Language patterns in South Asia and the potential for reconstructing prehistory

Presentation at the workshop:Presentation at the workshop:

Landscape, demography and subsistence in Landscape, demography and subsistence in prehistoric India: prehistoric India:

exploratory workshop on the middle Ganges and exploratory workshop on the middle Ganges and the the VindhyasVindhyas

LeverhulmeLeverhulme centre for human evolutionary studiescentre for human evolutionary studiesUniversity of Cambridge, 2University of Cambridge, 2--3 June, 20073 June, 2007

Language patterns in South Asia and the Language patterns in South Asia and the potential for reconstructing prehistorypotential for reconstructing prehistory

Roger Blench

Mallam Dendo Ltd.

Text of the paper can be downloaded at;Text of the paper can be downloaded at;

http://www.rogerblench.info/Linguistics%http://www.rogerblench.info/Linguistics%20papers%20opening%20page.htm20papers%20opening%20page.htm

as well as a slide show of images of the as well as a slide show of images of the workshop (so far)workshop (so far)

Text and conference imagesText and conference images

A language phylum is a large grouping of languages not A language phylum is a large grouping of languages not demonstrably related to any other, typically Austronesian demonstrably related to any other, typically Austronesian or Indoor Indo--EuropeanEuropean

South Asia is home to number of distinct phyla as well South Asia is home to number of distinct phyla as well as language isolates, i.e. individual languages which have as language isolates, i.e. individual languages which have no clear affiliation. Often these are thought to be residual, no clear affiliation. Often these are thought to be residual, i.e. to be the relics of language families that once existed.i.e. to be the relics of language families that once existed.

Unpicking the history and geography of these language Unpicking the history and geography of these language phyla is a key to the recent history of the continent. If they phyla is a key to the recent history of the continent. If they can be linked to archaeology and genetics then a more can be linked to archaeology and genetics then a more coherent picture of prehistory may emerge.coherent picture of prehistory may emerge.

Language phyla in South AsiaLanguage phyla in South Asia

South Asian languages are documented in a very patchy South Asian languages are documented in a very patchy way; major literary languages are very well known, with large way; major literary languages are very well known, with large and now online dictionaries. and now online dictionaries. ‘‘MinorMinor’’, unwritten, languages are , unwritten, languages are some of the leastsome of the least--studied in the world, due to research studied in the world, due to research restrictions on restrictions on ‘‘tribalstribals’’. . Local publications are of highly uncertain quality in India. Local publications are of highly uncertain quality in India. Linguistic description is related to ideology and nationalism inLinguistic description is related to ideology and nationalism ina very unhealthy way. a very unhealthy way. Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan are paradoxically much better Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan are paradoxically much better covered due to external research input. covered due to external research input. BanglaBangla DeshDesh appears appears as an almost complete blank on the linguistic map.as an almost complete blank on the linguistic map.


Language numbers in South Asia by countryLanguage numbers in South Asia by country

Sri LankaSri Lanka

PakistanPakistan

NepalNepalMaldivesMaldivesIndiaIndiaBhutanBhutanBanglaBangla DeshDeshCountryCountry

22

7272

12312311

41541524243939

No. of languagesNo. of languages

Language numbers in South Asia by phylumLanguage numbers in South Asia by phylum

IsolatesIsolates

TibetoTibeto--BurmanBurman

IndoIndo--AryanAryan

DravidianDravidian

DaicDaic

AustroasiaticAustroasiatic

AndamaneseAndamanese

PhylumPhylum

33

230230

253253

7373

55

6 (N)+3 (K)+22 (M)6 (N)+3 (K)+22 (M)

1313

No. of languagesNo. of languages

The major language phyla of South Asia The major language phyla of South Asia are;are;–– IndoIndo--European (Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, European (Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali,

Assamese)Assamese)–– Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam)Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam)–– Austroasiatic (Munda, Nicobarese, Khasian)Austroasiatic (Munda, Nicobarese, Khasian)–– TibetoTibeto--Burman (Naga, Dzongkha, Burman (Naga, Dzongkha, GongdukGongduk))–– Daic (Daic (AitonAiton, , PhakePhake))–– Andamanese (Sentinelese, Andamanese (Sentinelese, OngeOnge))


