Les femmes comme des chefs. androgynes : Une conceptualisation du potential pour les femmes...

WOMEN AS ANDROGYNOUS MANAGERS

A Conceptua~zatio~ of the Potential for American Women in International Management

NANCY J. AL?LER

McGill University

ABSTRACT. Women in international management, where are they? While many female managers appear to have the quu~~t~es necessary for international management, they have been implicitly and explicitly excluded from overseas assignments.

This paper will begin by describing some of the dimensions on which the international business environment is different from the domestic United States environment. Research on the attitudin~i and behavioral skills found to be associated with success in the ~nternution~~ environment will be presented. It will be suggested that this list of international management skills goes beyond those characteristics generally associated with either the male or the female role in North America. The Model of the Androgynous International Manager will be introduced us a way of conceptualizing an appropriate orien- t~tion for the role of the internution51 manager. The need for future research is delineated.

The scope of the discussion is limited to the role of American’ women working in multinational business settings around the world.

IT] he moon landing marks the end of our childhood as a race and the beginning of a new and better civilization . . . it is not easy to see how the more extreme forms of nationalism can long survive when . . . [people] have seen the Earth in its true perspective as a single small globe against the stars.

Arthur C. Clarke

This paper was written in co~la~ration with Ms. Anne-Marie Spataru, MBA., Graduate School of Management, UCLA. Thanks is also extended to Ms. Monica Armour (Toron- to, Canada), Ms. Nancy Carter (Business International, New York), Dr. Beverly Kaye (Beverly Kaye & Associates, California), Mr. Charles Mannell and Mr. Michael Blimes (American Graduate School of International Management, Arizona), Ms. Joyce Ranney (UCLA), Ms. Carol Saltzman (UCLA), Mr. William Wi~inson (Wash~~on, D.C.), and Ms. Liselotte Adler (Northridge, California) for their suggestions and generous assistance. Requests for reprints should be sent to Dr. Nancy J. Adler, Faculty of Management, McGill University, 1001 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A lG.5, Canada.

407

408 Marcy .J. Adler

WOMEN IN INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT, WHERE ARE THEY?

While American’ women have increasingly had the opportunity to demonstrate their skills as competent domestic managers, they continue to be explicitly and implicitly excluded from international managerial assignments.

In this paper, two questions are being raised. First, could Ameri- can women fit into the international manager’s role? And second, if American women are suited for inte~ational assi~meI~ts, why are so few actually working overseas as managers? International managers encompass managers who (a) work outside of their home country; (b) travel regularly to work with overseas clients, potential clients, suppliers, andfor subsidiaries; (c) hold significant non-domestic responsibilities for overseas subsidiaries, projects, and/or clients; and (d) regularly contact nationals of other countries.

While studies of men in management have been conducted since the turn of the century, only during the last decade have numerous general studies been conducted on women in management. These studies have inciuded investigations on their ability to work with both males and females, to motivate other employees, and to work under conditions of stress. Separate studies have been conducted on the extent to which women are underrepresented at various levels of management; on the differences in perceptions of male and female managers; and on women’s typical career paths. It is beyond the scope of this paper to review the extensive literature written within the past ten years on women in domestic management.*

As the research focus on women in domestic management has grown, the number of women receiving a Masters of Business Ad- ministration (MBA) degree and gaining experience as managers has also been increasing (Haemmerli, 1978; Spataru, 1979). Significant numbers of women have been moving into the managerial ranks backed by social pressure and equal rights legislation (Boyle, 1973; Gordon, 1974; Murphy, f973; Schaeffer & Lynton, 1979; Schell- hardt, 1978; Slevin, 1972; Strober, 1974).

Little attention has been paid to women as international managers.3 Missing in most of these studies is an understanding of the potential for women working outside of traditional domestic organizational settings. Only very recently has there been any attention addressed to the small cadre of women who have direct

Women as Androgynous Managers 409

responsibility for international clients and organizations (Blum- berg, 1977; Carter, 1978; Cudaback, 1979; Fowler, 1978; Ioan- nou, 1978; “Overseas opportunities opening for women,” 1978; Morgenthaler, 1978; Schrodt, 1978; “Thunderbird leads the way,” 1978). With the dramatic increase in the percent of American business conducted overseas and the concomitant rising demand for top executives (Perham, 1977), organizations are being faced with developing more effective and sophisticated ways to include women and men in their total human resource planning. It is within these changing trends that the potential for women in international management will be addressed.

THE MULTICULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS

In order to understand the differences between domestic and international management, it is necessary to understand the primary ways in which nations around the world differ. The study of culture has produced literature rich in the description of alternative cultural systems. Implications for United States managers working overseas have been discussed and are currently being em- pirically documented (Kealey 8z Hawes, 1979). This section will present the six primary cultural dimensions and a management example for each cultural dimension. The emphasis will be on the cultural differences between the United States and various countries around the world.

Culture

The cultural orientation of a society is the complex interaction of the values, attitudes and behaviors displayed by its members. As described by Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952, p. 18 1):

Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior ac- quired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other as conditioning elements of further action.

