Late Pleistocene alluvial plain sedimentation in Lower Narmada Valley, Western India:...

Late Pleistocene alluvial plain sedimentation in Lower Narmada Valley,

Western India: Palaeoenvironmental implications

S. Bhandari, D.M. Maurya, L.S. Chamyal*

Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390002, Gujarat, India

Received 7 February 2003; revised 24 September 2003; accepted 19 December 2003

Abstract

Late Pleistocene fluvial sediments that were deposited in a slowly sinking basin are now exposed as 30–50 m high incised vertical cliffs all

along the Lower Narmada Valley in western India. The exposed fluvial deposits have been classified into two sediment packages, alluvial fan

sediments overlain by alluvial plain sediments. The alluvial plain sequence has not been studied previously. It consists mainly of sands and

silts and is dominated by overbank deposits. Occurrence of large scale bedforms in the alluvial plain sequence points to the existence of a

large sand bed river in an alluvial plain setting. The major sedimentary facies in stratigraphic order include large channel fills, giant epsilon

cross bedded strata, overbank fines occurring in horizontal, massive and undulatory stratified forms associated with crevasse splay and

backswamp deposits, and a reddish brown palaeosol overlain by thinly stratified sands and silts at the top of the exposed sediment succession.

Large sized channel fills occur at two stratigraphic levels, which are morphologically similar and are indicative of high rates of deposition

and avulsion. The large channel fill structures and the giant epsilon cross bedded strata indicate a large single channel river that was

consistently 10–15 m deep and about 70–80 m wide even during the dry seasons. These dimensions are larger than those of the present day

Narmada River at low discharge levels. The overbank sediments indicate rapid deposition through frequent overbank floods and floodplain

aggradation by a laterally shifting river. Available chronologic data suggests that the reddish brown palaeosol correlates with a regional phase

of pedogenesis in the alluvial plain of Gujarat prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The thinly stratified sands and silts overlying the

palaeosol were deposited by a considerably depleted but perennial river during the arid phase of the Last Glacial Maximum. Overall, the

alluvial plain sediments of the Lower Narmada valley, particularly those below the palaeosol, have been attributed to a hyper-avulsive large

river with low sinuosity whose high discharge levels were determined primarily by a large catchment area further to the east and not by the

semiarid climate prevailing in the Gujarat alluvial plain during the upper part of the Late Pleistocene. The study concludes that the Narmada

River has maintained a large catchment at least since the last 100 ka, however, the river was characterised by a much bigger channel during

much of the Late Pleistocene with discharge levels higher than the present day.

q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Late Pleistocene; Fluvial aggradation; Large river; Palaeoenvironment; Lower Narmada valley

1. Introduction

Fluvial deposits and their relationships with geomorpho-

logical elements, stratification and depositional facies are

reasonably well understood (Cant and Walker, 1978;

Bridge, 1985; Bristow, 1996). Channel morphology is the

most important controlling factor in the deposition of fluvial

sediments (Rust, 1978). The geomorphological elements in

a fluvial system include channels, point bars, levees and

floodplain, and stratification results both from lateral

migration of bedforms and by vertical deposition

(Cant and Walker, 1978). The vertical arrangement of

lithofacies is particularly diagnostic of spatial and temporal

changes in fluvial processes over time. Most studies

concerning fluvial channel responses to autogenic and

allogenic factors, and resultant depositional models, have

been carried out on pre-Quaternary rocks. Studies on

Quaternary sediments are extremely valuable in this respect

as they can reveal fluvial responses to various factors that

can take place on shorter time scales (Blum and Tornquist,

2000) and can be further used to test models derived from

older rocks.

Sediments deposited by large rivers tend to give rise to

large scale bedforms (Coleman, 1969). However, case

studies dealing with geological controls on sedimentation

by large river systems are sparse. Large rivers usually

1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2003.12.011

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2005) 433–444

www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected] (L.S. Chamyal).

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

transcend several climatic zones on their way to the sea. A

question, central to any geological study on big rivers,

therefore, is their age or antiquity (Potter, 1978). Here, we

describe the major sedimentary characteristics of the Late

Pleistocene fluvial sediments of the lower Narmada valley

(Fig. 1A) that form the southern extremity of the laterally

extensive alluvial plain in Gujarat.

