ, Ľ. & LUPRICHOVÁ, J. (2015) Being a CLIL teacher, DOI: 10:17846/CLIL: 2015:99-

111 CHMELÍKOVÁ, G. (2015). Doctoral students and necessary academic skills. In In: R&E source.

Special issue 4, 2015, online. ISSN 2313-1640, pp. 28-31. http://journal.ph-noe.ac.at/index.php/resource/article/view/241/280 KOVÁČIKOVÁ, E. (2012). CLIL methodology trough project work within the environment of

English for specific Purposes. In Horváthová, B. et al., New Direction in teaching foreign languages. Brno: Masaryk University

POKRIVČAKOVÁ, S. (2015). CLIL in Slovakia: projects, research, and teacher training (2005-2015), DOI: 10.17846/ CLIL. 2015.17-29

Kontakt Ľudmila Hurajová PJHV MTF STU Paulínska 16 917 01 Trnava [email protected]




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Rozvíjanie prirodzenej komunikačnej kompetencie ako predpoklad pre vstup do sociovedeckej komunikácie

Zdenka Schwarzová, Slovensko [email protected]

Abstract The acquisition of communicative competence in the intentions of the current education presupposes the

systematic development of secondary linguistic knowledge. The question is, how the attributes of "the sociality" and "culturalism" will affect the interpretation of the significance and meaning of communication competence? What is the extent of the impact of the development of language (or linguistic) competence for optimal entrance of pupil to social-scientific communication? The answers to these questions can be inspired by modern linguistics, how to use their acquired literacy in practical life with regard on an interpretation method, which forms a prerequisite for the effective development of communication competence. There is a need of orientation in social-scientific topics and development of natural communicative competence in the teaching process, which is declared by materials in the field of bioethics discourse that the pupils receive primarily through mass media (especially television and the Internet).

Keywords: linguistic communication competence, social intelligence, natural communication competence, social-scientific communication, linguistic interpretation

Vzťah komunikácie a komunikačnej kompetencie Začnime náš výklad pristavením sa pri pojme komunikácia, ktorá je fundamentálnou zložkou

ľudskej spoločnosti vôbec. Primárnou motiváciou človeka v súčasnosti je prirodzená potreba vlastná každému jedincovi povedať niečo o sebe, o svete, povedať, čo si myslíme či potreba nadviazať vzťah s jedincami, potvrdzovať svoje ego v súlade so svojím aktuálnym motivačným svetom. V komunikácii sa odzrkadľujú špecifiká každého z nás – osobnosť, vlastnosti, znalosti, hodnoty, postoje, motivácia či intencia rozvíjať komunikáciu v určitom duchu. Dva aspekty komunikácie, obsahový a vzťahový (podľa P. Watzlavicka), sa pragmaticky v reálnej situácii pretavujú do variability zámerov, funkcií, komunikačného aktu, rôznorodosti postojov, stratégií či účinkov vypovedaného obsahu a vzťahu komunikačných partnerov. No a z hľadiska toho, do akej miery alebo akým spôsobom jedinci, alebo, lepšie povedané, interpreti (disponujúci nadinštinktívnou interpretačnou kompetenciou), danú interakčnú situáciu zvládnu, celkovo predpokladá efektívnosť komunikácie (Slančová, 2004, s. 21). A k celkovej efektívnosti prispieva systematické, činorodé a aktívne nadobúdanie komunikačnej kompetencie.

Schopnosť človeka mať istú kompetenciu môžeme teda interpretovať ako mať zručnosť, s čím sa implicitne spája istá predispozícia k určitému výkonu, ktorý sa formuje prostredníctvom vplyvu z okolia (napríklad schopnosť komunikovať). Komunikačná kompetencia je širší pojem, pričom sa pri jeho vymedzení inšpirujeme charakteristikou P. Valčeka (2011). Formuje sa neustále, sústavne a systematicky. Z hľadiska formovania komunikačnej kompetencie sú charakteristické isté procesy, resp. aktivity, ktoré by mali byť obsiahnuté i v cieľoch výchovno-vzdelávacej činnosti, pretože jej formovanie a následné rozvíjanie predpokladá istý metodický prístup. Ide o procesy poznávania a pozorovania (zmyslami aj cez text), čítania a porozumenia textu a z procesu počúvania a porozumenia textu, s čím súvisí problém kladenia otázok, čo následne vyúsťuje do interpretácie.

Ocitáme sa v kontexte hypermodernej, globalizovanej či informačnej spoločnosti (pozri Lipovetsky, 2013, Beck, 2007, Rankov, 2006), v rámci ktorej je systematické rozvíjanie komunikačnej kompetencie kľúčové, a to v zmysle mať schopnosť zorientovať sa v rozmanitostiach, často značne protichodných, bez zjavne viditeľnej súvislosti či spojitosti, v príležitostiach nadnárodného trhu, globalizovaného spravodajstva či v rôznych formách žitia či vnímania dopadu technológií na život jednotlivca žijúceho v tomto neutíchajúcom kolose (deklaruje U. Beck na margo svetovej spoločnosti, 2007, s. 19), a tak optimálne zvládať




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rozmanité životné situácie v materinskom jazyku. Na tomto mieste zdôraznime činnostný aspekt nadobúdania komunikačnej kompetencie, čo predpokladá nielen istý znalostný rámec, mechanizmus komunikačnej kompetencie, ale taktiež so zámerom ako možno potenciálne postupovať ďalej.

Jazykovedná gramotnosť a komunikačná kompetencia v procese vzdelávania

slovenského jazyka Jedným z dlhodobo (v istých intenciách dodnes) preferovaných teoretických východísk, čo sa

týka výučby slovenského jazyka, tkvie v štrukturalistickej koncepcii F. de Saussura. Na pozadí „saussurovskej“ teórie jazyka ako systému – langue (ako univerzálnej entity, ktorá je objektívne vlastná každému jednotlivcovi), ako objektu, ktorý je možno skúmať oddelene od reči (charakteristická individuálnosťou a rozmanitosťou).

Z pohľadu tejto koncepcie je jazyk vnímaný ako systém a demaskuje sa, čo je v jazyku univerzálne platné. Poznanie jazyka (langue) funguje ako nástroj komunikácie (parole) a taktiež ako riadiaca sila, ktorá reguluje používanie jazyka v bežnej praxi. Podľa F. de Saussura (1994, s. 51) je jazykový systém realitou (nie je len abstrakciou, ako to uvádzame dnes), dôkazom čoho je písmo. Ovládanie jazykového systému predpokladá systematické nadobúdanie poznatkov o povahe systému, osvojovanie si pravidiel či zákonitostí jazyka, čo vplýva pozitívne na upevňovanie jazykovedných znalostí slovenského jazyka (všetkých jeho foriem) a potvrdzovanie prestížnosti ovládania jazykovedných vedomostí a ich zužitkovanie v praktickom používaní nadobudnutej jazykovednej kompetencie. Jazyková, resp. jazykovedná kompetencia v duchu štrukturalistickej či systémovo-funkčnej metodológie má tvoriť predpoklad pre zvládnutie rozmanitých komunikačných situácií.

Vyššie načrtnutá problematika praktického významu nadobúdania jazykovednej kompetencie, domnievame sa, že korešponduje s aktuálnym obrazom o pripisovaní dôležitosti disponovať jazykovými znalosťami v spoločnosti. Dosahovanie zámerov v konkrétnej komunikácii v tejto optike predpokladá mať znalosti jazykového systému spisovného jazyka, ktorý je dobre organizovaný, a teda optimálne spĺňa požiadavky efektívnej komunikácie – teda jedinec vie správne komunikovať – v súčasnosti sa preferuje predovšetkým dodržiavanie ortoepických a ortografických noriem. Jazykovedná dispozícia posúva takto „vybavených“ jedincov hierarchicky na vyššiu úroveň (a jazykovedci, ako jazykovední odborníci – autority, predstavujú vrchol v tejto hierarchicky orientovanej škále – upevňovanie takejto predstavy zabezpečuje napr. konferenčný príspevok L. Mandelíkovej, 2011); Dolník, 2012, s. 221.

Takéto uvažovanie v protipóloch, keď sa pohybujeme na osi, na ktorej sa dostatočné ovládanie jazykového systému hodnotí kladne, reprezentatívne, prestížne a jeho nedostatočné ovládanie je spájané s negatívnymi konotáciami, absencia prítomnosti zákonov a zákonitostí v mysli bežného používateľa jazyka v jeho praktických intenciách (napríklad nedostatočné ovládanie ortoepickej či ortografickej normy v praktických situáciách) v istých komunikačných situáciách používateľov zneisťuje (v očiach seba), ba až degraduje (v očiach práve tých „ideálnych“ používateľov). Zvyšovanie jazykovednej gramotnosti v tejto oblasti je pre dnešných žiakov métou, ktorej účelom je zvyšovanie jazykového sebavedomia, či napríklad vyhnutie sa konfrontácii, v ktorej je nedokonalé ovládanie oroepických a ortografických noriem terčom posmechu. Avšak, ak sa vrátime k pôvodnému vymedzeniu komunikačnej kompetencie, je takéto ovládanie jazyka relevantné, napríklad čo sa týka kvality poskytnutej informácie, optimálnej a zmysluplnej argumentácie či vzhľadom na špecifickosť situácie adekvátna recepcia propozície alebo schopnosť odhaliť rôzne diskurzívne praktiky či stratégie?

Jazykovedné znalosti sa totiž vo výučbe slovenského jazyka transformujú do obsahu pojmu komunikačná kompetencia predovšetkým ako komplex vedomostí, zručností, postojov, hodnôt (v zmysle jazykových konvencionalizácií, štandardizácií; doplnila Z. S.) týkajúcich sa jazyka, na základe ktorých žiak vstupuje do produkčných a recepčných procesov verbálnej interakcie. Celkovo ide o rozvíjanie štyroch kľúčových kompetencií: receptívnych – počúvanie, čítanie




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a produktívnych – písanie, hovorenie. V tomto duchu devízou rozvíjania komunikačnej kompetencie žiakov má byť kompetencia vyjadrovať sa adekvátne komunikačnej situácii, výsledkom čoho je kultivovanie jazyka, približovanie sa k ideálnemu stavu znalostí jazyka (resp. o jazyku). Takéto nadobúdanie znalostí sa má pretaviť do koncipovania žiackych prác – slohových útvarov, ktoré žiakovi poskytujú komunikačný priestor, kde žiak môže potenciálne zužitkovať svoje nadobudnuté vedomosti z oblasti jazykových rovín a slohu (ŠVP, s. 3). S takýmito jazykovednými poznatkami, či deklaratívnymi poznatkami (o vzťahu medzi deklaratívnymi a operatívnimi znalosťami pozri viac Bednárik, 2007, s. 20) o jazykovom systéme, vie žiak operovať, má kompetenciu ich využiť operatívne v rámci jazykových/jazykovedných situácií: tvoriť, prijať, spracovať informácie, sprostredkovať ich, formulovať svoj názor a argumentovať, verbálne či neverbálne vyjadriť vôľu a city (ŠVP, s. 4).

Školský vzdelávací program implikuje, že ide o foneticko-fonologické, morfologické, lexikálne, syntaktické, štylistické či rétorické jazykové, sekundárne, systémové znalosti, ktorých ovládanie a orientovanie sa v nich predpokladá nadobúdanie práve takých kompetencií, ktoré relevantné pre adekvátne reagovanie v istej komunikačnej situácii ústne a písomne). V duchu týchto jazykových kompetencií žiak hovorí jasne, zreteľne, správne artikuluje, intonuje, disponuje širokou slovnou zásobou, rozumie významu slov (rozlišuje sémantické vzťahy, homonymiu, polysémiu), rozumie spôsobom obohacovania slovnej zásoby či tvorenia slov a sám ich využíva pri produkcii textu, vie uplatniť správne gramatické kategórie pri tvorbe textu, určiť vetnočlenskú platnosť použitých slov a zdôvodniť vzťahy medzi nimi, má schopnosť rozlíšiť rôzne druhy neplnovýznamových slovies, funkčne využíva nadobudnuté znalosti o polovetných konštrukciách, štýlotvorných činiteľoch, slohových útvaroch, ktoré funkčne využíva pri tvorbe vlastných prejavov, pričom rešpektuje významový činiteľ výstavby výpovede a podobne. Na základe nadobudnutia takejto jazykovednej gramotnosti (ktorá tvorí aktuálny predpoklad vzdelávania systémových jazykovedných kompetencií) žiak reguluje svoje „jazykové správanie“ v prospech reprodukovania toho systému aj v bežnej komunikácii (čiže ho správne používa, v súlade s existujúcimi normami).

Treba podotknúť, že predstava jazykového systému vyňatého z bežnej reči, pričom sa abstrahuje od faktu, že bežná jazyková prax je jednak súčasťou istého sociokultúrneho priestoru, jednak je rozmanitá, s množstvom odchýlok či anomálií, je do veľkej miery zidealizovaná. A práve na rozmanitosť či heterogénnosť v bežnom, spontánnom používaní jazyka, ktoré je zasadené do istého sociálnokultúrneho kontextu, sa poukázalo v metodológii komunikačno-pragmatického obratu v 70. rokoch minulého storočia. Z optiky „pragmatizovanej“ lingvistiky, ktorá predpokladá heterogénne publikum v interakcii v rozmanitých sociálnych sférach, uvažujeme, či takto „systémovo“ opísaný jazyk a nadobudnutie znalostí o ňom je skutočne taký, ako je reálne prítomný v mysliach používateľov a v týchto intenciách používaný v každodennej komunikácii. Z uvedeného vyplýva otázka, nejde pri hľadaní univerzálností (v jazyku, ale i v živote všeobecne) o hľadanie akéhosi ideálneho (idealizovaného) stavu, ktorý by bol univerzálny pre všetkých slovenských používateľov jazyka bez výnimky? Pýtame sa, uvedomuje si používateľ v reálnej interakcii všetky gramatické pravidlá pri koncipovaní svojich propozícií? Z obsahu Štátneho vzdelávacieho programu sa javí, že význam pojmu komunikačná kompetencia koreluje s významom jazykovej/jazykovednej kompetencie. Cítime, že následné bazírovanie na memorovaní modelov a schém žiakmi je až sekundárne a nevyúsťuje do komplexného rozvíjania komunikačnej kompetencie. To, čo sa javí pri systematickom a aktívnom rozvíjaní (prirodzenej) komunikačnej kompetencie čo sa týka zapájania sa, reagovania a zvládania rôznych životných situácií, ukáže ďalší výklad.

Komunikačná kompetencia v intenciách sociálnej inteligencie jedinca Výber, využitie takých metajazykových (sekundárnych) znalostí, štruktúr, ktoré sú pre

používateľa prirodzené, ktoré sa prirodzene zapájajú do komunikačnej situácie, sú úzko späté s kontextom, v ktorom sa nachádzajú komunikanti – hovoriaci a adresát, v súčinnosti s ich




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znalosťami a predpokladmi, ako i so situáciou – miestom, časom, v ktorej sa realizuje praktické a pragmatické používanie jazyka.

Náš výklad teda smeruje od systémovosti smerom k pragmatizácii v duchu prirodzenej orientácie človeka v jazykových štruktúrach, čo korešponduje s prirodzenou orientáciou vo svete. Identifikácia odovzdávaného psychologického výtvoru (myšlienky) v takomto ponímaní prebieha ako interpretácia sprostredkujúceho komunikátu (čiže za výpoveďou odhaľujeme viac, ako je obsiahnuté v propozícii). Do popredia sa tu vynára zmysel štruktúr, propozícií, a tie práve nadobúdajú zmysel až po zapojení komunikantom do istej činnosti (pozri Dolník, 2013, s. 142 – 159).

Podstatou rozvíjania komunikačnej kompetencie je dávať zmysel komunikačným štruktúram, mať kompetenciu interpretovať zmysel komunikačnej činnosti, činnosti nášho partnera, rozpoznať jeho zámery a ciele komunikácie (mať na zreteli i mimojazykové skutočnosti: jeho motivačný svet, znalosti, postoje, emocionálne zaťaženie a pod.). Čiže v konečnom dôsledku ide o pochopenie zmyslu propozície (napríklad ide o komplexnosť vzhľadom na Searlove rečové akty – lokučný, ilokučný, perlokučný) v súčinnosti komunikanta s kontextom (Dolník, 2013, s. 248 – 269). Osvojovanie si jazyka na hodinách slovenského jazyka vzhľadom na rozvíjanie komunikačnej kompetencie či kritického myslenia by malo teda intenčne smerovať k poznávaniu lingvistických systémových prvkov, kategórií, vzťahov v jazyku, princípov či pravidiel vzhľadom na kultúrne a sociálne prostredie s pochopením, ako jazyk v konkrétnych situáciách funguje. Ak do tejto kompetencie „započítame“ aktuálny kontext alebo potenciálne kontexty, to následne vedie napríklad k schopnosti či zručnosti zaujať adekvátny postoj v istej situácii, dopracovať sa ku kooperácii s partnerom alebo „prinútiť oponenta“ vyjadriť súhlas, prijať alternatívu, optimálne argumentovať.

V súvislosti s rozvíjaním komunikačnej kompetencie vzhľadom na určitý sociokultúrny kontext môžeme naše uvažovanie posilniť o aspekt socializácie mladého jedinca v slovenskom prostredí. Život nám totiž ponúka naozaj rozmanité podnety, s ktorými sa dostávame do interakcie. Mať kompetenciu reagovať na tieto podmienky optimálnym spôsobom predpokladá isté opakovanie reagovania v podobných situáciách vo vzťahu k podmienkam, situácii či iným aktérom, s ktorými sme v danom momente v interakcii. Môžeme hovoriť o tzv. sociálnej inteligencii jedinca ako základ sociálnej kompetencie. Len stručne podotkneme, že pri vymedzovaní sociálnej kompetencie sa uplatňujú tri prístupy (podľa Oudová, 2007): súhrn určitých sociálnych zručností (napr. adekvátne zvládanie situácií v praktickom živote), efektívne sociálne správanie (efektívne jednanie s ľuďmi v sociálnom styku – tiež V. Smékal, 1995), zdôrazňuje sa i kognitívna funkcia (praktické využitie nadobudnutých poznatkov, čo vedie k dosiahnutiu cieľov, ktoré sú v danom sociokultúrnom priestore hodnotené pozitívne, kladne, resp. až prestížne. Teda súhrnne ide o to mať kompetenciu reagovať v interakcii s inými jedincami (so svojím individuálnym motivačným svetom) a mať schopnosť usúvzťažniť ich s poznatkami o sociálnych normách a sociálnom živote. To následne vedie k orientácii v sociálnych situáciách, využívaniu rozličných sociálnych techník či k sociálnemu adaptovaniu (Orosová a kol., 2004), a to optimálne vzhľadom na špecifickosť konkrétnej situácie. A tak uvažujeme, že nadobúdanie poznatkov o slovenskom jazyku (jazykovedné, systémové, sekundárne znalosti) nie je v súlade s pragmatickými či diskurzívnymi tendenciami nazerania na jazyk a do veľkej miery nekorešponduje s aktuálnymi potrebami žiaka vzhľadom na jeho prirodzený vývoj v istej spoločnosti, a to v zmysle kritického myšlienkového spracovania, interpretácie a reakcie na podnety v reálnej interakcii v určitej situácii. V reálnej interakcii sa totiž náš jazykový prejav neobmedzuje na uvažovanie o jazyku (napr. o zaraďovaní slov do príslušných gramatických tried, o vetných vzorcoch, jadre a východisku výpovede či o štýlotvorných činiteľoch), lež v jazyku a jeho prežívania, teda so zameraním práve na akt konania (pragmatický aspekt komunikácie), na činnostný aspekt komunikácie. Tento aspekt zahŕňa okrem jazyka i psychologickú povahu aktérov, ich osobnosť, charakteristické črty,




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vývojové štádium psychomotorického vývoja či sociálne aspekty, akými sú sociálne zručnosti či sociálna inteligencia.

A práve v takto nastolených intenciách môžeme uvažovať, že komunikačná kompetencia sa nerozvíja izolovanie (napríklad ako sa na školách rozvíja v duchu jazykovednej kompetencie), ale ako komplex zručností, ktoré sa vzájomné ovplyvňujú, dopĺňajú, spolu súvisia. Je parciálnou súčasťou „mentálneho vybavenia“ jedinca byť zručný v interakcii (so sebou, s iným človekom, so svojou či inou kultúrou, so svetom), a tak si vytvárať mentálne znalosti a predstavy o sebe, ktoré sa formujú na základe skúseností samým so sebou, so svojou vlastnou kompetenciou v úspešných situáciách a dosiahnutím výkonu na základe očakávaní, postojov a na základe predkladaných interpretačných modelov, ktoré sa vytvárajú priamoúmerne so zapájaním sa do istého počtu situácií, do ktorých človek v procese socializácie vstupuje. Ide o komplex zručností a cieľom je rozpoznať zmysel situácie, čo je takpovediac „pod povrchom“ v istej situácii (na tomto mieste je azda vhodnejšie operovať s pojmom diskurz, pričom sa neobmedzujeme len na lingvistickú definíciu pojmu, ale pracujeme s ním vzhľadom na jeho sociálne, kultúrne, psychologické, sémantické či rétorické aspekty; zahŕňajúci celé spektrum sociálnych interakcií), dynamicky sa správať, rozpoznávať jednotlivé komunikačné roly či osobnosti a motivačný svet komunikujúcich a na základe toho zvoliť optimálne (diskurzívne; doplnila Z. S.) prakticky a stratégie a celkové uvedomenie si, aký obraz zanechávame v danej situácii o sebe (Bell, 2014, s. 5 – 6), ale i aký obraz sa konštruuje okolo konkrétneho parciálneho výseku sveta (diskurzu).

Ak operujeme s pojmom diskurz ako s komplexom verbálnych a nonverbálnych aktivít v istom sociokultúrnom priestore, pričom ide o komplex rôznorodých interakčných situácií, diskurz potenciálne určuje spôsob, ako sa v určitých sociálnych podmienkach uplatňujú isté možnosti, modely, schémy (niekedy viac pravdepodobné, niekedy menej) v konkrétnej komunikácii, čím sa naznačuje istý spôsob formovania sveta vzhľadom na sociálny poriadok (In Bohunická 2013, s. 77, podľa Fairclough – Wodak, 2009, s. 258). V týchto intenciách sa spôsob konštruovania komunikačnej kompetencie u žiakov javí ako kultivovanie komunikačnej kompetencie, teda pestovať si dispozíciu adekvátne reagovať. Primárne nejde o uvažovanie „v jazykových štruktúrach“ lež o prežívanie jazyka v konkrétnych situáciách. Takýto prístup predpokladá uchopiť diskurz ako komplex rôznych žánrov, a tak nadobúdať schopnosť odhaliť rôzne diskurzívne praktiky, stratégie (napr. špecifiká masmesiálneho, internetového diskurzu), prirodzene nájsť spôsob, ako efektívne zvládnuť istú interakčnú situáciu v istom diskurze, čo predpokladá prácu s textom nielen čo sa týka jeho jazykovej/jazykovednej analýzy (napríklad určovanie gramatických kategórií, syntaktických konštrukcií či učenie sa mechaník tvorenia slov, tvorbu textov vzhľadom na štýlotvorné činitele) v intenciách textovej lingvistiky či konverzačnej analýzy (čo by malo vyústiť napríklad do dodržiavania zásad zdvorilosti či kooperácie z hľadiska Griceových konverzačných maxím). Ponúka sa možnosť operovať s textom v duchu diskurznej analýzy, ktorá tvorí predpoklad pre dynamické rozvíjanie komunikačnej kompetencie, prostredníctvom ktorej sa v optimálnej miere napĺňajú procesy poznávania, čítania, počúvania s porozumením a vhodnej recepcie a interpretácie.

Komunikačná kompetencia ako predpoklad pre vstup do sociovedeckej komunikácie

v bioetickom diskurze V ďalšom výklade skonkrétnime naše doterajšie uvažovanie nutnosti rozšírenia nadobúdania

komunikačnej kompetencie v školskom prostredí vzhľadom na jej prirodzené rozvíjanie v praktických situáciách. Konkrétne sa zameriame na jednu z množstva možných situácií, v ktorých sa môže žiak – vyvíjajúca sa bytosť v procese socializácie ocitnúť. Ocitáme sa v značne diverzifikovanom (miestami kontrastnom až kontroverznom) priestore sociovedeckej komunikácie (podrobnejšie pozri Dolník 2015, 2015a, 2015b) v bioetickom diskurze. Primárne nás zaujíma, aký sa v danom diskurze navodzuje spôsob hovorenia a myslenia v zmysle užitočnosti moderných technológií pre spoločnosť, pretože moderné výdobytky či technológie dnes prakticky zasahujú takmer do každej (aj tej najbežnejšej) ľudskej činnosti.




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Neutíchajúci prílev informácií o nových vymoženostiach, ktoré majú za cieľ uľahčovať, zefektívňovať život, sa k bežným recipientom primárne dostávajú prostredníctvom autonómnej mediálnej „mašinérie“, ktoré sú nositeľmi tém a názorových autorít (všimnime si, že sa nám veľakrát stane, že sa istou témou začneme podrobnejšie zaoberať, až keď je prezentovaná v médiách), takpovediac „nahlodáva“ prirodzenú vieru v dobro moderných výdobytkov či v záplave moderných trendov, posilňuje sa skepsa či negatívny obraz v zmysle prospešnosti pre praktický život, pre zdravie človeka či životného prostredia. Množstvo takýchto informácií bežného recipienta zneisťuje, zahmlieva sa možnosť optimálne sa v danej téme orientovať, čo často vedie k otázkam „je to pre mňa prospešné?“ či „ako sa v tom mám vyznať?“. Na tomto mieste zdôrazňujeme predovšetkým komunikačnú funkciu jazyka (popri napríklad národno-reprezentatívnej, integračnej, estetickej atď.) v spojení so sociálnou obratnosťou v danej situácii. Svoju rolu tu zohrávajú i pragmatické či diskurzívne faktory, ktoré sú dôležité pri reflektovaní vzťahu medzi vysielanou správou a recipientom, recepcii a následnej interpretácii komunikátov.

Optimálna interpretácia v duchu diskurznej analýzy, kritického myslenia, odhaľovania zámerov či rôznych diskurzívnych praktík a stratégií celkovo kultivuje komunikačnú kompetenciu, čím sa zvyšuje komunikačná a receptívna obratnosť v istej situácii, čo celkovo predpokladá úspešnosť a efektívnosť komunikácie. A práve spomínaná recepcia a interpretácia sú enormne dôležité pri vstupe do sociovedeckej komunikácie o vedeckých témach, ktoré sú primárne „servírované“ jednoduchým a účelným spôsobom (v zmysle „predaja“ masmediálnych obsahov čo najširšiemu okruhu recipientov) prostredníctvom internetu. Takouto kompetenciou, byť obratný optimálne reagovať, „vyzbrojený“ jedinec má predpoklad vstúpiť do sociovedeckej komunikácie, osvojiť si jej zásady v zmysle získať istú vedeckú gramotnosť – sekundárne a následne mať schopnosť ju využiť pri riešení konkrétnych problémov v konkrétnej situácii v konkrétnych podmienkach. My sa konkrétne v našich interpretáciách zamierame na bioetický problém týkajúci sa zdravia a zdravého životného štýlu. Okrajovo, bioetika sa etabluje ako aplikovaná vedná disciplína, ktorá reflektuje problémy etického rozhodovania, vyplývajúce zo situácie človeka žijúceho v dnešnej spoločnosti. Enormný nárast moderných technológií jednak otvorili človeku nové možnosti regulácie prírody (napr. GM potraviny) a biologické kontroly vlastnej existencie (trans ľudia, interrupcia, eutanázia a pod.) a otázky optimálneho zachovania zdravia jedinca, a jednak priniesli so sebou nástrahy, nebezpečenstvá (ktoré sa postupne skúmajú a pomenuvávajú); Ondok, 2005, s. 11. Súhrne sa narušilo tradičné ponímanie ľudskej existencie, čo so sebou prináša závažné etické či morálne otázky (bližšie pozri napr. Kovaľová 2004, Smolková, 2007, Gluchman, 2008).

Jednou z možností, ako sa nastaviť na sociovedeckú komunikáciu, je uvedomiť si špecifiká týchto informácií v masmediálnom kontexte, ako sa nastavuje na prezentovanie témy zdravia a zdravého životného štýlu, pričom zdravie je v súčasnosti chápane ako jedna z najvyšších ľudských hodnôt. Nepôjde o konkrétny návod, ktorý ponúkne jednoznačnú odpoveď na otázku „čo je pre moje zdravie prospešné“, ani o vyčerpávajúcu analýzu všetkých sledovaných textov, ale o interpretáciu týchto textov, ktorá môže byť príkladom, ako sa nastaviť na množstvo rôznorodých informácií, nepodľahnúť sile autorít či argumentov. Konkrétne sa zameriame na poukázanie na sugestívnu moc (pseudo)autorít, ktoré apelujú na hodnoty vnímania zdravia mladého človeka.

Lingvistická interpretácia – zdravie ako najvyššia hodnota V interpretačnej časti sa zameriame na potrebu mať prirodzenú kompetenciu orientovať sa

v množstve publikovaných textov na internete zaoberajúce sa zdravou stravou či zdravým životným štýlom, ktoré predstavujú pre žiakov ako mladé, do spoločnosti sa etablujúce osobnosti tlak „kráčať v stopách“ trendov vyzerať dobre, byť krásny a najmä zdravý. Nejde nám o zdôvodňovanie vedeckých faktov lež o uchopenie problematiky sociovedecej komunikácie metódou diskurznej analýzy, zameriavajúc sa na témy, ktoré by potenciálne mohli byť




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zaujímavé z pohľadu nadobúdania „obratnosti“, zručností, komunikačnej kompetencie, kritického uvažovania a optimálnej recepcie množstva rôznorodého obsahu prezentovaného na internete, ktorý potenciálne môže do veľkej miery ovplyvniť myslenie o zdraví a zdravom životnom štýle mladého človeka. Imperatívom súčasnej doby starať sa o svoje telo navonok i zvnútra! No sú všetky tieto moderné trendy, vystupujúce v roli autorít, zárukou dosiahnutia zdravia človeka, najmä ak ide o telesne i duševne sa ešte vyvíjajúceho mladého jedinca? Nejde v autonómnom svete médií skôr o napĺňanie obsahu na svojich stránkach bez kritického posúdenia dopadu týchto informácií na široké vekové spektrum ich recipientov?

Autorita výživových poradcov Internet je denno-denne zaplavený množstvom nových informácií o potravinách vhodných,

nevhodných, zdravých, nezdravých, majúcich blahodarné účinky, superpotravinách, „štartujúcich“ metabolizmus. Kedy jesť ovocie, sú raňajky základ dňa, je náš organizmus prekyselený? Problémom sa stáva orientácia v tomto diverzifikovanom priestore, nachádzanie optimálnej cesty a selekcia informácií vzhľadom na individuálne špecifické potreby a preferencie. Ako jedna z alternatív, ako sa priblížiť k cieľu optimálneho zdravia, ponúka oblasť výživového poradenstva. Výživoví poradcovia sa štylizujú do role mentorov či sprievodcov vo „svete“ zdravia“. Mnohokrát ide o tzv. „postavy z ľudu“ („Odmietla som sa nečinne prizerať ako ľudia tápajú vo výbere správnej diéty a nevedia čo majú vlastne jesť. Vedome som sa rozhodla prísť medzi Vás a pomôcť Vám. Dennodenne sa v praxi stretávam s ľuďmi, ktorí bojujú s naštrbeným zdravím, trpia nadváhou a vyskúšali už mnoho diét no všetky neúspešne“ – http://petrapavukova.sk/preco-pisem-blog/ [12. 4. 2016]), ktorí do vedomia recipientov natískajú myšlienku o dostupnejšom nadobúdaní zdravia či štíhlej línie, pred napr. návštevou lekára (predsa len, výraz klient nenesie so sebou konotácie ako, podľa KSSJ, „chorý“, resp. „ten, kto sa potrebuje liečiť“ – http://slovniky.juls.savba.sk/?w=pacient&s=exact&c=Q13e&d=kssj4&d=psp&d=sssj&d=sssj2&d=scs&d=sss&d=peciar&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8#, ako výraz pacient). Neustále argumentačne dokazujú nutnosť výživového poradenstva v súčasnom globalizovanom trhu: „Tento profil vzniká aj z nenávisti voči nepravdám, mýtom a (zlo)zvykom, ktoré kolujú v žilách našej čoraz viac chorľavejšej a obéznejšej spoločnosti“ (https://www.facebook.com/RadyActive/info/?tab=page_info [12. 4. 2016]). Pomôžu, podporia, pomocou moderných prístrojov „spoznajú“ konkrétny organizmus (túto činnosť je pre bežných recipientov „zašifrovaná“ v pomenovaní metódy komplexná nutričná typológia), a tak sú schopní (na mieste je položiť otázku, či aj dostatočne kvalitatívne kompetentní?) vytvoriť individuálny stravovací plán každému na mieru: „Výživový poradca vie pomôcť a nájsť každému jeho manuál. Nie môj, vnucovať niekomu, čo robím, ale nájsť manuál preňho, aby sa v ňom cítil dobre, aby našiel svoju optimálnu životosprávu, ktorá mu zabezpečí zdravie, ale aj vyšší výkon“ (http://zdravie.pravda.sk/zdrava-vyziva/clanok/353634-vecera-je-dolezitejsia-ako-ranajky-tvrdi-vyzivovy-poradca/ [12. 4. 2016]). Okrem toho je táto profesia v súčasnosti veľmi atraktívna a populárna, obsahom je naučiť sa základy biochémie, fyziológie, psychológie, anatómie, princípy metabolizmu, základy prvej pomoci, a to všetko pretaviť do praxe vo forme poradenstva a vystavovaní plánov na mieru (http://www.welko.sk/inpage/poradca-pre-vyzivu/ [12. 4. 2016]), prezentovanie výživových doplnkov, čo si, mimochodom, vyžaduje nemalú finančnú sumu klienta a je výhodnou marketingovou devízou podnikavých poradcov. Všímame si, že vnímanie zdravia z pohľadu výživového poradenstva korešponduje s ideou chudnutia, dosiahnutia ideálneho výzoru, čo akiste korešponduje so stále pretrvávajúcim kultom krásy (kultom krásy sa v hypermodernej dobe zaoberá napr. G. Lipovetsky – Třetí žena, 2007), čo môže byť pre mladého človeka v aktuálnom telesnom i psychickom vývoji rizikové. Dôležitosť sa teda pripisuje peknému fyzickému výzoru (v tomto zmysel nás zaujíma otázka, či je automaticky fyzicky štíhla línia ukážkou a zárukou zdravia človeka?), a teda primárne ide osvojenie si takých stravovacích návykov, ktoré podporujú tézu postupného, nenásilného a




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efektívneho chudnutia (čo môže byť v prospech násilných, ba až drastických diét) bez nutnosti držania diét či hladovania: „Nezačujete od nás, že po 17 hodine sa nesmie jesť alebo, že musíte jesť tony zeleniny. S nami chudnete trvale a nehladujete“ (http://zdrava-konzultacia.sk/?utm_mesto=trnava-trnava [12. 4. 2016]). Táto forma poradenstva sa napr. od diét líši postupnosťou dosahovania výsledkov, diéty sľubujú rýchly, až bleskový úbytok hmotnosti. Apeluje sa na zodpovednosť každého jedinca za svoje zdravie či (ešte intenzifikované) na zdravie detí: „Táto téma bude zaujímavá najmä pre zodpovedných rodičov“ (https://www.vladozlatos.com/novinky/hlavne-spravy/dalsi-kurz-na-temu-vyzivovy-poradca.html [12. 4. 2016]). V istých momentoch je však, najmä z hľadiska bioetiky, problematické, či sú títo tzv. odborníci na zdravú výživu (na chudnutie skôr) kompetentní suplovať pozíciu lekára a relevantné medicínske vyšetrenie, keď vyzdvihujú nadobudnutie optimálneho zdravia len prostredníctvom zdravej stravy, vysadenie medikamentóznej liečby a pod. (napr. čo sa týka celiakie, hormonálnej nerovnováhy, oslabenej imunity – pozri napr. https://dennikn.sk/blog/slovensko-krajina-vyzivovych-poradcov/ [12. 4. 2016]). Upevňovanie svojej autority, kvality, dominantného postavenia v tomto smere presýtenom trhu sa dokazuje zverejňovaním certifikátov (pozri stránku dolu: http://elenasvobodova.sk/vyzivovy-poradca-bratislava/), pozitívnych ohlasov klientov („Michal schudol 45kg: Cítim sa perfektne a mám viac energie a pestrejší život vďaka NATURHOUSE“) či medzitextovým odkazovaním na rubriky „napísali o nás“ (https://www.vladozlatos.com/blog/clanky-o-pohybe/ako-zacat-spravne-posilnovat-interview.html [12. 4. 2016]).