In viewing societies, it is assumed that the full range of culturally influenced attitudes and behaviors exists within every society but

410 Nancy J. Adler

that each society favors certain behaviors and attitudes. Therefore, each society develops a cultural orientation that is descriptive of the attitudes of most of the people most of the time. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1970) have enumerated a set of assumptions that allows us to understand the cultural orientation of a society without doing an injustice to the cultural diversity within that society. Their assumptions (as adapted by Rhinesmith, 1970) are that:

1. There are a limited number of common human problems for which all peoples at all times must find some solution;

2. There are a limited number of alternatives which exist for dealing with these problems;

3. All alternatives are present in all societies at all times, but they are differentially preferred;

4. Each society has a dominant profile or values (cultural)4 orientation, and, in addition, has numerous variant or substi- tute profiles;

5. In both dominant and variant profiles there is a rank-ordering of preference for alternatives; and

6. In societies undergoing change the ordering of preferences will not be clear-cut.

As shown in Table 1, six basic dimensions have been used to describe the cultural orientations of societies: the nature of people,5 people’s relationship to nature, people’s relationship to other people, the primary mode of activity, people’s spatial orientation, and temporal orientation. Each orientation is a values state- ment having behavioral and attitudinal implications. Each of these orientations will be briefly described by presenting the dominant American orientation, a contrasting orientation(s), and an example of a management implication6 (DiStephano, 1972; Dimello, 1975; Rhinesmith, 1970; Stewart, 196 1).

Good or Evil: Are People Good or Evil? Are They Able to Change?

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The contrasting orientations are that people are basically evil- as was reflected in the Puritans’ orientation-or that people are basically good-as has been reflected in utopian societies through-

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out the ages. In contrast to the American change orientation, people in some societies are seen as unchangeable-not capable of improvement.

One management implication of the assumption that man is basically good is that employees can be trusted to put forth their best efforts and therefore do not need close supervision. McGreg- or’s (1960) Theory Y Management is based on the assumption that man is good and changeable.

When the assumption is made that man is basically evil, management control systems are devised primarily for surveillance to keep employees from being ineffective, inefficient, and dishonest. McGregor’s Theory X Management is more closely based on this assumption.

Cultures that assume that people are changeable tend to emphasize training systems (see the Organization Development literature such as Beckhard, 1969; Bennis, 1969; Burke, 1976; Culbert, 1974; French & Bell, 1973; Friedlander, 1976; Friedlander & Brown, 1974; Margulies & Raia, 1972; Schein, 1969) whereas cultures which assume that people are unchangeable tend to emphasize selection systems (see Contingency Theories of Management such as Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967; Morse & Lorsch, 1970; Kast & Rosensweig, 1974; McKelvey & Sekaran, 1976).

dominance or ~urmony: Are People ~o~~~~~t over Nature or in Harmony with Nature?

The American cultural perspective on the “Relationship to Nature Orientation” is that people are dominant over nature. Other societies, such as the Japanese, Chinese, and Navaho, reflect an orientation of ~urrno~y with nature. They see no real separa- tion between people and their natural environment. Their goal is to live at peace with their environment. A second, less common contrasting orientation is the subjugation of people to nature, people’s acceptance of the inevitable forces of nature.

Implications of the “Relationship to Nature Orientation” for management decision-making include an example from agribusiness. The American agribusiness executive with a dominant orientation would use fertilizers and insecticides to increase crop yield based on the assumption that man can, and ethically should, influence nature for his own needs. An executive with a harmony


orientation would attempt to plant the “right” crops in the “right” places at the “right” times in order to maintain the environment-the land, air, and water-in good condition.

Individuals or Groups: Are People Primarily Individuals or Primarily Members of Groups?

The dominant American perspective on the “Relationship to Other People Orientation” is individualistic. Americans use personal characteristics and achievements to define themselves and see their own welfare as most important. In contrasting group orientations, individuals define themselves as members of clans or communities and see the group’s welfare as most important.

Management’s personnel policies are influenced by this relation- al orientation. The American individualistic personnel director tends to hire people who are best qualified to do the job based on technical or task criteria. Group oriented personnel directors tend to hire relatives of people already working for the organization.’ The American decision-maker is most commonly an individual whereas in the contrasting culture of Japan the primary decision- making unit is the group.

Doing, Being, or Controlling: What is the Primary Mode of Activity?

The American’s dominant mode of activity is doing. This striv- ing Promethean component of people stresses accomplishments measurable by standards conceived to be external to the acting individual. The contrasting orientations are being and controlling. The being orientation finds people, events, and ideas flowing spon- taneously and includes the Dionysian component of people stress- ing release, indulgence of existing desires, and “isness.” The controlling orientation is the Appollonian component of people with the restraining of desires through detachment in order to develop the self as an integrated whole.