2. The Narmada River

The Narmada River is the third largest river of India after

the Brahmaputra and Ganges in terms of discharge and size

of the drainage basin. A major part (upper and middle

reaches) of the course of the Narmada drainage basin falls

within the rocky terrain of homogenous lithology dominated

by the Palaeocene basaltic flows popularly known as the

Deccan Trap with small inliers of Late Cretaceous

sedimentary rocks. The channel of the Narmada River in

its upper and middle reaches alternates between stretches of

bedrock gorges and patches of alluvium (Kale et al., 1994;

Ely et al., 1996) and is characterised by waterfalls, rapids

and scablands (Rajaguru et al., 1995). The lower part of the

course of the Narmada River falls in the alluvial plain in

Gujarat (Fig. 1A), which marks the sink for the sediments

carried by the Narmada River. The basin preserves the

thickest sequence (,800 m) of Quaternary sediments in

the entire Gujarat alluvial plain (Maurya et al., 1995), the

deposition being facilitated mainly by syn-sedimentary

subsidence of the basin along the Narmada-Son Fault (NSF)

in a compressive stress regime (Chamyal et al., 2002). The

top 40–50 m of the total basin fill of Late Pleistocene age is

exposed due to incision by the Narmada River in response to

basin uplift during the Holocene (Chamyal et al., 2002). In

this paper, we deduce the fluvial environments based on

sedimentary structures and the lateral and vertical variations

in the alluvial plain sediments. From these observations, we

infer the type of river that may have deposited these

sediments and the environmental implications.

3. Late Pleistocene stratigraphy of Lower Narmada

valley

Lithostratigraphic studies of the exposed Late Pleisto-

cene sediments in the lower Narmada valley (Chamyal et al.,

2002) have revealed a basal marine pedogenised clay of

1–2 m thickness (Figs. 1B and 2) apparently deposited

during the last interglacial high sea level (,125 ka). This

clay is overlain by vertically stacked fluvial sediments now

exposed in the imposing 30–50 m high incised cliffs all

along the Narmada River. Two major lithofacies have been

identified (Chamyal et al., 2002)—the alluvial fan facies

and the alluvial plain facies (Figs. 1B and 2). The alluvial

fan facies comprises two large alluvial fans whose

sedimentological details are available in Chamyal et al.

(1997, 2002). However, the sediments comprising the

alluvial plain facies, that stratigraphically overlie the

alluvial fan sediments (Figs. 1B and 2), have remained

unclassified. Deformation structures in the alluvial plain

sediments indicate slow synsedimentary subsidence in

compressive stress regime (Chamyal et al., 2002).

The alluvial plain facies is dominated by overbank

sediments without palaeosols, further indicating synsedi-

mentary subsidence. Attainment of tectonically stable

conditions is indicated towards the top of the alluvial

plain sediment succession, where a 4–5 m thick reddish

brown palaeosol occurs (Chamyal et al., 2002). The

palaeosol is again overlain by stratified fluvial sands and

silts (Fig. 2). Chronological studies on the palaeosol

Fig. 1. (A) Map of the Narmada drainage basin showing the lithology and location of the study area. Major climatic zones are after Singh et al. (1991). (B)

Composite lithostratigraphic profile of the exposed Late Pleistocene sediments in lower Narmada valley (after Chamyal et al. (2002)).

S. Bhandari et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2005) 433–444434

suggest that it is correlatable with the pre-Last Glacial

Maximum pedogenic phase reflected in the adjacent Mahi

and Sabarmati basins (Tandon et al., 1997; Juyal et al.,

2000; Chamyal et al., 2002). Chronological studies (Juyal

et al., 2004) in the adjacent Mahi River basin and the

Orsang basin (a tributary basin of the Narmada River), have

shown that the aeolian sediments overlying the palaeosol

correspond to the arid phase of the Last Glacial Maximum

(LGM). This means that the entire alluvial plain of Gujarat

witnessed aeolian accretion during the LGM, the southern

limit of which lay very close to the northern bank of the

Narmada River.

4. Sedimentary characteristics and facies

The alluvial plain sequence of the lower Narmada valley

is easily distinguished from the stratigraphically older fan

sediments by its finer grain size, and large scale sandy

bedforms that indicate deposition by a freely meandering

river in an alluvial plain. The sediments comprising the

alluvial plain sequence are exposed in long continuous cliff

exposures along the river, which allows for accurate

determination of lateral and vertical relationships of the

various strata and sedimentary facies. The exposed

sediments were studied by preparing vertical lithologs at

several places (Fig. 2). In addition, lateral facies variations

were noted by tracing individual strata along the length of

the outcrops. A large percentage (,70%) of the exposed

alluvial plain sequence is composed of stratified and

unstratified overbank fines. In general, the E–W trending

outcrops are largely homogenous overbank sediments while

the NNW–SSE and NNE–SSW trending cliff faces display

more heterogeneous fluvial sedimentary environments. One

such outcrop, trending roughly in a N–S direction, normal

to the general west oriented course of the Narmada River

located at the confluence of Narmada and Orsang rivers

(Fig. 3), has been found particularly useful for stratigraphi-

cally constraining the various sedimentary facies exposed at

other sites. The outcrop, about 400 m long and 35–40 m in

height, is the only one in lower Narmada valley, which

exposes the full alluvial plain sequence. Some other sections

are also almost equally spectacular in dimensions but they

appear to lack the completeness of the stratigraphic record.

A striking feature of the entire alluvial plain sequence

of lower Narmada valley is the large dimension of

Fig. 2. (A) Map showing location of sites studied. (B) Vertical lithologs of the Late Pleistocene sediments exposed along the Narmada river.