Autorita nových trendov v stravovaní 1. Raw strava ako liek Spôsob zmeny v stravovacích návykoch so sebou prináša rad otázok: budem zdravý, ak sa

budem ináč stravovať? Zlepším si kondíciu, výkon, eliminujem únavu či zmiernim príznaky chorôb? Schudnem? Ako sa dá tento stav optimálne navodiť? Riešenie sa momentálne natíska v podobe ďalšieho boomu – raw alebo tiež „živého“ stravovania. Jedenie surovej stravy, ešte lepšie – jedenie tepelne neupravených, čisto prírodných jedál predstavuje alternatívu ku „konvenčnému“ stravovaniu, podnecujúcemu človeka klásť si otázky ohľadom svojho zdravia, ktoré má efektívne vylepšiť životosprávu a naviesť jedinca na zdravý životný štýl. Navodenie stavu novosti, jedinečnosti (skrátka niečoho, čo tu ešte nebolo), vyzdvihujúc prírodnú (v duchu prirodzenosti) povahu tohto typu stravovania, zameriavajúc sa na globalizovanú spoločnosť (napr. ponechaním anglických názvov, pripisovanie superlatívov), nevynímajúc deti či tínedžerov, môže byť v pozadí úspechu raw stravovania (pred inými trendmi v stravovaní – možno i prezentáciami stravovacích návykov ešte silnejších autorít – známych osobností). Tento trend v stravovaní, ktorý prerástol v životný štýl sa pôvodne vyvinul, ako i celý názov Raw Food Diet napovedá, z diéty. Primárne teda išlo o redukciu hmotnosti. No momentálne eliminácia jedál, ktoré sa súhrnne označujú ako „nezdravé“: „v dnešnom civilizovanom svete je však všetkého nadbytok, a tak ľudia do seba často krát „hádžu“ všetko rad za radom“ (https://varecha.pravda.sk/magazin/raw-food-surova-strava-novy-svetovy-trend-vo/11230-clanok.html [13. 4. 2016]), až zvýšenie konzumácie surového ovocia, zeleniny, orechov – „darov prírody, alebo toho, čo nám vyrástlo zo zeme“ a z nich pripravené pokrmy zaručujú prílev energie, čo je v dnešnej uponáhľanej a stresujúcej dobe, v ktorej je nutné byť pripravený v sto percentnom nasadení zvládať rozmanité životné situácie, veľkou devízou. A v rámci tohto systému sa socializuje i mladý človek, ktorým zázračné účinky tohto životného štýlu, pričom sa glorifikuje BIO značka a defenzívne a odmietavo sa hodnotí všetko nezdravé či „umelé“ (napr. fast foody alebo GM plodiny), môžu byť rôzne vyjadrenia mylne interpretované ako náhrada za lekárske vyšetrenie. Vyjadrenie „Keď v minulom storočí lekári prišli na to, že správnym stravovaním môžeme ovplyvniť kvalitu nášho zdravia, začala sa éra diét“ (https://varecha.pravda.sk/magazin/raw-food-surova-strava-novy-svetovy-trend-vo/11230-clanok.html [13. 4. 2016]) sa môže potenciálne viesť k strate autority lekára či




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jeho nerešpektovania ako fundovaného odborníka vo veciach zdravia človeka, najmä čo sa týka liečenia civilizačných chorôb, rôznych ekzémov či napr. antibiotiková liečba „Vôbec neužívam antibiotiká, pretože pre mňa všetko obsahuje príroda – ovocie, zelenina, klíčky atď. To sú moje antibiotiká, ktoré ma udržujú v zdraví“ (http://fitshaker.sk/ako-vyzera-zivot-cisto-na-raw-strave-rozhovor/ [13. 4. 2016]), či dokonca sa stáva „alternatívnom medicínou“ pre liečbu rakoviny „Tiež sa živou stravou lieči aj rakovina a to za pomoci Gersonovej terapie a zeleninových štiav“ (http://fitshaker.sk/ako-vyzera-zivot-cisto-na-raw-strave-rozhovor/ [13. 4. 2016]) – táto na prvý pohľad až transcendentná metóda by si žiadala podrobnejšiu analýzu. Zdôrazňuje sa tiež postupný prechod na vegetariálnstvo a vegánstvo – argumentujúc etickým problémami spojenými s „mäsovým priemyslom“. Pre mladých ľudí plných ideálov a vierou v dobro, apelovaním na novosť, jedinečnosť, vybočenie zo stereotypu, dosiahnutie optimálneho zdravia (a ako bonus a pekného vzhľadu), odkaz blogerov (napr. http://biostrava.zarucene.sk/raw-stravovanie-ako-zacat/, http://raw-strava.sk/o-mne/ [13. 4. 2016]), ktorí takpovediac raw životný štýl prežívajú na vlastnej koži, tieto argumenty sa môžu rozhodujúcimi pri výbere a preferovaní tohto životného štýlu.

2. Návrat k tradičnému spôsobu stravovania Čo sa na prvý pohľad môže zdať ako paradox, je logickým vyústením zo spleti rôznych,

rôznorodých názorov a argumentov na zachovanie zdravia človeka či odpoveďou na nové, moderné trendy nielen v spôsoboch stravovania (napr. raw, paleo, škatuľková strava, vegetariánstvo, vegánstvo, vitariánstvo a pod.), ale taktiež čo sa týka reagovania na stále nové a modernejšie biotechnologické pokroky – odmietanie produktov z veľkovýroby, ktoré sú plné chemických prípravkov, či GM plodín, ktoré, zjednodušene povedané, zastrašujú recipientov z hľadiska vedeckej manipulácie s génmi v rastline (napr. vyrastie kukurica odolná voči škodcovi). Tradícia či návrat ku „kuchyniam starých materí“, návrat k vlastnej záhradke či zaobstarávanie si potravín u chovateľov či drobných predajcov „z dvora“ je silným artiklom a mocným argumentom na zachovanie optimálneho zdravia človeka a podnecuje vyhraňovanie sa voči všetkým modernostiam, ktoré so sebou nesú istú dávku neistoty či kontroverzie. Aktuálne svoj boom „zažíva“ návrat živočíšneho masla (ktoré sa preferuje pred margarínmi) a bravčovej masti (ktorá silne konkuruje i ďalšiemu trendu, čo sa týka používania olejov, napr. kokosovému oleju, tiež traktovaného ako všemocný všeliek), teda tukov, ktorých nahradenie v prospech menej tukových výrobkov korešpondovalo s trendom chudnutia a dobrého telesného výzoru v spolupôsobení s optimalizáciou zdravia (ako prevencia proti civilizačným ochoreniam).

I. Súhrnne v skúmaných materiáloch odhaľujeme dvojpólovosť, či dokonca striktnú opozíciu medzi maslom a margarínom, čo má jasne potvrdiť/vyvrátiť pozitívne a negatívne účinky na zdravie človeka i v jeho rôznych vývojových štádiách. Metafora „protivníkov v ringu“ („Maslo alebo margarín: Nech vyhrá lepší!“ – http://plnielanu.zoznam.sk/c/426/maslo-alebo-margarin-nech-vyhra-lepsi [14. 4. 2016]) či neustále kladenie do opozícií intenzifikuje jednoznačné kladné, pre zdravie prospešné, a záporné – nezdravé, škodlivé vlastnosti potravín. Taktiež sa jednoduché riešenie konzumenta vo výbere „tej tradičnej“ (v bežnom uvažovaní hovoríme o kravskom masle ako o „obyčajnom“ či „tradičnom“) potraviny stáva samotný proces výroby produktu: „menej spracovaná (technologickými postupmi, doplnila Z. S.) potravina je pre telo prijateľnejšia potravina“ (http://www.fitnessa.sk/preco-by-ste-mali-jest-maslo/ [14. 4. 2016]). Opäť sa zdôrazňuje prírodná, a pre ľudské telo prirodzená, povaha produktu („maslo je prirodzenou stravou“ – http://prezenu.noviny.sk/c/zdravie-a-diety/maslo-alebo-margarin-sedem-plusov-pre-maslo [14. 4. 2016]), ktorá akosi prirodzene „víťazí“ nad všetkým rafinovaným, podrobeným technologickým postupom a pod, A, paradoxne, práve tieto nové trendy rastlinných tukov obohatených o nové, zdraviu prospešné látky degradovali „prírodný produkt“ na nižšiu úroveň v správnej životospráve (v súčasnosti sa o prezentovaných účinkoch uvažuje ako o klamstvách: „Alebo nás oklamali, aby sme si mysleli, že je správne konzumovať




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„ľahšie“ verzie tukov vo forme rastlinných nátierok či margarínov?“ – http://www.badatel.net/konecne-nadisla-chvila-odhalit-pravdu-o-masle-stare-mamy-to-cely-cas-vedeli/ [14. 4. 2016]).

II. Preferencia v prospech bravčovej masti pred rôznymi olejmi (najmä rafinovanými), masť takpovediac „slávi návrat“ (http://plnielanu.zoznam.sk/c/2613/pravda-o-bravcovej-masti-je-vyborna-na-dlhe-vyprazanie-aj-zdravotne-neduhy [14. 4. 2016]). Podobnou komparáciou ako pri masle sa eliminujú doterajšie démonizované tvrdenia a argumenty v neprospech konzumácie bravčovej masti v prospech návratu k prírodnosti, a teda prirodzenosti v stravovaní (http://www.dobrarada.sk/clanok/bravcova-mast-myty-a-realita.html [14. 4. 2016]) aj čo sa týka vo výžive detí či dospievajúcich. V tomto smere autorita predstavuje skôr tlak na matky, ktoré operujú s modelom predchádzania detskej obezity v duchu „nízkotučnej“ stravy aktuálne sa v daným modelom operuje ako s mýtom, ktorý je nutné vyvrátiť v prospech navodenia zdravia dieťaťa vo vývoji: „Okrem toho sú potrebné pre to, aby sa mohli využiť vitamíny rozpustné v tukoch. Toto je teda niekoľko mýtov o detskej výžive, ktoré sa stále poctivo držia v našej spoločnosti“ (http://najmama.aktuality.sk/clanok/225637/najcastejsie-myty-o-detskej-strave/ [14. 4. 2016]). Moc autority tradície sa tu transformuje v prospech posilňovania statusu „múdrosti starých materí“, ktoré sa v súdobej spoločnosti stávajú takpovediac dogmou.

Záver I. Internetové články čitateľa priam vyzývajú (rôznymi ponukami na podobné články), aby

čitateľ v čítaní pokračoval, odhaľoval stále nové a nové obsahy. Sú však články tohto charakteru naozaj pre zachovanie či posilnenie zdravia také relevantné, ako sa prezentujú? Sme nezodpovední, ak voči sebe, voči svojej rodine a blízkym, ak v dostatočnej miere nerecipujeme všetky aktuálne nové trendy, nedáme sa ovplyvniť silou autorít? Ako táto moc autorít vplýva na mladého človeka, ktorý si v tomto spôsobe žitia „hľadá svoju cestu“? Schopnosť adaptovať sa na rôzne životné podmienky a situácie, dobrá fyzická a duševná sila, kondícia, vytrvalosť (termíny aj podľa Křivohlavý, 2009) tvoria predpoklad na kvalitný život a stáva sa jednou z preferovaných životných hodnôt, ku ktorej vo významnej miere dopomáha i zdravá, vyvážená výživa. No sú práve masmédiá (prostredníctvom ktorých si svojich priaznivcov získavajú i poradcovia na zdravú výživu) vhodnými a spoľahlivými sprostredkovateľmi či mediátormi, čo sa týka publikovania rôznych vedeckých poznatkov širokému laickému publiku (mladých ľudí nevynímajúc)? Schopnosť orientácie v záplave rôznych článkov, vyjadrení, formulácií, argumentov a hodnôt (a musíme povedať, že tento „svet autorít“ je veľmi dynamický a variabilný, hyperbolizovane povedané, akoby sa každým dňom vytvoril nový trend) vyžaduje istú pripravenosť a nastavenie sa na zvládnutie rôznych kontrastných a kontroverzných obsahov, a to nielen v duchu jazykovej či jazykovednej kompetencie, ale tiež v duchu sociálnej obratnosti v špecifickom diskurze, čím nadväzujeme na extenziu neoddeliteľných zložiek pojmu komunikačná kompetencia o sociokultúrny či diskurzívny aspekt (k tomu pozri napr. pozri Hymes – 1972, neskôr Canale a Salvine – 1980 či Yu – 2006). A tak sa potreba orientácie v rôznych obsahoch vzhľadom na komunikačnú kompetenciu stáva najvyššou objektívnou autoritou, ktorá má prevyšovať subjektívne pocity individuálneho prežívania človeka.

Použitá literatúra BECK, U. (2007). Co je to globalizace? Omyli a odpovědi. CDK. BELL, J. (2014). Social Intelligence. UK: Communication Masters. BEDNÁRIK, R. et al. (2007). Vedecká komunikácia : Profil spoločenskovedného výskumníka

v oblasti zručností vedeckej komunikácie. Dostupné na http://www.sspr.gov.sk/texty/File/ZE VEK/Profil_spolocenskovedneho_vyskumnika_v_oblasti_zrucnosti_vedeckej_komunikacie.pdf

BOHUNICKÁ, A. (2013). Variety metafory. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.. DOLNÍK, J. (2012). Sila jazyka. Bratislava: Kalligram. DOLNÍK, J. (2013. Všeobecná jazykoveda. 2. vyd. Bratislava: VEDA.




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DOLNÍK, J. (2015a). Radikálna demokratizácia a interakcia vedy. ITLib. Špeciál, Veda – vec verejná, Biotechnológie a biotechnologické výzvy v spoločsnko-kultúrnom rámci. 2015/1, s. 11 – 15.

DOLNÍK, J. (2015b). Potreba lingvistickej sociovedeckej komunikácie. Slovenská reč, 80(5 – 6), 263 – 275.

KŘIVOHLAVÝ, J. (2009). Psychologie zdraví. Praha: Porál. 3. vyd. ONDOK, J. P. (2005). Bioetika, biotechnológie a biomedicína. Praha: Triton OUDOVÁ, D. (2007). Analýza sociální kompetence dospívajících. Dizertačná práca, Brno: Masarykova Univerzita. ORSOVÁ, O., SARKOVÁ, M., MADARASOVÁ, A., & KATRENIAKOVÁ, Z. (2004). Sociálna

inteligencia, Sociálna kompetencia – definície a prístupy v ich skúmaní. Československá psychologie, 48(4), 306 – 315.

SAUSSURE, de F. (1996). Kurs obecní lingvistiky. Praha: Academia. SLANČOVÁ, D. (2004). Vymedzenie predmetu štylistiky... alebo: Privoňajme ku kvetu

interaktívnej štylistiky. In: Slovo o slove 10. Prešov: Prešovská univerzita, s. 17 – 23. Inovovaný štátny vzdelávací program pre gymnáziá so štvorročným a päťročným vzdelávacím

programom, slovenský jazyk a komunikácia [online], [21. 3. 2016]. Dostupné na: ˂http://www.statpedu.sk/sites/default/files/dokumenty/inovovany-statny-vzdelavaci-program/slovensky_jazyk_a_literatura_g_4_5_r.pdf˃.

Termín komunikačná kompetencia [online], [13. 4. 2016] Dostupné na: ˂ http://data.juls.savba.sk/std/komunika%C4%8Dn%C3%A1%20kompetencia˃. In: VALČEK, Peter. 2011. Slovník teórie médií od A – Ž. Bratislava : LIC.

Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka [online], [14. 4. 2016]. Dostupné na: ˂http://slovniky.juls.savba.sk/?d=kssj4˃.

Poznámka Tento príspevok vznikol vďaka podpore GUK pre doktorandov a mladých vedeckých pracovníkov číslo G-16-451-00. Kontakt Zdenka Schwarzová Kíperská 385 Častá 90089 Slovenská republika [email protected], [email protected]




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Content Analysis

in Pedagogical Research

Zuzana Šimková, Slovakia

[email protected]

Abstract This paper discusses the importance, usage and research studies using content analysis in the research process.

Content analysis is one of the most frequently used methods in the pedagogical research. It can include the examination of human interactions; the analysis of character showed in TV and TV commercials, films, and novels, short stories, political speeches and nowadays content analysis is also used in pedagogical research to investigate the research topics and answer research questions. Using this method, the researcher is able to identify the distractors, code and decode the variables, carry out solutions to the current problems and in general bring the information needed to gain the research results. In the first part, the paper provides the fundamental background to the content analysis, describes the way of using this method, analyses the various types of content analysis and analyses the types of content. Furthermore, it analyses the objectivity, validity, and reliability that must be achieved using content analysis. The second part focuses on the studies using this method. It analyses the stated objectives and results gained by several authors using content analysis.

Keywords: content analysis, quantitative content analysis, qualitative analysis, data, validity, reliability.

Introduction Content analysis (CA) is a research technique often used in pedagogical research. It is one of

the tools used not only for quantitative analyses of data, but also qualitative analyses. This type of research method enables the researchers to analyse text data. “Researchers are able to collect, categorize and summarize text data and it allows researchers to discover and describe the focus of individual, group, institutional, or social attention (Weber, 1990).” Barcus (1959) says that the theoretical framework of content analysis was developed in the United States and it was first used as an analytic technique at the beginning of the 20th century. The strong usage of the quantitative approach was started by Lasswell and it was later carried out by another "father" of content analysis, Bernard Berelson. He claims (1952) that content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication. Originally, researchers used content analysis as either a qualitative or quantitative method. It was used as a method to analyse hymns, newspaper articles, magazine articles, advertisements and political speeches in the 19th century (Harwood & Garry 2003). Gained data were coded into explicit categories and then described using statistics. This approach is referred to as quantitative analysis of qualitative data (Morgan, 1993).

Bereslon (1952) defines CA as a systematic, replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of coding. Holsti (1969) claims that content analysis is any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages. Wheelock, Haney, and Bebell claim that the technique of content analysis is not restricted to the domain of textual analysis, but may be applied to other areas such as coding student drawings (Wheelock, Haney, & Bebell, 2000), or coding of actions observed in videotaped studies.

Using content analysis we want to carry out categories that describe the specific phenomenon. The purpose of those categories is to build up some kind of model, conceptual system. Research using qualitative content analysis focuses on the characteristics of language as communication with attention to the content or contextual meaning of the text (Budd, Thorp, & Donohew, 1967; Lindkvist, 1981).




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Various approaches to CA There were and still are various approaches of using content analysis. Content analysis does

not comprise single procedure and a single method. There are three distinct approaches to content analysis: conventional, directed, or summative (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). These three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of written data. Every type of content analysis is different and several of the differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness whether the gained results are valid and reliable, it also differs in interests and goals of the researcher and the current problem to be studied, however, the methodological background is maintained (selecting the data set, defining units of analysis and coding, operationalization of coding etc.). Doing content analysis the selected data set, objectivity, validity, reliability and connection to quantitative methods must be taken into consideration. Despite the CA was used mainly as a quantitative method, nowadays there are still some qualitative aspects and CA can be used as a qualitative method either.

As it was already mentioned, we distinguish conventional, directed and summative content analysis. Conventional content analysis deals with coding categories that are derived directly from the text data. “Directed approach analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).” The features of conventional, directed and summative approaches of CA and of coding differences are summarised in the following table which was summarised by Hsieh & Shannon (2005):

Type of Content Analysis

Study Starts With

Timing of Defining codes or Keywords

Source of Codes Or Keywords

Conventional content analysis

Observation Codes are defined during data analysis

Codes are derived from data

Directed content analysis

Theory Codes are defined before and during data analysis

Codes are derived from theory and relevant research findings

Summative content analysis

Keywords Keywords are identified before and during data analysis

Keywords are derived from interest of researchers or review of literature

There are two other widely used approaches to content analysis. As it has been already mentioned, CA is a method that can be used as a qualitative or quantitative method of data collection, furthermore, it can be used also in an inductive or deductive way. The deductive content analysis is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the basis of previous knowledge and the purpose of the study is theory testing (Kyngas & Vanhanen, 1999). A deductive approach is based on an earlier theory or model and therefore it moves from the general to the specific (Burns & Grove, 2005). At the beginning, the researcher investigates some theory focusing the analysed topic and then the knowledge is more specified and more detailed, it means the researcher moves from general knowledge to specific information/ knowledge.

An approach based on inductive data moves from the specific to the general, so that particular instances are observed and then combined into a larger whole or general statement (Chinn & Kramer, 1999). In each content analysis approach, the researcher strives to make




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sense of the data and to learn ‘what is going on’ (Morse & Field. 1995) and obtain a sense of whole (Tesch, 1990; Burnard, 1991).

The third distinction of content analysis distinguishes classical or quantitative content analysis and qualitative content analysis. The method found its critics in the quantitative field, who considered it to be a simplistic technique that did not lend itself to detailed statistical analysis, while others considered that content analysis was not sufficiently qualitative in nature (Morgan, 1993). Using qualitative content analysis the researcher focuses on the specific phenomenon to get some generalizations which apply to that specific group which is investigated. Berelson (1952) suggested five main purposes of content analysis: 1. To describe substance characteristics of message content; 2. To describe form characteristics of message content; 3. To make inferences to producers of content; 4. To make inferences to audiences of content; 5. To predict the effects of content on audiences.

Selecting and developing the topic Select the topic where the researcher uses content analysis is a founding part of the whole

research. If the scope of the research wants to be fulfilled the following questions have to be answered: 1. Purpose: Why are you engaging in this content analysis? 2. Topic: What area are you going to investigate? 3. Focus: What is the precise question you are going to ask yourself within that area? 4. Product: What is a likely outcome of the research? 5. Mode: How are you going to conduct the research? 6. Timing: How long have you got to do the research? 7. Resources: What are the resources, both human and material, that you can call upon to help

you complete the research? 8. Refocusing: As you proceed with your research, do you suppose you will have to rethink your

original question? (Wallace, 1998, p. 21)

The researcher selects the topic and then he follows the proper procedure of the research. Answer the questions, what, how, why is necessary and stating the steps of CA is inevitable. The research and the outcome gained using content analysis must provide new findings, benefits, and suggestions for further research or propose improvement based on the results. According to Krippendorff (1980), six questions must be addressed in every content analysis: 1. Which data are analysed? 2. How are they defined? 3. What is the population from which they are drawn? 4. What is the context relative to which the data are analysed? 5. What are the boundaries of the analysis? 6. What is the target of the inferences

Content analysis is not only applied in the field of communication, politics, economy or business, but it can also be applied in educational research. Gavora (2001, p. 134) refers to these texts in the field of education: 1. school acts and other legislative materials; 2. reports, minutes, records of different activities, statistical materials; 3. press reports and other reports related to education; 4. school order; 5. curricula, textbooks; 6. lesson plans;




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7. characteristics of students; 8. students` written assignments; 9. students` diaries.

The above-mentioned materials and products can be analysed using content analysis. In this paper, we will describe several other research papers and authors using content analysis as a research method and we will also analyse the use of content analysis in our research. We use content analysis to gain the necessary results from the pedagogy field concerning the additive type of bilingual education. The detailed analysis is provided later in this article.

Materials for Qualitative Content Analysis There are plenty of materials that can be analysed using this method. The data that are

analysed using content analysis are often converted into written words before it is analysed. The original source from which the data can be gained are: 1. printed publications as newspapers, magazine articles, books, catalogues, web pages, 2. broadcast programs as radio and TV programs, 3. other recordings as photos, drawings, video, films, music, or 4. live situations as speeches, interviews, open-ended and closed-ended survey questions, focus

groups, plays and observations of gestures and behaviour.

All this content is something that people have created and it can be analysed using various methods and strategies. Content analysis is widely used within printed publications and live situations. The most frequently analysed printed publications are books, workbooks and students books. When the process of a data collection is completed there are two classes of results: numerical data or texts.

Textbooks on data analysis mostly deal with the analysis of numerical data (which means statistical analysis) and leave out text analysis, but texts are occurring often within social science contexts (Mayring, 2014, p. 43). The following areas can be analysed: 1. Interview transcripts 2. Focus groups 3. Observational studies which are not fully standardized (in the sense of fixed checklists or

tallies) produce protocols. 4. Document analysis as research design can deal with a broad range of texts: newspapers or

other mass media products, files, protocols, documentations in institutions, web pages and so on.

5. Secondary analysis is a more and more interesting research approach, because scientific institutions are building up databases of study materials like texts, which are free for further text analysis (Mayring, 2014, p. 43).

Steps of content analysis Before starting the analysis, research question must be stated. Content analysis can be very time-consuming since it involves reading and re-reading of a large amount of material, therefore it is important to know what to focus on. The researcher must select the topic of the research and then the collection of all material can be done. The research questions have an inseparable part in the research since based on the questions the researcher designs the next steps of the research. Mayring (2003) distinguishes nine different steps doing qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2003, pp. 42-99; Titscher et al., 2000, p.64):

1. Research question 2. Definition of categories 3. Coding guideline 4. Coding 5. Revision




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6. Final work through 7. Analysis and interpretation

The content analysis combines both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The above-mentioned steps can be summarized into the three basic areas: 1. Summary: to reduce the material 2. Explication: to explain, clarify and annotate the material 3. Structuring: to carry out a particular structure from the given material.

Examination of data is a crucial part of the analysis and after this process researcher defines the unit of analysis and categories and decides how many concepts to code for. The unit of analysis can be a specific word, phrase or topic. The selection and definition of codes involves developing a specific set of concepts and categories. The whole process of content analysis requires a lot of time and a precise management of individual steps.

We have already mentioned the procedure of qualitative content analysis and to compare it with quantitative content analysis, we provide the complex procedure of doing the quantitative content analysis. The steps are described as follows: 1. Selection of particular texts relevant to your research problem 2. Sampling of texts, there are too many to analyze completely. 3. Constructing a coding frame (categorization scheme) that fits both the theoretical

considerations and the materials. 4. Piloting and revising the coding frame and explicitly define the coding rules. 5. Testing the reliability of codes, and sensitizing coders to ambiguities. 6. Coding all materials in the sample, and establish the overall reliability of the process. 7. Setting up a data file for the purpose of statistical analysis 8. Write a codebook including:

1. Rationale of the coding frame 2. The frequency distribution of all codes and 3. The reliability of the coding process (Silverman, 2006)-

The quantitative nature of content analysis involves counting words, concepts, or

occurrences in documents and reporting them in structured form, usually in the form of charts, figures and tables. The essential features of the process of content analysis are: 1. breaking down text into units of analysis, 2. undertaking a statistical analysis of the units and 3. presenting the analysis in as economical form as possible (Cohen at al., 2007).

The question of reliability and validity Friedrichs (1973) says that content analysis pays particular attention to the reliability of its

measures-ensuring that different researchers use them in the same way and to the validity of its findings through precise counts of word use. Methodology divides quality criteria into measures of objectivity (independence of research findings from the person of the researcher), reliability (stability and precision of the measurement, plus consistency of the measuring conditions), and measures of validity relating to the question of whether what is measured is what ought to be measured (Friedrichs, 1973, p. 100). It is usual to distinguish within the reliability and validity different conceptions: Reliability: a. Re-test: The research operation is carried out a second time and tested as to whether the

same findings result. b. Parallel-Test (equivalent Form): The question at issue is examined with the same sample, but

using a different instrument; then the correspondence is checked.




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c. Consistency (split-half): The material or the instrument is divided into two equal halves and it is then checked whether both halves yield similar findings (Mayring, 2014, p. 107).

Validity: a. External criterion: Research findings closely related to one's own issue and objects of

examination, and of whose validity one is convinced, are brought in as a standard of comparison.

b. Predictability: On the basis of the results predictions are made and then the extent to which they are fulfilled is examined.

c. Extreme groups: Parts of the sample expected to yield extreme results are singled out and tested as to whether the results point in the predicted direction (Mayring, 2014, p. 107).

The question of reliability and validity is important in pedagogical research to ensure valid

and reliable data. To obtain valid and reliable data during doing the research, researcher must analyse the higher number of phenomena, materials, texts, objects. Validity is also ensured by a long duration of the research, direct contact with the phenomenon observed, detailed description of every detail. Validity in qualitative research can be supported by: parallel use of multiple data collection methods because each method can analyse the phenomenon from different sides and can show different aspect of the phenomenon. The validity of the research can be achieved by simultaneous observation of several researchers. And the nature of the results is similar to the first procedure. Reliability is characterized by accuracy, consistency and repetition of measurements.

Research articles using content analysis as a research method The first example of study that uses a content analysis is the study entitled Syntactic

awareness in young Turkish monolingual and Turkish- English bilingual children. This study was carried out by Hümeyra Genç (HG). The author uses content analysis to investigate the topic and to gain the results about the learners´ monolingual and bilingual awareness. The researcher Hümeyra Genç investigated a monolingual Turkish-speaking child’s syntactic awareness on a grammaticality judgment and correction task, and symbol substitution task with the performance of a simultaneous bilingual Turkish-English-speaking child in terms of dual skill components (analysis of linguistic knowledge and control of linguistic processing). In the study, the researcher made comparisons between monolingual and bilingual children. A monolingual Turkish-speaking child’s syntactic awareness on a grammaticality judgment and correction task, and symbol substitution task were compared to the performance of a simultaneous bilingual Turkish-English-speaking child in terms of dual skill components. The present study predicted that a bilingual Turkish-English speaking child would be more advanced than a monolingual Turkish-speaking child. Children were tested individually. Afterwards the test was administered in Turkish to both children in the study. All lectures were audiotaped and transcribed, and its content was analysed. Test materials included three tasks: symbol substitution task, grammaticality judgment task, and grammaticality correction task. In the first task, there was no difference between monolingual Turkish-speaking child and bilingual Turkish-English-speaking child in terms of control of linguistic processing. In the second and the third task (judgment and correction task), monolingual child performed better than bilingual child.

These findings may suggest the judgment task was easier than the correction task for the bilingual child. Moreover, the ability of monolingual and bilingual children to detect grammatically correct sentences in syntactic task in literature was not significantly different, however, in the present study bilingual child outperformed the monolingual child at detecting grammatically correct sentences. The tests were analysed and all data were preceded and summarized. The authors´s results showed that there is not a influence in thems of positive




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effect of bilingualism on children’s ability to control the way of processing linguistic information.

The next study that uses this research method is a study conducted by Amir Marvasti (AM) (2004, p. 91-92) entitled Bilingualism in Florida. The current study gives an example of the use of content analysis in his study of newspaper content. Marvasti investigated the attitudes of South Floridians toward bilingualism. He analysed the situation in which the Spanish language is used in addition to English. A conservative political group in South Florida with a large Hispanic population organized a referendum vote to declare the county officially monolingual. Marvasti´s research question was: what is the public´s rationale for supporting the anti-bilingual initiative? (Marvasti, 2004). To collect data for his analysis, Marvasti went through the archives of a local newspaper, The Miami Herald, in search of editorials, letters to the editor, and articles that argued in favour of the proposed law. He analysed thirty-five letters to the editor in search to find themes that Marvasti thought served as rhetorical explanations for supporting anti-bilingualism. Marvasti comments that his study serves as an example of a very simple content analysis aimed at revealing public opinion about a particular issue by summarizing related texts into categories. Using a small sample, it shows seven ways in which South Floridians accounted for their desire to make the area officially monolingual (Marvasti, 2004, p. 92; Silverman, 2006).

The third study using content analysis is an analysis conducted by Bozena Horvatova (BH). She analysed a series of textbooks deutch.com 1, deutsch.com 2 and deutsch.com 3. She carried out a quantitative content analysis of these textbooks to identify the presence of language learning strategies in the current textbook series. According to Johnsen (1993) textbooks are giving rise to increasing research. Venezky (1992) claims that little research has been done on the use of textbooks in teaching. Horvátová (2014) conducted the research which analyses the learning strategies which are present in the series of textbooks. These strategies provide a range of function-based subcategories (cognitive, metacognitive, social and affective) within the broader categories that follow the skills-based approach. Not all of the strategies listed were found in the analysed series of textbooks. To answer the research question: if there are any changes in the strategy types depending on the level of individual course books, she structured the progression of strategies within the individual skills.

The results gained using content analysis showed that considering the skills-based approach, the series together contains one hundred-forty explicitly taught learning strategies: ten listening strategies, twenty-two reading strategies, twenty-one speaking strategies, twelve writing strategies, thirty-one grammar strategies, twenty-five vocabulary strategies and nineteen pronunciation strategies. Considering the function-based approach, the whole series contains eighty-eight cognitive strategies, forty-five metacognitive strategies, one social strategy and seven affective strategies. The cognitive strategies (63%) and metacognitive strategies, which build approximately 32% of the overall number, prevail over social and affective strategies, which do not play a significant role in the series (Horvátová, 2014, p. 70).