An example of this orientation is the range of answers to the question: Why do people work? Employees with the doing orientation are seen as working in order to accomplish things and as enjoying being busy; they maximize the significance of work. Em- ployees with a being orientation are seen as only working as much as necessary to live; they minimize the significance of work. Con-

414 Nancy J. Adler

trolling employees are seen as attempting to create a balance between work and other activities; they neither minimize nor maximize the significance of work.

Public or Private: How do People use Space?

Within the “Spatial Orientation,” Americans tend to define a larger area as private space, whereas some contrasting cultures have larger areas defined as public space.

The public versus private dimension becomes salient in the ar- rangement of organizational space. For example, Americans associate private space with importance. Important meetings are therefore held behind closed doors, usually in the executive’s large, private office, and generally with minimal interruptions. Middle Easterners often have numerous people present during important meetings. The Japanese rarely separate the desks of employees with partitions. Both examples are indications of a public rather than a private spatial orientation.

Past, Present, or Future: How do People Use Time?

On the “Temporal Orientation,” the majority of Americans have a future perspective. The contrasting orientations hold either the past or the present to be of most importance.

Organizational plans often directly reflect the time orientation of management. American management goals tend to attempt to satisfy the needs of people in the future. Management by Objec- tives (MB0)8 is based on defining desired outcomes in the future. Past-oriented managers define traditional goals, goals replicating past behavior. Present-oriented managers tend to select goals that reflect current, short-term realities.

BEHAVIORAL AND ATTITUDINAL SKILLS OF

THE INTERNATIONAL MANAGER

It is clear from the above discussion that the variations in cultural orientations are wide and can have significant impacts on organizational dynamics. As a result, the American manager working outside of the United States must have a wider range of behavioral and attitudinal skills to be successful in international organizations than the domestically assigned manager. In one of the few empiri-


cal studies on the effectiveness of North Americans9 overseas,

Rubin, Askling, and Kealey (1977) found that beyond technical competence the following characteristics differentiated successful from unsuccessful expatriates:

Two- Way Communication : The ability to engage in meaningful dialogue rather than “lecturing” to individuals from the foreign culture.

Empathy: The ability to see a situation from the other person’s perspective.

Respect: The ability to communicate esteem for persons from other cultures.

Personal Knowledge Orientation: The ability to be subjective; to personalize one’s knowledge and perception without being judgemental.

Openness: The willingness and ability to share aspects of one’s personal life with members of a foreign culture.

Role Integration: The ability to simultaneously emphasize task and relationship dimensions in working with members of a foreign culture.

Tolerance for Ambiguity: The ability to live and work effectively in highly uncertain and unclear cross cultural situations.

Persistence: The ability to continue to work for a desired goal even in the face of numerous set backs; to approach goal attain- ment from an equifinality perspective-i.e., that there is more than one best way to reach a goal.

Similar to the Rubin study, a pilot study of multinational corporations conducted by the Chase World Information Center (Haemmerli, 1978) corroborated similar qualities as being necessary for effectively functioning in a foreign country:

1. An ability to react and adapt to the context, rather than imposing one’s own framework on the situation.

416 Nancy J. Adler

2. An ability to notice and absorb details that might appear in- significant but that can be critically important.

3. An ability to form sincere and trustful personal relations that inspire confidence on the part of a foreign counterpart.

4. Patience: A capacity for sensitivity and empathy that encour- ages a view of the foreign counterpart as a person.

5. Avoidance of excessive promises . . . and the absolute neces- sity to be able to deliver what is promised; reliability on the basis of scrupulous avoidance of exaggeration and “hype.”

Both of these studies suggest a wider range of attitudes and behaviors than those commonly associated with domestic management.

In the next section, the extent to which these international managerial skills overlap attributes associated with both the male and the female role will be investigated.

THE ANDROGYNOUS INTERNATIONAL MANAGER

Numerous studies have been conducted to differentiate the attitudes and behaviors of women and men.’ O Although the causes of the differentiation are actively disputed,’ ’ the fact that sex role differentiation exists is generally accepted (Bartol, 1974; Kanter, 1977; Mead, 1935; Monahan, 1974; Reif, Newstrom, & Monezka, 1975).

The Bern Sex Role Inventory, BSRI (Bern, 1974) is one of the instruments that has been developed based on Americans’ perceptions of the male and female roles. A selection of the twenty characteristics which are commonly associated with either sex role in

the United States (based on the Bern Sex Role Inventory, Bern, 1974) are: Male Role Female Role

Self reliant Yielding Defends own beliefs Cheerful

Independent Shy Athletic Affectionate

Assertive Flatterable Has a strong personality Loyal

Forceful Sympathetic

Analytical Sensitive to the needs of others

Willing to take risks Understanding Makes decisions easily Compassionate Dominant Softspoken

Aggressive Warm


Acts as a leader Tender

Individualistic Childlike

Competitive Does not use harsh language

Ambitious Gentle

Broverman, Broverman, Clarkson, Rosenkrantz, and Vogel (1970) found similar results in the perceptions of women relative to men. Women were perceived as:

More submissive Less adventurous More excitable in minor crises Less aggressive More conceited about appearance Less independent

More easily influenced Less competitive Less objective Disliking math and science Having feelings hurt more easily

These studies were used to identify stereotypic perceptions of male and female behavior. Women managers, as a subgroup of all women, have been described as displaying more stereotypic “male” attributes than non-managerial women.