S. Bhandari et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2005) 433–444 435

the associated sedimentary structures, including channel

scours and fills. The major sedimentary facies encountered

include overbank fines that occur as massive and horizontal

and undulatory stratified forms and associated crevasse

splay and backswamp deposits, large channel fills and giant

epsilon cross strata. A reddish brown palaeosol tops the

overbank succession and is overlain by thinly stratified

sands and silts. In the following paragraphs we describe

these sedimentary facies as they occur in stratigraphic order.

4.1. Channel fills

The channel fills observed in the lower Narmada valley

are large and are well exposed in the reach between

Chandod and Kanjetha. Most of the large channel fills have

lost some part of their structure to the present day erosional

processes of the river. However, the preservation is

sufficient to allow estimation of the channel size. In lower

Narmada valley, channel fills are observed at two

stratigraphic levels, which are separated by the epsilon

cross stratified facies (e.g. Chandod, Figs. 3 and 4).

However, all large channel fills show similar morphologic

and sedimentary characteristics. In general, the channel fills

of lower Narmada valley show broad and concave upward

profiles, have abrupt contacts with the laterally adjacent

sediments and are dominated by vertical accretion.

At Chandod, the stratigraphically oldest channel fill

overlies the gravel deposits which belongs to the distal

alluvial fan facies (Chamyal et al., 2002) with a deeply

scoured base. The channel fill is overlain by epsilon cross

bedded horizon midway in the succession exposed at

Chandod (Figs. 3 and 4). The channel fill shows a gentler

concave-upward geometry and is filled by vertically

accreted fine to medium sands. Overall, the structure

indicates a westward oriented channel that was ,70 m

wide and about 4 m deep. A stratigraphically comparable

large channel fill of about 70 m width and 5 m depth is

located at Kanjetha (Fig. 5). Here, the channel fill sediments

comprise concave shaped sand sheets separated by erosive

surfaces that progressively become horizontal towards the

top (Fig. 5). Each channel filling sheet is about 1 m thick

along the channel axis, decreasing to 0.3 m at the margins.

Internally, the sands show fine horizontal laminations and a

complete absence of lateral accretion features. This suggests

filling up of the channel primarily through vertical accretion

in an almost standing body of water. This happens normally

in chute cutoffs where deposition takes place in the

remaining body of standing water after the channel is

Fig. 3. Photomosaic showing a part of the laterally extensive cliff exposure at Chandod. All units show erosional bases. Height of the person is 1.78 m. (1) distal

alluvial fan facies, (2) large channel fill sands (3) giant epsilon cross bedded strata, (4) horizontally stratified overbank strata, (5) palaeosol, (6) thinly stratified

sands and silts.

Fig. 4. Sketch figure (not to scale) showing the vertical relationship between the sediments exposed in the .400 m long cliff exposure at Chandod (Part of the

exposure is shown in Fig. 3). Note the vertical stacking of the sediments and two generations of channel fills. All units are separated by erosional surfaces.


abandoned. The channel margins show low dips of 15–208.

This suggests that the channel was not produced by incision,

which is consistent with the deposition in a subsiding

environment (Chamyal et al., 2002). The large channel fills

can be attributed to frequent shifting of a large river in an

alluvial plain. Occurrence of two large channel fills several

kilometres apart in the same stratigraphic horizon indicates

a river that frequently changed its course in a very short

period.

The stratigraphically younger channel fill at Chandod

(Fig. 4) indicates a much deeper and larger channel although

only about 30% of the total structure is observed, the rest

having been eroded away by the present river (Fig. 6A

and B). The channel fill is exposed at the southern extremity

of the ,400 m long outcrop. This channel fill occurs above

the epsilon cross bedded strata (Fig. 4). The margin has a

steep dip of about 308. Extrapolation of the channel margin

suggest a ,80–90 m wide and ,10 m deep channel. The

channel trough is filled by sand sheets with concave up

geometry which show internal stratification. Laterally

sediments of this channel fill are found to grade into

stratified overbank sands (Fig. 6A and B).

Overall, the dimensions of the channel fills in the lower

Narmada valley are greater than those of the present day

channel. Almost all the channel troughs trend roughly west

and indicate that the channel filling took place from the

bottom up and to a lesser extent from the margins. The

channel fill deposits are bounded by surfaces of non-

deposition making them discrete geometrical sets topped by

a horizontally stratified overbank deposits. More than one

channel fill has been observed in the stratigraphically

comparable strata though these are seen to occur tens of

kilometres apart. These channels may therefore be roughly

contemporaneous. They also indicate relocation of channels

due to avulsion over a very short period of time. However,

laterally adjacent channel fills are not seen which suggests

the existence of a large single channel river.