Lesson effectiveness, strong and weak sides of the initial implementation of the integrated language approach written by Bírová (2014) is another example of research using content analysis as one of the research methods. The research was conducted in primary school Kniezata Pribinu and deals with the issue of plurilingual and pluricultural integration of French language into the learning process. Bírová wanted to integrate French language in the English lesson. She wanted to carry out if French language can be taught with the aid of English. This kind of educational process when a second language is taught with the help of the first language is called language integrated approach. This approach should develop, analyse and compare knowledge and cognitive processes involved in the learning of a second foreign language through first foreign or native language. This type of approach Bírová used in secondary school in Nitra to prove the effectiveness of this approach. Research sample was the learners at the age of 14 whose mother tongue is Slovak, first foreign language is English and second foreign language is French. Bírová prepared special activities that met the objectives of this approach




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and with the help of teachers, teacher-trainers and students she could do the research and gained the results beneficial for language teaching and learning.

With the use of special bilingual activities and exercises she wanted to awaken the students´ interest in the learning foreign languages. She wanted to show that learning foreign languages can be interesting and at the same time educational and much easier, because students can learn the second language using the first foreign language so it is very beneficial for them. The research questions stated by Bírová are: How did learners succeed in performing in a variety of languages? What content and how much did they perform? Under what conditions did they perform? What advantages and disadvantages does the approach bring into foreign language teaching? (Bírová, 2014)

In order to gain the results and to conduct the research and answer the research questions, she had to create a special lesson plan respecting the principles of the language integrated approach. She used the method of indirect observation (video recording), interaction analysis of the teacher´s and students´ talk and performances and content analysis. Content analysis was the last research method by which she summarised the descriptors within the activity design and objectives.

The results showed the necessity of two or more teachers if using integrated language approach. As Bírová states (2014) each of them would be approached by students with different communication needs and through different languages. According to the teachers, the implementation of these approaches should follow the communicative objective specified in the situation, in a particular social activity. The teacher should prepare playful activities activating learners´ spontaneity and his/her ability to express ideas within a theme in multiple languages (Bírová, 2014, p. 44). The results also showed that there is a need of some modification in the state/ school curriculum in the case of using integrated language approach.

Next example of using content analysis is described in publication CLIL research in Slovakia written by Pokrivčáková. The research was conducted by Elena Kováčiková (EK) with the students from The Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra. In her research she paid attention to the usage of the CLIL method in higher education. Learning outcomes of Slovak CLIL student at university were analysed (Kováčiková, 2013). The main aim of her design-based research was to identify how the implementation of CLIL (in ESP classes) affects learners´ a) size of professional vocabulary; b) skill to use chosen grammar structures (relevant for B1 level according to CEFR); c) selected writing competences (particularly used vocabulary, style and structure of writing), d) level of reading comprehension of specific texts (cited from Pokrivčáková, 2013).

She applied CLIL method in ESP classes done with the students of engineering study programmes at the Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra. The sample of 104 students that were divided into 1 control and 4 experimental groups (28 non-CLIL: 81 CLIL students). The author´s intention was to show that the use of the CLIL method did not diminish the students´ chances to be successful in their specific language performance. The research conclusions were based on the triangulation of results obtained by testing foreign language proficiency, content 34 analysis of vocabulary appearing in learners´ products (projects), and focus group meetings (Kováčiková, 2013). The content analysis of students´ projects revealed a triple increase (473 new terms) in the number and greater variety of specific vocabulary units the CLIL students used in their presentations in comparison to non-CLIL students. The experimental group reached higher scores in the reading and writing (Kováčiková, 2012).

To sum up the findings of her research, we could say that CLIL students (experimental group) performed better than students that did not use the CLIL method. CLIL method brings a positive effect on both a foreign language development and content knowledge (Kováčiková, 2012). Similarly, rapid progress in using CLIL and in students´ performance may be observed in Slovak teacher-centred CLIL research (Pokrivčáková, 2012, p. 235-244).




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Our research focuses on the nursery schools and additive type of bilingual education.To explain the term additive bilingualism, we cited several linguists. According to Lambert (1980) additive bilingualism is a situation where the addition of a second language and culture is unlikely to replace or displace the first language and culture. In other words, additive bilingualism is the way of learning the target language wherein learning a second language does not interfere with the learning of a first language and both languages are developed. The second language is added to the first one and does not influence mother tongue. Lambert (1977) says that the majority of positive studies have involved bilingual students whose L1 was dominant and there was no danger of replacement by L2, therefore the resulting form of bilingualism is termed “additive”. Cummins and Swain (1987) state that bilingual child adds another socially relevant language to his repertoire of skills at no cost to his L1 competence. Baker (2001) says that a second language and culture have been acquired with little or no pressure to replace or reduce the first language. The heritage language maintenance, the second type of bilingual program founded by Baker (1996), represents the key feature of additive bilingualism, it means that mother tongue (L1) is dominant while L2 is learnt or acquired in the school environment in this case at nursery school. In Slovak educational context, the additive bilingualism is perceived as the process of acquiring the foreign language after acquiring the mother tongue. Very young learners develop their skills in both languages, in Slovak and in English. They improve Slovak language at home and also at nursery school, but English is acquired and developed only in school. The first aim of the research is to carry out the results which would show the number of nursery schools providing an additive type of bilingual education and the range of vocabulary very young learners are able to acquire.

Using content analysis, we wanted to carry out the number of nursery schools providing this type of education. Many other researches were conducted in the past and in the recent years have shown many benefits of bilingual education and our thesis will provide benefits of additive bilingualism in Slovak educational concept. Doing this research requires a lot of time and preparation since we want to study the status of additive bilingualism all regions around Slovakia. In our thesis entitled Developing additive bilingualism and plurilingualism of very young learners at nursery schools, the analysis of pedagogical and schools document and learners´ products is done. We analysed pedagogical and school documents to carry out the number of nursery schools providing bilingual or plurilingual education in Slovakia. The first objective of our research was to carry out the number of nursery schools providing an additive type of bilingual education all around Slovakia. The next objective is to detect if the nursery schools have enough materials to provide such education and enough teachers to teach bilingually. After gaining the results we continue in investigating the status of additive bilingualism and we observe and analyse effects of bilingual education in these subjects with the focus on appearance of negative interference. As already mentioned the objective of analysing the status of nursery schools and additive bilingual education, using the content analysis we summarised the following findings. Since the state document ISCED 0 does not state precise rules of foreign language education, it was hard to carry out the precise number of nursery schools offering a bilingual form of education. In ISCED 0 document, there is only stated that native language, Slovak language, must be taught at all types of Slovak schools. Foreign languages are allowed to be taught, but all schools must teach Slovak language to develop communicative competence of learners. The Slovak legislation also provides education in a foreign language (six languages may be taught as foreign languages in Slovakia: English, German, Russian, French, Spanish, and Italian) (Pokrivc a kova , 2013). After reading and analysing all the pedagogical and schools documents and with the help of statistical institute, we carried out the total number of nursery schools. In the document published by the Ministry of Education in 2000 the network of schools and school facilities included 3,262 nursery schools with 7576 classes. In September 15, 2012 the network of schools and school facilities included only 2,861 nursery schools with 7,395 classes. Nursery schools also vary according to the language of




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instruction. In 2012 most children attended nursery schools with Slovak language of instruction (139,955) and Hungary language (9076). There was a smaller representation of a Ukrainian language (186 children), German (102 children) and French (74 children). There is also a representation of bilingual Slovak language with English language (57 children), Bulgarian language (44 children) and Ruthenian language of instruction (17 children). In comparison to year 2013 the latest statistics from 15. 9. 2014 show the total number of state nursery schools is 2725 (figure 1) in Slovakia. From 2725 schools, 2383 schools provide education in Slovak language, 73 in Slovak- Hungarian language, in Hungarian 260, in Ukrainian 7 and 2 nursery schools provide education in other language (figure 2). There are 138920 children learning Slovak language, 8864 learning Hungarian language, 145 learning Ukrainian language and 10 children learning another language (figure 3). This is the current situation of monolingual schools and school that provide bilingual education. With our research, we want to show the benefits of additive type of bilingual/ plurilingual education. Dealing with very young learners, we have to admit that this area is not very analysed and discussed. Plenty of researches and publications deal with bilingual education in primary schools and secondary schools, but few of them deal with education in nursery schools. After finishing our research, we want to highlight the advantages of additive bilingualism and we want to support this approach to education with bilingual publication/workbook or student book for very young learners since there are not enough books for very young learners. It is also necessary to provide methodological instructions to teachers to be able to teach bilingually. The necessity of qualified teachers is quite high since in Slovakia there are not enough qualified teachers to teach bilingually. Teachers must represent a language model for learners to acquire language correctly.

Figure 1: The total number of state nursery schools

Figure 2: The number of state nursery schools that provide education in the foreign languages

0100200300400500600

2725The total number of state nursery schools

1

10

100

1 000

10 000

The number of state nursery schools that provide education in the following languages

Slovak language-2383 Slovak-Hungarian-73 Slovak-German-0 Hungarian-260 Ukrainian-7 German-0




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Figure 3: The number of children acc. to the acquired foreign languages Since the education develops step by step, we also believe that additive type of bilingualism

or plurilingualism will be fully supported by the Ministry of Education and that more and more nursery schools will have enough materials, teaching sources and qualified teachers to provide this type of education. This and next year we will be focusing on the detection of negative interference which may occur during learning first foreign language. We have already provided the observation and content analysis of learners´ products, we collected the data from three nursery schools, but we have not analysed and evaluated them yet so after evaluating the data, the results will be published in the next research article.

Since very young learners create a specific group of learners, they require a special attention and specially tailored curriculum to meet the objectives which have to be fulfilled. Very young learners learn in the way similar to learning the mother tongue. They learn by repeating the phrases, words, sounds, movements and all things happening around them. They are great listeners and learners in general, since they are able to remember things by listening. There is no need to be discouraged by the fact that they can’t read or write. Considering all these factors related to very young learners´ abilities to learn/ acquire foreign language we hope that our research will be beneficial and that will bring a lot of important results that can help to improve additive bilingualism at nursery schools in Slovakia.

Pokrivčáková (2013) also deals with bilingual education in Slovakia and she claims that both groups of teachers teach rather “traditionally”, preferring monolingual and frontal teaching techniques (e.g. lecturing) and applying nearly exclusively a convergent type of tasks. Many teachers in bilingual schools are not even aware of a positive impact bilingual education might have on the development of their students´ cognitive functions and they do not apply the techniques that could assist in achieving such an impact. It is necessary to understand the sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, and the neurolinguistic background of code switching and other bilingual speech phenomena.

There are a few other researchers who deal with bilingualism and one of them is Jursová. She performed experimental teaching of English in kindergarten using the Hocus and Lotus narrative format educational model. The teaching lasted 6 months, every day for 20 minutes, and children were to learn 290 words in phrases of narrative format during this period. This experiment involved 64 children. The children were administered tests of comprehension and production in image form, that measured the amount of learned and remembered vocabulary. Jursová´s (2014) results showed that children recognized 80.51% of foreign language words in the test of understanding, while the production test showed a 52.10% success rate.

Another author dealing with bilingual education in Slovakia is Hanes ova (2014) who emphasizes the importance of the teacher’s language abilities. If his abilities are not good enough, it can do more harm than benefit. In her opinion only if the teacher is reasonably fluent and his/her pronunciation is really understandable and ‘good’, his/her communication fulfilling a certain standard, including mastering most common grammar structures – only then we can

110

1001000

10000100000

1000000The number of children who acquire the

Slovak-138920 Hungarian-8864 Ukrainian-145 German-0




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talk about any benefits of EFL for younger learners. Of course, the older the learners are, the more independent they can be and they can find e.g. good pronunciation, on the internet. But young learners have to be provided with an excellent learning environment.

All the authors mentioned above provide a qualitative research and plenty of findings which are the fundamental theoretical background for our research.

Research aim and research questions The aim of this paper was to look through various usages of the content analysis as a method

used in the educational sphere and we wanted to carry out the answers to the following questions:

What are the results that the researchers carried out? How was the content analysis used in the chosen studies? We analysed the given studies to investigate and show the importance and the benefit of

using content analysis in the research. We also wanted to show the various ways of using this research method. The above-mentioned research questions have already been answered.

Sampling and coding The sample chosen for the current studies was the group of a monolingual and bilingual

children, newspapers, textbooks, and activities. The researcher HG used as a sample monolingual and bilingual children, the researcher AM

used as a sample newspaper, the next sample was a textbook that analysed the researcher BH, the fourth sample used by the researcher JB was the set of a specially tailored activities, the researcher EK used as a sample university students and we used pedagogical documents as a research sample. In each study the sample that is analysed is different and it shows how variable usage of content analysis can be.

The strategy, according to which we have chosen the current studies, was the key word content analysis and bilingualism. We were looking for studies that contained these two key words. We were browsing databases as PRO QUEST, JSTOR, SCOPUS, WEB of SCIENCE and others.

Conclusion Content analysis has a very important role as a research method. Using content analysis the

researcher can carry out plenty of information necessary for fulfilling research aims. Quantitative methods are used to measure aspects of the phenomenon in terms of frequency, it means the researcher can identify how frequent the particular words, phrases, activities, dates, exercises or names occur across a sample of texts. If the content analysis is used as a qualitative research method, it can carry out the deeper results and researcher can gain more detailed information about the analysed subject matter.

In this paper we analysed the use, types and procedure of the qualitative and quantitative content analysis and material which can be analysed using this research method.

Mentioning several studies dealing with content analysis, we know the wide range of content analysis application.

The paper discussed studies and researches that used content analysis as one of the research methods. The objectives and results of these studies and researches were described and analysed from the point of benefits they brought. The above-mentioned researches were conducted mainly by Slovak investigators since we wanted to show the benefits which can influence Slovak educational system in a positive way and therefore doing research in the field of pedagogy is extremely important in Slovakia. Every kind of research dealing with very young learners, young learners and in general, with the field of pedagogy can bring new knowledge about the way of learning and teaching languages. Observing and analysing learners, their products and the materials they use, we are able to define the obstacles that learners meet




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during learning and in this way we can improve foreign language learning and teaching. Using content analysis it is possible to detect the errors and mistakes learners make and then the improvement in the way of new methodology, innovative activities, methods and strategies can be proposed and done.

Acknowledgements

The paper publishes the partial results of the following projects: 055UKF-4/2016: Tvorba digitálnych vysokoškolských učebníc a multimediálnej didaktickej

podpory pre skupiny predmetov Metodológia lingvodidaktického výskumu a Metodológia literárnodidaktického výskumu

UKF: UGA V/14/2015 References

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The Semi-structured Interview

in Foreign Language Education Research

Veronika Szombatová, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract The interview belongs to one of the most used research methods, especially when it comes to the methods of data

collections used in qualitative research. Usually, it takes place face – to- face by direct contact between the informant who is under examination and the researcher, however, in the present more and more interviews are preferred to be mediated in indirect form, by telephone or in form of an online interview. The paper examines the nature and the purpose of the research tool called the semi - structured interview, which provides reliable qualitative data in foreign language education research. The main reason why researchers prefer to use the semi - structured interviews is because it can be prepared ahead of time, although the majority of questions naturally appear during the interview. In the presented paper, we aim to analyze five research studies (all of them from the field of foreign language education), where the semi - structured interview was implemented as the main method of gathering data, either as the sole method or in combination with other research methods. The conclusion offers a summary and findings from the reviewed articles as well as recommendations for an effective use of the semi - structured interview in pedagogical practice.

Keywords: the semi - structured interview, foreign language education research, review, analysis

Introduction Interviews are ubiquitous in our everyday life, whether they take place in school, at work or

in a medical setting (Edwards, R., Holland, J. 2013). They have considerably changed over time, especially when the methodological aspect is taken into account. The roots of qualitative interviews fall back to the early decades of 20th century and they are based on anthropological and sociological disciplines. To put it more precisely, Platt (2002) provides a clear overview of the trajectory of books related to the origins of interviewing and the first practical textbooks from this field that appeared in early 1940´s.

What is quite intriguing is that the background of the semi - structured interview is closely linked to feminism, a movement, which is strongly in oppose to the structured interview, claiming that the semi - structured interview conveys a deeper feeling and therefore also more emotional understanding and closeness to the examined person. What is more, this type of interview does not further oppress the interviewee and excludes feelings and emotions in the pursuit of rationality as it is with the structured interview (Trueman, 2016)

Instead of using more common terms interviewer and interviewee, Brenner (2006) prefers terms researcher to describe the person who is in charge of guiding a qualitative interview and informant to define the person who is in the position of revealing knowledge of particular facts on their own terms, which gives direction to the interview process.

Jamshed (2014) defines interview as a type of framework in which the practices and standards are not only recorded, but also achieved, challenged and as well as reinforced.

There are number of ways to classify interviews. Considering the amount of structure deemed appropriate, the interviews can be divided into three main types, the structured, semi - structured and unstructured.

A useful concept in describing interviews is according to Denscombe (2007) the continuum with two opposing ends - structured (closed questions) and unstructured (closer to observation) interviews. The semi - structured interview can be placed somewhere between the previously mentioned types as it combines planning questions ahead of time, however, the lines of interview are followed within the interview to follow up unexpected issues that may naturally emerge. The fact that the interviewer can create and avoid questions in order to adjust




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to the topic, makes the semi - structured interview according to Gavora (2006) more flexible and adaptive. Furthermore, this leads to more effective data collection.

To define the semi - structured interview more precisely, the researcher has a list of questions they want to go through in order to find out whether the interviewee understands the context and the content, so much more space is given to the interviewee to discuss the question in their own terms than in the case of structured interviews. In other words, the semi - structured interview includes a pre - determined set of open questions in such way that the interviewer can explore particular responses later, however, sometimes the interviewee raises the question that had not been considered before. This works well when the researcher is an expert and a respondent is allowed free reign while the researcher is considering what is being relevant to the topic.

The purpose of semi - structured interview is according to Kvale (1996) to gather descriptions about life - world of the subject with respect to interpretation of their meaning, usually in face - to - face form. The initial aim is therefore to build a rapport with the respondent to understand their point of view rather than making generalizations by asking open - ended questions. As Keller (2012) says it is the fairly open framework of the semi - structured interview, which allows going into detail when it is needed in order to both give and receive information. In addition, as the majority of questions are formed during the interview, the interviewer can change the order of the questions and even leave out those which appear to be redundant.

As for the objective of the semi - structured interview, Gavora (2006) claims that since the semi - structured interview is a qualitative research method, its purpose is not to confirm or refuse an existing theory as opposed to quantitative research methods. The main objective of the semi - structured interview is to alternate existing views about certain topics or to reveal new insights into them. Another essential feature of the semi - structured interview as a qualitative method is that there are no hypotheses set at the beginning of the research, since it would affect further direction of the research, the questions are rather designed in progress. Therefore, Laforest (2009) suggests semi structured interviews are suitable and used mainly with small groups to study specific situations since they provide deeper insight to perceptions and opinions. Moreover, they are also suited to validate information derived from other sources. Semi - structured interviews are according to Bernard (1988) used mainly when the interviewer does not have more opportunities to interview the respondent.

Mason (2002) highlights three core features common for semi - structured interviews. The first one is the interactional exchange of dialogue occurring between two or more participants. The next important aspect that needs to be fulfilled is a topic - centered approach where the researcher has issues they wish to cover. An important thing to consider during the interview is to ensure that relevant pieces of information is discussed in an effective co - production which includes the construction or reconstruction of knowledge.

In all researches that involve a human, it is necessary for the interview to be responsible when it comes to protecting informants. Therefore, Kvale (1996) suggest preparing what he calls an “ethical protocol” that will guide considerations through all phases of the semi - structured interview from the planning to the reporting as it is natural that a more personal relationship between the participants establishes while the interview is taking place. Trueman (2016) argues that a natural and trustworthy relationship between the researcher and the researched can actually lead to a more fruitful conversation, which can later reflect in an achievement of valuable in - depth material with greater internal validity. As the interview is not just about shifts between questions and answers, Gavora (2006) states it is a social relationship between two people in a specific time and place.




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Pitfalls and potentials of the semi - structured interview Strengths Different authors state various opinions concerning the benefits of the semi - structured

interviews. Teijlingen (2014) believes they are particularly well - suited when exploring sensitive areas such as attitudes, values, beliefs and motives and since non - verbal indicators are present, it can assist in evaluating validity and urgency. Flick (1998) shares the same opinion as he stresses that interviews are the best form of understanding people's perceptions and experiences as they merely make the accounts of practices accessible.

McLeod (2014) declares the benefits of using semi - structured interviews are that they are quite flexible and therefore new questions can be asked impromptu during the interview as the interviewer does not have to follow a given schedule strictly. Moreover, they have increased validity as the interviewer can ask for clarification as well as the interviewee can guide the direction of the interview himself.

Researchers prefer to use semi - structured interviews because the questions can be prepared in advance. Newton (2007) claims interviews are chosen by researchers due to fact that they provide the opportunity to generate rich data. Also Gomm (2004) shares the same opinion, as he believes the power of semi - structured interview lays in the fact it can provide rich, original voices in order to construct research narratives.

Restrictions Despite considering previously mentioned strengths of the semi - structured interviews,

McLeod (2014) claims there are also certain limitations when it comes to them, for instance it is not easy to test for reliability since the questions are not easy to quantify and it might be time - consuming to conduct this type of interview as well as to analyze the qualitative data. Also Trustman (2016) is of the same opinion as he claims the semi - structured interview lacks reliability since the researcher is able to examine only a small sample of informants, whose responses may be very individual and therefore quite complex to analyze, which means the reliability is not so high. Therefore, in order to get the most of the interview, the interviewer is required to have particular skills to collect valuable data. Clough and Nutbrown (2007) also share the same opinion, since they regard the communication skills of an interviewer as the main fundamental of effectiveness. According to them, the interviewer needs to have an ability to structure questions clearly, listen attentively, probe or prompt the respondent appropriately and last but not least to encourage them to talk freely. Opie (2004) also draws attention to the significant interpersonal features that should be present during the interview, for instance the ability to build a rapport, be humorous, humble and trustworthy. All of the previously mentioned characteristics are valuable and maintain certain rate of sensitiveness.

Another drawback that should not be forgotten is according to Gomm (2004) “demand characteristics”, which he describes as the state when the interviewer intentionally chooses the responses based on what they think the situation requires. It may even come to such a situation that the respondent will disclose their thoughts and feelings which are personal for them.

As one of the negative features of the semi - structured interview Teijlingen (2014) states potential prejudices, stereotypes and perceptions of a researcher that may alter responses. Legard et al. (2003) emphasize the importance of building the relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee, not forgetting that the interviewer is in the position of the “research instrument”. In order to avoid misleading the research's outcome, the interviewer should make clear at the beginning what the purpose of the investigation is as well as to remind the respondent not to modify their responses. By doing this, the researcher can make sure the evidence from the data will be credible and reliable.




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The semi - structured interview framework Rogers et al. (2011) propose the framework of stages that are essential to any semi -

structured interview, consisting of 6 steps, where the last two (analysis and reporting) are the most significant.

Purpose: needs to be defined precisely, so the research methods can be selected in order to address it completely

Resources and constraints: the available resources should be taken into account when conducting an interview, not forgetting existing restrictions

Ethical considerations: being able to approach to the interview in a mature way, both as the interviewer and the interviewee

Techniques for data gathering: need to be determined in advance Analysis techniques: they need to be appropriate when it comes to the data and the purpose

of the study Reporting: serves as a kind of feedback to the purpose of an interview, usually it takes form

of how and why the purpose has evolved, describing which methods and techniques were used to get particular results

Not all researchers consider all of the above mentioned steps of the semi - structured interview of the same importance and draw their attention to one of these steps. For instance, Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) focus mainly on data gathering, while Braun and Clarke (2006) highlight the importance of analysis, and Wolcott (2009) and Gavora (2006) emphasize reporting. Nevertheless, these steps cannot be seen as independent, because there is a tight relation between them and they are interconnected.

Using the semi - structured interview in language education researches The following part of the study aims to be more practical as it is devoted to looking

thoroughly at the method of the semi - structured interview from a practical viewpoint. Many surveys worldwide have used the semi - structured interview to gather valuable data in order to demonstrate successful adaptation of this research tool. We aim to pinpoint issues that are relevant to foreign language education by providing an overview of how this qualitative research tool can be used in language education researches. To fulfill this goal, we have examined studies used within the context of language education, where the semi - structured interview was used. The following are the scientific studies in language education, which were under examination: 1. MARLAND, Francis et al. (2004): Teaching a Foreign Language: One Teacher's Practical

Theory 2. GHENGHESH, PAULINE (2010): The Motivation of L2 Learners: Does It Decrease with Age? 3. PEACOCK, M. et al. (2003): Student Language Learning Strategies across Eight Disciplines 4. BAYYURT, Y. (2006): Non - native English Language Teachers´ Perspective on Culture in

English as a Foreign Language Classrooms 5. DECAPUA, A. ; WINTERGEST, A.C. (2005): Assessing and Validating a Learning Styles

Instrument The above mentioned surveys were obtained from Google Scholar and Science Direct, which

are regarded as reputable databases full of valuable research papers. They all fulfil the criterion of applying the semi - structured interview (as the sole research tool or in combination with other methods) for the research in the field of foreign language education.

The use and application of the semi - structured interview was examined using various criteria. We mainly took into consideration the following aspects of the analyzed studies: 1. the problems and the objectives of research 2. research sample and sampling methods 3. research questions




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4. methods used for obtaining data 5. analysis and reporting

The following part of is focused on analyzing the above selected aspects (each number stays for particular aspect) in five studies from foreign language education research step by step.

The first research article 1. As for the article named Teaching a Foreign Language: One Teacher's Practical Theory, the

authors base their exploratory study at the background of an approach called Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Their main focus was to examine how well was the approach incorporated in the second language teaching and what exactly the teachers using it understand under this term.

2. In this case, the research sample consisted of only a few teachers, out of whom only one teacher (who used a CLT approach frequently during the lessons) was chosen for the purpose of the article. As the authors claim, the research itself intends to be just exploratory or a pilot - study.

3. Two core questions to be addressed in the research were: What does the teacher understand by CLT? How adequate is such understanding? The core questions were based on the framework proposed by Joyce and Weil (1982) for describing models of teaching, but it was slightly adjusted. The follow - up questions were not prescribed, the authors let them arise from teachers´ responses. The above mentioned framework is widely known and respected in teacher education on the ground of promoting new approaches to teaching practice.

4. At the beginning of the theoretical part, the authors provide an overview of the relevant literature including studies of using and understanding a CLT approach by teachers. They claim the teachers have incomplete and imprecise notions of what CLT entails and they prefer to use more traditional teaching approaches. The authors of this research used the documenting of one teacher's personal practical theory of CLT by using a framework to describe models of teaching to assist the purpose of their research. They examined teacher´s understanding of CLT by using in - depth, semi - structured interviews as the main research tool and they also used videotapes of two lessons. A real challenge for the authors was to create such a framework for the semi - structured interview that would allow the researcher to promote a free teacher talk about the stated topic without leading him. The semi - structured interview was used because it has a long tradition in teacher thinking research and the prominence is given to the voice of the teacher rather than that of the researcher as well as the teacher has the opportunity to respond fully, in detail without the constraint of a set schedule. What is more, it can serve as a kind of reflection and introspection for the teacher´s own work. The process took form of listening carefully to the teacher and when it was necessary, the researcher reacted by seeking for clarification.

5. At the end, the semi - structured interviews were transcribed for further analysis using a two - phase system of textual analysis, where the first step involved reduction of the parts spoken by the teacher to ideational units and the second step consisted of classification of each unit into one of 18 categories. The conclusion provides a discussion for the research as well as the authors´ hope that CLT, as an innovative approach, will be used in the interest of the learners.

The second research article 1. The next study paper, The Motivation of L2 Learners: Does It Decrease with Age?, aims

to find out to which extent various factors affect students´ motivation in foreign language learning. The objective was therefore to obtain more in - depth explanation about how the motivation for second language learning changes as the student gets older. What is more, there was an effort to find out influential factors, either internal or external, which affect students motivation.




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2. As for the research sample, 144 students and 5 teachers participated in the completion of the questionnaire surveys. Then, 20 students and 3 teachers took part in the semi - structured interview. The students for the semi - structured interview were chosen according to the following criteria: they had completed the questionnaire; they were sufficiently talkative and available at the time of the interviews.

3. The interview questions for the students were as follows: How important is for you to study English? Has your motivation to learn English changed over years, if so why? What can the school do to enhance your motivation? How can teachers help increase your motivation? What other things would help increase your motivation? Considering the teachers, they were supposed to answer the following 3 questions: Do you think there is a change in students´ motivation as they grow older, if so why do you think this is? What do you think the school can do to enhance students´ motivation? What can teachers do to help increase student motivation?

4. At the beginning, the author provides an overview of L2 motivation research as well she offers a description of what motivation is. The author strongly believes that the semi - structured interview enabled students and teachers to elaborate on the issues and also go beyond the answers of the questionnaires. They were all tape recorded and transcribed. The investigation consisted of four stages. Firstly, the questionnaires for students with 101 questions (open, bipolar, semantic differential scales) were administered together with the questionnaires for the teachers in order to collect performance data about the students and to select some of the students for the subsequent interview. In the third and the fourth phases of data collection, the semi - structured interviews were conducted during the regular school time. The data from them were content analyzed in order to compare the responses between different age groups.

5. Data were drawn from the combination of quantitative - qualitative approach, in which students and the teachers engaged in the questionnaires followed by the semi - structured interview. The results clearly show that L2 motivation decreases with the age as older learners tended to score significantly lower on motivational scales than younger students. The results of the interview were in accordance with those conducted via quantitative methods. As the author says, in the eyes of students, the teacher is seen as a key figure in determining the attitude to foreign language learning and therefore, he is the one responsible for the initial students motivation as well as the further maintenance of it.

The third research article 1. The article titled Student Language Learning Strategies across Eight Disciplines reports

the use of 50 most common foreign language strategies used by English for academic purposes (EAP) students within eight fields: building, business, information technologies, engineering, English, math, science and primary education. The aim of the research was to compare and contrast the strategies used across particular disciplines and also to investigate the connection among the following aspects: strategy use, L2 proficiency, age and gender.

2. The research sample is quite wide as 1006 subjects were a part of the self - report questionnaire. All of them were Hong Kong Chinese students (51% male, 49% female), from 18 to 39 years old in their first or second year of study. The researchers selected 55 classes to compare second language learning strategies across the 8 disciplines and each discipline was represented by a reasonable number of students, not less than 60. As for the semi - structured interview, 3 students in each discipline with the highest and the lowest use of the second language learning strategies were invited for interview, which means 48 students together. All interviews were also tape recorded.

3. The research focused on investigating 6 core questions: What language strategies do EAP students use across eight disciplines? Does the strategy use differ by discipline? What strategies are associated with higher levels of proficiency? Does strategy use differ by gender?




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Does strategy use differ by age? What are the reasons behind student choice and frequency of use of specific strategies?

4. Two methods were used in order to collect valuable data: the self - report questionnaire that collected quantitative data and the semi - structured interview that collected data in a qualitative form. Initial data for the research were collected through a standard questionnaire. The authors built their research with the respect to significant findings on the second language learning strategies provided by Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, which is a self - report questionnaire listing 50 learning strategies in 6 categories. The aim of this research method was to get a deeper insight into the cognitive, social and affective processes involved in language learning. The semi - structured interview was used to answer the same 6 questions as were in the questionnaire, but also to reveal the reasons behind the use of learning strategies.

5. In order to analyze data collected via the self - report questionnaire descriptive statistics were used. In case of the semi - structured interview, the multivariate analysis of variance was used to depict associations between strategy use and discipline, proficiency level, gender and age. Results suggest there is no significant interaction among the mentioned independent variables.

As for the 6 research questions, the results show that students use mainly compensation, cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Students majoring in English the highest overall frequency of use, while the lowest strategy use was with those studying communicative technologies. Interestingly, the results indicate that students with higher proficiency use more learning strategies. As for the gender, women reported significantly higher use of all six strategies than men did. According to the results, mature students reported higher use of foreign language learning strategies than younger ones.

In case of 3 students in each discipline with the highest and the lowest use of the second language learning strategies, there were sharp differences between these groups. Those students with lower use of strategies responded they did not like English, they did not need it or it was of a low priority to them. On the other hand, high users of learning strategies expressed a strong motivation for English.

The authors suggest there is an urgent need for further research in EAP mainly because there are a large number of students in English universities around the world. Another crucial thing to consider is the factors affecting the students´ use of the strategies, because only a little is known about why students use or do not use certain strategies.

The fourth research article 1. The next research paper, Non - native English Language Teachers´ Perspective on Culture

in English as a Foreign Language Classrooms, examines the importance of raising foreign language teachers´ awareness of culture. The main objective is to prove that the more critical the English languages teachers become about involving teaching culture, the more they provide their students with immense cultural and linguistic resources.

2. The samples consisted of 12 non - native teachers of English, who were chosen to express their opinions on the role of culture in foreign language teaching. The convenience sample method was used in order to obtain teachers' consent and then conduct the interview on the behalf of the researcher. As for the demographic features, 10 teachers were female, 2 male, from 21 to 38 years old.

3. The interview was intended to be exploratory and descriptive to obtain the teachers´ opinions on the role of culture in foreign language teaching and the following themes and sub - themes were under examination: the teachers´ concept of culture, cultural information in the classroom (their contents, reason for presenting them, reason for omitting them) and the role of non - native teachers in presenting cultural information. The teachers were also supposed to comment on the relationship between culture and language.




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4. The article starts with a brief introduction to the current situation, which claims that English is becoming lingua franca in all areas of human life. The semi - structured interview was conducted in order to elicit teachers´ perceptions on the issues connected to teaching culture as a part of English as a foreign language. The author designed a thematic analysis based on the research questions by generating categories and then themes from the respondents´ responses.

5. The teachers expressed different viewpoints on involving the foreign language culture in the classroom. Many of them claim it would have certain advantages but also many disadvantages, one of them would probably be a lack of students´ interest in learning about foreign culture, which is the frequent reason why they completely avoid teaching culture. The study was carried out on a small scale, so it does not have to reflect view of all non - native teachers of English, but it can serve as a base for further researches that can be conducted in future. To conclude the author remarks, it is necessary to train more qualified non - native English teachers in promoting English language culture as an integral part of foreign language learning.

The fifth research article 1. The last article, Assessing and Validating a Learning Styles Instrument, aims to investigate

learning styles. It is a reaction to the previous researches in this field as it reveals concerns with their validity and reliability. The main objective is to present a more coherent picture about instruments designed for measuring students´ learning styles. Therefore, the aim of the study is the validation of the new instrument called LSI.