It is important to note that neither all women nor all men have these characteristics; nor do the studies imply that women are in- herently different than men on these dimensions. The three things that are crucial to recognize are that:

l Societal stereotypes do exist; l Those stereotypes influence the behaviors of both men and

women; and l Sex role stereotypes have been shown to be a hindrance for

women moving into domestic management positions in the United States (Woods, 1975).

Haemmerli (1978) suggests that sex-role differentiation may be an asset rather than a hindrance for women managing in a multicultural environment. The Chase Study (Haemmerli, 1978) notes that managerial traits labelled as “Failings of U.S. Women in Busi- ness” are comparable to “The Qualities Needed for International Work.”

Failings of U.S. Women in Business

Passive/Reactive approach

Qualities Needed for International Work

Ability to respond to context . . . (rather than actively) . . . imposing a priori attitudes on the situation

418 Nancy J. Adler

Detail Orientation Willingness and ability to l do detailed homework on the new

environment; and l notice, and act on, seemingly minor

but often critical “details” of cultural attitudes and behaviors

“Inability to play on teams” (Focus on working directly with an individual)

Ability to develop strong one-to-one relationships (rather than working in impersonal teams)

Aversion to taking risks; excessive conservatism

Projection of conservative, down-to- earth, careful image; patience.

Sensitivity Sensitivity

Excessive modesty Modesty in what is promised, with correspondingly greater chance it can be delivered

Further, in reviewing the Bern, Broverman et al., and Chase studies, the author finds both a correlation between the characteristics associated with the male role and the American cultural orientation as well as between female role attributes and certain Contrasting Cultural Orientations. The following is a list of these apparent overlaps between sex-role and cultural orientation:

Characteristics Associated with the Male Role and the American Cultural Orientation

Good and Evil Less submissive

Characteristics Associated with the Female Role and the Contrasting Cultural Orientation

Good Yielding Cheerful Gullible Doesn’t use harsh language Affectionate Flatterable Sympathetic

Dominance over Nature

Assertive Forceful Dominant Aggressive

Harmony with/or Submissive to Nature

Shy Gentle Gullible Softspoken Yielding


Individualistic Self reliant Defends own beliefs Independent Assertive Leadership abilities Self sufficient Willing to take a stand Aggressive Acts as a leader Individualistic Competitive Ambitious Dominant

Doing Defends own beliefs Athletic Assertive Forceful Makes decisions easily Dominant Willing to take a stand Aggressive Acts as a leader Ambitious

Quiet Affectionate Loyal Less aggressive

Group Oriented Loyal Sympathetic Sensitive to the needs of others Understanding Eager to soothe hurt feelings Loves children Yielding Cheerful Affectionate Flatterable More easily influenced Less independent

Being Yielding Gullible Childlike Gentle

Since international managers must continually be a bridge between their home country and numerous contrasting cultures, it would appear that they need the full range of behavioral and attitudinal skills rather than being limited to a subset of sex-linked characteristics.

The word Androgyny comes from the “Greek” “andros” meaning man and the Greek “gyne” meaning woman. International management appears to demand an adrogynous value orientation (Bern, 1975a, 1975b, 1977; Bern & Lenny, 1976; Kaplan & Bean, 1976; Sargent, 1977). The author suggests that the Androgynous International Manager would be the person who uses both characteristically male and characteristically female attitudes and behaviors while working in a wide range of international cultures. In

420 Nancy J. Adler

The Androgynous International Manager

The Androgynous International Manager

FIGURE 1. The Androgynous International Manager.

introducing the conceptualization of the Androgynous Inter- national Manager, the focus becomes the manager’s ability to span boundaries between roles and cultures by encompassing multiple sets of attitudes and behaviors. Research is needed to clarify the most effective, specific combinations of attitudes and behaviors for the entire range of international managerial environments.

THE EXCLUSION OF WOMEN FROM INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENTS

Currently, a very small proportion of women have careers in- volving significant international assignments. Yet, the preceding discussion suggested that the woman’s role has traditionally in- cluded skills necessary for success overseas. From observing the international selection process, it appears that women are implicitly and explicitly excluded from overseas assignment (see Table 2) through:


Self-Selection. Women deselect themselves from serious consideration for overseas assignment either by not applying for available positions or by turning down positions when offered.

Corporate Selection. Both personnel and line managers deselect women from serious consideration for overseas assignments by both failing to consider them initially and by rejecting them during the selection process.

Foreign Country Selection. Foreign government officials and managers reject home country recommended women either at the predeparture stage (i.e., refusing visas) or once in the country (by ignoring them or sending them home).