4.2. Epsilon cross strata

The term epsilon cross strata was coined by Allen (1963)

to describe large scale, gently dipping bounding surfaces

that correspond to the successive increments of lateral

growth of a point bar In simple words, the epsilon cross

strata are large scale, low angle point bar accretion slopes

(Miall, 1996). The cross strata are lithologically hetero-

genous, usually consisting of alternate layers of clayey silt

and sand and may vary from straight to convex upward or

Fig. 5. (A) Photograph of the large channel fill structure exposed 1 km downstream of Kanjetha. Note the prominent concave up geometry of the fill and the

internal laminations. Part of the channel fill towards the left has lost to present day erosion by the river. (B) Tracing overlay of the Fig. 5A bringing out the

major features of the channel fill.


curved in plan (Allen, 1963). The process of formation

involves erosion of the outer bank of the meandering

channel from the channel floor upward and concomitant

deposition on the gently sloping inner bank or point bar

(Allen, 1963). Epsilon cross strata are deposited on the point

bar of the channels while contemporaneous trough cross

bedded sands are deposited in the channel bottoms (Massop

and Flach, 1983). The height or thickness of the epsilon

cross strata approximates the depth of the channel (Miall,

1996) and can be used to estimate the channel scale (eg.

Massop and Flach, 1983).

In lower Narmada valley, individual outcrops are found

to show one set of epsilon cross strata that ranges in

thickness from 10–15 m (Figs. 3, 4 and 7). The epsilon

cross sets normally terminate against the overlying thick

bedded overbank facies. Laterally, the epsilon beds pass into

horizontal strata and further away merge with the overbank

deposits in the updip direction. The contact is therefore both

of truncation and transitional. Fig. 7 shows a well defined set

of epsilon cross beds. The surfaces dip 10–158. The epsilon

cross strata consist of 25–50 cm thick beds of very fine

sands with the top marked by clayey silt. The base of each

stratum is sharp with evidence of small scale scouring. Each

stratum is dominated by current ripple cross lamination with

5–15 mm thick ripple sets. Local occurrences of epsilon

cross sets have less than average depositional dips (,58).

Such local variations are believed to represent gradation

between epsilon cross stratified facies and the thick bedded

sand facies (Massop and Flach, 1983). Palaeocurrent data

recorded from the epsilon cross sets and other channel

troughs indicate a unidirectional pattern of transport

towards the W–WSW. The palaeocurrent directions are

found to be approximately parallel to the depositional strike

of the epsilon cross sets.

The large scale stratification and thicker bedding of the

epsilon cross strata in the lower Narmada valley indicate

deposition under higher flow regime compared to the

present. We attribute the deposition of this facies to lateral

migration of very deep (15–20 m) sand bed river channels.

Similar large scale epsilon cross bedded strata have been

attributed to deposition in deep water (Jackson, 1978).

4.3. Overbank deposits

Overbank deposits are defined as deposits left on the

floodplain by flood waters flowing outside the normal

channel. Floodplains border the channel belts of all alluvial

rivers that experience overbank floods, regardless of the

channel pattern. These areas receive sediment as bedload

and suspended load via crevasse channel flows or sheetflows

(Bridge, 1984). Apart from the flood plain, the continuum of

overbank environment includes crevasse splay and back-

swamp deposits. In lower Narmada valley, overbank

deposits overlie the epsilon cross strata and comprise

following sediment types.

4.3.1. Horizontally stratified sands

This facies forms the bulk of the exposed sediment

column in the lower Narmada valley. Exceptional thick-

nesses in the range of 20–25 m are seen in some of the cliff

sections, particularly towards the mouth where the entire

exposed sections consist of these sediments. In other

sections, they occur with other sediment facies and range

Fig. 6. (A) Photograph of the partially eroded away channel fill structure

occurring at the southern tip of the laterally extensive cliff exposure at

Chandod. This channel fill overlies the epsilon cross bedded strata. Note the

channel filling sediments grading away into overbank strata towards the

right. (B) Tracing overlay of the photograph showing major characteristics

of the channel fill as seen in the outcrop.

Fig. 7. (A) Field photograph of the epsilon cross bedded strata exposed

2 km downstream of Kanjetha. This horizon overlies the channel fill

structure shown in Fig. 5A and B. (B) Tracing overlay bringing out the

epsilon cross bedding.


from 5–10 m in thickness. These deposits are well exposed

at Chandod, Nanderiya, Moletha, Ambali, Patan, Kanjetha

and Sinor, where they comprise laterally extensive and

horizontally stratified fine to medium sand sheets (Fig. 8).

Internally each sand sheet is characterized by flat parallel

laminations and they typically lack lateral accretion

features. Internal stratification is generally well preserved

mainly due to very weak pedogenesis. Each sand sheet

shows fining upward trend and may have been deposited in a

single dynamic event, when flow conditions remain in a

critical stage for many hours such as in the case of large

floods (Kale et al., 1997). The facies may be attributed

to overbank deposition resulting because of successive

episodic floods (Miall, 1985).

4.3.2. Massive sands

Massive sand deposits are exposed throughout the lower

Narmada valley. The facies is composed of extensive sheets

of fine to medium sands. These comprise laterally extensive

sheets having an individual average thickness of 1.5–2 m.