2. The study involved 24 TESOL (18 non - native and 6 native speakers of English) students to get better insight into students´ interpretation and understanding of 23 statements.

3. In order to achieve the objectives, the researchers focused on asking the following questions: What do you see as the importance of knowing your own learning style/ teachers´ knowing students´ learning styles? Which learning style do you prefer? How effective was LSI in determining your learning style preferences?

4. The authors provide a clear description of learning styles working with various sources. In order to get accurate data, they combined the questionnaire as a quantitative method and the semi - structured interview as a qualitative one. Two groups of students were selected, each of them working with one research method. The major concern in both groups was that of appropriateness of determining learning styles by LSI. The first group working solely with the questionnaire included 24 students (6 native speakers and 18 non - native speakers of English). The second group (10 non - native speakers of English) was examined via the semi - structured interview as the authors believed it could provide them a rich source of data. The results of the study on the usefulness of LSI suggest that quantitative statistics alone are limited when it comes to finding out learning preferences. The combination of the questionnaire and the semi - structured interview was useful as the interviews investigated informants´ attitudes and opinions in depth, while the questionnaires involved gathering data in breadth. The strengths of both techniques insured more comprehensive data - collection.

5. The authors based their research on the assumptions that quantitative means are not sufficient to ascertain the effectiveness of LSI, therefore they created an approach utilizing a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. LSI did not seem to be appropriate as the informants proved an inability to contextualize questions and when they were unclear of the implied context, it was difficult for them to choose an appropriate response. The usefulness of the results conducted with the use of LSI if the informants were unable to choose an appropriate answer was the reason the authors questioned the reliability of this research method. The semi - structured interviews helped the researchers to learn which items of LSI the participants found confusing.




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Summary The previous section of the study presented an overview of the use and implementation of

the semi - structured interview in 5 research articles, looking at the following aspects of the conducted research: the problems and the objectives of research, research sample and sampling methods, research questions, methods used for obtaining data and analysis and reporting. By reviewing 5 studies where the semi - structured interview was used as a research tool for obtaining data, we could see different ways for the implementation of this method by the researchers.

As for the problems and objectives of the studies set by the researchers, we might say all of them were connected to foreign language learning in different fields of study. All of them brought valuable insights into the examined issues as they concerned with following areas of interest:

Research article Areas of implementing the semi - structured interview

MARLAND, Francis et al. (2004) application of communicative language teaching

GHENGHESH, PAULINE (2010) student motivation

PEACOCK, M. et al. (2003) learning strategies

BAYYURT, Y. (2006) implementation of culture in teaching

DECAPUA, A. ; WINTERGEST, A.C. (2005)

validating a tool for determining learning strategies

Table 1: Areas of the semi - structured interview implementation

To discuss the questions connected to the samples used for fulfilling the research targets, we want to emphasize that the number of samples varied according to the purpose of individual researches. The researchers used their own criteria for selecting a sample appropriate for the conducted research. As our main aim is to compare the implication of the semi - structured interview, the following chart provides a comparison of the number of samples selected when working with the semi - structured interview, although more research methods were used in order to achieve the objectives.

Research article Samples

MARLAND, Francis et al. (2004) 1 teacher

GHENGHESH, PAULINE (2010) 20 students and 3 teachers

PEACOCK, M. et al. (2003) 48 students

BAYYURT, Y. (2006) 12 non - native teachers of English

DECAPUA, A. ; WINTERGEST, A.C. (2005) 24 students

Table 2: Samples of the research papers




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In connection to the research methods and procedures of individual research papers, the reviewing in order to get a better picture about the implication of the semi - structured interview was rather thought - provoking. An important thing is to mention the issue of validity as Cook (2008) claims implementing the semi - structured interview as the sole source of data collection could result in partial investigation and he therefore advises to use other forms of data collection in order to increase the validity of the research.

It must be noticed that in the majority of studies (in our case 4 out of 5 ), the semi - structured interview as a qualitative method was used in combination with other research methods, either qualitative or quantitative in order to enhance the validity of the research. This was to avoid partial investigation of examined phenomena as well as to validate the findings. Just 1 research relied on the implementation of the semi - structured interview as the only method for data gathering.

Research Research methods

MARLAND, Francis et al. (2004) observation + the semi - structured interview

GHENGHESH, PAULINE (2010) the questionnaire + the semi - structured interview

PEACOCK, M. et al. (2003) the questionnaire + the semi - structured interview

BAYYURT, Y. (2006) the semi - structured interview

DECAPUA, A. ; WINTERGEST, A.C. (2005)

the questionnaire + the semi - structured interview

Table 3: Research methods used for collecting data

The last issue that was reviewed was the analysis of obtained data. The first step of analysis involved the transcription of the taped conversation. Cohen et al. (2007) advise the researchers not to forget about other aspects that are presented during the interview, for instance the tone of a speaker's voice, using emphasis, pauses and silences and also talking in chunks or continuous speech.

Conclusion The semi - structured interview provides a qualitative method of collecting information and

evidence on people´s opinions, ideas and experiences, where the interviewer has a list of questions or key points to cover and supplementary questions can be asked if needed. This research tool has certain benefits as well as implications and is well suited to educational research, especially case studies. Comparing it to a structured interview, the researcher has more guidance over the content, however, the interviewees are not limited when it comes to their responses. The principal purpose of the semi - structured interview is not to create a new theory, but to gain perspectives, experiences and opinions about particular topic in order to reconstruct it.

Our aim was to review 5 scientific studies in order to demonstrate the implementation of the semi - structured interview within the foreign language education. Many research papers used the semi - structured interview as a tool for providing the goals of particular research, usually as a combination with other tools.

To conclude, the semi - structured interview is a qualitative research method that can be used in an effective way to gather valuable data in various fields of research. As for the foreign language education, we consider this research tool very efficient when collecting people's




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perceptions and experiences about particular topic, especially in the field of foreign language education. This can be achieved by applying the semi - structured interview as the only research method or by using it in combination with other methods, either qualitative or quantitative.

Acknowledgement The paper presents the partial results of the project 055UKF-4/2016: Tvorba digitálnych

vysokoškolských učebníc a multimediálnej didaktickej podpory pre skupiny predmetov Metodológia lingvodidaktického výskumu a Metodológia literárnodidaktického výskumu References BAYYURT, Y. (2006). Non - native English Language Teachers´ Perspective on Culture in English

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COHEN, L. et al. (2007). Research Methods in Education. New York : Routledge. COOK, K. E. (2008). In-depth Interview. In Given, L. M. (Ed.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of

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GAVORA, P. (2006). Sprievodca metodológiou kvalitatívneho výskumu. Bratislava: Regent. GHENGHESH, P. (2010). The Motivation of L2 Learners: Does It Decrease with Age?Available at:

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1081489.pdf GOMM, R. (2004). Social Research Methodology. A critical introduction. Hampshire, England:

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MASON, J. (2002). Qualitative Researching. London: Sage, 2nd edn. Available at: www.socialsciences.manchester.ac.uk/morgancentre/realities/wps/4–2006–07-rlm-mason.pdf.

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Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1473-4192.00043/abstract PLATT, J. (2002). The History of the Interview. In: Gubrium, F. & Holstein, J. A. (Eds.), Handbook

of Interview Research: Context and Method. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Available at: http://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/45951_chapter_1.pdf

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WOLCOTT, H. F. (2009). Writing Up Qualitative Research. 3rd edition. Sage Contact Mgr. Veronika Szombatová Department of Language Pedagogy and Intercultural Studies Faculty of Education at Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra Dražovská 4, 949 74 Nitra, Slovakia E-mail: [email protected]




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Cudzí jazyk a rómski žiaci zo SZP

Eva Farkašová, Slovensko [email protected]

Abstract The paper deals with issues of teaching English as a foreign language in primary education to Roma pupils coming

from socially disadvantaged settings. Specifics of the children caused by these conditions must be respected in the educational process. Developmental and educational psychology knowledge help teachers to understand better the possibilities of the children, to modify procedures, forms, content and methods in education so that their effort brings the best possible results. Expert knowledge presented in the paper are followed by demonstrations which document and bring closer application means and possibilities of the education.

Key words: learners from socially challenged environment, periods of cognitive functions development, methods and forms in English language teaching

Prvý cudzí jazyk sa zadefinoval v štátnych kurikulách ako povinný predmet od 3. ročníka

základnej školy pre všetkých žiakov bez ohľadu na ich individuálne podmienky a externú situáciu. Isté ťažkosti sa dajú očakávať v prípade žiakov, ktorí majú špeciálne výchovno-vzdelávacie potreby, napríklad ťažkosti v učení, fyzické alebo zmyslové postihnutie a tiež tí, ktorí pochádzajú z málo podnetného, sociálne znevýhodňujúceho a kultúrne odlišného prostredia. Túto posledne menovanú skupinu predstavuje u nás predovšetkým časť rómskych detí, žijúcich prevažne v marginalizovaných lokalitách.

V Zákone č. 245/2008 o výchove a vzdelávaní (školský zákon) sa v §2, ods. p) uvádza: „p) dieťaťom zo sociálne znevýhodneného prostredia alebo žiakom zo sociálne

znevýhodneného prostredia [je] dieťa alebo žiak žijúci v prostredí, ktoré vzhľadom na sociálne, rodinné, ekonomické a kultúrne podmienky nedostatočne podnecuje rozvoj mentálnych, vôľových, emocionálnych vlastností dieťaťa alebo žiaka, nepodporuje jeho socializáciu a neposkytuje mu dostatok primeraných podnetov pre rozvoj jeho osobnosti.”

Detailnejšia charakteristika takéhoto prostredia zahŕňa tiež nedostatočné vzdelanie rodičov (neukončené základné vzdelanie); ich dlhodobú nezamestnanosť; bývanie v segregovanej komunite a veľmi dôležitá skutočnosť – vyučovací jazyk je odlišný od toho, ktorým sa komunikuje v rodine dieťaťa.

Súbor viacerých z vyššie uvedených faktorov predstavuje pre rómske deti zo sociálne znevýhodňujúceho prostredia (SZP) vážnu prekážku pri vzdelávaní a dosahovaní úspechov podľa požiadaviek školy.

Okrem iných limitov je to práve zvládanie vyučovacieho jazyka vzhľadom na to, že materinský jazyk týchto žiakov sa v prevažnej väčšine dá využiť iba ako podporný jazyk v začiatkoch vzdelávania. V týchto prípadoch ide o lokálny rómsky dialekt, ktorých je na Slovensku viacero a navzájom sa v niektorých lingvistických princípoch líšia. Súčasne tieto dialekty sú odlišné od štandardizovanej rómčiny (to je tiež dôvod, prečo rómčinu v praxi možno len ťažko využiť ako vyučovací jazyk národnostnej menšiny, príp. je to prekážkou všeobecnému rozšíreniu učebných materiálov pre najmladších žiakov v tomto jazyku).

Pozn. Snahy vytvárať a používať učebnice v rómskom jazyku sa v priebehu rokov opakujú, ale zatiaľ sa nenašiel efektívny spôsob, ako ich všestrannejšie zapojiť vo výučbe. V niektorých školách sú iniciatívni samotní učitelia, ktorí pripravujú pre malých žiakov primerané materiály v rómčine – to sú však výnimočné prípady.

Ďalším faktorom, ktorý limituje masívnejšie využívanie materinského jazyka týchto žiakov, je skutočnosť, že lexika dialektov neobsahuje dostatok diferencovaných výrazov, napr. abstraktné pojmy ap., ktoré sú dôležité od začiatku školského vzdelávania – stačí si zalistovať v učebniciach matematiky, prírodovedy, slovenského jazyka a ďalších.

Ak rómske deti zo SZP rozumejú po slovensky, je to väčšinou na úrovni bežnej komunikácie, čo je nepostačujúce na zachytenie nuáns, o presnom význame slov nehovoriac. Z tohto dôvodu




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môžu nastať ťažkosti pri porozumení učiteľovho výkladu, v správnom pochopení vysvetľovaných alebo prečítaných informácií.

Okrem jazykovej bariéry sa v začiatkoch ich vzdelávania objavujú aj ďalšie ťažkosti: deti nemajú osvojené určité zručnosti (napr. držanie ceruzky, kreslenie, vizuo-motorická koordinácia), nemajú skúsenosti či informácie o mnohých veciach, s ktorými deti zo štandardných podmienok prichádzajú do kontaktu prakticky denne. Mnohé z týchto záležitostí sa týkajú tiež oblasti socializačnej a emocionálno-osobnostnej (napr. seba obslužné návyky, istá samostatnosť, rozhodovanie sa, schopnosť adaptácie na podmienky a požiadavky nového prostredia, koordinovaná spolupráca, pripravenosť na učenie sa).

Osobitným faktorom, ktorý môže intervenovať v edukačnom procese, je nedostatočná podpora vzdelávacích aktivít zo strany rodičov. V niektorých prípadoch je to ich vlastná negatívna skúsenosť zo školských rokov či neprikladanie významu získavaniu vzdelania, keď vynaložená námaha neprináša očakávané výsledky (v niektorých lokalitách: vysoká nezamestnanosť alebo nezamestnateľnosť napriek získanému stupňu odborného vzdelania). Tu potom klesá záujem a motivácia vynakladať úsilie – „prekročiť tieň“. Možno sa málo hovorí o pozitívnych príkladoch, kedy rómske deti vyrastajúce vo výrazne znevýhodňujúcich podmienkach získali vysokoškolské vzdelanie a pôsobia vo významných pracovných pozíciách (je to aj o osobnom prístupe – o ambícii a motivácii „niečo“ dokázať, pracovať na sebe, usilovať sa o niečo; a nemusí to byť oblasť umelecká, kde si vari najčastejšie uvedomíme silné stránky Rómov).

Rómske deti zo SZP sa teda primárne majú oboznámiť s vyučovacím/ štátnym jazykom ako svojím druhým jazykom (nie je to cudzí jazyk, pretože je to jazyk prostredia, v ktorom žijú) – a to do takej miery, aby ho vedeli uvedomene a správne používať v závislosti na situáciách. Výskumy ukazujú, že s porozumením čítanému textu títo žiaci majú ťažkosti ešte aj vo vyšších ročníkoch základnej školy (Špotáková et al., prebiehajúca výskumná úloha). V jednej z úloh v teste mali žiaci výberom z troch možností odpovedať na otázky obsahujúce pojmy z učebníc pre primárny stupeň. Príklady zvolených odpovedí:

Žiaci 6. ročníka: Čo je starovek? – vek starých rodičov Čo znamená ohromný? – silný ako hrom Čo znamená užitočný? – niečo, čo sa vie točiť

Žiaci 9. ročníka: Čo je to potravinový reťazec? – rad ľudí v obchode s potravinami Čo je to cicavec? – časť tela, ktorou komáre pijú krv Čo znamená prostredný? – splynúť s prostredím

Vzhľadom na všetky vyššie uvedené skutočnosti je veľmi obtiažne pripraviť pre rómskych

žiakov zo SZP efektívne postupy pri požiadavke zaradiť prvý cudzí jazyk od 3. ročníka ZŠ tak, ako sa požaduje v štátnych kurikulách. Pri určenom rozvrhnutí počtu vyučovacích hodín pre jednotlivé predmetové oblasti v daných postupných ročníkoch sa neberú do úvahy individuálne podmienky žiakov, ich možnosti a predpoklady. V oblasti, ktorej sa venujeme, to znamená, že rómski žiaci zo SZP sa ešte nestihli dostatočne zžiť s druhým jazykom a už musia venovať pozornosť aj ďalšiemu – tentoraz cudziemu jazyku – anglickému (AJ).

Pozn.: Samozrejme, že by bolo vhodnejšie, aby pre týchto žiakov boli upravené požiadavky na začiatok učenia, na edukačné postupy, na obsah a úroveň zvládnutia cudzieho jazyka (CJ). Zatiaľ je však na nás, ako sa pripravíme a zvládneme našu úlohu ako vyučujúci. Ide o adaptáciu postupov a techník vo vyučovaní, voľbu vhodných tém a výber slovnej zásoby, používanie primeraných učebných materiálov a ďalších edukačných prostriedkov. Všetky uvedené faktory spolu súvisia a sú v priamom vzťahu aj k vývinovým charakteristikám daného veku žiakov. Kognitívne funkcie, o ktorých sa zmienime neskôr, by mali byť rozvíjané v rámci individuálnych




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možností, pri čom sa využívajú, resp. mali by sa využívať - psychologické poznatky zo súvisiacich oblastí (najmä z vývinovej a pedagogickej psychológie), ako aj edukačné zdroje, ktoré učiteľ/-ka dokáže tvorivo a invenčne zapojiť na základe vlastnej profesionálnej erudície a osobnostnej výbavy (personálne vlastnosti, postoje a motivácia, záujem o napĺňanie svojho povolania či poslania,...).

Stanoviť vhodné postupy pri vyučovaní CJ (resp. AJ) u rómskych žiakov zo SZP znamená

upraviť načasovanie preberaných celkov, tematických okruhov, ich správne zoradenie a prispôsobenie po obsahovej i formálnej stránke. Pri učení CJ sa kladie dôraz najmä na jeho komunikačnú funkciu – počúvanie - neverbálne a verbálne reakcie, neskôr sa zapája aj samostatný ústny prejav. Ostatné jazykové kompetencie, t.j. čítanie a písanie, pribudnú oveľa neskôr, než je to obvyklé za bežných podmienok. Samozrejme aj dosahované výsledky zvládania CJ/AJ posudzujeme tolerantnejšie. Techniky a postupy je potrebné upraviť podľa špecifík vo vývine kognitívnych funkcií (uvádzané charakteristiky sa týkajú detí cieľovej skupiny vo veku 8-9 rokov, t.j. na začiatku cudzojazyčnej výučby): Zámerná pozornosť – koncentrácia pozornosti, schopnosť sústrediť sa (a vnímanie) – je krátkodobá, ľahko sa odpúta a presunie inam, na niečo z pohľadu detí zaujímavejšie; Pamäť – je prevažne krátkodobá, spojená s vlastnými skúsenosťami a zážitkami, posilňuje sa opakovaním; Reč – všeobecne, v materinskom jazyku pomerne malá slovná zásoba; vo vyučovacom jazyku zvládnutá zväčša na komunikačnej úrovni, pričom porozumenie niektorým pojmom nemusí byť správne; Myslenie a uvažovanie – založené na vlastných zážitkoch; schopnosť zovšeobecňovať či prenášať poznatky na nové situácie sa pohybuje v rámci osobných skúseností.

Na to, aby sme lepšie rozumeli predpokladom alebo možnostiam detí, ktoré treba zohľadňovať v edukačnom procese, je potrebné pristaviť sa pri niektorých zákonitostiach psychického vývinu v období mladšieho školského veku. Autorom klasifikácie v ontogenetickom vývine, ktorá sa všeobecne uznáva, je Jean Piaget (1896-1980), švajčiarsky psychológ a filozof. Dieťa prechádza etapami vo vývine myslenia s istou následnosťou, nadväznosťou; ale vek, kedy sa konkrétne dieťa „presunie“ z jednej úrovne do ďalšej, nemôže byť exaktne pred-definovaný, interindividuálne variuje. Závisí jednak od individuálnych premenných – interných faktorov (napr. biologické zrenie, genetická výbava, vlastná aktivita), a tiež od externých – faktorov prostredia (napr. podnetnosť výchovného prostredia, podporovanie a ne-/zámerné rozvíjanie); presnejšie povedané – závisí od kombinácie vnútorných a vonkajších podmienok.

Piaget identifikoval 4 etapy vo vývine myslenia: 1. Senzomotorické štádium (do 2 rokov) – dieťa sa postupne dostáva k objavovaniu okolitého

sveta; poznáva stálosť objektov (ľudia a veci existujú, aj keď ich priamo nevidí); situácie rieši pokusom-omylom, začína konať zámerne.

2. Predoperačné štádium (2-7 rokov) – intenzívne sa rozvíja reč, osvojovanie konkrétnych pojmov; myslenie: dieťa dokáže posudzovať, triediť veci len podľa jedného kritéria (farba/ tvar/ veľkosť).

3. Štádium konkrétnych operácií (6/7-11/12 rokov) – v predškolskom veku (do cca 5-6 rokov) dieťa nechápe princíp „zachovania počtu alebo množstva“ (zobrazené predmety posudzuje vizuálne, až neskôr predmety spočítava); veci dokáže zoradiť podľa určitých čŕt (podľa veľkosti, intenzity farby); triedenie, hierarchické usporiadanie (zovšeobecnenie a použitie nadradeného pojmu).

4. Štádium formálnych operácií (od 11/12 rokov) – myslenie je logické, abstraktné, systematické.




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Štandardne sa vyvíjajúce deti sa na primárnom stupni ZŠ nachádzajú v etape konkrétnych operácií. Rómske deti zo SZP však nemusia dosahovať túto očakávanú úroveň, ale majú charakteristiky predoperačného štádia, napr. nedostatok skúseností a v dôsledku toho posudzovanie okolitého sveta len z vlastnej perspektívy; k tomu sa pridáva už viackrát spomínaná nepostačujúca aktívna slovná zásoba potrebná pre porozumenie učebných obsahov.

Techniky, metódy a postupy vo vyučovaní teda musia zohľadňovať individuálne možnosti – napr. postupovať pomaly s väčším podielom opakovania prebratých celkov alebo ich častí v rôznych súvislostiach a podobách. Pritom je účelné poukazovať na využitie poznatkov a ich uplatnenie v praxi, t.j. nielen zvládnuť, osvojiť si všeobecné, abstraktné pojmy (napr. vegetables, weather), ale kde sa s nimi stretneme, ako sa s nimi prakticky „narába“, ako sa využívajú v bežnom živote ap., a to všetko za pomoci konkrétnych predmetov (napr. druhy zeleniny), zážitkov (napr. pozorovanie aktuálneho počasia) a rozhovoru, diskusie na danú tému.

Jedným z efektívnych prostriedkov sú hry, najmä pohybové hry, ktoré dokážu zaujať žiakov, udržať ich pozornosť dlhodobejšie a môžu ich motivovať k aktívnejšiemu prístupu v učebnom procese.

Dôležitým faktorom, ktorý je žiaduce vziať do úvahy pri príprave vhodných postupov

a materiálov, je to, že existujú viaceré učebné štýly. Znamená to, že jednotlivci uprednostňujú určité postupy, formy a podnetové materiály, ktoré im proces učenia uľahčujú, zefektívňujú a pôsobia na nich motivačne. Preferovanie určitých štýlov učenia je individuálna záležitosť, tieto špecifiká vznikajú a rozvíjajú sa na základe vrodených faktorov; v priebehu rokov sa môžu aj do istej miery meniť, a to pod vplyvom prostredia alebo vlastného aktívneho prístupu.

Človek teda neuvedomene volí určité postupy a stratégie pri učení, ktoré sú preňho charakteristické, ktoré mu najviac vyhovujú a prinášajú najlepšie výsledky. A naopak – iným postupom sa vyhýba, necíti sa pri nich dobre. Učiteľ by mal sledovať a identifikovať u svojich žiakov, čo ktorý uprednostňuje, na čo najlepšie reaguje. Keďže každý žiak je jedinečný v skladbe predpokladov, vlastností a reakcií, vhodné je upraviť vyučovacie postupy tak, aby sa vyšlo v ústrety týmto rôznym variáciám.

Učebné štýly možno roztriediť podľa preferovaných zmyslových orgánov. Rozlišuje sa: Vizuálno-verbálny (zrakovo-slovný) typ – žiak uprednostňuje napísaný text, kým slovný

výklad učiteľa si pamätá ťažšie a preto mu pomáha robiť si poznámky; učiteľ môže vyjsť v ústrety týmto žiakom napr. tak, že pri prezentovaní alebo opakovaní učiva určité záchytné body poznačí na tabuľu, pri didaktických hrách pripraví pre žiakov lístočky s inštrukciami ap.

Vizuálno-neverbálny (zrakovo-obrazový) štýl – pre žiaka je prínosom obrazový materiál v rôznej podobe (obrázky, fotografie, grafy, videonahrávky), farebné členenie textu, tabuľky a používanie názorných pomôcok.

Auditívny (sluchový) učebný štýl – k zapamätaniu prispieva hovorené slovo, ústne prezentovanie, slovný výklad učiva; žiak počúva, zúčastňuje sa rozhovoru, diskutuje; pozitívne pôsobí, ak vysvetľovanie má dramatizujúci charakter, učiteľ mení hlasitosť, intonáciu ap.

Kinestetický (pohybový) typ – vyžaduje zapájanie pohybových aktivít, možnosť manipulácie s predmetmi (pomôckami), spoznanie praktického využitia či prenosu poznatkov do praxe. Podľa predmetových oblastí sem patria napr. aj projekty, výlety, exkurzie ap.

Často môže ísť o kombináciu uvedených typov, alebo v určitých oblastiach činností sú uprednostňované rozličné zdroje – zrakové, sluchové, hmatové atď. V školskej praxi teda ide o individualizovanie postupov. Odporúčame tiež „pluralizovanie“ vyučovania, t.j. tematický okruh učíme prostredníctvom viacerých „médií“ – prezentovanie témy rôznymi spôsobmi, ako rozprávanie príbehu, jeho ilustrovanie, hranie rolí, zdieľanie vlastných skúseností detí k danej téme ap.

Vari v najväčšej miere môžeme ovplyvniť obsahovú stránku vzhľadom na schopnosti a možnosti konkrétnej skupiny žiakov.




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Tematické okruhy: Učebnice by mali ponúkať témy, ktoré sú blízke vekovým a záujmovým charakteristikám žiakov, ako aj okruhu ich bežných skúseností. Rómski žiaci zo SZP však často majú určité špecifiká, ktoré nezodpovedajú všeobecným očakávaniam: nestretli sa s určitými skutočnosťami, vecami, udalosťami, nerozumejú im, preto aj s touto oblasťou treba pracovať uvážlivo. Napríklad niektoré témy je vhodnejšie v danom, určenom období vynechať a vrátiť sa k nim neskôr – t.j. opätovne hovoríme o tom, že treba poznať skupinu, triedu, s ktorou pracujeme, prostredie, z ktorého deti prichádzajú a zvoliť efektívnu cestu oboznamovania žiakov s tými okruhmi, ktoré im nie sú vzdialené: vychádzať zo známeho a na jeho základe prepájať a rozširovať poznanie.

Tematické okruhy z učebníc posudzujeme, vyberáme a usporiadame tak, aby sme mohli využívať predošlé poznatky, súvislosti a vzťahy medzi nimi. Znamená to, že aj slovnú zásobu či slovné spojenia vyberáme tak, aby boli deťom známe z ich skúseností, aby ich poznali v materinskom jazyku. Výrazy sa majú dať využiť komunikačne v rôznych situáciách bežného života, čo podporuje porozumenie a uchovanie v pamäti, automatizuje používanie, rozvíja aktívnu slovnú zásobu. Je len samozrejmé, že žiakom nevysvetľujeme gramatické či syntaktické pravidlá v angličtine, neupozorňujeme na odlišnosti v porovnaní so slovenčinou (vyučovacím jazykom).

Učebné materiály – nielen učebnice, pracovné zošity, ale aj ďalšie, doplnkové materiály vyberáme tak, aby zabezpečovali efektívnosť a boli relevantné nášmu úsiliu a vynaloženej energii. Okrem toho ich úlohou je obohacovať a oživovať vyučovací proces, na druhej strane majú podporovať záujem žiakov a zvýšiť ich porozumenie predkladanej téme.

Takéto materiály možno nájsť ako súčasti učebníc pre malých žiakov. Môžeme si ich tiež vyhľadať z internetových voľne dostupných edukačných zdrojov. Tieto však väčšinou treba upraviť, prispôsobiť podmienkam detí a účelu, na ktorý ich použijeme. Najčastejšie sa využívajú pri opakovaní a precvičovaní – vytvoríme pracovné listy, cvičenia, krátke tematické príbehy s ilustráciami, hry; alebo pri posúdení zvládnutia určitej témy – zostavíme didaktické testy. Nemajú teda obsahovať nové, neznáme výrazy, neobvyklé zobrazenia a situácie.

Veľmi účinnými edukačnými pomôckami sú skutočné predmety, veci dennej potreby, hračky ap., ktoré sa využívajú najmä u malých žiakov, žiakov zo SZP, u žiakov s prevahou vizuálnej a kinestetickej pamäte, ako aj pri opakovaní (organizovanie variabilných situácií na posilnenie zapamätávania).

Pri učení CJ/AJ žiakov zo SZP je potrebné uvedené názorné, podporné postupy používať dlhodobejšie, aby sme predchádzali ťažkostiam žiakov, ich neúspechom a následnému znižovaniu motivácie k učeniu.

V neskorších etapách učenia sa CJ/AJ, po zvládnutí základov, pristúpime k rozvíjaniu čítania a písania, pričom tiež využívame materiály a postupy prispôsobené danej skupine žiakov – krátke texty s jasnou a prístupnou pointou, obrázky sprevádzajúce text, predmety súvisiace s témou príbehu, využívanie hudobných nahrávok a vlastný spev, hry podporujúce verbálnu produkciu; neskôr projektové spracovanie tém (krátky text, kresby, obrázky).

Pre všetky vekové skupiny žiakov zo SZP v základnej škole odporúčame nasledovné metódy:

1. CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) – metóda sprostredkuje CJ/AJ v rôznych kontextoch „nejazykových“ predmetov, umožňuje častejší kontakt žiakov s CJ a vytvárať zaujímavé situácie s praktickým využitím CJ, ktoré sa na hodinách cudzieho jazyka nedajú pripraviť;

2. Personalizované učenie – umožňuje vytvárať príležitosti na intenzívnejšie osobné zapájanie sa žiakov tým, že títo hovoria o vlastných zážitkoch, skúsenostiach zo svojho prostredia; neskôr môžu vyjadrovať svoje postoje a názory;

3. TPR (Total Physical Response) – dáva základ dynamickejším aktivitám na hodinách, pomáha udržiavať pozornosť a záujem malých žiakov; deti sa učia v hre, pohybe, pričom učebný proces prebieha neuvedomene.




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Témy a aktivity (odporučené) v primárnom cudzojazyčnom vzdelávaní žiakov zo SZP: V úvodne hodiny, resp. pred prezentovaním novej témy alebo aktivity sa venujeme

rozhovoru k danej téme vo vyučovacom jazyku; ak je oblasť menej známa, či obsahuje menej známe výrazy, využijeme pomoc asistenta ovládajúceho rómsky jazyk, čo prispeje k zvýšeniu záujmu a pozitívnemu nastaveniu žiakov.

Počiatočná slovná zásoba sa môže týkať školy a činností v triede; výrazy a pomenovania sa stávajú súčasťou tzv. povelov (sadnite si, postavte sa, otvorte, kniha, zošit, pero,...); oboznamovanie s novými výrazmi je sprevádzané konkrétnymi predmetmi, činnosťami ap. Pomenovania, výrazy majú byť deťom známe najskôr vo vyučovacom jazyku.

Rodina – jej členovia a obvyklé činnosti (napr. spať, jesť, pozerať TV); neskôr pribudnú príležitostné činnosti a udalosti – prázdniny, narodeniny, dar, sladkosti;

Domov a najbližšie okolie – výber slov závisí od miestnych podmienok (napr. dedina, mesto, ulica, dom, les, strom, kvet, rieka, kopec);

Hry a voľnočasové aktivity – voľba výrazov sa orientuje podľa miestnych zvyklostí, možností; môže zahŕňať aj športy, hudbu alebo hračky ai.;

Škola, trieda a súvisiace činnosti – tu ide o rozšírenie slovnej zásoby k danej oblasti, napr. kamarát, učiteľ, žiak; hovoriť/rozprávať, kresliť, čítať, písať; pomenovanie aspoň niektorých predmetov, školských vecí, vybavenia triedy ap.;

Zvieratá – pomenovanie známych druhov domácich zvierat; podľa situácie v danom prostredí aj niektorých voľne žijúcich (napr. zajac, líška, vrabec ap.).

Všeobecnejšie témy by sme mali preberať neskôr, napr. povolania, dopravné prostriedky, zdravie atď. – väčšinou ide o témy, ktoré nepatria do sféry záujmu žiakov zo SZP v mladšom školskom veku.

Okrem podstatných mien a činnostných slovies prezentujeme v primeranom rozsahu tiež prídavné mená (farby, stavové prídavné mená – veľký/malý, nový/starý ap.), zámená a číslovky, ktoré sa nepreberajú osobitne, ale vždy v spojitosti s podstatným menom, činnosťou ap. dôležité pritom je, aby sa slovná zásoba nerozširovala na úkor kvality jej zvládnutia.

Hier a činností, ktoré sú vhodné pre malých žiakov, je veľmi veľa – nie je možné všetky vymenovať. Mnohé však záleží aj na invenčnosti a tvorivosti, na skúsenostiach, na pozitívnom a zodpovednom prístupe vyučujúcich. Rómski žiaci zo SZP predstavujú špecifickú skupinu, ich vzdelávanie treba podporiť vhodným výberom prostriedkov s cieľom umožniť im, aby dosahovali čo najlepšie výsledky aj v učení sa cudziemu jazyku.

Literatúra CEFRL: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Dostupné na:

http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf PIAGET, J. & INHELDER, B. 2014. Psychologie dítěte. Praha: Portál. ŠPOTÁKOVÁ, M. et al. Psycholingvistické aspekty kognitívneho vývinu a ich vzťah k zvládaniu

učebných textov u viacjazyčných detí z bežného a sociálne znevýhodneného prostredia. Výskumná úloha v riešení, VÚDPaP, Bratislava.

Zákon č. 245/2008 o výchove a vzdelávaní (školský zákon). Dostupné na: www.zbierka.sk/sk/predpisy/245-2008-z-z.p-32362.pdf

Kontaktné údaje PhDr. Eva Farkašová, CSc. Výskumný ústav detskej psychológie a patopsychológie Cyprichova 42 831 05 Bratislava [email protected]




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Seriál a sitkom

na hodine anglického jazyka

Ester Demjanová, Slovensko [email protected]

Abstrakt This paper discusses using TV series in teaching English as a second language in the Slovak classroom. It presents

the various benefits and drawbacks of bringing TV series into the teaching process based on the theoretical sources available on this topic and also based on a questionnaire carried out among the Slovak teachers in 2015. It attempts to solve at least some of the problems that may stand in the teachers’ way when they decide to use TV series in their classroom. The author proposes a guide table with a list of activities developed specifically for the purpose of using TV series to teach English. The table involves a description of each activity, the skill(s) it develops and the level of difficulty of their preparation. The main focus is on making it as easy for the teacher to use a TV series as possible.