Most deselection decisions appear to be based on one of two assumptions. Either it is assumed that women will not be effective overseas or it is assumed that women do not want to travel or be relocated overseas. Those two assumptions seem to be held strongly by both the corporate managers responsible for overseas assignments and by the potential women candidates themselves. Deselec- tion by foreign country officials appears to be based on the assumption that foreign women do not belong in their country as corporate representatives. It is a thesis of this paper that the majority of the deselection decisions are made in the home country-the United States-by the women candidates themselves or by other corporate decision-makers based on frequently inaccurate

TABLE 2

The Deselection of Women from International Management Positions

Women International Manager

Candidates

Home Country

(United States)

Corporate Selection

Foreign Country

Managers

Women do not apply Women are not con- Women are rejected prior to

sidered as candidates for their transfer overseas

international assignments

Women do not accept inter- Women are considered Women are ignored or rejected national assignments when but are rejected as once in the foreign country offered candidates for inter-

national assignments

422 Nancy J. Adler

assumptions about the attitudes of foreigners toward women. Americans tend to assume that “foreigners” are somehow “worse than we are” in regard to accepting women as managers. As the United States’ values on the equality of the sexes change, it may be easier for both men and women to accuse foreigners of preju- dice rather than examining our own remaining tendencies to dis- criminate on the basis of sex.

And as admitted . . . [the] Deputy Manager, Human Resources Development for Mobil Oil Corporation, “ . . . the real problem exists in the minds of those who make decisions regarding who shall make business trips abroad and who shall be offered overseas assignments.” (Ioannou, 1978)

Can Women be Effective Overseas?

The assumption that women cannot be effective overseas is based on the belief that (1) the foreign managers will not take women seriously as co-professionals, and (2) women lack the experience necessary for foreign assignments. Corporations fear that sending a woman overseas will offend certain clients who are un- used to seeing and working with women in managerial capacities. Corporations fear that their foreign counterparts will not be com- fortable working with a woman and that they will take the presence of a woman manager as an insult. This fear is often most strongly focused on operations in the Middle East and in Japan.

the feeling persists in many corporate circles that women can’t operate effectively in many foreign economies. Some companies are reluctant to send women overseas for fear of losing business. “Maybe you could put a woman in London,” says a male manager of a large American electronics company, “but in the Middle East? Forget it!” (Morgenthaler, 1978)

Data is beginning to emerge to dispel these fears. First, it is true that many male managers around the world are unaccustomed to working with professional women. But, it is also true that some cultures already have far more extensive representation of women in the professional workforce than the United States-most nota- bly the Eastern Bloc countries. These countries could then perhaps be assumed to be a better milieu for women managers than the United States.

Hungary. Women working in Communist-bloc countries say they are taken seriously and treated well. . . . an American (woman) who is Rank Xerox’s Sales Manager for Hungary, says she has had “absolutely no difficulty there.”


“Working in Eastern Europe,” she says, “is easier for a woman than it is in the West.” (Morgenthaler, 1978)

Asia. [The] President of Overseas Briefing Associates, stated that “in many ways, Asia is ahead of the U.S. in terms of accepting women in responsible roles while on the whole European and South American firms are not very receptive.” (“Overseas opportunities for women,” August 15, 1978)

Second, foreign professional women are frequently accorded a status far exceeding that of local women. Therefore, it is often in- appropriate to use the status accorded to women domestically as an indicator of the situation for expatriate professional women. Iran, until the Khomeini revolution in October 1978, was a notable example of this dichotomy between the status accorded to domestic versus foreign professional women.

Africa. Some places unaccustomed to native business women are willing to accept foreign ones. . . . [having] worked in the Ivory Coast, Gabon, and Cameroon . . . [an American business woman] says those African countries are “really quite pleasant and straightforward” in accepting Western businesswomen. (Morgenthaler, 1978)

Further, in some countries-especially prior to the economic inter- vention of Western “developed” countries-women assumed primary economic and management responsibilities. The management roles of men and women were reversed.

Ghana. In a significant number of countries where commerce is traditionally conducted in local markets, women have been responsible for a very large percentage of entrepreneurial activity . . . although in Ghana 80% of self- employed traders have been women, the introduction of Western style stores has resulted in the employment in them of over 75% men-despite women’s experience and know-how. Men have been trained, sometimes for the first time, to handle money and engage in trade (Boserup, 1970, p. 95). Even more dramatic is the example of women and food. It is estimated that 50% of all food is raised by women . . . (Tinker, 1975, p. 55). Yet foreign investors with a Western mind-set and agricultural assistance programs tend to make training, technology and machinery available only to men. As Ghana High Court Justice Annie Jiaggi has pointed out . . . [men’s] access to credit, unavailable to women, as well as advanced technology has given them the competitive advantage. (Jiaggi, 1975) (Persinger, 1978).

Third, and most important, the experience of the few women currently working as international managers has tended to dispel the assumptions that “foreign countries will not accept women managers” and that “women will be ineffective once sent overseas.” The following are some notable examples of women’s effectiveness overseas.