There are also the following language isolates;There are also the following language isolates;NahaliNahali (India)(India)BurushaskiBurushaskiKusundaKusunda

AariyaAariya, , AndhAndh, , BhatolaBhatola, , MajhwarMajhwar, , MukhaMukha Dora, Dora, PaoPaolanguages remain unclassifiedlanguages remain unclassified

The language of the The language of the ShomShom Pen hunterPen hunter--gatherers on gatherers on Great Nicobar remains unknown but may not be Great Nicobar remains unknown but may not be Austroasiatic Austroasiatic

The language of the The language of the WanniyaWanniya--laetolaeto ((VeddaVedda) in Sri ) in Sri Lanka is gone but fragmentary evidence suggests no Lanka is gone but fragmentary evidence suggests no obvious affiliation.obvious affiliation.


The Himalayas also have The Himalayas also have ‘‘troublingtroubling’’languages like languages like GongdukGongduk, which is very , which is very remote from other branches of Tibetoremote from other branches of Tibeto--Burman although it retains archaic Burman although it retains archaic syntactic features of the phylumsyntactic features of the phylum

This may be because they are This may be because they are ‘‘reallyreally’’relics of former language phyla which have relics of former language phyla which have been assimilated or because they are an been assimilated or because they are an early branching of Tibetoearly branching of Tibeto--BurmanBurman


Of the three documented language isolates, there is no Of the three documented language isolates, there is no evidence that these are in anyway related to one anotherevidence that these are in anyway related to one another

It is therefore reasonable to think they are survivors of a It is therefore reasonable to think they are survivors of a period when linguistic diversity was much greater and period when linguistic diversity was much greater and there were many highly diverse phyla (presumably when there were many highly diverse phyla (presumably when hunting and gathering was dominant)hunting and gathering was dominant)

There have been numerous claims as to the affiliation of There have been numerous claims as to the affiliation of these languages, most recently a highthese languages, most recently a high--profile (in PNAS) profile (in PNAS) assertion that Kusunda is assertion that Kusunda is ‘‘IndoIndo--PacificPacific’’. None of these has . None of these has met with any scholarly assent and the publication of the met with any scholarly assent and the publication of the IndoIndo--Pacific claim is troubling in terms of nonPacific claim is troubling in terms of non--linguistic linguistic journals providing outlets for papers that would not pass journals providing outlets for papers that would not pass normal refereeing processes.normal refereeing processes.


The Dravidian languages, of which Tamil is the most wellThe Dravidian languages, of which Tamil is the most well--known, known, are spoken principally today in southare spoken principally today in south--central India, although central India, although MaltoMaltoand and KuruxKurux are found in NE India and Nepal and are found in NE India and Nepal and BrahuiBrahui in in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Dravidian languages were first Pakistan and Afghanistan. Dravidian languages were first recognized as an independent family in 1816 by Francis W. Ellis.recognized as an independent family in 1816 by Francis W. Ellis.The term Dravidian was first employed by Robert Caldwell (1856),The term Dravidian was first employed by Robert Caldwell (1856),who adopted the Sanskrit wordwho adopted the Sanskrit word dravidadravida (which historically meant (which historically meant Tamil). Dravidian languages are often referred to as Tamil). Dravidian languages are often referred to as ElamoElamo--Dravidian in modern reference books especially those focussing Dravidian in modern reference books especially those focussing on archaeology. As early as 1856, Caldwell argued for a relationon archaeology. As early as 1856, Caldwell argued for a relationbetween between ‘‘ScythianScythian’’, a bundle of languages that included the , a bundle of languages that included the ancient language of Iran, ancient language of Iran, ElamiticElamitic, and the modern, and the modern--day Dravidian day Dravidian languages.languages.

Surprisingly for a wellSurprisingly for a well--known and muchknown and much--researched group, there researched group, there are a large number of languages whose Dravidian status is are a large number of languages whose Dravidian status is uncertain as well as uncertain as well as ‘‘dialectsdialects’’ that may well turn out to be distinct that may well turn out to be distinct languages.languages.