At some places these reach a thickness of 5 m. These sand

bodies are devoid of any internal stratification and lack

lateral accretion surfaces, suggesting vertical accretion.

The sediments show only weak pedogenesis and are well

short of being categorised as typical palaeosols (Chamyal

et al., 2002). This indicates frequent submergence of

the floodplains during bank topping floods and rapid

sedimentation. The deposits resemble those of a meandering

channel where large floods submerge the floodplains

depositing sand sheets across the valley (Miall, 1985).

4.3.3. Undulatory bedded sands

Undulatory bedded overbank sands and silts occur in

association with the stratified sand facies and are separated

from the underlying sediments by erosional surfaces. The

undulations are prominent in sections perpendicular to the

regional palaeocurrent direction (Fig. 9). The grain size

varies from fine silty sand to medium sand. The undulations

have an average wavelength of about 10 m and heights up to

1 m. Individual beds are 0.25 to 1 m thick. The beds

progressively change height from one crest to another. In

plan view, the undulations appear as cross sections through

long low ridges parallel to the flow occurring along the sides

of large river as described by McCabbe (1977). Internal

erosion surfaces are common within the undulatory beds. A

similar facies consisting of fine sands is reported from the

Brahmputra (Coleman, 1969) where the crest to crest length

is 9–30.5 m and heights of 1.2 m. The generally massive

nature of the beds suggest rapid deposition by strong

currents under peak flood conditions (McCabbe, 1977).

4.3.4. Crevasse splay deposits

Crevasse splay deposits of the lower Narmada valley are

found to occur as thin sheet like bodies several tens of

meters across and 1–2 m thick passing laterally into

overbank fines. These occur at several stratigraphic levels

within the overbank deposits. These are fine to medium

grained sands with interbedded laminae of sand, silt and

mud. These deposits are characterized by thin bedding and

abundant surfaces of non-deposition reflecting their origin

by sheet flooding. The grain size decreases away from the

main channel towards the fringes of the splay and fines

upward within the splays. Levee deposits are normally

associated with crevasse splays but are difficult to

distinguish since they are lithologically similar because

Fig. 8. Field photograph of the horizontally stratified overbank sands

exposed at Ranapur. Height of the person in the photo is 1.65 m.

Fig. 9. Field photograph of undulatory bedded sand and silt deposits at Kanjetha. Height of the person in the photo is 1.65 m.


both are deposited from decelerating sheetfloods that

overtop natural levee and crevasse channels (Farrel, 1987).

4.3.5. Backswamp deposits

These are represented by the clayey sands and sandy silts

upto about 5 m thick and are intimately associated with the

overbank deposits in the lower Narmada valley. These

deposits are introduced into backswamps by crevasse

channels and are deposited as a result of flow expansion

and loss of flow power. Rhizocretions (root structures) are

abundant. The backswamp deposits (Fig. 10) represent

periods of standing water deposition, incursions of splay

sediments (silty sand unit), into the standing water body and

progradation of overbank deposits from the channel belt into

the flood basins.

4.4. Palaeosol

Towards the top of the alluvial plain sediments, a 3–6 m

thick brownish red to reddish brown soil occurs, which is

easily identifiable by its distinct appearance and laterally

consistent nature in the lower Narmada basin. The soil is

well exposed at Chandod, Nanderiya, Moletha, Ambali,

Patan, Kanjetha, Sinor, Ranapur, Nikora and Tavra. The

parent material for the soil is fluvial overbank fine sands and

silts, though the internal stratification is totally obliterated

by pedogenesis (Fig. 11) particularly by the formation of

calcrete throughout the soil. The paleosol marks the post-

depositional phase of pedogenic transformation of the

overbank sediments.

The palaeosol in lower Narmada valley has been

attributed to a regionally correlatable phase of pedogenesis

(Chamyal et al., 2002) which is seen in the adjacent Mahi

and Sabarmati basins also (Merh and Chamyal, 1997).

This buried soil has been used by earlier workers as a

marker horizon for stratigraphical correlation of Late

Pleistocene sediments in the various river valleys of Gujarat

alluvial plains (Pant and Chamyal, 1990; Merh and

Chamyal, 1997). Thermoluminescence dating of fluvial

sediments in which the palaeosol is formed have yielded an

age of 40 ^ 10 ka in the Mahi basin (Juyal et al., 2000) and

58 ^ 5.2 ka in the Sabarmati basin (Tandon et al., 1997).

Pedogenic calcrete nodules of this palaeosol in lower

Narmada basin have been dated to ,24,000 yr B.P.

(Allchin et al., 1978) and from Mahi to 26,410 ^ 690 yr

B.P. (Maurya et al., 2000) which mark the pre-LGM phase

of pedogenic alteration of the overbank sediments.