424 &QTlCJ’ J. Adler

Saudi Arabia, When an American banker. . . recently went to Saudi Arabia to negotiate a loan, her first problem was getting a foot in the door. Literally. Saudi Arabia generally doesn’t allow unaccompanied women into the country-no matter who they are. So . . . [the woman banker] took a transit visa- ~dicating that she was only stopping at the airport before her flight carried her to another destination-and, when no one was looking, she walked out the airport door. “Once in the country, I had no problems whatsoever, said . . . the Assistant Vice President with Amex Bank Ltd, a London based subsidiary of American Express Co. “I suppose that if your company has sent you there and you act in a competent manner, they’ll accept you.” When the time came for her to leave, her Saudi customers took care of the exit formah- ties. (Morgenthaler, 1978)

Europe and Mexico. [A women executive with Morgan Guaranty Trust] travels the globe-last year she visited 13 countries on three continents-and she says her work experience has been “very successful.” Last Novem- ber . . . she helped coordinate a $1.2 billion loan to Mexico, an effort that took her to negotiations from London to Frankfurt to New York to Mexico City to Paris. “I believe anyone I deal with believes Morgan Guaranty wouldn’t put me in the position if I weren’t qualified. (Morgenthaler, 1978)

Mexico. [The] resident Vice President for Citibank in Mexico City . . . went for about a year [to Mexico] to train someone to take over personnel operations there for the 400-person Citibank staff. At the time she was the only woman manager on that Ievel in the bank’s Mexico City operation. . , . Women have to prove themselves twice as much as men. “ . . . it’s as if we are in a glass box closely watched.” (Fowler, 1978)

Relocation and Travel

The second major assumption leading to deselection decisions is that women do not want to be relocated or to travel overseas. This assumption appears to be based on the belief that married women do not want to be separated from their husbands and children, that husbands of married women will be unwilling to transfer overseas unless they too have been offered a meaningful foreign assignment, and that women who travel will have “special problems” including being “talked about.”

As in the model for domestic management decision making, the author suggests that it not be assumed that a particular woman “does” or “does not” wish to travel or transfer. After an accurate briefing on the pros and cons of the foreign situation, each woman should be asked to state her personal preference, just as men are in such situations. Some will be willing to travel or transfer; some won’t. And although it is difficult to get dual work permits in many countries, it also should not be assumed that the husband of


a potential candidate for international assignment will be unwilling to transfer.

At the American Graduate School of International Management, the placement record for single women is improving markedly while the placement record for married women remains at close to zero. This includes one 1979 woman graduate who attached a notarized affidavit to her resume from her husband attesting to the fact that he would move anywhere in the world with his wife. Although highly qualified, she received no offers. (Mannell, 1979)

Again the implications of dual-career marriages should be assessed with the candidate rather than assumed to be insurmountable obstacles.

Women do face some unique problems in traveling overseas, and some people will choose to “talk about” traveling women (Loft- ing, 1978; Much, 1977). But, the current cadre of international women managers appears to be coping quite effectively with these hindrances.

The Myth of Woman as Spouse

From a review of the literature on selection for overseas assignment’ ’ it becomes clear that dissatisfaction of the spouse and a lack of cross-cultural communication competence are the two primary reasons for ineffectiveness overseas and early return (Tung, 1979). Since the “spouse” has traditionally been the wife, it is quite possible that corporate decision-makers tend to associate overseas failure with women rather than with the role of the spouse. This is unfortunate since it has been shown that the spouse’s role is usually the most difficult. The spouse (wife) is often not consulted concerning the decision to move overseas, but rather handed a fait accompli. Therefore, the motivation to move is frequently lower for the spouse than for the employee. The spouse leaves the daily structure in the home country (the United States) and has neither the employee’s job nor the children’s school structure in the foreign culture to replace it. The spouse, often with no language training, must communicate in the native language on a daily basis whereas most American children attend English-language schools and the employee (husband) is generally in an English-language work environment. The spouse/wife thus becomes labelled as the “one who cannot adapt.” To the extent that women themselves and corporate decision-makers have

426 Nancy J. Adler

implicitly accepted this myth about not adapting, the number of women being sent overseas as managers rather than as spouses will continue to be minimal.

The most unfortunate part about these selection assumptions is that they tend to be held by both women candidates themselves and by corporate management. Yet, few women apply for international management positions, but that is not an indication of their inability to succeed. It appears only to be an indication of the extent to which they have accepted the “Myth of the Male International Manager.”

Many women are finding. . . that many presumed barriers to women are more apparent than real. They are discovering many real barriers are not quite so formidable when a woman has the backing of a big bank or corporation. . . . If you are working for a big and glamorous multi-national, it has got to mean more than your sex. (Morgenthaler, 1978)

It will take years before a sufficient number of women have gone beyond the myths and gained sufficient experience to be selected for top international managers. It will take an increased awareness by both men and women to begin to break the cycle of deselection.