Dravidian IDravidian I

Map of Dravidian languagesMap of Dravidian languages

Central

South II

Tulu

Koraga

Kolami

Naiki

Gadaba

Ollari

Parji

Kuvi

Kui

Manda

Gondi

Pengo

Konda

South I

Malayalam

Tamil

Irula

Kodagu- Kurumba

Kota

Toda

Badaga

Kannada

Savara

Telugu

Brahui

Kurux

North

Malto Pr

oto-

Dra

vidi

an

The presence of North Dravidian languages, particularly The presence of North Dravidian languages, particularly BrahuiBrahui in Pakistan, and the putative link with in Pakistan, and the putative link with ElamiteElamite has has confused much previous thinking about this phylum with confused much previous thinking about this phylum with models trying to make protomodels trying to make proto--Dravidian come from the Near Dravidian come from the Near East, and be responsible for the East, and be responsible for the HarappanHarappan script etc.script etc.

But the argument for an But the argument for an ElamiteElamite connection is probably connection is probably simply erroneous. simply erroneous. ElamiteElamite has fragments that look like many has fragments that look like many phyla including Afroasiatic and the apparent cognates phyla including Afroasiatic and the apparent cognates probably just reflect trade and migration during a long probably just reflect trade and migration during a long period or wishful thinkingperiod or wishful thinking

If so, it is likely that If so, it is likely that BrahuiBrahui too represents a migration, not a too represents a migration, not a relic population. relic population. KuruxKurux and and MaltoMalto may be so, but it seems may be so, but it seems possible the centre of gravity of Dravidian was once further possible the centre of gravity of Dravidian was once further north.north.

Dravidian IIDravidian II

Our understanding of Dravidian is strongly related to the Dravidian etymological dictionary of Burrow and Emeneau (now online). However, this is very Tamil-centric and the literature constantly confuses their head entries with proto-DravidianNotwithstanding these reservations, Southworth (2007) has undertaken a major analysis of this data in terms of subsistencereconstructions with convincing resultsBroadly speaking, the earliest phase of Dravidian expansion shows no sign of agriculture but animal herding and wild goof processing. This is associated with the split of Brahui from the remainder. The next phase, with Kurux and Malto, shows clear signs of agriculture (taro production) and herding. South and Central Dravidian show the full range of agricultural production. Fuller (2003) and Southworth link this to the aptly named SNAC…(2300-1800 BC)

Dravidian IIIDravidian III

Austroasiatic has three significant branches in South Asia, Austroasiatic has three significant branches in South Asia, MunMun��dd��āā, Khasian and Nicobarese, Khasian and NicobareseNicobarese is most closely related to Monic and Aslian and Nicobarese is most closely related to Monic and Aslian and therefore represents a direct migration from SE Asiatherefore represents a direct migration from SE AsiaMunMun��dd��āā and Khasian represent an overland connectionand Khasian represent an overland connectionIt has usually been assumed that SE Asia is the homeland of It has usually been assumed that SE Asia is the homeland of Austroasiatic and Munda represents a later migration. The Austroasiatic and Munda represents a later migration. The geography of Munda strongly suggests it was once geography of Munda strongly suggests it was once considerably more widespread and that it has been pushed considerably more widespread and that it has been pushed back by both Indoback by both Indo--Aryan and Dravidian. Moreover, it has Aryan and Dravidian. Moreover, it has undergone changes in word order and other linguistic features undergone changes in word order and other linguistic features that point to longthat point to long--term bilingualism with nonterm bilingualism with non--Austroasiatic Austroasiatic languages. Moreover, it is less internally diverse than Monlanguages. Moreover, it is less internally diverse than Mon--Khmer, pointing to a more recent expansion. Nonetheless the Khmer, pointing to a more recent expansion. Nonetheless the case for westcase for west--east movement is not yet proveneast movement is not yet proven

Austroasiatic IAustroasiatic I

Austroasiatic

Austroasiatic

Austroasiatic

Korku

Kherwarian

Kharia-Juang

Koraput

Khasian

Pakanic

Eastern Palaungic

Western Palaungic

Khmuic

Vietic

Western Katuic

Western Bahnaric

Northwestern Bahnaric

Central Bahnaric

Southern Bahnaric

Khmeric

Northern Asli

Monic

Southern Asli

Senoic

Nicobarese

Northern Bahnaric

Munda

Khasi-Khmuic

Khmero-Vietic

Nico-Monic

Khmero-Bahnaric

Asli-Monic

Eastern KatuicVieto-Katuic

ShomShom PenPen

Khasian languages are thought to be most closely related to Khasian languages are thought to be most closely related to KhmuicKhmuic, a branch which includes the , a branch which includes the PalaungicPalaungic languages of languages of Northern Burma and the Northern Burma and the PakanicPakanic languages, a now languages, a now fragmentary and littlefragmentary and little--known group in South Chinaknown group in South China