4.5. Thinly stratified sands and silts overlying palaeosol

Thinly stratified fine sands and silts overlie the palaeosol

(Fig. 11). They occur consistently throughout the cliff

sections marking the top of the exposed Late Pleistocene

sequence. Apart from the well preserved stratification, no

other sedimentary structure is observed. Morphologically,

they appear similar to the stratified overbank sand facies

described earlier; the only difference being the significantly

thinner bedding (Fig. 11). The beds average 0.25 m in

thickness and each bed may represent a single overbank

flood. There is no evidence of pedogenesis. The thin bedded

nature in comparison to the thick bedded sequence

underlying the palaeosol, suggest that the sediments were

deposited by a river that was significantly shallower with a

lower discharge level. The chronological data available for

the underlying palaeosol (Allchin et al., 1978) indicates that

these sediments were deposited during the arid phase of the

Last Glacial Maximum. In the Orsang basin, a tributary of

the Narmada River, the aeolian sediments of this phase

directly overlie the palaeosol (Juyal et al., 2004). These

sediments are attributed to the extreme arid climate during

Fig. 10. Field photograph showing close view of the backswamp deposits at

Nava Tavra. Note the abundant root structures in the form of rhizocretions.

Length of the pen is 14 cm.

Fig. 11. Field photograph of the top of the exposed Late Pleistocene sequence (Loc. 1 km downstream of Ambali). (1) horizontally stratified overbank sands,

(2) palaeosol, (3) thinly stratified sands and silts.


Late Pleistocene which peaked around 18 ka (Yan and

Petit-Maire, 1994) resulting in the extension of the Thar

desert into the Gujarat alluvial plains (Allchin et al., 1978).

However, the absence of aeolian sediments along the cliff

exposures in the lower Narmada valley and their presence in

Orsang valley suggests that the geographic limit of aeolian

accretion during the LGM was very close to the Narmada

River, though a significant reduction in fluvial activity is

suggested by the thinly stratified fluvial sediments overlying

the palaeosol. Absence of root structures and dessication

cracks indicate that the river may still have been perennial

and that the river retained the large catchment even during

the extremely arid phase of Last Glacial Maximum.

5. Palaeofluvial implications

Presently the Narmada appears as a misfit river (Chamyal

et al., 2002) and follows a channel that is confined by

incised cliffs. The largest flood discharges are not enough to

fill the entire channel (Rajaguru et al., 1995). However, the

Late Pleistocene alluvial plain sequence overlying the

alluvial fan sediments (Chamyal et al., 2002) reveal fluvial

characteristics that are at variance with the present day

channel characteristics of the Narmada River. The alluvial

plain sequence in the lower Narmada valley is dominated by

the overbank sediments and comprise large channel fills,

horizontally stratified sands, massive sand sheets, and

crevasse splay and backswamp deposits. However, the

overall dominance of sands and silts suggests, in general, a

sand bed river meandering through a wide alluvial plain.

The large channel fills are a significant component of the

alluvial plain sediments in the lower Narmada valley. These

occur as large sediment bodies of broad concave-up

geometry with gently sloping channel margins. This is in

contrast to the U shaped channel fills with steep channel

margins which indicate incision of the underlying deposits

before aggradation takes place (Hopkins, 1985). The

channel fills are filled with sand sheets with internal

laminations, which are thickest along the trough axis. These

may have been filled by deposition in standing body of

water remaining after the channel was abandoned. Such

filling of channels in modern settings has been demon-

strated by Meckel (1972). The nature of the fill is

determined by the rapidity of channel abandonment

(Hopkins, 1985). A sand filled channel indicates progressive

abandonment by diversion of flow through a favoured

distributary (Hopkins, 1985).

The channel fills indicate a large river having roughly

70–80 m width and ,8–15 m depth during periods of

low discharge. This is much larger in comparison to the

30–40 m width and ,5 m deep channel of the present day

Narmada River during lean seasons. The large scale

stratification and thicker bedding of the epsilon cross strata

indicate deposition due to lateral migration of very deep

(15–20 m) sand bed river channels. The large channel fill

structures occur in isolation and are associated with

overbank sediments. Occurrence of large channel fills,

adjacent overbank strata, and absence of laterally adjacent

channel fills indicate mainly a large single channel river.

The channel troughs indicate consistently west oriented

channels. No large scale variance in palaeocurrent direc-

tions derived from other independent parameters from the

outcrops is seen. This is indicative of a channel with

relatively low sinuosity and frequent occurrence of chute

cutoffs (Bridge et al., 2000).

Two generations of channel fills are present in the lower

Narmada valley. The one occurring at Kanjetha underlies

the epsilon cross bedded strata. A similar large channel fill

with a broader concave-up shape occurs below the epsilon

cross bedded strata. The partially exposed channel fill

structure at Chandod overlies the epsilon cross bedded strata

(Fig. 4). Vertical superposition of channel fills indicates

high deposition rates accompanied by high channel

migration rates. Since no significant variation in the fluvial

regime is visible that may suggest distinct climate change,

we attribute the frequent shifts of the river channel across

the alluvial plain to autocyclic factors.

Overbank sediments result from deposition due to

overtopping of the banks during river floods or avulsions.