Foreign Cultures

The role played by the foreign culture itself is the least tracta- ble. It is the author’s opinion that as guests in a foreign country, we must respect the culture as the host nationals have defined it. But, we must be careful not to assume barriers that either do not exist or have not been tested. The American woman banker working in Saudi Arabia is a good example of “myth testing” (see page 00). Contrary to the assumed non-acceptance of women managers in Saudi Arabia, this case demonstrates that a woman can succeed. The case clearly demonstrates the need to test assumptions.

CONCLUSION

The trends are clear: managing in a foreign environment is different from managing domestically. The international manager needs access to a full range of behavioral and attitudinal skills, those traditionally linked both to the male and to the female role within the United States culture. Whereas women have been ex-


eluded and have excluded themselves from most international assignments, a small group of women is beginning to demonstrate that female international managers can be effective overseas.

Within the field of international management, there is strong need for research to define the role of the international manager and the relationship of both men and women to that role. To date, the majority of the international management literature has focused on the technical, economic, legal, and political systems rather than the human systems (Robinson, 1979). Studies have tended to emphasize the comparison between organizations in various national cultures rather than the interaction of managers across cultures (Adler, 1979). Research is needed to help us to understand the complex dynamics of multicultural interaction within international human resource systems. Specific research should be conducted to define the alternative career paths of domestic and international managers as well as documenting the career progression of male versus female international managers. Further research needs to be conducted on the decision-making criteria of women candidates themselves and of personnel responsible for overseas assignment decisions. As these studies reveal more about the actual skill demands of international work and career path decisions of individual employees, it will become easier to separate myth from reality. Through such investigations, management’s ability to increase the effectiveness of their international personnel, regardless of gender, will be greatly increased.

NOTES

1. American. The word “American” will be used to refer to people from the United States. Most of the examples would apply equally well to Canadians. The author is cognizant of the fact that other peoples through- out Central and South America will refer to themselves as Americans. In this paper, the word “American” is used to refer to people from the United States as a writing convenience.

2. The literature on women in domestic management positions during the last lo-15 years is extensive. For a selected list of some of the more important studies in this burgeoning new field see Appendix A.

3. A computerized search of the management, social science, psychological, sociological, anthropological, and women’s literature revealed fewer than ten articles on women in international management. The author would like to thank the International Business and Research Program, Graduate School of Business Administration, USC, specifically Dr. Milton Holman for their support in conducting the computer literature search.

428 Nancy J. Adler

4. Cultural orientation. The term used in the original work by Kluckhohn

and Strodtbeck (1970) was Values Orientation. 5. Man. The word “man” is used to denote “human being,” referring to

both men and women. For this paper, the titles of the orientations will be changed to explicitly reflect the inclusion of women.

6. The management implications are taken from the work of DiStephano (1972), based on the work of Rhinesmith (1970).

7. The actions of personnel managers often appear biased, illogical, and un- fair when viewed from the perspective of the contrasting culture.

8. MB0 is Management by Objectives, a systematic process for setting individual and organizational goals as well as monitoring progress toward those goals. See Management by Objectives (Raia, 1974).

9. The study is based on Canadians working in developing countries around the world. The Canadian experience is similar enough to the American experience to use as an analogy.

10. See Appendix A for suggested bibliography on differentiated behaviors and attitudes of men and women.

11. Various authors have attributed sex-role differentiation to nature and others to nurture. Some believe that men and women are born biological- ly different. Others believe that early childhood training is irreversibly responsible for sex-role differentiation. Others suggest that current societal patterns differentially reinforce certain behaviors and attitudes in men and women. These scholars believe that both men and women are capable of changing if the environment changes.

12. For a list of literature on selection for overseas assignments see Appendix

B.

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APPENDIX 1 A. GENERAL STUDlES ON WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

BASIL, D.C., & TRAVER, E. Women in Management. New York: Dunellen, 1972.

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FABIAN, J.J. The hazards of being a professional woman. Professional Psychology, 1972, 3, 324-326.

FIDELL, L.S. & DeLAMATER, J. (Eds.). Women in the professions: What’s all the fuss about? Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 197 1.

FRANZWA, H.H. Working women in fact and fiction. Journal of Communi- cation, 1974, 24(2), 104-109.

HENNIG, M., & JARDIM, A. The ManageriaZ Woman. Anchor Press Double- day, 1976.

HERRICK, J.S. Work motives of female executives. Public Personnel Manage- ment, 1973, 2, 380-387.

KAY, M.J. What do women in personnel do? Personnel Journal, 1969, 48, 810-812.

KREPS, J.M. Sex in the marketplace: American women at work. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 197 1.

LORING, R.K., & WELLS, T. Breakthrough: Women into management. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1972.

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B. UNDERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

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C. PERCEPTUAL DIFFERENCES OF MALE AND FEMALE MANAGERS

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ROSEN, B., & JERDEE, T.H. Influence of sex role stereotypes on personnel decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 54,9-14.

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TRESEMER, D. Fear of success: Popular, but unproven. Psychology Today, 1974, 7( IO), 82-85.