This points to an arc of Austroasiatic which must once have This points to an arc of Austroasiatic which must once have spread from the valley of the Mekong westwards across a spread from the valley of the Mekong westwards across a number of river valleys. The geographic isolation of different number of river valleys. The geographic isolation of different Austroasiatic groupings in this region makes it likely that TibeAustroasiatic groupings in this region makes it likely that Tibetoto--Burman languages spread southwards and cut off different Burman languages spread southwards and cut off different populationspopulations

Our understanding of the Austroasiatic expansion has been Our understanding of the Austroasiatic expansion has been much increased by the publication of much increased by the publication of ShortoShorto’’ss (2006) (2006) comparative dictionarycomparative dictionary

Austroasiatic IIAustroasiatic II

ProtoProto--Austroasiatic speakers were almost certainly already Austroasiatic speakers were almost certainly already agriculturalagricultural It is possible to reconstruct ox, ? pig, taro, a small millet, It is possible to reconstruct ox, ? pig, taro, a small millet, numerous terms connected with rice and numerous terms connected with rice and ‘‘to hoeto hoe’’ all with all with MunMun��dd��āā cognatescognates If so, it seems that Austroasiatic may be If so, it seems that Austroasiatic may be ‘‘youngeryounger’’ than than the the timetime--scales proposed by Diffloth and we might want to identify scales proposed by Diffloth and we might want to identify it with the early Neolithic of SE Asia which is associated with it with the early Neolithic of SE Asia which is associated with rice, domestic animals and forest clearancerice, domestic animals and forest clearance However, our understanding of Austroasiatic is limited by However, our understanding of Austroasiatic is limited by the lack of material on the lack of material on PakanicPakanic and other branches which may and other branches which may represent its earliest phases and such sites may represent a represent its earliest phases and such sites may represent a later phase of expansionlater phase of expansion

Austroasiatic IIIAustroasiatic III

IndoIndo--Iranian is the most researched and Iranian is the most researched and controversial of the phyla in South Asia, in part due to controversial of the phyla in South Asia, in part due to nationalist agendas nationalist agendas The IndoThe Indo--Iranian languages of South Asia are for the Iranian languages of South Asia are for the most part Indomost part Indo--Aryan, a category that links together the Aryan, a category that links together the major languages (including those with a literary major languages (including those with a literary tradition) and excludes 100+ tradition) and excludes 100+ ‘‘minorminor’’ languages.languages. This includes a This includes a ‘‘third streamthird stream’’ the Nuristani languages the Nuristani languages (in Pakistan) co(in Pakistan) co--ordinate with Iranian which preserve ordinate with Iranian which preserve very archaic features and which remain poorly very archaic features and which remain poorly describeddescribed The classification of The classification of DardicDardic remains unresolved, as remains unresolved, as they may either also be a cothey may either also be a co--ordinate branch with the ordinate branch with the others or a primary branch of Indoothers or a primary branch of Indo--AryanAryan

IndoIndo--Iranian IIranian I

IndoIndo--Iranian Iranian

Proto-Indo-Iranian

Proto-Nuristani Proto-Iranian Proto-Indo-Aryan

Proto-Dardic Indo-Aryan

The usual model is that IndoThe usual model is that Indo--Aryan enters India from the Aryan enters India from the NW and expands rapidly, bringing with it a host of particular NW and expands rapidly, bringing with it a host of particular characteristics and assimilating large numbers of characteristics and assimilating large numbers of MundMundāā and and Dravidian languagesDravidian languages ThisThis does not sit well with nationalist agendas and recent does not sit well with nationalist agendas and recent publications have given the publications have given the in situin situ hypothesis more credibility hypothesis more credibility than it really deservesthan it really deserves The date of this is highly controversial; though it must The date of this is highly controversial; though it must evidently antedate written attestations. The date of the earliesevidently antedate written attestations. The date of the earliest t Vedic scriptures is ca. 1500 BC soVedic scriptures is ca. 1500 BC so presumably the first presumably the first appearance of these groups is ca. 2000 BC, which seems to appearance of these groups is ca. 2000 BC, which seems to be strikingly coincident with the appearance of African be strikingly coincident with the appearance of African ‘‘monsoonmonsoon’’ crops in the archaeological recordcrops in the archaeological record