A large amount of work has been done on the sedimentation

processes in overbank regions by Allen (1965), Elliott

(1974), Smith (1983), Bridge (1984), Farrel (1987), Sinha

and Friend (1999). Miall (1985) assigned overbank deposits

to a single architectural element, however, overbank

sequences have been shown to have complex and varied

architecture (Behrensmeyer, 1987; Brown and Kraus, 1987;

Kraus and Aslan, 1993; Smith, 1990, 1993). A common

characteristic of overbank deposits is the presence of

horizontal stratification (Willis and Behrensmeyer, 1994)

ranging from thinly stratified to thickly stratified. Overbank

deposits with well preserved stratification can result from

relatively rapid deposition. Rapid deposition and high rate

of channel shifting can lead to absence of palaeosols in

overbank sequences which seems to be the case in the lower

Narmada valley given the conditions of a slowly subsiding

basin (Chamyal et al., 2002) and the dominance of overbank

strata in the sediment succession. During increased

aggradation rate avulsion frequency is also high (Bridge

et al., 2000). Flooding processes were repetitive under the

conditions of overall aggradation of the floodplain, a

phenomena commonly associated with avulsion (Rhee

et al., 1993). The crevasse splay deposits occur in close

association with the overbank sediments, which suggests

that the crevasse deposits were formed far away from the

trunk channel (Rhee et al., 1993). Channel shifts (avulsions)

can be gradual or abrupt. Rapid abandonment takes when a

new channel is formed in a catastrophic flood event,

whereas gradual abandonment takes place when successive

high water stages result in enlargement of a crevasse finally

causing river diversion (Hopkins, 1985; Rhee et al., 1993).

We believe that channel abandonment may have taken place


by both means in the lower Narmada valley during the Late

Pleistocene.

The thick palaeosol marks a phase of pedogenesis of the

overbank sediments. Chronologic data on this regionally

recorded pedogenic phase indicates that it is pre-LGM

(Allchin et al., 1978; Tandon et al., 1997; Juyal et al., 2004).

The overlying thinly stratified sands and silts therefore

appear to have been deposited during the arid phase of the

Last Glacial Maximum. These multibed sediments were

deposited by vertical accretion during successive floods in

broad shallow channels, which may have remained stable

for relatively longer time. The sheet like nature of the

deposits and the lack of erosional downcutting indicate that

these were formed by vertical accretion on a broad poorly

channelised alluvial plain. These deposits therefore mark

significant reduction in fluvial activity due to considerably

depleted water supply which is directly related to the onset

of aridity. Continued sedimentation indicates that the river

retained a large catchment during the arid phase. Lack of

root structures and dessication cracks also suggest that the

flow was perennial.

6. Palaeoenvironmental implications

The exposed sediments of the lower Narmada valley

indicate two distinct phases of changes in the fluvial regime.

One is the multidistributary channel system that deposited

the alluvial fan sediments (Chamyal et al., 1997, 2002),

followed by the deposition of finer alluvial plain sequence,

described in this paper, by a large river in an alluvial plain

setting. The reasons for the sudden change of multi-

distributary river system to a more integrated single channel

river system, are not clear. The observed sedimentary

characteristics of the alluvial plain sequence discussed

above indicate a low sinuosity, single channel large river

that was hyperavulsive. On a conservative estimate, the

avulsions may have taken place on a scale of hundreds of

years. The river was characterised by a ,8–15 m deep

channel that was ,70–80 m wide even during low

discharge levels. Present day large rivers show similar

characteristics (eg. Brahmputra, Coleman, 1969) in which

the sediments show large-scale bedforms while the river

migrates at a high rate. Presently, the Narmada has a large

drainage basin most of which lies in the humid region

further east of the Gujarat alluvial plain. This accounts for

the high discharge levels of the Narmada River which is

next only to those of the Brahmaputra and the Ganges

(Coleman, 1969).

The phase of alluviation up to the palaeosol appears to be

synchronous regionally and globally. Studies in adjacent

Mahi, Orsang (Juyal et al., 2004) and Sabarmati basins

(Tandon et al., 1997) point towards the existence of largely

semiarid climate and ephemeral river systems in Gujarat

alluvial plains during most of the Late Pleistocene. The

present study on the alluvial plain sedimentation in lower

Narmada valley, however, indicates deposition by a large

river which was supported by a climate significantly wetter

than present. Though a general correlatability of the

depositional phases during Late Pleistocene is obvious

(Chamyal et al., 2002), the large-scale sedimentary bed-

forms of the type described here are not observed in the

Mahi and Sabarmati basins. The exposed sediments and the

modern discharge levels of the Narmada River, therefore,

present a contrasting picture as far as Gujarat alluvial plain

is concerned.

Late Pleistocene fluvial sediments exposed in the

15–20 m high cliffs in upper and middle reaches of the

Narmada River (Gupta et al., 1999; Ely et al., 1996; Kale

et al., 2003) have been studied mainly for their rich

mammalian fauna and archaeological artefacts (Badam

et al., 1986; Biswas, 1997; Mishra and Rajaguru, 2001).