D. WOMEN MANAGER’S TYPICAL CAREER PATHS

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BARTOL, K.M. Sex differences in job orientation: A re-examination. Am- herst: University of Massachusetts, 1974.

BIRD, C. Born female: The high cost of keeping women down. New York: McKay, 1968.

EPSTEIN, C.F. Woman’s place: Options and limits in professional careers. Berkeley: University of California, 1970.

434 Nancy J. Adler

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HALL, D.T., & GORDON, F.E. Career choices of married women: Effects on

conflict, role behavior and satisfaction. JOtirnQl of Applied Psychology, 1973, 58, 42-48.

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KLEMMACK, D.L., & EDWARDS, J.N. Women’s acquisition of stereotyped occupational aspirations. Sociology and Social Research, 1973, 57, 5 10-525.

KUNDSIN, R.B. Women and success: The Anatomy of achievement. New York: William Morrow, 1974.

ORTH, C.D., & JACOBS, F. Women in management: Pattern for change. HQFVQrd Business Review, July-August 197 1.

PROFANT, P.M. Sex differences and sex role stereotypes as related to professional career goals. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1969, 30( l-B), 388-389.

STANDLEY, K., & SOULE, B. Women in male-dominated professions: Con- trasts in their personal and vocational histories. Journal of Vocational Be- havior, 1974, 4, 24.5-258.

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APPENDIX II

SELECTION FOR OVERSEAS ASSIGNMENTS

BAKER, J.C., & IVANCEVICH, J.M. The assi~ment of American executives abroad: Systematic, haphazard or chaotic? California iManagement Review, Spring 197 1, 39-44.

BAKER, J.C., & IVANCEVICH, J.M. Multinational management staffing with American expatriates. Economic and Business BulIetin, Fall 1970, 23(l), 35.

BASSETT, G.A. Selecting managers: A study of personnel selection decision process. ~rontonville, N.Y.: Personnel Research Service, General Electric Col., 1968.

BEETH, G. International management practice: An insider’s view. AMACOM, 1973.

BORRMANN, W.A. The problem of expatriate personnel and their selection in international business. Management International Review, 1968, 8(4/S), 37-48.

HAYS, R.D. Ascribed behavioral determinants of success-failure among U.S,


expatriate managers. Journal of International Business Studies, 197 1, 2(l), 40-46.

IVANCEVICH, J.M. Selection of American managers for overseas assignments. Personnel Journal, 1969,48, 190-l 93.

HEENAN, D.A. The corporate expatriate: Assignment to ambiguity. Colum- bia Journal of World Business, May-June 1970,49-54.

HODGSON, F.X. The selection of overseas management. MSU Business Topics, Spring 1963, 49-54. (Reprinted in S.P. Seth & J.N. Sheth, Multi- national Business Operations ZZ, Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear, 1963.)

HOWARD, C.G. Model for the design of a selection program for multinational executives. Public Personnel Management, March-April 1974, 138-145.

KIERNAN, P. What it takes to be a successful international manager. Znter- national Executive, Fall 1963, 3.

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436 Nancy J. Adler

ABSTRACT TRANSLATIONS

LES FEMMES COMME DFS CHEFS ANDROGYNES: LINE CONCEPTUALISATION DU POTENTIAL POUR LES FEMMES AMERICAINES DANS L'ADMINISTRATION INTERNATIONALE

Cet article va d&x-ire certaines dimensions par rapport auxquelles l'environnement internationale des affaires est different de celui propre ami Etats Unis. Des rhultats obtenus sur les comp6tences attitudinales et comportmentales associe6s au suc~es dam l'environn- ment international semnt presente's. Le model de 1'Administrateur Androgyne International sex-a introduit pour conceptualiser me orientation appropri& h se role.

LAS MUJERES COMO GERENTES ANDRdGENOS. DEL POTENCIAL PARA LAS MUJERES

UNA CONCEPTLJALIZACION WERICANAS

EN LA ADMINISTRACION INTERNACIONAL

Donde se,,hallan las mujeres en la administraci& international? Aunque pareceria que muchas mu.$eres poseej) ,las condiciones para ser gerentes internacionales, implicita y exolicitamente han sido excluidas de cargos de ultramar.

Este trabajo analiza algunas de las dimensiones que diferencias al mercado international de1 interno de 10s Estados ilnidos. Se presentaran resultados de la investigacidn realizada para determinar wales son las habilidades y attitudes as,ociadas con el exito en el medio ambiente international. Se sugerira que esta lista de habilades para apinistrar en el mercado international va mucho mas alla!de las caracteristicas que generalmente se asozian con el rol masculine a femino en 10s Estados Unidos. El Modelo de1 Gerente International Androniao serapresentado corn0 mktodo para conceptrualizar la orienta?& adecuada de1 rol de1 generente international. Se senala la necesidad de mayor inverstigacidn.

La discusi& se limita al papel de las mujeres americanas trabanado en ambientes de negocios multinational slrededor de1 mundo.

Les femmes comme des chefs. androgynes : Une conceptualisation du potential pour les femmes...

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