Keywords: series, sitcom, English language teaching

Úvod Televízny seriál a sitkom sa stali fenoménmi dnešnej doby. Ich obsahový i žánrový záber je

taký široký, že sa medzi študentmi jazykov len ťažko nájde niekto, kto by seriály ako také neobľuboval a aspoň jeden pravidelne nesledoval. Obzvlášť veľkej obľube sa medzi mladými ľuďmi tešia seriály zahraničnej, predovšetkým americkej produkcie. Tu sa nám ponúka možnosť prepojiť všeobecnú obľúbenosť seriálov s výučbou anglického jazyka a kultúry. V našom príspevku načrtneme základné teoretické východiská takéhoto didaktického využitia seriálov na hodine anglického jazyka, praktické problémy, s ktorými sa slovenský učiteľ pri snahe využiť seriál na hodine stretáva, a navrhované riešenia na niektoré z nich. V neposlednom rade v našom príspevku ponúkame aktivity, ktoré možno pri práci so seriálmi s väčšou či menšou námahou využiť.

K využívaniu audiovizuálneho materiálu na hodine Hoci teoretických materiálov k využívaniu seriálov na hodine anglického jazyka nie je veľa,

film, sa v anglickej didaktike teší pomerne veľkej obľube. Niet sa čo čudovať, filmy učia žiakov kriticky myslieť a rozvíjajú ich jazykové kompetencie vo všetkých štyroch oblastiach výučby jazyka, ako aj ich slovnú zásobu a znalosti gramatiky, takisto u nich zvyšujú ich cit pre umenie (Eken, 2003). Podľa Kinga (2002) pomáhajú učiteľovi filmy vytvoriť prostredie s nízkym afektívnym filtrom, také dôležité pri nadobúdaní jazyka, a sú takisto motivačnými činiteľmi (King, 2002; Ryan, 1998). Video na hodine poskytuje žiakom a študentom kultúrny kontext, autentický materiál, ako aj autentické hlasy, dialekty a jazykové situácie (Swaffer & Vlatten, citované podľa Penga, 2012, s. 9).

O výhodách audiovizuálnych materiálov skutočne pri dnešnom množstve dostupných zdrojov nemožno pochybovať. Informujú o nich viacerí autori (pozri napr. Stewart, 2006; Léon-Henriová, 2012; Eken, 2003; King, 2002; Wang, 2014 či Ruusunenová, 2011, a Fjällströmová, 2010, ktoré potvrdzujú, že videomateriály sa postupne stávajú súčasťou vyspelých školských systémov vo Švédsku a Fínsku).

O využívani audiovizuálnych materiálov na hodinách anglického jazyka možno uvažovať i v rámci tzv. „výučby na základe videa“ (z angl. „video-based instruction“), podobnej „výučbe na základe obsahu“ (z angl. „content-based instruction“) v rámci metódy CLIL („Content and Language Integrated Learning“, teda integrované vyučovanie cudzieho jazyka a odborných predmetov), ktorá sa už používa i na niektorých slovenských základných školách (Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu Slovenskej republiky, 2016). Pre využitie obsahov vo výučbe jazykov však netreba navštevovať špecializované pracoviská, i bežne používané učebnice angličtiny sú často založené na postupovaní podľa ucelených tematických celkov a poskytovaní informácií z rôznych oblastí v cudzom jazyku.




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Ako sme uviedli vyššie, seriály sa zatiaľ v teórii didaktiky anglického jazyka netešia až takej obľube ako filmy či iné audiovizuálne materiály. Keď sa pozornosť toho-ktorého didaktika zameria na televízne seriály, pedagógovia prirodzene siahajú po epizodických seriáloch, ktoré dokážu fungovať ako samostatné jednotky, príbehy (nekončia sa pred rozuzlením zápletky, ale na konci sa vždy vrátia do situácie status quo, v ktorej sa začínali), konkrétne teda hovoríme (i) o sitkomoch. Výhody tohto žánru pre prácu na hodinách zhrnula prehľadne Katchenová (1996), a to už pred 20 rokmi, teda v čase, keď použitiu sitkomu na hodine stálo dozaista omnoho viac technologických prekážok: Sitkomy rozosmievajú – programy, ktoré vnášajú do hodín humor a zábavu, pomáhajú

v učení a sú obzvlášť vhodné pre mladého žiaka. Sitkomy majú vhodnú dĺžku – typický seriál má vždy čosi vyše 20 minút. Jeho veľkou

výhodou je, že predstavuje viacero dejových línií, ktoré možno v epizóde rozoznať a podľa ktorých je seriál možné i rozdeliť, zvyčajne na osem scén s dĺžkou 2 – 4 minúty.

Sitkomy majú predvídateľnú štruktúru – pre pozorného diváka nie je najmenším problémom predpokladať koniec epizodického seriálu po druhej alebo tretej scéne. Očakáva sa, že všetko, čo sa počas epizódy udeje, sa napokon vráti do pôvodného stavu na jej začiatku. Postavy sú známe, v seriáli sa objavujú pravidelne, majú typické črty a správanie.

Sitkomy sú rodinné – sitkomy zvyčajne pracujú so situáciou, z ktorej hlavné postavy nemajú úniku. V 90. rokoch takúto situáciu tvorcovia seriálov navodzovali prevažne použitím rodiny ako hlavnej jednotky, do ktorej postavy vždy patria, nech sa deje čokoľvek. Neskôr sa pridávajú ďalšie spôsoby, ako postavy „uväzniť“ v seriáli. Zvyčajne ide o pracovný kolektív, ale niekedy i o miesto bydliska. Množstvo sitkomov však napriek tomu ostáva rodinne orientovaných a takisto nám ponúka možnosť na hodine rozoberať interakcie medzi postavami (napr. rodič – dieťa, nadriadený – podriadený) a rôzne formy jazykovej formálnosti (jednotlivé body podľa Katchenovej, 1996).

Dostupné sú i relevantné výskumy novšieho dáta. Konkrétne Leahová (2014, s. 96) sa

napríklad domnieva, že sitkomy sú vhodnými didaktickými pomôckami, pretože: sa tešia výraznej obľube, a to tak medzi pedagógmi, ako i medzi študentmi, rozvíjajú a zlepšujú schopnosť počúvania s porozumením, zlepšujú slovnú zásobu študentov, pracujú s témami a postavami v humornom kontexte, maximálne pracujú s výslovnosťou, tónom hlasu, rytmom a plynulosťou, riešia slovnú zásobu, gramatiku, kultúrne, sociálne a mnohé ďalšie aspekty, majú obrovský potenciál využiteľnosti v rôznych situáciách, motivujú študentov, zaujmú ich zápletkou, postavami a chytľavými vyjadreniami postáv, sú ľahko prispôsobiteľné didaktickým cieľom (Leahová, 2014, s. 96).

Objavujú sa už i celé jazykové kurzy zostavené na základe seriálov (pozri napr. Forster, 2013) a na internete nájdeme nespočetné množstvo webových stránok, blogov a článkov, ktoré svojim čitateľom odporúčajú seriály na zlepšenie ich jazykových znalostí. Takéto online zdroje nie sú výnimkou ani pri iných jazykoch.

Seriály vo výučbe anglického jazyka na Slovensku – prieskum V roku 2015 sme na vzorke 100 respondentov realizovali prieskum vo forme dotazníka s

názvom Seriály vo výučbe anglického jazyka. Podmienkou vyplnenia dotazníka bola pedagogická prax minimálne jeden rok, pričom sme akceptovali i odpovede od študentov, ktorí popri štúdiu už pracujú na plný alebo polovičný úväzok ako učitelia. Priemerný vek respondentov bol 36 rokov, najmladším respondentom bol 22-ročný učiteľ, najstarší mal 63. Priemerný respondent




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mal za sebou v čase vypĺňania dotazníka 10,5 roka výučby. Najmenej rokov praxe bol 1 rok, najdlhšie učil respondent s 39 odučenými rokmi.

Učiteľov sme hľadali prostredníctvom internetu a vyplnenie dotazníka bolo na báze dobrovoľnosti. Okrem zdieľania odkazu na dotazník na sociálnych sieťach sme volili i metódu priameho oslovovania mailom na základe kontaktov uvedených na webových stránkach škôl. Týmto spôsobom sme oslovili viac ako 200 učiteľov angličtiny.

Z konečného počtu respondentov bolo 14% z jazykových škôl, 8% z prvého a 25% z druhého stupňa základných škôl, 16% zo stredných odborných škôl a 37% z gymnázií. Veríme, že pozitívnym aspektom skúmanej vzorky je najmä vysoký počet zúčastnených, ktorí vyučujú staršie deti a mladých dospelých.

V prvej časti dotazníka sme sa respondentov pýtali na to, ako často na hodinách využívajú audiovizuálne materiály a seriály. Ako možno badať z grafu č. 1, audiovizuálne materiály sa tešia pomerne častému využitiu, kým takmer opačnú tendenciu vidno pri využívaní seriálov. Tieto výsledky a ich porovnanie považujeme za obzvlášť dôležité, keďže naznačujú, že využívaniu seriálov na hodinách nebráni technický aspekt tejto didaktickej pomôcky. Ak má učiteľ možnosť využiť audiovizuálny materiál, znamená to, že má dostatočné technické vybavenie na využitie seriálu či sitkomu.

Graf č. 1 Využívanie audiovizuálnych materiálov a seriálov na hodinách anglického jazyka V kľúčovej časti nášho dotazníka sme učiteľov požiadali o usporiadane výhod a nevýhod

seriálov podľa toho, za aké dôležité ich považujú (1 – nevýhoda, ktorá mi najviac prekáža, 6 – nevýhoda, ktorá mi prekáža najmenej, prípadne ju za nevýhodu nepovažujem, a 1 – najväčšia výhoda po 6 – najmenšia výhoda, prípadne ju za výhodu nepovažujem). Cieľom bolo zistiť, čo učiteľom bráni vo využívaní seriálov na ich hodinách a naopak, čo ich najväčšmi motivuje k tomu, aby seriály používali.




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Graf č. 2 Výhody seriálov usporiadané od najdôležitejšej po najmenej dôležitú

Graf č. 3 Nevýhody seriálov usporiadané od najväčšej po najmenšiu Slovenskí učitelia zmýšľajú pri výhodách seriálov podobne ako vyššie spomínaní autori

odbornej literatúry. Seriál podľa nich poskytuje autentický obsah a je žiakovi vlastný, teší sa u mladých ľudí obľube a takisto má vhodnú dĺžku. Pozitívne hodnotíme výsledok grafu č. 3, z ktorého je zjavné, že respondenti sú dostatočne jazykovo vybavení na to, aby seriály na hodinách využili, no v ceste im stojí najmä nedostatok času, nevhodnosť seriálu pre všetky jazykové úrovne a učebné osnovy či nevhodný jazyk. Všetkým týmto nevýhodám sa budeme venovať v nasledujúcich riadkoch – vyjadríme sa i k niektorým odpovediam respondentov v otvorenej otázke, kde mohli akúkoľvek výhodu či nevýhodu seriálu doplniť podľa vlastného uváženia.

Respondentov sme sa napokon ešte opýtali, či by prijali možnosť metodického materiálu na využívanie seriálov vo výučbe anglického jazyka, na čo sme dostali takmer jednoznačnú kladnú




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odpoveď. Až 94 % respondentov sa vyjadrilo, že by takúto možnosť uvítalo. Vidíme tu preto obrovský potenciál na úspech publikácie alebo didaktických materiálov venujúcich sa danej problematike.

Reakcie na názory učiteľov v otvorenej otázke V dotazníku sme ponúkli učiteľom i možnosť vyjadriť sa k výhodám a nevýhodám seriálov

v otvorenej otázke. Keďže niektoré pripomienky považujeme za všeobecne prínosné, nasledujúcich pár riadkov bude venovaných práve im.

Niektorých učiteľov trápila problematika autorských práv k seriálom: „Ako riešiť problémy ako copyright?“, pýtali sa učitelia. Tu je situácia naklonená učiteľovi. Podľa Autorského zákona č. 618/2013 § 28 sa súhlas autora v rámci odôvodnenom vyučovacími účelmi nevyžaduje a takisto sa dielo môže bez súhlasu autora rozmnožovať, ak „takéto použitie nepresahuje rámec odôvodnený vyučovacími účelmi v škole a neuskutočňuje sa na získanie priameho alebo nepriameho majetkového prospechu“. V rámci uvedených medzí navyše „nevzniká povinnosť uhradiť autorovi odmenu“. Využívanie materiálov je teda na hodine možné a radi by sme na túto skutočnosť upozornili všetkých učiteľov, ktorí by mali pocit, že im autorské práva tvorcov zväzujú ruky.

Mnohí učitelia sa v otvorenej otázke vyjadrovali na adresu seriálov viac než pozitívne: [...]Najväčšou výhodou podľa mňa je, že si študent zvykne na rôzne prízvuky postáv, na ich

špecifickú výslovnosť, ktorá korešponduje s realitou. [...] Myslím si, že akákoľvek epizóda akéhokoľvek seriálu je užitočná a predstavuje každodenné situácie (ako nakupovanie v obchode, stretnutie známeho na ulici, telefónny rozhovor, a pod.). Aj krátka ukážka zo seriálu môže študenta podnietiť k pozeraniu ďalších epizód seriálu v cudzom jazyku aj mimo vyučovacej hodiny.

Ukazuje sa, že motivácia k ďalšiemu pozeraniu, a teda k udržiavaniu kontaktu s jazykom, je

predsa len pre učiteľov podstatná: Verím, že najväčšia výhoda používania seriálov vo vyučovaní AJ je, že žiaci si vybudujú akýsi

zvyk seriály pozerať. Zároveň nebudú odmietaví voči pozeraniu filmov napríklad s titulkami. A ako lepšie sa jazyk naučí, než tým, že sme s ním v neustálom kontakte! Myslím si, že hodina pri ktorej sa využívajú seriály, musí byť veľmi dobre zorganizovaná. Môže sa stať, že niektorí žiaci si z nej urobia „oddychovku“ kedy nebudú vnímať a hodinu strávia „daydreamingom“.

Potešilo nás i to, že napriek výsledkom dotazníka sa nie každý učiteľ stavia odmietavo

k použitiu seriálov na nižších jazykových úrovniach: Študenti si zvyknú na iné prízvuky ako má vyučujúci. Pri študentoch na nízkych úrovniach

angličtiny je potrebné opatrne a starostlivo vyberať epizódy (najprv krátke časové úseky) aby náhodou nevznikli negatívne pocity (koľko ešte toho potrebujem vedieť, nezvládnem to, atď.)

Objavili sa, prirodzene, i negatívne postoje učiteľov k problematike: V niektorých populárnych typoch seriálov je veľa vtipov postavených na sexuálnych narážkach,

čiže nemusia byt vhodné pre všetky vekové skupiny žiakov, alebo keď ide učiteľovi aj o hodnoty. Pristavme sa pri týchto vyjadreniach a diskutujme o nich. Čo sa týka nevhodnosti jazyka

a vtipov, radi by sme poukázali na dve veci. Jednak na to, v akom stave je aktuálna kontrola vhodných a nevhodných informácií pre žiakov jazyka. Napríklad často používaná učebnica nemeckého jazyka Themen Neu Aktuell 1 učí žiakov v prvej lekcii frázu „Habt ihr Feuer?“ („Máte oheň?“) (Aufderstraße a iní, 2003, s. 18), čo je pre mladých žiakov dozaista pomerne nevhodné. Nesnažíme sa naznačiť, že takéto didaktické prešľapy by azda učiteľa oprávňovali na využitie iných nevhodných materiálov na hodinách, skôr sa domnievame, že učiteľ sa na hodine bežne dostane do situácie, keď musí zaujať postoj k prípadnej (ne)vhodnosti toho, čo prezentuje,




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a možno i využiť príležitosť na naučenie (anglicky tzv. „teachable moment“) niečoho nového a poučného. Ak by to však učiteľom nestačilo, prevažná väčšina britských a amerických seriálov je pri vysielaní klasifikovaná podľa vekovej vhodnosti, podobne, ako tomu je na Slovensku. Existujú presné kritériá toho, čo sa môže a čo nemôže v danej kategórii objaviť, a učiteľ vie túto informáciu o seriáli jednoducho zistiť. Tabuľku klasifikácie podľa vekovej vhodnosti sme preložili do slovenčiny a v prehľadnej forme je voľne dostupná všetkým, ktorí by o ňu mali záujem (pozri Demjanová, 2015, s. 31).

Dostávame sa k ďalšiemu negatívnemu postoju k seriálom: Žiaci pozerajú seriály vo svojom voľnom čase, seriály väčšinou neplnia veľkú vzdelávaciu a už

vôbec nie výchovnú úlohu. Navyše žiaci trávia veľkú časť voľného času pozeraním TV, čím neprispievajú k zdravému životnému štýlu a identifikujú sa s kultúrou, ktorá im nie je prirodzená a umelo navodenými nereálnymi situáciami. Nepovažujem seriály za materiál vhodný k výučbe, snáď ešte nejaké kreslené rozprávky pre najmenších, avšak tí cudzí jazyk neovládajú tak, aby porozumeli obsahu.

Respondent konštatuje, že žiaci sa vo svojom voľnom čase venujú pozeraniu seriálov. Práve

tu by bolo vhodné sa pozastaviť a zamyslieť, či by pri výučbe nebolo práve pozitívne, ak by sme nadviazali na aktivitu, ktorú žiaci vykonávajú prirodzene, dobrovoľne a radi. Možno by sa tak učiteľovi mohlo podariť docieliť stav, v ktorom si žiak neuvedomuje, že sa učí.

Respondent ďalej pokračuje tvrdením, že seriály „neplnia veľkú vzdelávaciu a už vôbec nie výchovnú úlohu“. Dovolili by sme si hlboko nesúhlasiť s názorom respondenta. Výchovno-vzdelávacia vhodnosť do značnej miery závisí od výberu vhodného seriálu. Dozaista sa medzi seriálmi nájdu i nevhodné materiály, na druhej strane však americká produkcia ponúka priam neuveriteľné množstvo seriálov s rodinným zameraním, ktoré navyše v rámci rozuzlenia často obsahujú morálne ponaučenie. Takisto má učiteľ predsa možnosť negatívne správanie postáv v seriáli okomentovať, kritizovať, debatovať o ňom so žiakmi, a pomôcť im smerovať ich názory naň etickým smerom. Výberu vhodného seriálu sa podrobne venujeme nižšie.

Pokračujme v analýze tejto kritiky ďalej – domnievame sa, že rozpoznanie cudzej kultúry (a vôbec nemusí ísť o vnútornú identifikáciu sa s ňou) je pre vyučovanie cudzieho jazyka viac než dôležité. Komplexná výučba jazyka bez kultúry by bola prinajmenšom neefektívna a v praxi zrejme nemožná. Respondent takisto kritizuje nereálnosť seriálu. Sme však toho názoru, že nereálnosť situácií, ktoré prináša študentom seriál, je stále nižšia ako situácie, ktoré vymýšľa na hodinách učiteľ (hoci tie v žiadnom prípade nekritizujeme).

Ako riešiť najväčšie problémy spojené s využitím seriálov vo vyučovacom procese V predchádzajúcej časti sme načrtli hneď niekoľko základných problémov, ktoré učiteľom

prekážajú pri využívaní seriálov ako didaktickej pomôcky. Radi by sme sa preto teraz aspoň čiastočne vyjadrili k riešeniu tých problémov, ktoré sa v našom prieskume ocitli na najvyšších priečkach.

1. Príprava hodiny s použitím seriálu a aktivít k nemu mi zaberá priveľa času. Časová náročnosť je prekážkou mnohých zaujímavých didaktických metód a stojí v ceste

využitiu nejednej didaktickej pomôcky. Veríme však, že i seriál sa dá efektívne použiť bez toho, aby učiteľa zbytočne zaťažoval. Naše návrhy na takéto aktivity so seriálom sú uvedené nižšie.

Zdôrazňujeme však, že použitie seriálu v žiadnom prípade neznamená (a ani by nemalo znamenať) pustiť ho žiakom v plnej dĺžke a bez nadväzujúcich cvičení či diskusie, práve naopak, vhodne sa dajú použiť práve kratšie príbehy, ktoré tento žáner dávkuje prijímateľovi. Toto „rozkúskovanie“ seriálu na menšie časti spomíname i vyššie a pri 2 – 4-minútových scénach je príprava skutočne podobná príprave na počúvanie s porozumením.

Takisto je dôležité zdôrazniť, že jeden úryvok zo seriálu je možné použiť vo viacerých triedach a na viacerých úrovniach. Učiteľ sa teda zoznámi s jedným materiálom, s ktorým potom




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len odučí rôzne aktivity. V nasledujúcej časti nášho článku prinášame návrhy aktivít k seriálom, ktoré by mohli učitelia využiť, a to aj pod časovým tlakom a aj na nižších jazykových úrovniach.

2. Seriál nemôžem použiť so žiakmi na nízkej jazykovej úrovni. Ako spomíname vyššie, seriál možno skutočne použiť naprieč jazykovými úrovňami a pri

rôznom veku žiakov. Viac než dôležitý je vhodný výber epizódy. Existujú aktivity, ktoré možno realizovať i so žiakmi na nízkych jazykových úrovniach, niektoré z nich opisujeme v nasledujúcej časti nášho príspevku. Vzhľadom na to, že žiaci dostávajú i vizuálne podnety, majú i vyššiu šancu porozumieť ponúkanému obsahu aj napriek nedostatočnej jazykovej znalosti. Takisto považujeme za dôležité spomenúť, že existujú seriály pripravené špecificky pre vybranú jazykovú úroveň (napr. seriál k učebnici Headway, materiály Real Life alebo séria Extra English voľne dostupná na Youtube).

3. Seriál nekorešponduje s predpísanými učebnými osnovami. Tu dávame do pozornosti českú diplomovú prácu Sitcoms as a Tool for English Language

Teaching, v ktorej autorka rozoberá vhodnosť seriálov a ich využitia vo výučbe. Niekoľko strán práce (Hložková, 2013, s. 11 – 24) je venovaných priamo korešpondencii seriálov so Spoločným európskym referenčným rámcom pre jazyky (CEF), ktorý je smerodajný tak v českom, ako i v slovenskom školstve. Prácu dávame do pozornosti i preto, že prináša zaujímavé aktivity, ktoré takisto môžu prispieť k ľahšiemu využitiu seriálov na hodinách anglického jazyka. Je zrejmé, že korešpondencia s CEF nie je úplným riešením, no domnievame sa, že témy a ciele sú v slovenských štátnych osnovách koncipované dostatočne široko, aby sa pri nich problematiky prezentované v nespočetnom množstve seriálov, ktoré sú učiteľovi k dispozícii, dali využiť.

Ako ďalšie možné riešenie by sme navrhovali tabuľku, ktorá ponúka základný prehľad televíznych seriálov využiteľných na hodinách anglického jazyka na Slovensku a zároveň informuje o obsahu seriálu, úrovni, pre ktorú je vhodný, vekovú prístupnosť, dĺžku, žáner i miesto, kde sa dej odohráva (dôležité kvôli prízvuku, ktorý sa v seriáli objavuje) (Demjanová, 2015, s. 35 – 38).

Návrhy aktivít k seriálom Na záver nášho príspevku predstavujeme výber aktivít, ktoré možno na hodinách anglického

jazyka realizovať pri použití seriálu. Predstavovaná tabuľka obsahuje i zaujímavé aktivity iných autorov, ktoré vylepšujeme o svoje tipy, poznámky a alternatívne spôsoby realizácie. Ku každej aktivite ponúkame ďalšie informácie vyjadrené obrázkom – náročnosť na prípravu a pozitívne aspekty tej-ktorej aktivity či jazykové zručnosti, ktoré sa pri aktivite rozvíjajú najviac. Tabuľka bola prvýkrát publikovaná v našej záverečnej práci (Demjanová, 2015, s. 41 – 44) a tu ju používame s drobnými úpravami a doplneniami, keďže veríme, že by mohla byť učiteľom anglického jazyka osožná.

Záver Na záver nášho prakticky orientovaného príspevku chceme opätovne vyzdvihnúť pozitíva,

ktoré so sebou seriály, a špecificky sitkomy, prinášajú na hodinu, kde sa vyučuje cudzí jazyk. Domnievame sa, a výsledky nášho dotazníka túto domnienku potvrdzujú, že učitelia sa k seriálom nestavajú úplne odmietavo, majú možnosti ich využiť, no v použití im bránia predsudky, obavy a problémy, ktoré sú často riešiteľné a/alebo vyvrátiteľné. Táto problematika si dozaista žiada viac pozornosti didaktikov a pedagógov. Predovšetkým v seriáloch a sitkomoch vidíme oblasť vhodnú na vznik didaktických materiálov, keďže učitelia majú o takéto moderné prístupy záujem a držanie kroku s dobou je pri výučbe jazykov pre učiteľa neodškriepiteľnou výhodou.




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Tab. 1 Navrhované aktivity na vyučovanie s TV seriálom

Názov aktivity

Popis aktivity

Náročnosť na prípravu a iné

Tipy a poznámky jazyk. zručnosti

Zoznámte sa!

Učiteľ pustí žiakom krátku ukážku zo seriálu. Žiaci majú za úlohu odhadnúť vlastnosti jednotlivých postáv, vzťahy medzi nimi (Katchenová, 1996).

Táto aktivita je vhodná pri predstavovaní nového seriálu, ideálne, ak sa seriál bude používať i v budúcnosti. Pre seriály je typické, že v prvých minútach epizódy „predstavia“ jednotlivé postavy a ich výrazné vlastnosti. Táto časť seriálu je ideálna na túto aktivitu.

Kto to povedal?

Učiteľ pustí žiakom dlhšiu pasáž zo seriálu, potom prečíta niekoľko replík a žiaci majú povedať, kto repliku povedal vo videu (Katchenová, 1996).

Dajú sa realizovať rôzne obmeny tejto aktivity. Uvedieme zopár: - repliku uvedie učiteľ po

slovensky, žiaci ju musia povedať po anglicky,

- žiaci musia zopakovať repliku aj s pôvodnou intonáciou a prízvukom,

- žiaci si jednotlivé repliky zadávajú medzi sebou v skupinách.

Doplň slová do scenára

Učiteľ rozdá žiakom pred pozeraním seriálu prepis replík s vynechanými slovami. Žiaci majú pri pozeraní doplniť slová do scenára (Katchenová, 1996).

Aktivita vhodná pri predstavovaní seriálu. Žiakom pomáha, keď sa k počutému môžu vrátiť na papieri, doplňovanie udržuje ich pozornosť. Obmeny aktivity: - doplň repliky – z prepisu

dialógov sú vynechané repliky jednej postavy. Ideálne je začať replikami, ktoré sú kratšie a neobsahujú náročný jazyk,

- čo hovorí? - zadanie je rovnaké ako v predchádzajúcom cvičení, ale žiaci majú jednotlivé repliky vymyslieť bez toho, aby scénu vopred videli. Scénu potom učiteľ pustí a trieda spoločne hodnotí, kto sa ako „trafil“.

Nadabuj postavy

Scéna zo seriálu sa pustí bez zvuku a vybraní žiaci hovoria namiesto

Dôležitý je najmä výber vhodnej scény, kde herci dávajú emócie najavo aj inak ako len slovne. Aktivita sa dá obmieňať podľa




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jednotlivých postáv. toho, akú prípravu žiakom učiteľ umožní – môže im napríklad scénu vopred pustiť so zvukom, ale i bez neho, alebo im môže pustiť predchádzajúce scény a pod.

Vypíš slovnú zásobu

Učiteľ dá žiakom za úlohu vypísať všetky slová podľa vybraných kritérií (napr. všetky podstatné mená týkajúce sa jedla, všetky oslovenia, všetky slovesá v danom tvare a pod.), ktoré bude počas videonahrávky počuť.

Dôležité je vybrať vhodnú scénu, zvyšok práce už za učiteľa urobí seriál. Obzvlášť dobre sa hodí pre žiakov na nízkej jazykovej úrovni, keďže pre ňu nie je potrebné porozumieť celku, ale cibrí sa počúvanie. Aktivita sa dá obmeniť i na súťaž v skupinách – kto zachytí najviac slov, vyhráva.

Dokonči príbeh

Učiteľ pustí žiakom jednu dejovú líniu z epizódy. Po predstavení zápletky video zastaví a zadá žiakom, aby samostatne alebo v skupinách príbeh dokončili.

Aktivitu možno ukončiť pustením zvyšku príbehu, ale aj hlasovaním o najlepší vymyslený príbeh alebo hodnotením originálu i žiackych výtvorov, či ich porovnaním.

Predpovedaj, čo sa stane

Žiak má predpovedať, čo sa stane vo videu na základe pomôcky, ktorú poskytne učiteľ.

Pomôckou môže byť názov danej epizódy, fotografie z jednotlivých scén alebo útržky z replík.

Usporiadaj scény

Učiteľ pustí žiakom scény z jednej dejovej línie epizódy v náhodnom poradí. Žiaci majú prerozprávať príbeh chronologicky tak, ako sa stal.

Je potrená technická zdatnosť učiteľa a príprava jednotlivých scén vopred.

Pozri si to za mňa

Žiaci pracujú vo dvojiciach. Jeden z nich je chrbtom otočený

Aktivita sa pri vhodnom výbere scény dá využiť i pri začiatočníkoch a veľmi dobre sa dá prispôsobiť preberaným




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k obrazovke, kde sa premietajú jednotlivé scény. Učiteľ pustí video bez zvuku a tí, ktorí na obrazovku vidia, musia svojim nevidiacim dvojičkám porozprávať, čo sa deje na obraze. „Nevidiaci“ musia potom na základe vypočutého referovať/napísať, čo sa v jednotlivých scénach udialo.

témam. Učiteľ vie regulovať, na čo sa majú žiaci pri opisovaní zamerať (napr. okolie, reč tela, mimika a pod.), a vie ich takisto motivovať výstupom aktivity (napr. súťaž, ktorá dvojica odhadne dej lepšie).

Keby som bol na jeho/jej mieste...

Žiaci sa majú vžiť do vybranej postavy a jej situácie a uviesť, čo by robili na jej mieste.

Aktivitu možno obmeniť pre žiakov na nižšej jazykovej úrovni tak, že majú len vyjadriť svoj súhlas/nesúhlas s konaním jednotlivých postáv. Takisto možno pri menej kreatívnych žiakoch žiadať len hodnotenie konania postavy.

Postav sa, keď...

Žiaci sa majú postaviť (prihlásiť sa, zdvihnúť nohu, urobiť drep...), keď počas pozerania seriálu počujú isté slovo, typ slova, alebo slová odvodené zo spoločného základu.

Vhodné ako úvodná aktivita na rozprúdenie krvi. Učiteľ môže zvyšovať náročnosť aktivity (zdvihni ľavú nohu, keď budeš počuť..., zdvihni pravú nohu..., ľavú ruku...) i vyhodnocovať aktivitu ako súťaž. Predpokladom úspechu je vhodný výber epizódy. Aktivitu nie je problém realizovať i so začiatočníkmi.

Doplň informácie

Na základe pozeraného majú žiaci doplniť vynechané informácie v pripravenom materiáli.

Seriály často ponúkajú informácie o kultúre krajiny, z ktorej pochádzajú (epizódy venované tematike vďakyvzdania, vianočné epizódy, epizódy, kde postava navštívi súd, úrady a pod.), učiteľ môže pripraviť informačný materiál s vynechanými informáciami, ktorý majú žiaci doplniť. Alternatíva menej náročná na prípravu: žiaci vymenujú všetky informácie o danom kultúrnom jave, ktoré sa z videa dozvedeli.




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Vysvetli použitie gram. javu

Učiteľ pri pozeraní zastaví seriál a vyzve žiakov aby odôvodnili použitie gramatického (napr. použitie predložky, tvar slovesa) javu postavou.

Cvičenie v žiakoch aktivuje „spätný chod“ – nemajú určiť správnu možnosť, ale odôvodniť jej použitie. Na odôvodnenie môžu použiť informácie z pozeraného. Učiteľ výberom javu reguluje náročnosť, teda aktivitu možno použiť aj na nízkej jazykovej úrovni. Takisto možno od žiakov žiadať správne a nesprávne alternatívy k uvedenému javu.

Vysvetlivky k obrázkovému popisu:

aktivita si vyžaduje minimum prípravy, možno ju v prípade potreby odučiť i bez prípravy

aktivita si vyžaduje základnú prípravu na hodinu, nemožno ju odučiť bez prípravy

aktivita si vyžaduje prípravu, ktorá však nie je v nadmernom rozsahu

aktivita si vyžaduje prípravu, ktorá môže zaberať viac času ako bežná príprava na hodinu

aktivita si vyžaduje rozsiahlu prípravu

aktivita je pre žiakov výrazne motivujúca

aktivita je vhodná (i) pre žiakov na nižšej jazykovej úrovni

pozor! Riziko smiechu na hodine

aktivita je kreatívna aktivitou sa precvičuje počúvanie

aktivitou sa precvičuje rozprávanie

aktivitou sa precvičuje slovná zásoba

aktivitou sa precvičuje výslovnosť

aktivitou sa precvičuje čítanie

aktivitou sa precvičuje písanie

aktivitou sa precvičuje gramatika

Použité obrázky sú buď obrázky s voľnou licenciou alebo vytvorené autorkou príspevku.

Literatúra AUFDERSTRAßE, H., BOCK, H., EISFELD, K.-H., GERDES, M., MÜLLER, J., MÜLLER, H., &

SCHÜTZE-NÖHHMKE, U. (2003). Themen Aktuell Neu. München: Max Hueber Verlag. DEMJANOVÁ, E. (2015). Možnosti využitia televíznych seriálov vo výučbe anglického jazyka

[záverečná práca]. Košice: Univerzita Pavla Jozefa Šafárika. EKEN, A. N. (2003). ‘You’ve got mail’: a film workshop. In ELT Journal 57 (s. 51-59). Oxford.

Dostupné na internete: <http://203.72.145.166/ELT/files/57-1-7.pdf> FJÄLLSTRÖMOVÁ, E. (2010). Film and streaming media as resources in English teaching. Luleå:

Luleå University of Technology. Dostupné na internete: <http://epubl.ltu.se/1402-1552/2010/072/LTU-DUPP-10072-SE.pdf>

FORSTER, D. E. (2013). Authentic English through Modern Family. In N. S. (Eds.), JALT2012 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo.




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HLOŽKOVÁ, M. (2013). Sitcoms as a Tool for English Language Teaching. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. Dostupné na internete: <http://is.muni.cz/th/270029/pedf_m/DIPLOMA_THESIS.pdf>

KATCHENOVÁ, J. E. (1996). Off-Air Video for High School English Classes: Some Considerations. In H. C. (Ed.), Collection of English language teaching articles 2 (s. 112-120). Taiwan. Dostupné na internete: <http://mx.nthu.edu.tw/~katchen/professional/hs-sitcom.htm>

KING, J. (2002). Using DVD Films to Enhance College Freshmen's English Listening Comprehension and Motivation. In Computer Assisted Language Learning 15 (5) (s. 509 – 523).