IndoIndo--Iranian IIIranian II

It seems likely the Himalayan range was already It seems likely the Himalayan range was already occupied by TB speakers and IA languages therefore occupied by TB speakers and IA languages therefore made only a limited impact spreading northwardsmade only a limited impact spreading northwards Nonetheless, the northern fringe of IA is occupied by a Nonetheless, the northern fringe of IA is occupied by a range of diverse languages, many with marked tonal range of diverse languages, many with marked tonal characteristics, suggesting characteristics, suggesting intensive interaction over a intensive interaction over a long periodlong period IndoIndo--Aryan has numerous loanwords from both Aryan has numerous loanwords from both MundMundāāand Dravidian as well as a pool of words from and Dravidian as well as a pool of words from presumably nowpresumably now--disappeared language phyla, strongly disappeared language phyla, strongly suggestive of a people moving into a new and unfamiliar suggestive of a people moving into a new and unfamiliar environment but interacting with populations who already environment but interacting with populations who already have agriculturehave agriculture

IndoIndo--Aryan IIIAryan III

IndoIndo--European European

DardicDardic and Nuristani languages look as of they and Nuristani languages look as of they can be identified with the later Kashmir Neolithic. can be identified with the later Kashmir Neolithic. These languages have a full suite of These languages have a full suite of ‘‘winterwinter’’ crops crops and livestock terms, most of which show cognates and livestock terms, most of which show cognates into Indointo Indo--Aryan properAryan properThe exception is The exception is ‘‘milletmillet’’ (either (either SetariaSetaria or or PanicumPanicum) ) which have a range of diverse terms which strongly which have a range of diverse terms which strongly suggests its early significance suggests its early significance Some of the languages in this region, such as Some of the languages in this region, such as YidghaYidgha and and MunjaniMunjani, seem to display particularly , seem to display particularly striking archaisms and clearly would repay further striking archaisms and clearly would repay further more detailed studymore detailed study

IndoIndo--Aryan IIIAryan III

Nuristani Nuristani

Sino-Tibetan

Sino-Tibetan (=Tibeto-Burman) I

The classification of Sino-Tibetan remains highly controversial, as is any external affiliation.

The key questions are; – whether the primary branching is Sinitic (i.e. all Chinese

languages) with the remainder (usually called Tibeto-Burman) or whether Sinitic is simply part of one branch, Bodic etc; and what are its links with other phyla such as Austronesian ?

– Tibeto-Burman studies are hampered by a failure to publish comparative lexical data and there are thus difficulties in assessing issues such as the early importance of agriculture

– The 800-page handbook of TB published by Matisoff in 2003 can only described as humorous (or possibly idiotic). Among reconstructions it proposes are; ‘iron’, ‘potato’, ‘banana’, ‘trousers’, ‘toast’ [!], and ‘rock-and-roll’ [*rak-gril]

Sino-Tibetan languages

Tibeto-Burman

It is therefore not reasonable at present to reconstruct the It is therefore not reasonable at present to reconstruct the history of TB through either internal genetic classification or history of TB through either internal genetic classification or comparative lexiconcomparative lexicon

At present, we can only go by internal diversity and there is At present, we can only go by internal diversity and there is no doubt that this is greatest in the Nepalno doubt that this is greatest in the Nepal--Bhutan areaBhutan area

The present assumption is that the diverse groups were The present assumption is that the diverse groups were originally hunteroriginally hunter--gatherers making seasonal forays onto the gatherers making seasonal forays onto the Tibetan Plateau but that 7Tibetan Plateau but that 7--6000 BP this became permanent 6000 BP this became permanent occupation, probably due to the domestication of the yakoccupation, probably due to the domestication of the yak

The TB languages (the westernmost of which is Balti) have clearly had a significant influence on agricultural vocabulary, in particular loanwords for ‘rice’ and some domestic animals