The sediments comprise massive silts, cross bedded sands

and layers of gravels and boulders (Gupta et al., 1999)

though no stratigraphic or sedimentologic details are

available on them as yet. A recent study (Kale et al.,

2003) has described an imbricated boulder bed (average

clast size 35 cm) in a section located on an abandoned

channel of the Narmada River near Bhedaghat, which has

been dated to 25,160 ^ 550 yrs B. P. based on radiocarbon

dating of shells found in this horizon. The boulder bed has

been attributed to an extraordinary flood or series of great

floods (Kale et al., 2003) which suggests existence of

humid climate in the upper reaches of the Narmada river

during Late Pleistocene. The rich mammalian fauna found

in the Late Pleistocene deposits in central and upper

Narmada basin has also led to the conclusion that the

Central India was a mosaic of dense forests, park savannas

and water bodies (Badam et al., 1986) during this period.

The Narmada River in the Late Pleistocene has been

inferred to be a mobile meandering river which carried

large quantities of sand (Gupta et al., 1999) with periods of

large floods (Kale et al., 2003). Studies on Holocene

palaeoflood deposits in central India (Kale, 1999; Kale

et al., 1994, 2003; Ely et al., 1996) have revealed a strong

correlation between periods of extreme discharges and

stronger monsoons. We, therefore, infer that the alluvial

plain sediments of the lower Narmada valley suggest humid

climate in the large catchment area located further to the

east. Additional evidence for a large catchment of the

Narmada River during Late Pleistocene is provided by

the dominance of subrounded clasts in the alluvial fan

sediments (Chamyal et al., 1997) which underlie the

alluvial plain sediments (Fig. 1B). The subrounded clasts

(a deviation from the normal angular clast composition of

alluvial fans) has been attributed to longer distance of

transport before they were deposited in alluvial fan

environment in the lower Narmada valley. This suggests

that the Narmada River has maintained a large catchment at

least during the last 100 ka. The alluvial plain sequence of

the lower Narmada valley suggest discharges higher than

the present day Narmada River in the upper part of


the Late Pleistocene. The palaeosol occurring towards the

top of the sequence however correlates with the regional

phase of intense pedogenic activity in the Gujarat alluvial

plain before the Last Glacial Maximum. The overlying

stratified sands and silts reflect a significant weakening of

fluvial regime during the arid phase of the Last Glacial

Maximum, though the river still remained perennial, again

mainly because of the large catchment area of the drainage

basin.

Overall, the 50–25 ka period is a period of widespread

fluvial aggradation in India as seen from the studies on

alluvial sequences in Gujarat alluvial plain (Tandon et al.,

1997; Juyal et al., 2000; Maurya et al., 2000), Maharashtra

upland rivers (Kale and Rajaguru, 1987), Central Narmada

(Badam et al., 1986; Gupta et al., 1999; Kale et al., 2003),

Son and Belan valleys (Williams and Clarke, 1984) and the

Indo-Gangetic plain (Singh, 1996). Well dated global fluvial

sediment records from Guadalope basin in Spain (Fuller

et al., 1998), the entire Mediterranean region (Macklin et al.,

2002), Thames River (Maddy et al., 2001), Mississippi

River (Autin, 1996; Blum et al., 2000), and Australia

(Nanson et al., 1992; Kershaw and Nanson, 1993) also

suggest enhanced fluvial aggradation under humid climate

during the 50–30 ka time period. Palaeoclimatic studies on

the calcretes of Thar desert (Andrews et al., 1998), loess

deposits in China (Maher and Thompson, 1995), marine

sediment cores from Arabian Sea near Oman (Clemens et al.,

1991) provide evidence for strong monsoon and enhanced

precipitation levels during this time. There is thus a strong

reason to believe that the deposition of alluvial plain

sediments below the palaeosol and showing large scale

bedforms in the lower Narmada valley took place by a large

river that operated in conditions humidier than present in

response to global climatic perturbations. The humid

climate together with a large catchment area contributed

to the high discharges leading to the formation of large scale

sedimentary structures in these sediments.

7. Conclusions

The alluvial plain sequence of the lower Narmada valley

is characterised by the dominance of overbank sediments

and large scale sandy bedforms. The sequence was

deposited by a low sinuosity large river with high discharge

levels (higher than the present day) that laterally migrated

across the alluvial plain at a high rate. The deposition was

mainly controlled by the humid conditions prevailing in the

large catchment further east of the study area and not by the

semi arid climate of the Gujarat alluvial plain. The present

study on the alluvial plain sequence together with the earlier

studies on the underlying alluvial fan sediments suggest that

the Narmada River has retained a large catchment since the

last 100 ka.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support

from the Department of Science and Technology (DST),

New Delhi (Project No. ESS/23/VES/008/98). Constructive

reviews and valuable suggestions by Prof. R. J. Wasson and

Prof. Lisa L. Ely were useful in improving the paper.

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