LEAHOVÁ, C. (2014). Cognitive Perspectives on Learning English Grammar through Sitcoms. In Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Dostupné na internete: <http://www.upm.ro/ldmd/LDMD-02/Lds/Lds%2002%2012.pdf>

LÉON-HENRIOVÁ, D. D. (2012). Teaching Foreign Languages through the Analysis of Film and Television Series: English for Legal Purposes. Cashiers de l'APLIUT, XXXI(2). Dostupné na internete: <http://apliut.revues.org/2732>

Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu Slovenskej republiky. (5. Január 2016). Metóda CLIL vo vyučovaní všeobecno-vzdelávacích predmetov v základnej škole. Dostupné na internete: Štátny pedagogický ústav: <http://www.statpedu.sk/clanky/vyskumne-ulohy-experimentalne-overovania-experimentalne-overovania-sucasne-projekty/metoda>

PENG, L.-W. (2012). The Impacts of DVD Films on EFL Learners' Listening Comprehension. Taiwan: School of Education and Applied Languages.

RUUSUNENOVÁ, V. (2011). Using Movies in EFL Teaching: the point of view of teachers. University of Jyväskylä. Dostupné na internete: <https://jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/37097/URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2011121611812.pdf?sequence=1>

RYAN, S. (1998). Using Films to Develop Learner Motivation. (The Internet TESL Journal) Cit. 2. máj 2015. Dostupné na internete: The Internet TESL Journal: <http://iteslj.org/Articles/Ryan-Films.html>

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Kontaktné údaje Ester Demjanová Katedra anglistiky a amerikanistiky Filozofická fakulta Univerzita Pavla Jozefa Šafárika Petzvalova 4 040 11 Košice [email protected]




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Making English Spelling

and Pronunciation Logical

Daniela Sóradová, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract Teaching English spelling and pronunciation for beginning learners in ESL classrooms is generally practised

through repetition drill. Since the English language is a non-phonetic language, that is, there is no direct relationship between the spelling and the sound; there are many exceptions to the spelling and pronunciation of words. However, there are also many consistencies that may be very helpful in ESL teaching and learning.

In native speaking environment, teaching English spelling and pronunciation does not happen in any random way. Learners follow the set of rules called “Phonics” that are carefully introduced by the teacher. The objective of our research was to find out whether the method “Phonics” used for teaching English reading and spelling in the native environment would be applicable and beneficial for EFL learners who were starting to read and write in English.

Keywords: English spelling, pronunciation, Phonics method.

Introdution Teaching English spelling and pronunciation for beginning EFL learners belongs to hard

steps as English is a non-phonetic language. Young learners must very quickly realize that the way the word is read or pronounced in English can vary from its spelt form. However, it is not hard only for learners to start to write and read in a non-phonetic language, but it challenges teachers as well to choose the right methods and techniques for teaching English spelling and pronunciation.

In Slovakia, teaching English spelling and reading is realized in a repetitive way, encountering drill and controlled activities. On the other hand, in English-speaking countries, a set of rules called “Phonics” is implemented into teaching English reading and spelling. “Phonics” comprises a number of rules that make English spelling, pronunciation and later reading easier and logical. Although, this method is known even in non-English speaking countries and implemented into teaching and learning materials, teachers generally lack enough instructions or do not have enough information about the applicability and, therefore, do not employ it at the lesson.

Before describing the method “Phonics” into more details, we are going to present the main differences between starting to teach English in an English-speaking country and Slovakia. Moreover, the most common methods used for reading and spelling in Slovakia are going to be outlined. Afterwards, we are going to describe the main principles of the method “Phonics”, key concepts, phonological skills needed when teaching “Phonics”, its approaches and the prescribed rules. Equally important, we are going to stress out the importance of readiness for reading and handwriting.

Lastly, the methodology and the outline of the research is going to be described into more details, followed by the results and recommendations for the teaching practice.

Differences between Teaching English Spelling and Pronunciation in Slovakia and

English-speaking country To clarify the terms, while speaking about English pronunciation by young learners, we

consider reading as an equal term with pronunciation, as by young learners we do not focus only on the pronunciation itself, but it is rather practised through reading.

There are distinctive differences in teaching English spelling and reading in an English-speaking environment and Slovakia.

In English-speaking countries, children start to attend the school at the age of 5 and from this age they are constantly being prepared for further spelling and reading instructions. During this




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part learners broaden their vocabulary and learn the mechanics of reading, writing and cooperation in class. Only after that, the learners are introduced the method “Phonics” in a progressive and gradual way. Although they come across English every day and everywhere, it is difficult for them to start to read and write as the sounds pronounced in the words they know are read and spelt in a different way. The “Phonics” instructions last for about 2 years until they are covered thoroughly.

On the contrary, In Slovak classrooms, children start to attend school at the age of 6 and reading and writing seems to be easier as Slovak is a phonetic language and one sound is represented by one letter. Therefore, the readiness and teaching these skills last for a year. However, they usually start to write and read in a foreign language in the year 3 and come across situations, when what they read varies from its spelt form. Learners are generally taught the meaning of a new word, its pronunciation and spelling at the same time. As leaners do not come across the language in everyday situations, the remembering and the fixation of new words last longer. However, many children nowadays start to learn English from the early age of 3 or even earlier, what makes further language learning easier.

Generally, young learners have one foreign language lesson (usually English) per week in the year one and two. For the year three and four it is two to three lessons per week, depending on the school (National Institute for Education, 2015).

Teaching English spelling and pronunciation in Slovak classroom As it has already been mentioned above, learners start to read and write in English

purposefully in year three. They follow the teaching materials and the instructions of the teacher. Teaching of these two skills is happening in a controlled way, when teacher directs the learners in order to help them perceive the language successfully. A number of activities to support spelling and pronunciation are used throughout the lesson. The activities are generally divided into (Pokrivčáková, 2012): controlled, guided, and free activities.

Controlled activities do not foster higher level thinking tasks that are required for advanced

students, but are good for beginning learners. They help to move away from passive learning style by promoting active learning. This type of activity is also easy to be checked by the teacher (Woosong University, 2015). Mitchell (2015) also explains, that controlled activities are fundamental to teaching literacy to young learners.

Some of the controlled reading and writing activities are (Pokrivčáková, 2012): reading with visuals, completing cloze exercises, reading for instruction (“Read and do”), reading to reorder the jumbled text, straight copying, matching, organizing and copying, dictation, etc.

Spelling and reading make a reasonable part of the English lesson, because to help learners

spell and read well, it is essential to give them regular opportunities to use the language. Spelling and pronunciation are taught mostly through drilling and copying, repetition and once, learners know how to spell and pronounce words, they begin to write without copying and can move from controlled to guided and free activities. According to CEFR, a learner at A1 level can




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write simple isolated phrases and sentences and can understand very short, simple texts and single phrases at a time, picking up familiar names, words and basic phrases.

Teaching English spelling and reading in English-speaking country In English-speaking countries we focus more on reading that pronunciation itself. Learners

know how to pronounce each sounds, they have to learn how to read and spell them. Burns et al. (1988) explain that, the process of reading is complex and therefore, learners must be able to: 1. perceive the symbols set before them (sensory aspect), 2. interpret what they see and symbols or words (perceptual aspect), 3. follow the linear, logical, and grammatical patterns of the written words (sequential aspect), 4. relate words back to direct experiences to give the words meaning (experiential aspect), 5. make inferences from and evaluate the material (thinking aspect); 6. remember what they learned in the past and incorporate new ideas and facts (learning

aspect), 7. recognize the connections between symbols and sounds, between words and what they

represent (associational aspect), 8. deal with personal interests and attitudes that affect the task of reading (affective aspect).

As reading is very complex, learners need time to master the above mentioned reading

subskills. There are inner (affective) and outer (experiential background) aspects that influence the reading process and, therefore, good initial attitude to reading and writing is important to be created. According to Burns et al. (1998), there are five factors that determine the learner´ readiness for reading: 1. experiential background, 2. cognitive development and language learning, 3. interest in reading, 4. social and emotional development, 5. physical development.

At the same time, readiness for handwriting needs to be developed. The readiness factors needed for handwriting integrate a number of sensory-motor systems. Letter formation requires the integration of the visual, motor, sensory and perceptual systems. Very important is also fine motor coordination in order to form letters accurately (Indira Nagar, 2007). Children must have prerequisites in order to start handwriting (ibid): 1. small muscle development, 2. eye-hand coordination, 3. ability to hold utensils or writing tools, 4. capacity to form basic strokes such as lines and circles, 5. letter perception including the ability to recognize forms, notice likeness and differences,

infer the movements necessary for the production of form and give accurate verbal descriptions of what is seen,

6. orientation in printed language which involves the visual analysis of letters and words.

Handwriting as well as reading needs practice in order to master this skill, because it requires mastery of multiple skills, including vision, coordination of the eyes, arms, hand, memory, posture, and body control, as well as the task of holding a pan and forming letters (ibid). As soon as children feel comfortable handling the pen and they have learnt the mechanics of writing, they can move to spelling itself.




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There is not a given procedure how the spelling must be learnt. There are many recommendations, and there is discussion over these recommendations, because authorities argue which one is the best.

According to many articles and parents´ opinions, it is useless to teach children spelling rules, but they suggest learning the words by heart or copy the word more times to remember the spelling. However, Rippel (2015), an author and curriculum developer, argues, that when children only try to remember the spelling, they can forget it until the next Monday, it may support invented spelling and children may soon become overwhelmed. Therefore, she suggests finding the logic in teaching spelling and she sees the way in phonics that is, teaching phonograms, because our brain likes to find logic and structure and what makes sense to use, we remember it much more readily (Rippel, 2015).

There are 26 letters in an English alphabet and the basic combinations of these letters are called phonograms. Firstly, children are thought the letters of the alphabet, the way they are written and then they are thought phonograms to spell words.

However, we know that there are many exceptions to English spelling, and that the rules cannot always be applied. As Burns, Roe and Ross (1988) say the existence of spelling inconsistencies does not imply that phonics is not useful in helping children decode written language and later spell the heard language. Therefore, Rippel (2015) introduces four main strategies that should assist children to spell the word correctly: 1. Phonetic spelling strategy: This strategy is taught to beginning spellers. They listen to each

sound with a letter or combinations of letters. They learn to segment words according to the sounds they hear.

2. Rule-based spelling strategy: Learners will soon recognize that there are often several possible spellings for the same sound. Therefore, there are many reliable rules and generalizations in English spelling that will help learners to make the right choice.

3. Visual spelling strategy: Students also need to help visual memory of words related to particular concept. Visual memory is important when children come across homophones such as tail and tale. Enough opportunities to read and word recognition games will also help to build visual memory.

4. Morphemic spelling strategies: Morphemic strategies are based on the knowledge of meaning of the words or if it is word of foreign origin and other derivatives.

In the first years of spelling attempts, spellers focus on every aspect of spelling, but with the

practice, the use of strategies becomes automatic and is employed on a subconscious level (ibid).

If we asked a hundred people how children learn to read, we would get a hundred different answers. However, there are some basic ideas behind learning or teaching reading. It is said that teachers need to work out which method suits learners or they can also combine the methods to teach reading and later writing.

The four methods of teaching reading are (Griggs, 2000): 1. Look and say, 2. Context support method, 3. Language experience approach, 4. Phonics.

Look and say: With the “look and say” method children learn to recognize the whole words and phrases.

It is usual to start by teaching words that children come across every day and are already familiar to the children. The most important aid used with this method is flashcards. The teacher shows the children the word and says it while pointing at it and then children repeat the word while still looking at it (Scott et al.,1994).




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Flashcards are often accompanied with the picture. If the picture is not used with the word a child may make a wild guess and fails to connect the right sound to the right picture. It is said, that this method makes no use without pictures. It is also recommended to use whole short sentences rather than individual words. By making many word cards, many different sentences can be created again and again (Griggs, 2000). This approach encourages recognition of a range of words and phrases before reading the text.

Context support method: When children start to read the whole sentences even short texts or books, a teacher should choose books with topics that interest children. This will keep their interest and they will enjoy reading. Some books are especially written for this method. On the one side of the page longer sentences are situated and on the other side there are singe two or three words. The longer sentence is read by a teacher and students read those single words. The text is accompanied by pictures to help children remember and encourage them to read (Griggs, 2000).

Language experience approach: This method is based on the child´s spoken language. The teacher writes down a sentence which is based on what the child has just said and the child reads it again (Scott et al.,1994). Likewise, a teacher can collect children´s drawings and write a short sentence underneath each picture. If enough pictures are collected a book can be made of them for a child to read it more times. Slowly a student will begin to trace over words and write the words and sentences alone. Some people use this method as an initial approach to reading and later writing in order to help their students understand that that there is a difference between a written word and pronounced word. This method supports children´s concept development and vocabulary growth through personal experience (Griggs, 2000).

Phonics Griggs (2000) says that phonics is probably the best known and widely used method to teach

reading and writing in English language. Therefore, we are going to describe it into more details. Scott et al. (1994, p. 49) in the book Teaching English to children describe phonics as: “This

approach is based on the letters and sounds. Basically, we teach pupils the letters of the alphabet, and the combination of letters phonically.” In the same way, phonics is the association of speech sounds (phonemes) with printed symbols (graphemes). A single letter or a combination of letters in an English alphabet may be pronounced in many different ways (Burns et al., 1988). A reader would constantly try to find some connection or rules between the phonemes and graphemes to hear that. Therefore, in 1983, Groff (Burns et al., 1988) found a study that, if beginning readers can attain an approximate pronunciation of a written word through applying phonics generalization, they can infer the right pronunciation of the word. After conducting a study, Groff (in Burns et al., 1988, 117-118) concluded:

“…children need practice in making inferences. First they need to apply phonics generalization to unfamiliar words, producing approximate pronunciations of the words. Then they can infer the real pronunciations of the words by thinking of words they know that are close in sound to the approximations achieved by the generalizations.”

Many teachers believe that good phonics instruction is only a presentation of principles that children internalize in the process of word identification. However, many difficulties may arise. Therefore, it is better when children inductively find out what the word recognition and phonics generalization are. That is, children will understand phonics better and remember it longer when they analyse words, apply generalizations and derive the generalization from the analysis themselves. Understandably, learners need to be helped and guided and notified in the case of exceptions or irregularities. Moreover, when generalization is applied, but does not make sense in the context, another possibility should be introduced. In the same way, when words are totally irregular and generalization will not help, children should be taught to turn to dictionary for help in word recognition (Burns et al., 1988).




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We understand that phonics generalization is a set of rules explaining the relationship between the written and spoken words. Although it may seem to be a very good help for the teacher who teaches children how to read and write, the very beginning, that is, the introduction of initial or starting sounds tend to cause disagreement among teachers.

Some teachers prefer teaching vowel sounds first, because every word contains a vowel sound and vowel sounds can be pronounced in isolation compared to many consonants that need to be accompanied by vowels in order to pronounce them properly. However, they do not agree among themselves about which sounds should be presented first, either long or short vowels. Others advocate to teach both types at the same time in order to take advantage of the contrasts (Burns et al., 1988).

On the contrary, majority of the authorities on reading instruction favour the presentation of consonants first, because consonant letters are more consistent and usually present one sound, they can be identified in the word more easily and more words start with consonants rather than with vowels (ibid). Although, authorities vary on which ones to present first, they agree on some of them that are useful under most circumstances (Bailey,1967; Burmeister, 1968; Clymer 1963; Emans, 1967 in Burns et al., 1988):

1. When the letters c and g and followed by e, i, or y, they generally have soft sounds: the s sound for the letter c and the j sound for the letter g. (cent, city, cycle, gem, ginger, gypsy.) When c and g are followed by o, a, or u, they generally have hard sounds: g has its own special sound, and c has the sound of k (cat, cake, cut, go, game, gum.).

2. When two like consonants are next to each other, only one is sounded (ball, glass). 3. Ch usually has sound of tʃ as in church, ʃ as in chef, and k chemistry. 4. When the letters ght are side by side in a word, gh is not sounded, as in light. 5. When wr are the first two letters in a word, w is not sounded, as in wrong, write. 6. When kn are the first two letters in a word, n is not sounded, as in knight, know. 7. When ck are the last two letters in a word, only k is pronounced, as in click or brick. 8. The sound of a vowel preceding r is neither long nor short, as in car, her, fir. 9. The double vowels oi, oy and ou usually form diphthongs as in boil, boy, out. 10. In a word that has only one vowel which is not at the end of a word, the vowel is usually

sounded shortly, as in man, cut, list etc. 11. If there are two vowels and one is final e, the first vowel is usually long and the e at the

end of the word is not sounded as in cape, cute, kite. 12. The letter combination qu often stands for the sound of kw, as in quick, queen or in

some cases also, for the sound of k, as in quay. 13. The letter x often stands for the sound of ks as in box, next or it can stand for the sound

of gz as in exact or z as in xylophone. 14. The letter ee or ea stand for a long sound of e as in meat or meet.

Table 1: Phonics generalizations

As it is mentioned above, it is just a generalization. These general rules should guide and help beginning readers and writers from the start.

Burns et al. (1988) explain, that to be able to understand written material about phonics, teachers must be familiar with the terms such as vowels, consonants, consonant clusters (or blends), consonant digraphs, vowel digraphs or diphthongs. Although, teachers need to know the terminology, it is usually not presented for children into terminological details. Children can understand very quickly what their task is, but they are not able to explain the rules using terminology or analyse unfamiliar words. This is also supported by Piaget´s theory, that children in the concrete operations stage of development may encounter difficulty in describing verbally those actions they perform physically.




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Dr. Bonnie B. Armbruster at the Student achievement and school accountability conference in 2002 presented, that systematic and explicit phonics instruction is more effective than non-systematic, because it significantly improves children´s word recognition and spelling and reading comprehension. Moreover, it is effective for children from various social and economic levels and it is beneficial for children who have learning and reading difficulties. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction provides instruction in a carefully selected set of letter-sound relationships and then organizes the introduction of relationships into logical instruction sequence.

The way the teachers present the phonics is also very important. Good sequencing of the method only helps teachers to plan their lessons and prepare quality practical activities for children (Burns et al., 1988).

As the education differs in some ways in all the English speaking countries we have chosen to describe the linguistic phonics approach of the Northern Ireland in order to explain better how phonics is taught at school and what good sequencing of the method is.

Linguistic phonics approach consists of 6 stages. At stages 1-3, sample words are given that may be used for building lessons. There is an expectation, that once pupils are familiar with the most common sound-letter correspondence, they will be able to read and spell any of the words in the word bank for primary schools. Pupils should not be given words to learn at these stages (SEELB Literacy Unit, 2009).

At stage 4, pupils will encounter some variation, e.g. double letters and alternative spellings. It is important that they recognise the variation in the code and they are encouraged to use words containing different spellings of the same sound (ibid).

At stages 5 and 6, a selection of words is provided for each target sound, including Latin endings. Words that are appropriate to age or interest are chosen from each bank. It ensures that a range if spelling for each target sound is presented at the same time. Words of particular relevance are added to the word bank. It is important to bear in mind, that the bank provides words for investigation rather that a list to of words to learn. It is also important to ensure that students have a range of strategies to help them commit these words to long term memory (ibid).

Stages Features Stage 1 One letter/ one sound

Consonant-vowel-consonant words, e.g. can, pin, sun vowel-consonant words, e.g. on in

Stage 2 Single syllable One letter/ one sound

Longer words e.g. flag, stand Vowel-consonant- consonant words, e.g. and, end

Stage 3 Multi-syllable One letter- one sound, e.g. robin, sunset, dentist

Stage 4 Single-syllable or multi-syllable Words containing sound represented by more than one letter

e.g. hill, shell, thing Stage 5 Single syllable

Words containing a sound which can be represented in different ways e.g. go, coat, low, note

Stage 6 Multi-syllable Words containing a sound which can be represented in different ways

e.g. going, floated, window Table 2 Stages of Linguistic Phonics




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In the curriculum, there is a suggested procedure of teaching phonics divided into weeks or months. For example, in the observed class, the primary 2 had to follow stages 5 and 6 in the period of two months (March-April) and each week pupils learnt one of the target sounds such as oa as in home, ee as in see, oo as in good, ay as in play, ow as in brown, ie as in my. At the same time, the primary 3 had to learn consonant variations such as se/ce as in December or city, l/le as in lound or uncle, c/ck as in kick or cat, w/wh as in went or where, n/kn spin or knee, v/ve van or given.

At the lessons the teacher encouraged pupils to investigate and discover the words and their spelling or reading. Moreover, the teacher tried to make it entertaining for children, e.g. children voted for the right spelling and the groups or individuals were awarded if they guessed the spelling or reading right.

At the lessons, teacher supported pupils to break words into syllables, hear the individual sounds within words, think about which letters could represent each sound, identify which spelling “looks right”, decide and confirm the correct spelling. When they learnt the words, the teacher also asked them to think about ways to remember how to spell these words, e.g. by using mnemonics. However, many times, the right spelling needed drilling and repeated opportunity to practise the particular spelling of the word.

Teaching of reading and spelling happens at the same time. Pupils learn sounds, think of words where sounds can be found, break the words again and try to spell them. However, handwriting is another skill that needs to be taught. The right use of pen and manipulating of the pen are essential for writing. Therefore, the teacher prepared many activities that involved fine motor skills. For example, the teacher let pupils cut the pieces of paper alone instead of pre-cutting the material (although, it would save time at the lesson), because she wanted them to practise their fine motor skills. They were also doing many activities that included folding or manipulating the paper, playing with modelling clay, drawing etc. The main aim of this approach is to encourage investigation. Pupils begin to understand orthographic diversity and they will begin to work out much of the print code by themselves. They will make connections and learn new spelling of particular sounds before they are explicitly introduced (ibid).

Linguistic phonics is based on the following key concepts (SEELB Literacy Unit, 2009): sounds are represented by letters, sounds can be represented by one or more letters, longer words are made up of syllables (blocks of sound), the same sound can be represented in different ways, the same grapheme may represent more than one sound. Phonological skills needed when teaching and learning phonics are (SEELB Literacy Unit, 2009): segmenting – ability to access the individual sounds in words, blending – the ability to push sounds together in words, phoneme manipulation – the ability to omit or substitute sounds in words to generate new

words.

There are two major approaches to phonics instruction, the synthetic (explicit) phonics or the analytic (implicit) phonics.

Synthetic phonics: Children learn how to convert letters or letter combinations into sounds, and then how to blend the sounds together to form recognizable words (Armbruster, 2002). Burns et al. (1988) further explain, since letters and sounds have no inherent relationships, this task is generally accomplished by repeated drill on sound-symbol associations. Then they blend the sounds together to form words. The teacher encourages children to pronounce the word in a rapid succession in order to produce an approximate pronunciation.




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Analytic phonics: This approach is preferred by many educators, because it avoids the distortion that occurs when consonants are pronounced in isolation (Burns, Roe and Ross, 1988). This approach teaches children to analyse letter-sound relationships in previously learned words and so, they do not pronounce sounds in isolation (Armbruster, 2002). Burns, Roe and Ross (1988) mention the problem that occurs in analytical approach and they say that children may not be able to extract an individual sound just from hearing it within the word.

Phonics teaches not only how to read, but also how to convert letters or letter combinations into sounds and then how to make those sounds into words. In the same way, it teaches children analyse letter-sound combinations in familiar words, use words or parts of word families they know to identify new words. Further, children learn to break the words down into phonemes and to make words by writing the letters of phonemes and they also learn letter-sound relationships during the reading of connected text (Finnie, 2015).

Throughout the instruction period teachers should also check whether children have phonemic awareness. It can be done by observation the lesson. Learners should be able to recognize words in a set begin with the same sound (day, door), include the same sound (walks, talking) or end with the same sound (hat, cat). Also, they should be able to isolate or say the first or the last letter in a word, combine sounds to make new words and break down the whole words into separate sounds (ibid).

Approximately two years of phonics instructions is recommended at schools. Research We have conducted the action research with 27 pupils in the year 3. They were divided into

two classes, 3.A and 3.B. In both of the classes we have done the same exercises and used the same procedures.

The aim of the research was to find out how the method Phonics could be applied to lessons of English language in Slovak classrooms and if young learners were able to understand some of the rules of Phonics.

According to the observation, we have chosen a few phonics generalizations to be introduced in order to improve pupils´ reading and writing skills. As pupils in the year 3 know the letters and are able to write and read in Slovak language, we have skipped the initial stages of Phonics introduction. We did not spend a lot of time dealing with the words that are read in the same way as they are spelled, e.g. mop, peg, dog, bin etc. We also assume that the digraphs such as fl, sp, or bl, would not serve the purpose of the research, because these letters represent almost the same sounds as in Slovak language. Therefore, for the research we have chosen vowel sounds a, e (for the comparison of the sounds a and e), u, then digraphs sh, ch and th and the all ending sound.

The Phonics has already been introduced into the English schoolbooks for pupils in the primary school, who learn English as a second language. One of these kinds of books is Family and Friends (Thomson and Simmons, 2009). In this book there is every fourth lesson devoted to Phonics generalizations. Therefore, we have chosen some of the exercises when introducing the phonics rules in our classes, as the level of English used in pupil´s books Family and Friends 2 and Family and Friends 3 agrees with the level of English of pupils participating in our research.

There were about five exercises for practising the reading and spelling of the presented sounds. The exercises consisted of the introductive vocabulary, i.e. the words that were presented in the following exercises. The vocabulary was accompanied by illustrations and the presented sound was highlighted in the words. The next exercise was a chant. The following exercises were about identifying the sounds or for the right spelling.

The exercises were: a) Listen, point and repeat; b) Listen and chant; c) Read the chant and circle the sound …;




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d) Write the missing letters; e) Say the word. Write the word that rhymes; f) Join the sounds and letters; g) Match and write.

The introductions to exercises were easy to understand and exercises were accompanied by

many illustrations. Despites the above mentioned exercises, we included the words the pupils have learnt in the previous units of their pupil´s books. After pupils have learnt the sounds, we wrote the sentences on the blackboard and let the pupils read them. We also added some new words in order to find out if the pupils were able to adopt the phonics rule and use it by reading the unknown word. The same thing we did with the spelling. At the end of the lesson we dictated a short dictation including the known but also the unknown words, in order to find out if the pupils were also able to write the unknown words according to the phonics rules.

Data Analysis The evaluation has been carried out by two points of view, the researcher and the teacher.

The researcher was leading the phonics lesson and the teacher was in a role of the observer of the researcher, the pupils and the whole lesson. Both, the researcher and the teacher have filled in the following evaluation sheet.

Evaluation Sheet Evaluation of the researcher: 1. Was the introduction to the phonics lesson understandable? Yes/No *............................................................................................................................... 2. Were the instructions to the tasks clearly presented? Yes/No *............................................................................................................................... 3. Was the researcher´s pronunciation accurate? Yes/No *............................................................................................................................... 4. Was the researcher´s language adapted to the pupils´ level of English? Yes/No *............................................................................................................................... Evaluation of the pupils: A. Did the pupils respond to researcher´s instructions? Yes/No *......................................................................................................................... B. Did the pupils manage to complete the tasks? Yes/No *......................................................................................................................... C. Did the pupils have any additional questions? Yes/ No *......................................................................................................................... *Comment if necessary

Table 3 Evaluation Sheet

We have used created closed questions with the possibility to comment if necessary in order

to validate if the teacher´s and the researcher´s points of view correspond. We have compared both of the evaluation sheets and inferred the result of the research.

Evaluation from the point of view of the teacher/ observer Evaluation of the researcher:

1. Was the introduction to the phonics lesson understandable? Yes, the instructions were easy to understand.

2. Were the instructions to the task clearly presented?




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Yes, the instructions were presented both in English and Slovak language. 3. Was the researcher´s pronunciation accurate?

Yes, very nice. 4. Was the researcher´s language adapted to the pupils´ level of English?

Yes, the researcher´s presentation was nice, she was behaving positively. She used the body language so that pupils could understand her easier.

Evaluation of the pupils: A. Did the pupils respond to the researcher´s instructions?

Yes, most of the pupils responded, but weaker pupils or special needs pupils were sometimes confused or not sure. Moreover, in the second half of the lesson their concentration decreased.

B. Did the pupils manage to complete the tasks? Yes, pupils were active and fast in completing the tasks, although there were few mistakes or errors. Special needs pupils had small difficulties in completing the tasks and they needed extra help.

C. Did the pupils have any additional questions? Yes, pupils sometimes asked additional questions about the instructions, meaning of the words or pronunciation of other words they know.

Evaluation from the point of the teacher/ researcher Evaluation of the researcher/ Self-evaluation 1. Was the introduction to the phonics lesson understandable?

Yes, very simple. We did not explain it into details. 2. Were the instructions to the task clearly presented?

Yes, we tried to present instructions in English, but many times we combined mother tongue with the English language as the pupils were used to it.

3. Was the researcher´s pronunciation accurate? Yes, we sometimes tried to exaggerate the pronunciation of the sounds. E.g. a as in cat or e as in bed.

A. Did the pupils respond to the researcher´s instructions? Yes, their responds were very fast. It seemed to be easy for them sometimes.

B. Did the pupils manage to complete the tasks? Yes, they most of the exercises were easy for them to fill in. Most of the students did the exercises ahead even without the instructions. Although, pupils made the pronunciation mistakes while reading the chant, they were able to correct themselves. Special needs pupils needed extra help with the spelling or writing.

C. Did the pupils have any additional questions? Yes, they asked about the pronunciation of the other words or they wanted to know the meaning of some unknown words.

The teacher stated that generally, the pupils were interested in the lesson and they had

remembered many words from the previous lessons. Although at the end of the lesson pupils started to fidget and lose their concentration, they managed the task without difficulties. The teacher also assumed that the pupils probably did not have enough motivation, because they knew, that their activities were not going to be marked. As the form of the motivation or the reward for their work, pupils were given reward stickers or the star of the lesson as usual.

The teacher and the researcher agreed that pupils understood the phonics instructions and were able to apply it in the practice. Although, they still made some mistakes, they were able to correct themselves. Many times they also contributed with the words they knew or other reflexions. We would like to present some of the examples:




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When they were learning the th sound, one pupil remembered that at the end of the ordinal numbers in English there is the sound th.

In one exercise there was a word bath used to practise the sound th. More pupils read a in bath as in cat, because the previous lesson they had been taught so. However, they soon realized that it is not the right pronunciation of the word bath and they corrected themselves. Anyway, we consider it interesting, because they were able to apply the rule they had learnt into practise while reading.

Then, they mistook tree with three and they thought that tree has also the sound th. As they knew how to write the word tree and three, and we pointed out the difference in the beginning sounds, they corrected themselves.

Another example of the pupils´ positive reaction to phonics was, when we were playing the game, where they had to slap the letter or the letters that represented the sound the researcher said in the word. For example, when the researcher said ball, they had to slap the all written on the blackboard. On the blackboard there were the letters a, e, i, o, u, sh, ch, th, all. One pupil asked which words to slap in the case of the word shoes, if u (as it is similar with pronunciation in Slovak) or sh. In this case, we cut the word shoes into separate sounds sh-oe-s. Then the pupil realized that oe represents a different sound than u.

We have realized that the phonics instructions are worth teaching in the lessons, because pupils are able to cope with them and use them in the practice, both in writing or in reading. It enables pupils to read not only words they know, but to guess the pronunciation or the spelling of the unknown words. However, we assume, that short phonics instructions at the beginning of the lesson or just as a part of the lesson would be more beneficial than the whole lesson of the phonics instructions as after a while pupils lose their concentration and interest. Likewise, Z. Kráľová (2010), whose field of study is phonetics and phonology, confirmed our assumption and explained, that phonetic exercises need to be practised more often and for a short period of time. Moreover, we have realized that some of the tasks were too easy for the pupils, some tasks made pupils think about the rules and therefore, it is important to present tasks that are challenging enough and activate pupils´ metacognitive skills, but on the other hand, they should not be demotivating.

We have definitely agreed that the method Phonics has served the purpose at the lesson of English as the second language.

Conclusion In our presentation we aimed to find out how English reading and spelling are taught at the

primary level in an English-speaking country and Slovakia and we have learnt that teaching English reading and spelling either as a mother tongue or as a foreign language have some similarities and also some differences. In both cases, the learners needed enough opportunities to use the language and broaden their vocabulary in order to make the further teaching and learning easier.

Teaching and learning English as the second language is similar with teaching and learning English as the first language in that case, that pupils also needed some vocabulary in order to use “Phonics” at the lesson. Pupils needed to be aware of what sounds there are in English in order to read and spell properly. Therefore, we have chosen learners in the year 3 for our research, as learners in this year have good enough vocabulary and they are beginning to develop English reading and spelling skills.

The following table presents the main differences between teaching English reading and spelling in an English-speaking country and Slovakia.




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English-speaking

country Slovakia

Mother tongue English Slovak Learners´ age 6-7 9 Year of study 2-3 3 Number of English lessons per week

At least 8 lessons (Literacy Lessons)

3 lessons

Use of English at the lesson

Only English Combination of English and Slovak

Learners read Short books, longer sentences

Short sentences, phrases or separate words

Scope of Vocabulary Wider context Restricted by the age

Table 4 Differences between teaching English reading and spelling in English-speaking country and Slovakia

The year of study of the pupils in Slovakia has been chosen intentionally for the comparison, as pupils in this year have wide enough vocabulary to start reading and writing. However, pupils in Slovakia have only 3 lessons of English at school per week, whereas native speaking learners naturally come across English in everyday life and speak English in the lessons all the time.

After drawing the difference between teaching English reading and spelling in an English-speaking country and Slovakia, we wanted to find out find out how the method Phonics can be applied to lessons of English language in Slovak classrooms and whether young learners are able to cope with some of the rules of Phonics, which are used for teaching English reading and spelling to native English-speaking learners.

After conducting the research, we have come up with the interesting conclusion, that pupils did not only understand the phonics rules, but they were almost instantly able to apply it and contribute to the lesson with their own knowledge. Obviously, their vocabulary was not as broad as the vocabulary of native speaking learners, but they were able to work with the vocabulary they had acquired. Naturally, learners made some mistakes, but they were able to correct themselves and apply the rule both in reading or spelling. As we have stated in our research aim, we wanted to find out how the method Phonics can be applied to lessons of English language in Slovak classrooms and if young learners are able to cope with rules of Phonics, which are used for teaching English reading and spelling to native English-speaking young learners. After conducting the research and discussing the course of the lesson together with the English teacher, we have agreed that after adjusting phonics instructions to the pupils´ level of English in the year 3, pupils were able to cope with the instructions, understand and apply them. Thus we came to a conclusion that phonics instruction improves pupils´ reading and spelling skills and contribute to their further language learning. References ARMBRUSTER, B. (2002). Research-based Instruction to Reading [online]. [cit. 2015-01-23].

Available at: https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/read/rb/edlite-slide001.html. BURNS, P. C., ROE B. D.,,& ROSS P. E. (1988). Teaching reading in today´s elementary schools. 4th.

USA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Family and friends 3: workbook. (2009). Oxford University Press. Family and friends. (2009). Oxford: Oxford University Press.




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Family and friends. (2009). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Family and friends.(2009). Oxford: Oxford University Press. FNNIE, R. (2010). Introduction to onestop English. In Introduction to onestop English [online].

2010-2016 [cit. 2015-01-23]. Available at http://www.onestopenglish.com/children/onestop-phonics/introduction-to-onestop-phonics/.

GRIGGS, I. (2000). Reading Methods [online]. [cit. 2015-03-01]. Available at:http://www.teachingtreasures.com.au/homeschool/reading-methods/lookandsay.html.

HARŤANSKÁ, J. (2004). Vyučovanie anglického jazyka na 1.stupni základnej školy. Nitra: Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa v Nitre.

KRÁĽOVÁ, Z. (2010). Kvalitatívna aproximácia v systéme slovenských a anglických krátkych vokálov. Ústí nad Labem: PF UJEP v Ústí nad Labem.

MITCHELL, K. (2015). Controlled writing activities [online]. [cit. 2015-02-16]. Available at:http://www.ehow.com/info_8221330_controlled-writing-activities.html.

NAGAR, I. (2007). Handwriting skills [online]. [cit. 2015-01-28]. Available at: http://www.childsupport.in/html/ourservices_handwritingskills.html.

ŠTÁTNY PEDAGOGICKÝ ÚSTAV. Štátny pedagogický ústav [online]. [cit. 2014-11-22]. Available at: http://www.statpedu.sk/sk/Uvod.alej.

POKRIVČÁKOVÁ, S. (2012). Modern Teacher of English. 2nd. Nitra: ASPA. RIPPEL, M. (2015). All about learning press [online].[cit. 2015-03-06]. Available at:

http://www.allaboutlearningpress.com. SCOTT, W., LISBETH A., & YTREBERG, H. (1994). Teaching English to Children: Longman keys to

language learning. England: Longman. SEELB. (2009). Linguistic Phonics: Suggested Line of Progression and Word Bank for Primary

Schools [online]. [cit. 2015-03-28]. Available at: http://www.seelb.org.uk. Spelling. (2015). In COULMAS, Florian. Wikipedia: the free encyclopedia [online]. San Francisco

(CA): Wikimedia Foundation, 2001-2015, 4.3.2015 [cit. 2015-03-07]. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling#cite_ref-1.

STIRLING, J. (2015). English Language Garden [online]. [cit. 2015-03-12]. Available at: http://www.elgweb.net/index.html.

STIRLING, J. (2013). The Spelling Blog [online]. [cit. 2015-03-12]. Available at: http://thespellingblog.blogspot.sk

Woosong University (2015). Reading activities [online]. [cit. 2015-03-07]. Available at: http://www.johnsesl.com/hannam/multimedia/.

Contact Daniela Sóradová Department of Language Pedagogy and Intercultural Studies Drážovská č. 4 949 74 Nitra Slovak Republic [email protected]




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Society's Role on the Construction of Individual Identity in Jane Eyre & The Picture of Dorian Gray

Ayse Ekici, Turkey [email protected]

Abstract Identity has been attempted to be explained and handled in a number of ways for many centuries. Since culture is

a central figure for the formation of identity, Cultural Studies, as a diverse field of study encompassing a variety of perspectives; functions by borrowing freely from many disciplines and theories to figure out and explain the effect of society on individuals. Culture is a common way of life; therefore, Cultural Studies is concerned with what roles gender, language, ethnicity, economy, and biological bodies of individuals have for the construction of one’s identity. Since the society, in which people live in, has a great role on individuals, in order to analyze a literary work of art, the social circumstances of the era should also be grasped at first hand. The present study deals with the two novels Dorian Gray and Jane Eyre and the Victorian society in which they were written. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze the effect of society on the construction of individual identity in two of the famous novels- The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde and Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë.

Keywords: Cultural Studies, Society, Identity, Social, Individual

Introduction As a collective entity, identity is a term that has attracted everyone's attention throughout

ages. From scientists to philosophers and historians to sociologists, it has been attempted to be explained and handled in a number of ways. Butler suggests in her works on gender that “It is an essence that can be signified through signs of taste, beliefs, attitudes and lifestyles” (1993, p. 65). As Butler says, there are many components that forms one's identity. However, the common sense about its construction is that it is mainly deemed to be personal and social. To put it in another way, everyone has a unique identity; however, unless s/he is imprisoned into a kind of bell jar, s/he cannot avoid being affected by the society s/he lives in. The main reason for this is that living beings are inevitably born into an already existing structure. As E. B. Tylor defines there is a “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (1968). Thus, the individuals are the social constructs and cannot exist outside of cultural representations.

In order to analyze the identity in terms of social and cultural aspects, Cultural Studies should be applied at first hand. Cultural studies functions by borrowing freely from many disciplines and it appropriates theories and methodologies from almost any method from textual analysis, to ethnography, psychoanalysis and deconstruction. Cultural studies, as Hall defines, is: “a discursive formation, that is; ‘a cluster of ideas, images and practices, which provides ways of talking about, forms of knowledge and conduct associated with, a particular topic, social activity or institutional site in society’” (1997, p. 6).

The concept of culture is central to cultural studies because culture is a common way of life, and cultural studies is concerned with; how meanings are generated in this social formation, what affects the change of meanings, what roles gender, language, ethnicity, economy, and biological bodies of individuals have for the construction of one’s identity. Foucault, in History of Sexuality, explains that “the identities are the products of culture, history and discourse” (1990, p. 139). People are born into a world that-pre-exists themselves and have to conform to these pre-existing rules, standards and discursive formations in order to for an identity. They learn to use a language that was in use before they arrived. They live their lives in the context of social relationships with others. In short, they are constituted as individuals in social process using socially shared materials. Each person passes through a process of socialization and individualization.




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Freud suggests that a person's psyche is divided into three parts and one of them, called superego, is shaped by "the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others" (McLeod, 2008). The formation of the superego include not just the morals and values of the parents, but also the ideas about right and wrong that we acquire from society and the culture in which we live. How to behave when you are with the other people, what to say and not to say, when something is perceived appropriate and when it is awkward, etc. ; all these are the predetermined codes that people acquire as they live among the other people. All in all, it is possible to conclude that although the extent might vary, the society has a certain role on individuals' identity construction.

Butler suggests that "identity and gender intersects with racial, class, ethnic, sexual and regional modalities of discursively constituted identities" (1990, p. 3). It becomes impossible to separate one's identity from the political, cultural intersections in which it is invariably produced and maintained. As a conclusion, the identity formation is based on a range of different aspects. Therefore, there appears an ongoing discussion about what the determinant of identity is, whether the biological nature or culture form's one's identity. Butler adopts Beauvoir’s idea that “one is not born a woman, but rather becomes one” (1999, p. 8). She suggests that the category of gender is a variable cultural accomplishment, a set of meanings that are taken up within a cultural field. Giddens describes identity as “a project” (qtd. in Barker, 2000, p. 221). By this, he means that identity is our creation. It is something always in process, a moving towards rather than an arrival, as Butler explains: “it is not a fixed entity but an emotionally charged discursive description of us that is subject to change" (1993, p. 67).

Text Having drawn the theoretical background, the social circumstances of the Victorian Era,

which takes up most of the nineteenth century (1830-1901) should be mentioned, because the focus of my presentation is on the two novels Dorian Gray and Jane Eyre which were written in this era. Victorian Era is named after Queen Victoria, who is known to have been England's longest reigning monarch. Although it seems difficult to find one single word for describing such a long period of time, the main aspect of this century can be accepted as change.

This period witnessed some of the greatest changes in the history of England. Namely, many things that are held as indisputable or even sacred started to be questioned during this century. Nearly every institution of society was shaken to some extent. Improvements in technology and economy both generated wealth in the society and led to the rise of "middle class." Scientific advancements like Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution undermined the position of the Church. Industry's overwhelming effect on agriculture caused farmers and peasants' migration from the countryside to the cities. In this way, the existing level of class distinction considerably increased and the social structure also started to change.

For the writers and thinkers of the time, this new Victorian society presented a wide range of topics to handle in their works. While some of the literary works dealt with the injustices of industrial world, some focused on the moral degradation of society and others focused on the class distinctions. The focus of this dissertation is upon the effect of society on the construction of individual identity in two of the famous novels- The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde and Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë.

Bronte and Wilde use both characters to question what it is to be moral or good. Both Jane and Dorian's story show the formation of their identities together with the events they lived, people they met and the experiences they had. Both protagonists are naive and childlike characters at the very beginning; however, their nature is completely changed to the end of the novels. The influences Jane and Dorian undertake pose the question of who is truly responsible for this change. This dissertation intends to focus on answering this question by exploring society's effect on these characters' identity.




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Jane's first introduction to the reader is an innocent little orphan raised by her wealthy Aunt Mrs. Reed. As a little child, Jane suffers from bad treatments of her cousins and her aunt's cruel behaviors. Her imprisonment into the red-room where Uncle Reed died is an example of her exclusion from the social rank she actually does not belong to; she knows that she "was a discord in Gateshead Hall: [she] was like nobody there; [she] had nothing in harmony with Mrs. Reed or her children" (p. 11) The social class distinction of Jane and the other members of Reed family is revealed by John addressing Jane as being a lowly orphan who is only permitted to live with the Reeds because of his mother’s charity. Represented by Reeds family, the society tries to suppress her because she does not have the basic requirements to have a place in the society; she is just a child who has no experience of any wickedness, neither she has money, nor parents to protect her. The first attempt for her to develop her own self and ideas is on her departure from Gateshead to Lowood School: " I am glad you are no relation of mine. I will never call you aunt again as long as I live.... and if anyone asks me how I liked you, and how you treated me, I will say the very thought of you makes me sick, and that you treated me with miserable cruelty. . . .’Ere I had finished this reply, my soul began to expand, to exult, with the strangest sense of freedom, of triumph, I ever felt. It seemed as if an invisible bond had burst, and that I had struggled out into unhoped-for liberty. . ." (p. 26).

For Jane, to discover her self, she must break out of the restrictive conditions and find independence. However, under the circumstances of the time, she did not have many choices but to accept some doctrines. She defines the notion of hell as an answer to Mr. Brocklehurst's question: "Do you know where the wicked go after death?" (p. 23) The dominant religious and moral codes can clearly be inferred by the little child's definition as "a pit full of fire." (ibid.).

Another example of institutionalized knowledge in Jane's life is Helen Burns' ideas about religion and being a virtuous person. It is Helen's teachings that frame Jane's adult morality. Helen tells Jane to live a Christ like existence, and to be kind to those who are unkind to her; "Would you not be happier if you tried to forget her severity?" (p. 43) she asks for Mrs. Reed's wicked deeds against her. Jane puts this theory into practice in her adult life; upon facing rudeness and adversity, she successfully brushes all these off. She does not get offended by Rochester's initial intimidation of her. What's more, she returns to Gateshead to sit by the bed of her cruel Aunt at her death bed. She has learned what it is to be truly moral and unselfish.

Life in 19th-century Britain used to be governed by social class, and people typically stayed in the class into which they were born. Therefore, Mr Rochester, the master of Thornfield and Jane's employer, stands for Jane’s conflict with social status. It is clear that Jane feels intimacy for Mr. Rochester. However, their social ranks differ; Rochester is a wealthy man while Jane is paid by him for being a governess. Mr. Rochester is ready to set aside the social class distinction in order to interact with Jane, but for this relationship, the word of society is Mrs. Fairfax: "Equality of position and fortune is often advisable in such cases; and there are twenty years of difference in your ages. He might almost be your father.... I am sorry to grieve you, but you are so young, and so little acquainted with men, I wished to put you on your guard. It is an old saying that 'all is not gold that glitters;' and in this case I do fear there will be something found to be different to what either you or I expect" (p. 186).

Mrs. Fairfax's commentary on Mr. Rochester's proposal suggests that Jane is obliged to marry a person of her age and social rank. The idea that "gentlemen in his station are not accustomed to marry their governesses" (p. 186) is Mrs. Fairfax's warning for Jane to be careful about Mr. Rochesterthe. The word "advisable" gives both her point and it is the common idea of society. In contrast to, the traditionalized woman figure, Charlotte Bronte draws Jane as a woman striving to be independent and true to her feelings. Thus, she tries to resist the boundaries driven by the other people by taking up Rochester's proposal. In this context, the society cannot seize Jane's true self.

Jane's role as the governess of the house is humiliated during the party which consists of exclusive acquaintances of Mr. Rochester including Blanche Ingram, the woman who is after Mr.




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Rochester's wealth. As the upper rank of the society, especially Ingram's mother utters degrading words for governesses although she is aware of Jane's presence and possibility of hearing her words. She thinks governesses as: "danger of bad example to innocence of childhood; distractions and consequent neglect of duty on the part of the attached -- mutual alliance and reliance; confidence thence resulting -- insolence accompanying -- mutiny and general blow-up" (p. 123).

No matter what qualifications she has- "a good English education, together with French, Drawing, and Music" (p. 62) and however virtuous and humane she is on the individual level, Jane cannot escape the prejudice society has. Blanche Ingram is juxtaposed with Jane through her vanity, hypocrisy and social status. While Blanche Ingram's place in the society is guaranteed from birth, Jane must break the class prejudices about her standing, and make people recognize and respect her personal qualities. At this point, it is possible to say that Brontë tries to show the personal virtues as better indicators of character than class.

Despite its independent and feministic tone, the novel doesn't entirely break every social rule; in that, Jane refuses, for instance, to become Rochester's mistress. He was tricked into a loveless marriage many years ago and his wife, Bertha, living locked up in a room on the level of insanity, is his legal wife. Jane, however resistant to the social norms, cannot venture her position before the eyes of the other people as an outcast for love. As an adult, Jane, now, can see that social influence has an important role on people's lives and starts to develop the ability to repress her passions.

Just like Jane Eyre, Dorian Gray’s identity formation goes through many stages under the social influence and the people's ideas around him; however, in contrast to Jane, Dorian's quest ends as being a pleasure seeker rather than being in pursuit of goodness.

Based mainly on the portrait of a young man in his twenties, the novel depicts Dorian as exceptionally good-looking, and whoever sees him is charmed by his extra ordinary beauty. He is introduced to the reader as modelling for Basil Hallward, a shy, dull and conservative painter, who adores Dorian’s beauty in the opening scene of the novel. Basil’s trance-like painting is interrupted by Lord Henry Wotton’s arrival - an idle aristocrat, who is characterized by his flamboyant personality and outrageous wit. Unwillingly, Basil introduces Dorian to Lord Henry, and from that moment on, Dorian leads a very different life. Lord Henry makes a great influence with his extra ordinary ideas on Dorian. Lord Henry's ideas stand for the effect of society on Dorian's identity. As Foucault claims, the identity is “permanently inscribed by power relations and discourse” (Grosz, 1994, p. 146). What the people living in a society believe, more or less, affects the other members of the same society. This influence of Lord Henry is traced throughout Dorian’s relationship with him. As an example of Henry’s influential statements, "I like persons better than principles and I like persons with no principles better than anything else in the world"(p. 19). It is possible to comment on this statement as how society operates on an individual's identity if the person does not have a strong standing.

The unaware young boy at the beginning of the novel is startled by Lord Henry’s philosophy and he cannot save himself being exposed to Lord Henry’s manipulations all through his life. Just like a poison spreads through the cells, corrupted by Lord Henry’s ideas, Dorian lives a life which, day by day becomes wicked than ever. He turns out to be a selfish, cruel pleasure seeker who cares about nobody, but himself. Since Lord Henry is a high-brow aristocrat, Dorian was also introduced to the very influential and rich people in his town. These people of high status, which are harshly criticized throughout the novel, has a very different life from those of middle class people. These people are depicted as holding parties, joining luxurious gatherings, and exploring insincere, hypocritical behaviors throughout the novel. They judge people much upon their appearance and status, wealth is “a certain element of security” (p. 164) in the novel. If a person is both rich and fascinating, nobody believes to the detriment of that person. At the beginning of the novel, Dorian is described as: “certainly wonderfully handsome, with his finely curved scarlet lips, his frank blue eyes, his crisp gold hair. There was something in his face that




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made one trust him at once. All the candour of youth was there, as well as all youth’s passionate purity. One felt that he had kept himself unspotted from the world” (p. 23).

Having seen such an extraordinary beauty, people think that Dorian’s beauty is the guarantee of his good personality. In other words, nobody expects him to do bad things. While the criteria of people of his time were mainly based upon appearance, the young innocent boy is unaware of both his own beauty and how significant the physical appearance for the role he has in the society.

Until he meets Lord Henry Wotton, the visible beauty of Dorian is of little importance to him. As Lord Henry also asserts after they spend some time together, “Dorian, you will always be fond of me. I represent to you all the sins you have never had the courage to commit.” (95) Lord Henry’s words about the realities of life are striking for Dorian. In a very short period of time, he remains heavily under the influence of this Hedonist upper class man; as he himself tells Lord Henry: “you have a curious influence over me” (59). His philosophy turns out to be the leading force that determines Dorian’s every deed in his life. He explains his philosophy as: “A new hedonism--that is what our century wants. You might be its visible symbol. With your personality there is nothing you could not do. The world belongs to you for a season.... For there is such a little time that your youth will last--such a little time… We never get back our youth. The pulse of joy that beats in us at twenty becomes sluggish. Our limbs fail, our senses rot. We degenerate into hideous puppets, haunted by the memory of the passions of which we were too much afraid, and the exquisite temptations that we had not the courage to yield to. Youth! Youth! There is absolutely nothing in the world but youth!” (p. 31).

His motive is that it is better to experience everything the world offers than to spend time worrying about ethics or morals since his beauty and youth will not belong to him forever,. He suggests that Dorian should live a life regardless of all the social, moral and legal laws and do whatever he wants for his self fulfillment.

Under the influence of Lord Henry’s ideas, Dorian has adapted himself to the superficial values of the upper class people around him. While the portrait of Dorian, the private part of him, remains in a locked room and deteriorated; the public Dorian, who guarantees his place in the society with his beauty, enjoys his life: “Not one blossom of his loveliness would ever fade. Not one pulse of his life would ever weaken. Like the gods of the Greeks, he would be strong, and fleet, and joyous. What did it matter what happened to the colored image on the canvas? He would be safe. That was everything” (p. 124).

Dorian is in fact in between the hypocrisy, immodesty, and welfare of the rich people, such as Lord Henry, around him and the people who go after virtues and strictly bounded to the moral values such as Basil Hallward. Thus, he felt a strong pressure on himself and his life. What he wanted was to enjoy all the facilities life presented him. Regardless of all the restrictions, he had the passion of experiencing everything. However, Basil and the painting he drew stands as the conscience for him: "Once it had given him pleasure to watch it changing and growing old. Of late he had felt no such pleasure. It had kept him awake at night. When he had been away, he had been filled with terror lest other eyes should look upon it. It had brought melancholy across his passions. Its mere memory had marred many moments of joy. It had been like conscience to him. Yes, it had been conscience“ (p. 255).

Conclusion To sum up, as the works of the same century, Jane Eyre and The Picture of Dorian Gray can

both be read in terms of the social influence on the characteristic traits of their protagonists. Both these narratives offer a social commentary on the Victorian society; however, the effect of society on each character considerably differs. Jane Eyre, "resisted all the way" (p. 9) to the pressures of conformity from her society while the male counterpart of her, Dorian, happily gives in to the social influences. The final resolutions of both novels also reveal this difference; in that, Dorian eventually destroys the painting, which in turn destroys him, whereas, Jane,




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pursuing the path she believed to be 'good' and resisting strongly to the boundaries laid before her, gets united with her love and manages to attain her own individual identity. Throughout the novels, both texts successfully question what society wants and what is right through the process of characters' identity formation.

Literature BRONTE, Ch..( 2008 ). Jane Eyre. New York, Signet Classics. FOUCAULT, M. (1990). The History of Sexuality, Vol I: An Introduction. Translated from the French

by Robert Hurley. New York, Vintage Books. GROSZ, E. (1994). Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism, Bloomington, Indiana

University Press. McLEOD, S. A. (2008). Id, Ego and Superego. (9 Jan. 2014). Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html MILLS, S. (1997). Discourse. London: Routledge. TYLOR, E. B. (1968). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (9 Jan. 2014). Retrieved

from <http://www.encyclopedia.com>. WILDE, O. (1994). The Picture of Dorian Gray. London: Penguin Popular Classics.

Contact Teaching Assistant Ayşe EKİCİ School of Foreign Languages Pamukkale University Turkey, 20070 [email protected]




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The Aspects of a Young Adult Novel in Homer's The Iliad

(New Interpretive Viewpoint)

Mihaela Majetić & Tina Varga Oswald, Croatia [email protected]

Abstract There are few literary works in the history with such an impact, as Homer’s The Iliad. Later Greek literature, and

Roman that followed, display conspicuous traces of that influence. Despite the fact that the Homer's epics were comprehensible to each Greek without any philological education, nearly thirty centuries later, and in different surroundings, young readers are challenged when it comes to the interpretation of their size, content, and meaning. Hence the need for a new interpretive viewpoint where the young reader has the ability to identify with the hero who is not only a fearless warrior, but who also a social corrective upon completing process of “maturing”. The Iliad offers the possibility of reading genre features of a young adult novel on several levels: the first level relates to the organization of the narrative structure in two opposing groups with the standardized character of a leader, the second deals with his characterization as a rebellious hero who opposes authority and is willing to accept the consequences which allow correction of the behavior, the third covers a consideration of narrative techniques which indicate character’s psychological state, while the fourth includes the didactic purpose of the text, i.e. reception.

Keywords: Homer, The Iliad, young adult novel, reinterpretation.

Introduction There are several literary works which stand as the bedrock of today’s perception, reading

and understanding of literature. For centuries, creative ideas have been drawn from these works; they have been read and analyzed in detail, explained in the various ways and served as a debate topic. One of these works, moreover, the groundwork of European literature, is Homer's heroic epic The Iliad. It is most likely older than The Odyssey and, therefore, the oldest preserved piece of the Greek and European literature which dates back to around 800 BC. It contains historical and linguistic facts about the role of pre-Homeric singers in creating fertile soil for the development of literature which is not binding, disbelieved and is not required for the individual to become involved in the community life.

The songs about the heroic deeds which were sung accompanied by musical instruments preceded Homer’s The Iliad and these were of a special value for the society and an incentive for the further progress of civilization. The singers sang mostly about the events which were not inspired by the imagination, or by the personal experience, but rather originated from the voice of the people. It was particularly important that the presented image of life concurs with the worldview of the society for which they sang and performed. The audience at that time required the credibility of events by means of singers having to present themselves as protagonists or at least mediators of events. Singers improvised and always created new songs in a way they repeated typical places, situations, descriptions, comparisons, etc. The core of the song was usually a historic event which was, often immediately after the event, turned into a story. These songs were presumably work of Aeolians-Achaeans who arrived from Thessaly and other parts of the Greek mainland and were the first to strengthen their position on the northwest coast of Asia Minor in The Troad and on the neighboring islands. The migration caused the mixing of characters and motifs from the homeland with those existing in the new surroundings. Development of these songs through several generations created the structure for the final product of this lasting oral tradition.

Many discussions are conducted nowadays about the so-called Homeric questions which can be divided into two major groups: pluralists or analysts, who support the collective authorship, claiming that some parts of the Homer's epics were put together by the different poets, and unitarians, who represent the unity of the epics attributing them to only one author (Dukat, 1987). The translated poet’s name denotes a real person, although in the past, and occasionally




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recently, it has been interpreted as a common noun, i.e. as a blind man, hostage, companion, compiler. The last determinant is in favor of the unitarians, who denote the word hómēros as the poet-compiler, while for the pluralists the same name stands for the collector (Sironić, 1995). Despite the lack of biographical information about Homer, unexplored complex and lasting process of transmission of the texts, as well as the real inconsistencies that appear occasionally in comparing the two epics, the ancient tradition ascribes The Iliad and The Odyssey to Homer. The legendary poet succeeded to attribute inherent, hitherto unknown, "aesthetic function" to the former epic tradition which was based on the cult significance and whose theme was originally mythological.

From the time when the art was destined exclusively for the people from which it originated, the individual was not of a great importance. Even though the nation was not the explicit compiler of an artwork, it has brought about the artist's work by offering him a motive. Each of the Hellenic tribes found the part of their spiritual life in Homer’s epics, he was, by Plato’s words, a teacher of the Greeks, his epics proved as an actual and crucial need in the peculiar circumstances when comfort, warning, encouraging, contempt and anger could have been awakened only by a word of a poet and the power of music which accompanied the poet's word and so deeply touched the hearts of listeners. Furthermore, by transforming the legend of the Trojan War into the great national struggle of all Helens against Asia, Homer encouraged Greeks to the remarkable resistance against Persian invaders (Lesky, 2001).

Besides of the experience of a greatly important tribal life as a permanent value, Homer's The Iliad does not offer direct practical benefit to a modern young recipient, whereas it also does not correspond to the contents of the modern world. Period of life in which young recipients encounter the fundamental works of classical literature for the first time is a period of life during which many physical, intellectual and social changes occur and often cause the questioning of their self-image. This situation leads to feelings of confusion, anxiety, and concerns about the reaction of their environment to the changes so the aesthetic preoccupation is often in the foreground. Adolescents often feel they are in the center of attention and that the society critically judges them so they usually act without thinking of the consequences. On the social level they "seek" for themselves among the groups of peers with whom they identify. Thus, it is not surprising that young recipients often detest reading such literary works that are not appropriate to their age and ability of understanding them. Inefficient reception causes the failure to reach a certain level of literary education, decline in developing a culture of reading, neglecting of the creative abilities of students, poor literary preference, impoverishment of spiritual life and forming a selective view of the world in which spiritual values, provided by literature and art in general, take up almost insignificant position.

Given that there are considerable individual differences in the interests and talents of young people, the fact that a child of thirteen willingly reads Homer's The Iliad represents nothing. The central problem is the degree of understanding or perception of such works that average children can accomplish. Therefore, on the one hand, a need for creating a climate of tension and drama between the characters, who are, because of their greatness, actions and ambitions, more convenient and more convincing than the characters in children's roles, justifies the choice of the young recipient who is craving for life adventures. On the other hand, the young adults’ life experiences are not sufficiently developed so it can only be assumed that the moral corrective of the society represented by Achilles would be available when the time for it comes in the process of growing up. Such division leads to the conclusion according to which both recipients did not fully, or at all, discover the ambiguous possibilities of interpretation of a literary work, hence the need for the reinterpretation of Homer's The Iliad becomes imperative.

Instead of neglecting the classical works of the world literature or their selective reading, it is necessary, along with the different methodological approaches on the mandatory readings in school, to devise new ways of literary interpretation. This justifies the need for a new interpretive viewpoint of Homer's The Iliad as a young adult novel in which a young recipient




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has the ability to identify with the character who is not only a fearless warrior, but who also becomes an individual with corrected beliefs who has completed the process of "maturing". The interpretation of Homer's The Iliad using aspects of a young adult novel thus acquires the literary theoretical and critical basis which finds its functional application in methodical practice.

Features of a Young Adult Novel Young adult literature, intended for persons aged fifteen to twenty (Nilsen&Donelson, 2009),

although the age limit is flexible, not only because of the individual interests of young recipients, but also because of the rapid coming of age which has occurred lately, started developing in the course of children’s literature at the beginning of the second half of the 20th century (Cart, 2001, p. 95-97). Other names that are implied by that term are: adolescent literature, juvenile fiction, teen books, young adult book, etc. (Following terms are used in the Croatian literary theory:

omladinska književnost (youth literature), hit junior književnost (hit junior literature), estovačka

književnost (est-literature) (according to the Croatian ending –est equivalent to English –teen in

numbers 13 to 19).

Themes (puberty, anxiety related to growing up, difficulties in trying to be accepted by the society, the search for one’s own identity, frustration, etc.) which are incorporated in the young adult literature are, along with the universal approach and style, in accordance with the age and experience of the young recipients who are striving to identify with the main character. Furthermore, the time of the appearance of the works, the degree of naivety, and the use of jargon and vulgar expressions have an equally important role in the differentiation between the children's and young adult literature. It is even harder to draw the line between the young adult and adult literature. Some critics deny the need for the young adult literature, the others believe that such a corpus should be given space within the area of the children's literature, while the third assume that all literary works could be adapted and adjusted for the children and the young adults. The discussion on the status of the young adult literature is still present and differs among national literatures.

The foundation of the genre in American literature lies in the Susan Eloise Hinton’s novel Outsiders which was published in 1967 (Cart, 2001, pp. 95-97). It tells a story of a 14-year-old Pony Boy, a bit undisciplined and confused teenager whose gruff exterior hides an abundance of feelings. The brutal murder of the member of a rival gang committed by Pony Boy’s best friend causes the nightmare filled with violence. The same year Robert Lipsyte publishes the novel The Contender, also about the 16-year-old teenager Alfred fights against drugs and violence in African-American gangs by playing sports. Further development of the genre is encouraged by new researches and comprehension of adolescence in psychology, along with now profiled readership on the book market. According to this model, a young adult novel tries to meet the needs of this sensitive reading population by its topics and approach and convey messages that will positively affect their worldview and establish a system of values. Over time, the range of topics has changed and it includes taboo themes such as the death of parents, murder, suicide, alcoholism, smoking, drug addiction, sexuality, adolescent pregnancy, etc. (Lubar, 2001). The revival of the genre which seemed to be on the deathbed at the end of the last century, not only because of the lack of the new titles, but also due to the fact that the literature seemed to fail at keeping pace with the new media, contributed the unprecedented success of the British writer J.K. Rowling with the publication of the novel Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in 1997. Rowling tried to open the themes of friendship, love, death and growing up through the adventures of the eleven-year-old boy and his friends, along with a lot of humor and imagination.

Cole (2001), American literary theorist and critic, lists several features related to the entire field of literature designated to the young audience in her book Young Adult Literature: In the 21st Century. These features are: "theme is different, tension / shock effect, strong characters are




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memorable, the emphasis on facts and details, a distinctive tone and dialogue between the characters, pronounced / clear expression, sense of humor, intriguing start with an impressive finish (p. 61-65).” Furthermore, American theorist Blasingame (2007) in his study Books That Don't Bore 'Em: Young Adult Books That Speak to This Generation (p. 11) points out other features which can be attributed to a young adult novel as a genre: "(1) The identification of a young recipient with the characters and their problems; these problems are handled in a way that does not diminish, discriminate or devalue their importance; (2) young readers can easily understand language and style; (3) the plot has a crucial role in the structure of the novel; (4) it is designated to the young audience (p. 11)." Just as a young adult novel may contain certain elements that do not relate only to the readers of this genre, but also elements that are associated with real events and contain convincing and emphatic characters with whom all generations could relate, features of a young adult novels could be recognized in other marginal or less akin literary genres, with a slightly modified role.

Homer's The Iliad offers the possibility of reading genre characteristics of a young adult novel on several levels: the first level relates to the organization of the narrative structure in two opposing groups with the standardized character of a leader, the second level deals with his characterization as a rebellious hero who opposes authority and is willing to accept the consequences which allow correction of the behavior, the third structural level covers a consideration of narrative techniques which indicate character’s psychological state and depiction of his inner nature, while the fourth level includes the didactic purpose of the text to the future generations, in other words reception.

I. Narrative structure The Iliad’s narrative structure is a planned, completed composition consisting of an

introductory, main and final part. The introduction begins in medias res, with the invocation of the muse and the description of an argument between Achilles and Agamemnon. At the beginning and at the end, the story revolves quickly, while in the middle it is slowed down. Monotonous and lethargic rhythm is interrupted by figures of retardation, various digressions, insertions, episodes, repetitions and proverbs that make it difficult for the young recipient to follow the basic structure of the epic. Even though it makes it harder, young readers find "going beyond simple chronologies to include time shifts and different perspectives" (Nilsen & Donelson, 2009, p. 11) as an important trait of young adult literature. Furthermore, "young adult fiction usually has a concise plot with a time span of three months or less, as well as a focus on the present and future and the life of the central character" (Bucher & Manning, 2006, p. 10). The poet narrowed the events within fifty-one days of the, according to the legend, final, tenth year of the Trojan War. The events take place on three spatial levels: inside the city of Troy, in the area between the walls of Troy and Achaean ships and in the area near the ships. The main motif of The Iliad is the wrath of the greatest Achaean hero Achilles, whom the king Agamemnon robbed of the beautiful slave girl and he therefore refuses to fight in the War. This obstructs the superiority of the Achaeans who become suppressed by the Trojans. Achilles returns to the battlefields only when the Trojan hero Hector kills his friend Patroclus. Achilles kills Hector out of revenge and the epic ends with the depiction of his funeral.

The uniqueness of The Iliad derives from the warrior spirit of the Greek people outlined in the character of Achilles who is the hero of diametrically different qualities that stretch from the ferocious outbursts, mercilessness and vengeance to the affectionate feelings, love and mercy. Achilles becomes the archetype of the heroic virtues that correspond to the Greek imaginary projection of the physical strength, courage and beauty as exemplary character traits. Could such a figure serve as a role model for a young recipient? Could his great accomplishments help in projecting of oneself in them? Is his fight for the ideals not equal to the ones of the today?

The definition of a character in a young adult novel stems from his traits which can be described only in the interaction between the character and events in which he takes part. The




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position of the character is the basic determinant of Homer's The Iliad as an adolescent novelistic discourse. His position is perceived in the organization of the narrative structure in opposition us / them, hero / authority or in the two opposing groups – Achaeans and Trojans. The leader of the Achaeans is Agamemnon, king of the heroes, supreme commander, who led the Greek troops in the war against the Trojans (All of the quotes from Homer, (1961), The Iliad of Homer [translated by Richard Lattimore], Chicago: University of Chicago Press. are brought by stating the number of lines and book in the brackets):

Atreus' son the hero wide-ruling Agamemnon raging, the heart within filled black to the brim with anger from beneath, but his two eyes showed like fire in their blazing. (102-104, I)

At the opposite side, the leader of the Trojan army is Hector, son of Priam, and the greatest of the Trojan heroes:

Tall Hektor of the shining helm was leader of the Trojans, Priam's son; and with him far the best and the bravest fighting men were armed and eager to fight with the spear's edge. (816-818, II)

The war groups led by prominent leaders can be compared with clans, children's groups, collectives, gangs which play a role of some kind of topos in a young adult novel – they exist as almost a permanent narrative figure.

Within the Achaean group, there are subgroups consisting of different Greek nations, one of which are Myrmidons whose leader is Achilles. Although a young adult novel is defined by the characters’ activity within the group of like-minded peers, brothers-in-arms, etc., Achilles’ rebellion is a conflict with his own, and not opponent’s structure. At the moment when Achilles confronts Agamemnon because of the abduction of his honorary gift, slave Briseis, a conflict between two warring factions disappears as the core of the narrative structure. Collective battle becomes individual rebellion against the social order, governing structures, and Agamemnon’s ideological beliefs which results in disappearance of mutual motivation to fight the enemy.

Then looking darkly at him Achilleus of the swift feet spoke: 'O wrapped in shamelessness, with your mind forever on profit, how shall any one of the Achaians readily obey you either to go on a journey or to fight men strongly in battle? I for my part did not come here for the sake of the Trojan spearmen to fight against them, since to me they have done nothing. ……………………………………………………………………. the shadowy mountains and the echoing sea; but for your sake, o great shamelessness, we followed, to do you favour, you with the dog's eyes, to win your honour and Menelaos' ………………………………………………………………. Always the greater part of the painful fighting is the work of my hands; but when the time comes to distribute the booty yours is far the greater reward, and I with some small thing yet dear to me go back to my ships when I am weary with fighting. Now I am returning to Phthia, since it is much better to go home again with my curved ships, and I am minded no longer to stay here dishonoured and pile up your wealth and your luxury.' (148-171, I)

The narrative structure within these two groups consists of an additional classification of Homer's gods who reside on Olympus. Although the gods’ function is merely decorative, thus irrelevant for the internal bond among the characters, their role is significant for scrutinizing of fantastic layer which is often an essential part of young adult novels: "elements of fantasy are as




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old as the oldest folktale"(Nilsen&Donelson, 2009, p. 31). In these novels the heroes resolve their problems by breaking the boundaries of reality, along with receiving tools and weapons of barely imaginable forces and achieving feats which no one would even dare to fathom. Is not Achilles one of these characters? Is not the goddess Thetis the one who ensured him a lethal weapon? The gods participate in the conflict actively and passively, often variable and influenced by the orders of the supreme god Zeus. Although most important, Thetis’ participation can be characterized as passive, as she does not interfere in any direct combat, unlike the other gods. Bitter with grief and injustice to her son by Agamemenon caused, she asks

Zeus to help the Trojans in the battle, or rather obstruct the Achaeans, and thus Agamemnon: ‘…Ah me, my child. Your birth was bitterness. Why did I raise you? …………………………………………………………… But I will go to cloud-dark Olympos and ask this

thing of Zeus who delights in the thunder. Perhaps he will do it.’ (414-420, I)

The gods’ temper is changeable, like human, which is nicely depicted in the character of the supreme god Zeus who, prompted by the other gods or his own preferences, at first helps one faction, and at the next moment the other. As for the Achilles and Agamemnon’s conflict, Zeus helps Achilles, because of the Thetis’ intercession, and prevents Achaeans or Agamemnon from winning the battle until Achilles returns to fight. When Achilles clashes with Hector, he takes Hector’s side and allows the gods’ involvement in the fight.

Depicted narrative structure of The Iliad corresponds with the one of a young adult novel. It is organized in opposition us/them, hero/authority, the conflict has a crucial role in the development of a plot and it is characterized by the tension, along with the intriguing introduction, and an impressive ending. Although retardation device makes the understanding harder for a young recipient, the structure is planned and completed. Depicted events take place in a short period of time on a limited, narrow space as is the case in a young adult novel. Enriching and permeating of the main narrative structure with the fantastic layer is another important feature of a young adult novel which is achieved in The Iliad by the introduction of the world of the gods.

II. Rebellious hero Rebellion and opposition to the authority are the most important character features of the

hero in a young adult novel. Besides that, the young adult characters are usually "perceptive, sensitive, intelligent, mature, and independent" (Herz & Gallo, 1996, p. 8). In young adult novels, "protagonists must be involved and accomplishments that are believable but still challenging enough to earn the reader's respect" (Nilsen & Donelson, 2009, p. 34). Within the narrative structure of Homer's The Iliad which is based on the conflict of two groups, an individual stands out in his reluctant rebellion against the authority

In his anger, the rebellious hero Achilles does not construct the opponent culture around himself, but resists Agamemnon by physically not participating in the war. However, his reluctance is only an illusion because a true Ionian hero of that era covets only eternal glory. Because of this reason, Achilles moves unconditionally and without regard for his mother's warnings to the warpath. Thus, the model of an active conflict regardless of the consequences inside/outside groups us/them can be identified with those in a young adult novel which "reflects young adults' experiences with conflicts" (Bucher & Manning, 2006, p. 9). Are not the characters in a young adult novel uncompromising? Are their actions not uncontrollable? Is their behavior, such as Achilles, not subversive?

The characterization of the rebellious hero in a young adult novelistic discourse is especially affected by the way of the molding of the individual within the social norms, in particular the




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principle of freedom and the questioning of the truth. Achilles’ vision of freedom is based on heroism, pride and honor. This is the internal driving force of his actions, whether appropriate or not: “… therefore Zeus of the loud thunder on Olympos should grant me / honour at least. But now he has given me not even a little” (353-354, I); “my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting” (413, IX); “you must not set your mind on fighting the Trojans, whose delight / is in battle, without me. So you will diminish my honour” (89-90, XVI); “… now I must win excellent glory” (121, XVIII). Young adult literature "raises questions about conformity, social pressures, justice, and other aspects of human frailties and strengths" (Nilsen & Donelson, 2009, p. 16). Achilles, confronted with the individual arbitrariness, cannot forget the injustice and reconcile with it until the very end of the epic. Conflicts, on which the plot is based, grow out of injustice, the first because of the abduction of Briseis: “’Now the son of Atreus, powerful Agamemnon, / has dishonoured me, since he has taken away my prize and keeps it’” (355-356, I), and the second because of the Patroclus’ death: “… and as he looked the anger came harder upon him / and his eyes glittered terribly under his lids, like sunflare” (16-17, XIX). Although Achilles is aware that, if he kills Hector, his own death will follow: “’Then I must lose you, my child, by what you are saying, / since it is decreed your death must come soon after Hektor’s’” (95-96, XVIII), he is persistent in his fight:

‘I must die soon, then; since I was not to stand by my companion when he was killed … ……………………………………………………………………. Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us. Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life, Hektor; then I will accept my own death…’ (98-115, XVIII)

The willingness of the hero to fight and accept his own defeat is the feature of a young adult novelistic discourse, and this willingness is evident in the battle Achilles’ enters regardless of the consequences and death. The price of his rebellion is paid by Patroclus’ death. Then he, furious and heartbroken, wanting to avenge the death of Patroclus, decides to return into the war and actually join his, until recently, opponents in order to fight with Hector. He actively confronts Hector, in a direct fight which ended in Hector’s death and Achilles’ mortification of his body, unworthy of a burial:

‘…So there is no one who can hold the dogs off from your head, not if they bring here and set before me ten times and twenty times the ransom, and promise more in addition, ………………………………………………………………. … not even so shall the lady your mother who herself bore you lay you on the death-bed and mourn you: no, but the dogs and the birds will have you all for their feasting.’ (348-354, XXII)

However, after the gods ordered that Hector's body must be handed over, Achilles agrees to welcome the aged king in his chambers. When Priam kisses the hand of a man who murdered his son, Achilles becomes aware of his behavior and undergoes a transformation. “The best moral kids get from any book is just the capacity to empathize with other people, to care about the characters and their feelings” (Nilsen & Donelson, 2009, p. 203). His behavior is instinctive and socially conditioned, and, consequently, picturesquely described. Therefore, it is not surprising that Achilles is actually created as Jenks’ (1999) "Apollonian" young adult connected with nature, fiction and intuitive. The grace that followed the wrath is a natural purification which occurred in the transformation of the character and enriched his character. “Young adult literature focuses on the 'act of becoming' and the tension between both childhood and adulthood” (Hamilton, 2002). The changeability of a subversive behavior is a key feature in




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shaping rebellious young adult hero’s own identity so the whole process of fighting is actually a direct metaphor of maturing. He matures through trauma, and experiential cognitions lead him to the self-discovery and the new experience of reality.

and Achilleus wept now for his own father, now again for Patroklos. The sound of their mourning moved in the house. (511-512, XXIV) ‘and sit down upon this chair, and you and I will even let our sorrows lie still in the heart for all our grieving. There is not any advantage to be won from grim lamentation. (522-424, XXIV) …and Achilles himself lifted him and laid him (589, XXIV) ‘how many days you intend for the burial of great Hektor. Tell me, so I myself shall stay still and hold back the people.’ (657-658, XXIV) So he spoke, and took the aged king by the right hand at the wrist so that his heart might have no fear. (671-672, XXIV)

Furthermore, young adult novelistic discourse "focuses on family as a foundation from which to begin exploring alternative directions" (Bachelder, 1980, p. 88). A display of the relationship between parents and children is noteworthy in this perspective. The basic mode of this relationship in The Iliad is parental care and coming forward to help when needed. Parental care, love and protection are shown in Thetis’ example – she comforts her son, helps him and instructs him. Achilles, though rebellious, accepts his mother's advice and stays away from fighting: “’Do you therefore continuing to sit by your swift ships / be angry at the Achaians and stay away from all fighting’” (421-422, I).

Achilles, just like a rebellious young adult hero, chooses the conflict as the driving force, he opposes the authority and openly demonstrates his rebellion, enters the conflict without hesitation and regardless of the consequences. His rebellion is based on the conflict with the ruling structure, authority’s ideological beliefs and social order within the group. Rebellious hero, who faces the injustice, struggles in his wish for the truth to come to light and he persists regardless of whether this battle is lost in advance and leads to death. Rebellious hero transforms his subversive behavior and, by this act, matures. The role of parents in a young adult novelistic discourse is important because of their impact on the hero’s whom they encourage on deliberation and revision of actions, behavior and attitudes.

III. Narrative techniques Narrative techniques involved in the construction of Homer's The Iliad can also be

interpreted as features of young adult novels. In a young adult novel one can notice topics related to the construction of identity which is shaped in the context of love, family, and vitally existential events. Interaction on their relations is achieved through dialogue, and established comprehension about his own “I” through monologue.

Achilles expresses his hidden thoughts and feelings through monologues, in an isolated area by Myrmidon ships where he is situated in solitude. Young adult literature often uses the device of isolation to explore themselves and their inner nature (Bachelder, 1980). By retreating into seclusion, Achilles becomes "marginalized member of society" (Kaplan, 2005) as which young adult readers perceive themselves. He expresses his insights about the values, injustice and honor in his monologues:

‘We are all held in a single honour, the brave with the weaklings. A man dies still if he has done nothing, as one who has done much. Nothing is won for me, now that my heart has gone through its afflictions in forever setting my life on the hazard of battle.’ (319-322, IX)




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Furthermore, Achilles talks about his fate and doubts his decisions:

‘For my mother Thetis the goddess of the silver feet tells me I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either, if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans, my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting; but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers, the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.’ (410-416, IX)

Besides the monologues, dialogues which he conducts with the other characters, reveal

Achilles' psychological state. During his first conversation with Agamemnon, his anger and suffering are apparent, as well as his courage and animosity:

Then looking at him darkly brilliant Achilleus answered him: ‘So must I be called of no account and a coward if I must carry out every order you may happen to give me. Tell other men to do these things, but give me no more commands, since I for my part have no intention to obey you. And put away in your thoughts this other thing I tell you. With my hands I will not fight for the girl’s sake, neither with you nor any other man, since you take her away who gave her.’ (292-299, I)

Once he accepts the consequences of his actions and decides to go from an opponent into a collaborative relationship with Agamemnon, the dialogue is more peaceful and reflects Achilles' remorse and desire to fight, now with a new opponent:

‘Son of Atreus, most lordly and king of men, Agamemnon, the gifts are yours to give if you wish, and as it is proper, or to keep with yourself. But now let us remember our joy in warcraft, immediately, for it is not fitting to stay here and waste time nor delay, since there is still a big work to be done.’ (146-150, XIX)

In addition to dialogues and monologues, narration of the heterodiegetic narrator of an omniscient perspective, and his descriptions have a significant role in the perception of Achilles’ psychological state. His sorrow and pain, the desire for fighting, and retreat are described. After the death of Patroclus, Achilles falls into the painful state of mind, which a reader also comprehends with the help of the description:

He spoke, and the black cloud of sorrow closed on Achilleus. In both hands he caught up the grimy dust, and poured it over his head and face, and fouled his handsome countenance, and the black ashes were scattered over his immortal tunic. And he himself, mightily in his might, in the dust lay at length, and took and tore at his hair with his hands, and defiled it. (22-27, XVIII)

Through monologues and dialogues in the first place, but also the descriptions, a young recipient gets an insight into the psychological state of a hero and his inner nature. These narrative techniques take up the same role in young adult novelistic discourse, through which a young recipient discovers the hero’s mindset and the problems he faces thus enabling him identification. The range of narrative techniques in Homer's The Iliad, from beginning to end, clearly illustrates Achilles’ feelings and thoughts, ranging from wrath and revenge to the final mercifulness, that is, the correction of the behavior. Through narrative techniques, young




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recipients get the opportunity to project themselves and their mindset onto those of the leading hero.

IV. Didactic purpose of the text and its reception The author’s definition of the recipient of The Iliad can only be speculated and cannot be

determined with certainty. Epigraphic analysis shows that the Greek society of Homer’s time was entirely verbal (Havelock, 2003, p. 40). Consequently, it is undeniable that the elements of the written works are taken from historical and mythological sources, or from oral epics. The purpose of the oral literature is utilitarian, didactic and educational. Thus, oral literature is usually told to the younger audience in order to teach them something valuable. By writing down The Iliad a unique version was created which enabled teaching and educating a larger number of people.

Nowadays, the most common recipients of The Iliad are young people in early adolescence, who encounter it for the first time in school as a required reading. A uniform content of Homer's The Iliad is not appealing and easy to understand in this age and thus is often repulsive. However, classics are valuable because they teach a young recipient about different times and parts of the world. Students can see how people thought and lived long ago and notice the similarities with the today’s society. Classic works of world literature should not be replaced by the more modern ones, but one should find, and provide the young recipient with a different way of reading and interpreting a literary work which includes his way of understanding the world. "If teachers want their students to become engaged in literature, they have to make them want to read both the books they would choose to read on their own as well as the cannonical works" (Emig, 2015). Literature teachers "can help their students better understand classics texts and enjoy them more by bridging these texts with young adult and contemporary literature" (Emig, 2015). Although the young recipient usually opts for adolescent novel, didactic and educational function is not impaired by this choice. As Bucher & Manning (2006) explain, young adult literature "teaches adolescents about diverse people and the world beyond their community; demonstrates the range of human emotions and allows adolescents to experience them as a result of reading quality literature; reveals the realities of life; provides vicarious experiences; depicts the functions of institutions of society and allows readers to escape into the realms of fantasy (p. 10).” To find the purpose of the text, "young adult readers need to form a connection with the text" (Emig, 2015). By the introduction of the perspective of a young adult novel, one achieves exactly that – young recipients can identify with the central character in a way that is acceptable and comprehensible to them. They "want characters controlled by believable human motives because their reading now has a real purpose to it. They are reading to find out about themselves, not simply to escape into someone else's experiences for a few pleasurable hours" (Nilesen & Donelson, 2009, p. 14). This reason for reading changes the vision of the original purposes of Homer's The Iliad and again establishes the trust between the young recipient and blind Homer. Therefore, it is not difficult to expect that young recipients identify their subversive behavior with that of Achilles at the beginning of the work. A didactic orientation of the text occurs during the conflict between Aias and Odysseus when Achilles, who, by then, did not refrain from showing turbulent feelings, begins to change his behavior, and takes on the role of a prudent peacemaker in a fight between the two competitors.

‘Wrestle no more now; do not wear yourselves out and get hurt. You have both won. Therefore take the prizes in equal division and retire, so the rest of Achaians can have their contests.’ (735-737, XXIII)

It is also an indication of the final transformation at the end of the work in which the rebellious hero realizes his actions are unjustified, rises above his anger, reconciles with injustice and becomes a moral corrective of the society. His composure and calmness during the




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redemption of Hector's body is an example for a young recipient who, in the process of maturing, has to recognize the futility of a rebellious behavior. "The scene where Priam and Achilles, after all the sufferings of the battle, all the misery and all the cruelty of endless revenge, recognize and worship a man in one another, is the culmination of The Iliad and also the starting point of the Western concept of humanity" (Lesky, 2001, p. 47).

’…even let our sorrows lie still in the heart for all our grieving. There is not any advantage to be won from grim lamentation. Such is the way the gods spun life for unfortunate mortals, that we live in unhappiness, but the gods themselves have no sorrows.’ (522-526, XXIV)

The conflict and the rebellious model of behavior lose their meaning, and morality, forgiveness and repentance, in an encounter with a member of the opposing groups, become the basis of the correction of the behavior, recognizable metaphor of maturing in a young adult novel. The character of Achilles ceases to be only a fearless warrior, but also becomes an individual of the corrected behavior upon completing his process of “maturing”. By his example he shows a young recipient a way to adulthood and how to overgrow rebellion, meaningless conflicts and delinquency. “By acquainting readers with the glorious varieties of human experience, young adult literature invests young hearts and minds with tolerance, understanding, empathy, acceptance, compassion, kindness, and more. It civilizes them, in short” (Nilsen & Donelson, 2009, p. 5). Through the character of Achilles, the young recipient learns the importance of courage, audacity and honor, recognizes the result of an excessive pride and ego, gets definition of friendship and romantic and parental love, which may serve as a didactic guidepost in the difficult times of adolescence.

Conclusion Reasons for the reinterpretation of Homer's The Iliad emerge from numerous discussions

about the importance of reading and understanding classic works of world literature. (In

Croatia, the ongoing curricular reform intends to remove the interpretation of Homer’s The Iliad from

the curriculum. Although the curriculum proposal is yet to be publically discussed, public and

profession have different opinions - from delight to disgust.)

On the one hand, in addition to being an unsurpassed model, The Iliad is undoubtedly incorporated into the overall lyrical, epic and dramatic European heritage, and as such has an outstanding value. On the other hand, reception skills of young recipients who read The Iliad are not sufficiently developed to interpret it that way. An attempt of a new reading of Homer's The Iliad, in addition to confirming its impact on contemporary literature, gives hope to the rediscovery of new-old interesting and educational contents, in which the aspects of a young adult novel, the most acceptable genre for the young population, have a crucial role in its understanding.

Features typical of young adult novel are easily recognizable in Homer's The Iliad and serve as a device for bringing closer and identifying a young recipient with the content, characters and their actions, as well as a teaching device for this "demanding" audience. Within this framework analysis of The Iliad results in a narrative structure, formed into two opposing groups, Achaeans and Trojans, similar to those in a young adult novel, with the Achilles who stands out as a rebellious hero and opposes both groups. Furthermore, the characterization of the main character is reminiscent of the characters in a young adult novel who gradually emotionally and physically mature, given the Achilles' development from childhood aspirations of heroism to mature understanding of the value of human life. Homer’s extremely lively narration, clear expression and vivid imaging of the mental state and the internal struggle of the main character, Achilles, is necessary. Although Achilles is passive most of the time, his attitude is offensive and without hesitation, like the one of a rebellious and uncompromising young adult who constantly clashes with himself and with the society. This process is extremely important for the




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development of the individual in order to successfully complete the process of maturing and gradually be able to adapt to all the roles the adulthood implies. One of the main tasks of a young adult protagonist is differentiation from the parents and building his own identity. This justifies Achilles' change of attitude – from at first disregarding his mother’ warnings and value systems to the need of her tenderness and protection. Congruence of The Iliad’s didactic purpose with young recipient’s contemporary aspirations is reflected in Achilles’ change of his behavior, attitudes and perceptions of the surrounding world. Instead of a mad warrior, Achilles now represents a rebellious young adult, and at the same time has a function that can be interpreted in social terms as a kind of conscience of the society. Touching moment of the final scene in which Priam and Achilles meet and, after ten years of hostile war between Trojans and Achaeans, express mutual understanding and respect for each other and represents the adult form of behavior which young recipients should adopt and follow.

Described genre aspects of a young adult novel become the framework for interpretation of Homer's The Iliad; the emphasized vitality and exceptional artistic quality, over and over and in a completely different way, reflect in overcome the challenges posed by contemporary young audience.

Literature BACHELDER, L., KELLY, P., KENNEY, D. & SMALL, R. (1980). Young adult literature: looking

backward: trying to find the classic young adult novel. The English Journal, 69(6). www.jstor.org/stable/816800

BLASINGAME, J. (2007). Books That Don't Bore 'Em: Young Adult Books That Speak to This Generation. New York: Scholastic.

BUCHER, K. & MANNING, M. L. (2006). Young Adult Literature Exploration, Evaluation, and Appreciation. USA: Pearson.

CART, M. (2001). From insider to outsider: the evolution of young adult literature. Voices from the Middle, 9 (2). <http://www.ncte.org/journals/vm/issues/v9-2>

COLE, P. B. (2009). Young Adult Literature: In the 21st Century. New York: McGraw Hill. DUKAT, Z. (1987). Homersko pitanje. Zagreb: Globus. EMIG, L. (2015). Combining young adult and classic literature in a secondary English classroom.

Rising Tide, 8. <http://www.smcm.edu/mat/wp-content/uploads/sites/73/2015/06/Leigh-Emigh-2015.pdf>

HAMILTON, G. (2002). Mapping a history of adolescence and literature for adolescents. ALAN Review, 29 (2). <https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/v29n2/hamilton.html>

HAVELOCK, E.A. (2003). Muza uči pisati, Razmišljanja o usmenosti i pismenosti od antike do danas. Zagreb: AGM.

HERZ, S.K. & GALLO, D. R. (1996). From Hinton to Hamlet: Building bridges between young adult literature and classics. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

HOMER (1961). The Iliad of Homer [translated by Richard Lattimore]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

JENKS, C. (1999). Childhood. London / New York: Routledge. KAPLAN, J. S. (2005). Young adult literature in the 21st century: moving beyond traditional

constraints and conventions. The ALAN Review, 32(2). <https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/v32n2/kaplan.pdf>

LESKY, A. (2001). Povijest grčke književnosti. Zagreb: Golden marketing. LUBAR, D. (2003). The history of young adult novels. The Alan Review, 30(2).

<http://www.davidlubar.com/yahist.htm>, [May 9, 2016]. NILSEN, A. P. & DONELSON, K. L. (2009). Literature for Today's Young Adults. USA: Pearson. ROSENBLATT, L. M. (1994). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the

literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Press.




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SIRONIĆ, M. (1995). Rasprave o helenskoj književnosti. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska.

Contact Tina Varga Oswald, PhD, Assistant Professor Bracka 146 31000 Osijek, Croatia [email protected]




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Learning Languages through Music, Teaching Music through Languages

Elena Kováčiková, Slovakia

[email protected] Abstract The paper shows a possibility to interconnect music and second language teaching and learning. It highlights their

common methodological features and provides perceptions from observation of CLIL lessons in Lithuania and Slovakia. Language teaching benefits from using musical elements such as rhythm, intonation, melody and thus enhances natural acquisition of distinctive sounds and different pronunciation. On the other hand, the topics about music history, music genres and forms might become motivating enrichments of language classes with rather educational background. The first observation describes a music lesson in Lithuania as an example of a CLIL lesson combining teaching French and music. The second observation focuses on an English language lesson taught through music by using rhythm instruments, dynamics, chants and songs, and music topics appropriate for the age of learners. Even if the aim of the first lesson is to teach music primarily and the second one focuses on the language more, the interconnections between languages and music are undeniable and therefore advised to be used by language teachers with musical ear or music teachers who are competent enough in a foreign language.

Keywords: language teaching and learning, French, ELT, music, CLIL

Introduction Within past two decades the scientists have made big progress in the theories of language

acquisition. Didactic connection of language and music has been approved through the historical context as music and a language both communicate via sounds. Music elements are melody, verse and dance. In the language we can find the similar parallel in intonation, words and body language. When children learn to speak, they perceive first only sounds and intonation. Later they begin to recognise sounds in the language, and then differentiate the words and expressions which are inevitable for communication. Due to the fact that music and language commonly share the basic features such as rhythm, pitch, dynamics, volume and tone of voice, the combination of the approaches, methods and techniques for learning language and music can be effectively connected. Some language approaches involve music as a helping tool in order to make learners feel comfortable or active in their language production.

English through Music Larsen-Freeman describes Desuggestopedia (an amended term for previously known

Suggestopedia) as one of the methods for learning a foreign language developed in the 70´s years of the last century. Music plays there an important role. Background music played in a language lesson aims at limitation of negative feelings as these might prevent development of language skills and systems. According to the author, music does not only create atmosphere for learning only passively, however, it is also actively used and created by learners. In the classroom, which the author describes, there is a table with rhythm instruments as well as some other props. The background music (Bach, Händel) creates a positive and comfortable atmosphere when a teacher reads the text presenting new language. Teacher teaches the students a children´s song with presented language in order to drill and acquire it. Students actively use the instruments as they sing the song. Music and movement reinforce the linguistic material. It is desirable that students achieve a state of ´infantilization´ so that they will be more open to learning. If they trust a teacher, they will reach this state more easily (Ibid.,p.80).

Also Loewy (2004) believes in the positive impact of using music in language classes. Within other benefits of using songs in the classroom he lists development of all the skills, productive as well as receptive ones. When using songs in the classroom, a teacher plays the song and learners follow and perceive it. Then students repeat lyrics without singing. Then they all discuss related vocabulary, grammar structures and practice pronunciation. The teacher plays




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the song again and the learners start singing when they feel comfortable and confident enough to express themselves. Loewy (Ibid.) also uses songs as a presentation or revision of grammar structures. The song may be also used as a drilling technique or instead of drill. In case when the primarily technique in the lesson is drill, the music provides possibilities to learn required patterns through remembering the text which may happen unintentionally. Methods dealing with teaching languages to young learners and very young learners are based on TPR techniques, movements, songs and chants.

Carolyn Graham is a creator of jazz chants® which connect the rhythm of spoken American English to the beat of jazz. She developed the technique of jazz chants during her teaching ESL (OUP, 2016). According to her, jazz chants bring rhythm into the classroom and that is what makes them remember the language. Connecting hand clapping, stamping and body movements performed along with the language bring joy and motivation to the classroom. They all work on subconscious and natural acquirement of language structures.

Music through English Macarthur and Trojer (1985) two musicologists declare that due to the fact that music and

language share basic features of rhythm, pitch, tone and dynamics, the teaching methods applied in the classroom with the aim to teach music should definitely engage Orff-Schulwerk. Carl Orff (1895-1982) developed the method of teaching music by providing the space for improvisations with the use of songs, rhymes, xylophones and percussions. The authors then present their music and linguistic system on three language levels. Beginners are advised to recite phrases from the text with the help of metronome. Then the text is then rhythmized in a canonical form. Thus, the learners create the rhythmical patterns and acquire basic music knowledge by experiencing off-beat and syncopation. With more advanced learners imitation and memorizing are supported by using a technique of a question–response and a response-question between a teacher and learner and learner – teacher. Then the learners are required to write lyrics (text) into a music background with rhythmical and instrumental arrangements. Macarthur and Trojer recommend several activities: text reciting with the help of hand clapping, avoiding words from the text and play them with the instruments or acting out the text in the form of the dance which can be later on performed.

Curriculum of music lessons varies from country to country but it definitely covers exploring different music genres developed throughout the history as well as lives and works of famous music composers and performers. These topics could be presented in a foreign language via using and practising appropriate vocabulary and grammar structures, and developing language skills. Classical music forms such as theme and variations or rondo can be experienced through singing songs in a foreign language and thus two parallel aims can be achieved: first it is getting familiar with musical forms and second one involves practising or revising language structures.

CLIL Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) promotes the idea of joining language and

content of a non-language subject in a very sensitive and collaborative integration (Marsh, 2007). The idea is to connect effectively the methodologies of language teaching with non-language subjects. Project Erasmus+ with the title ´Transnational exchange of good CLIL practice among European Educational Institutions´ provides and prepares opportunities for observing and sharing ideas on good CLIL practices in different European countries: Lithuania, Latvia, Italy, Sweden and Slovakia. Latvia and Lithuania support CLIL lessons at elementary and also secondary schools. Italy specializes on CLIL application at the secondary level of education. In Slovakia, the results of the CLIL research carried out at elementary school are discussed in the book Modernization of teaching foreign languages, CLIL, Inclusive and Intercultural Education (Pokrivčáková et. al. 2010) It summarizes the Slovak achievements in CLIL practice at elementary schools in Slovakia.




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In order to prove the above mentioned theory on connecting music and English, the paper presents the results of observation carried out within the mentioned project Erasmus+. They both use methodologies of language and music teaching.

Observation The CLIL lesson combining music and French was performed by a music teacher expert

Jelena Valiuliene from Lithuania. The lesson was held in Vilnius, at Vilniaus Jono Basanavičiaus progimnazija. The learners were 3rd and 4th graders at Elementary level of schooling. French is their first foreign language and they have been learning it from their 2nd grade. The mother tongue of the learners is Lithuanian.

The main topic of the lesson was Variations Content aims were to get to know the form of variation, then listen and get familiar with

Mozart variations. The partial aim was to let students experience and create their own rhythmic variations with the help of Orff-Schulwerk instruments.

Linguistic aims of the lesson were to use the basic vocabulary related to the topic. New vocabulary presented the following words:

Le theme variations La forme musicale Forma La melodie Le tempo Une oeuvre Methods and Techniques used in the lesson TPR (Total Physical Response), drilling by chants and rhythmical patterns, translation Learners were standing in a circle clapping their hands or using body percussions when

presented new phrases. Then they repeated them. Teacher rhythmically chanted words and students practiced them by repetition and drill.

Forms of work: pair, group, whole class Every action was performed applying movements and language. Code-switching from French to Lithuanian and back was done naturally and only when

learners misunderstood the instruction. However, new vocabulary was drilled in French only and learners were praised with French phrases:

Bravo! Aie confiance en toi! Tu t´es amélióre! Bon esprit de camaraderie! Trés bien! Pas mal! Evaluation In the end of the lesson self-assessment took place. It consolidated how the learners acquired

new knowledge. It was provided in French. Children could choose which phrase had applied to them.

I understand what variations are. It is not difficult for me to create variations. I would like to understand this topic more. .... Results This CLIL lesson combined music and French with the aim to present, learn and acquire new

terminology and vocabulary, understand the concept of variations providing an example by Mozart variations. Moreover, learners experienced creating their own piece of music and performed it in the end. Thus, linguistic as well as content aims were fulfilled. Above all, the teacher and the learners enjoyed the lesson a lot.

CLIL lesson – English through music This lesson was held in a language school in Nitra, Slovakia with a group of teenage learners

aged 13-14. Their English was at A2-B1 level according to Common European Framework of




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Reference for Languages. It was their 6th year of studying English as a foreign language. Mother tongue of the students was Slovak or Hungarian.

The main topic of the lesson was Musical as a genre, West Side Story by Leonard Bernstein. Content aims were to understand what musical as a genre was, get familiar with a composer Leonard Bernstein, then listen and sing the song America, explain the term triplets which is used in the leitmotif of the song and play music using the triplets.

Linguistic aims were to develop language skills: reading the story of the musical, use past tenses in retelling the story of the musical, discuss the different accents and cultural differences.

Methods and Techniques used in the lesson Task-based instruction, drill, chants, song, use of Orff-Schulwerk instruments A warm up activity was a jazz chant by Carolyn Graham aimed at revision of past tenses. It

was performed even as a TPR activity. After listening America song and comprehension of triplets, students used instruments to perform and sang the song along. Then the text in English about the story of the musical was read silently and comprehension questions were answered in groups. According to the background knowledge students had a task to state possible problems and arguments of the opposite gang members and discuss it with the whole class. The teacher depicted the situation in the USA in the mid1950s. Students retold the story in a rhythmical way with the use of past perfect and prompted words.

Forms of work: pair, group, whole class Code switching: regarding the language proficiency of students, Slovak language was rarely

used. The students used Slovak only when they wanted to make sure they had understood well the terms as for example triplets.

Results This lesson aimed more for English language development rather than music content

knowledge. However, the topic of West Side Story as a love story was very catchy for the students. The linguistic aims of practising past tenses and content aims of explaining musical and triplets were achieved. Moreover, the students as well as the teacher seemed to enjoy the lesson.

Conclusion Music and language undoubtedly share some common features which can be beneficial in

language and music teaching. Music provides a renewable source of material which may help break the ice in language lessons and create relaxed and positive atmosphere. When using music elements actively, learners and teachers can benefit from its use by building up vocabulary, developing receptive and productive language skills, providing drill techniques for language and improving their pronunciation. Above all, music, rhythm and dance connect people throughout the history. On the other hand, music history, forms and genres can be discussed through the language and thus build up content knowledge. CLIL lessons combining music and foreign language teaching bring in challenge and support in inter-curricular connections. Observations carried out in Latvia and Slovakia as a partial result of the Erasmus+ project prove that music and language teaching methodologies have a lot in common and achievement of both – linguistic and content aims are feasible.

Acknowledgements The paper publishes the partial results of the project Erasmus +, Project number: 2015-1-

SK01-KA201-008937. The author wishes to give special thank to Mrs. Jelena Valiuliene, a music teacher expert from

Vilnius and her students , from Lithuania for their CLIL lesson and also to an English teacher Asta Pleckevičiene as a project partner who was willing to gather and translate all the information necessary for this paper.




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References AMERICAN ORFF-SCHULWERK ASSOCIATION. (2014). What is Orff´s Schulwerk? Retrieved from

http://aosa.org/about/what-is-orff-schulwerk/. LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2008). Teaching techniques in English as a second language. OUP: Oxford. LOEWY, J.V. 2004. Integrating music, language and the voice in music therapy. Voices: A World

Forum for music Therapy. Retreived from http: www.voices.no/mainissues/mi40004000140.html

MACARTHU,,W. TROJER,J.(1985) Learning languages through music.In: Mashayek et al.The Impact of Music on Language Learners´Performance.Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 30(2011)pg.2186-2190.

MARSH, D. (2007). Diverse Contexts – Converging Goals. Clil in Europe. OUP. (2016). Carolyn Graham – ELT. Retrieved from

https://elt.oup.com/bios/elt/g/graham_c?cc=global&selLanguage=en. POKRIVČÁKOVÁ et. al. (2010). Modernization of teaching foreign languages, CLIL, Inclusive and

Intercultural Education.Brno: Masarykova Univerzita.

Contact Mgr. Elena Kováčiková, PhD. KLIŠ PF UKF, Dražovská 4, Nitra, Slovakia [email protected]

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