South Asia is on the fringe of the Daic-speaking area, which probably originates in South China and may well be a branch of Austronesian

There are some five Tai-speaking groups in NE India, and oral traditions claim they reached the region in the 13th century

Linguistically, they are a westwards extension of the Shan-speaking peoples of northern Myanmar

They have a literate culture and individual scripts There is evidence for influence on the local

Assamese language

DaicDaic

Daic villages in IndiaDaic villages in India

Daic peoples in IndiaDaic peoples in India

Andamanese languages are confined to the Andaman Islands. Andamanese languages are confined to the Andaman Islands. The conversion of Great Andaman to a penal settlement had The conversion of Great Andaman to a penal settlement had virtually eliminated Great Andamanese and the other languages virtually eliminated Great Andamanese and the other languages are severely threatenedare severely threatened

The exception is Sentinelese which is prohibited to outsiders. The exception is Sentinelese which is prohibited to outsiders. Any statements about its classification are thus spuriousAny statements about its classification are thus spurious

Even the relationship between three partlyEven the relationship between three partly--documented documented Andamanese languages is unclearAndamanese languages is unclear

The Andamanese are physically like negritos, i.e. they The Andamanese are physically like negritos, i.e. they resemble the resemble the OrangOrang AsliAsli of the Malay peninsula and the of the Malay peninsula and the PhillipinesPhillipines negritos as well as ultimately Papuansnegritos as well as ultimately Papuans

Some slight resemblances between Andamanese and the Some slight resemblances between Andamanese and the ‘‘residualresidual’’ vocabulary (i.e. nonvocabulary (i.e. non--Austroasiatic) in Aslian have Austroasiatic) in Aslian have been noted been noted

Andamanese IAndamanese I

SentineleseSentinelese

Modern policies towards the AndamaneseModern policies towards the Andamanese

SentineleseSentinelese

Andamanese has also been incorporated into the Andamanese has also been incorporated into the ‘‘IndoIndo--PacificPacific’’ model of Greenberg (1971) which despite being model of Greenberg (1971) which despite being reproduced in many reference books and promoted by reproduced in many reference books and promoted by archaeologists has never garnered significant support from archaeologists has never garnered significant support from linguistslinguists

Broadly speaking we remain unclear when and how the Broadly speaking we remain unclear when and how the Andaman islands were settled, but it has become common Andaman islands were settled, but it has become common currency that the Andamanese are relics of the coastal currency that the Andamanese are relics of the coastal expansion out of Africa, and thereby ultimately related to the expansion out of Africa, and thereby ultimately related to the VeddaVedda, the Papuans and other negrito groups, the Papuans and other negrito groups

This has had some recent support from genetics (Forster et This has had some recent support from genetics (Forster et al. 2005) but is still largely unsupported by archaeology al. 2005) but is still largely unsupported by archaeology

Andamanese IIAndamanese II

The Austral expansion and residual populations

Vazimba/Mikea

Tasmanians

Wanniya-Laeto [=Vedda]

P A P U A N S

A U S T R A L I A N S

Aslian

Negritos

Andamanese

Shom Pen

The three main isolates in South Asia for which significant documentation exists are; Nahali (India) Burushaski Kusunda

Despite many claims of affiliation, none have been accepted by a significant body of linguists. Given that most IE specialists think that unknown assimilated languages are the source of aberrant vocabulary in Indo-Aryan it is hardly remarkable that these languages should be isolates

Nonetheless, if we consider agricultural vocabulary in these languages they contain some pointers to their prehistory

Isolates IIsolates I

Burushaski appears to have almost no native crop or livestock vocabulary. It borrows heavily from Dardic and Tibeto-Burman for crops and from Caucasian and Dardic for livestock names

All of which suggests strongly that the Burushaski were originally hunter-gatherers who adopted agriculture from their incoming neighbours

Isolates II: BurushaskiIsolates II: Burushaski

Kusunda, in central Nepal, is much more recently described and much less well-known. However, the existing vocabulary for agriculture seems quite distinctive and only exhibits a few obvious borrowings

Kusunda people appear to be semi-nomadic hunter-gathers, at least in the recent past, but they may well be an agricultural group that has reverted to the forest

Isolates III: KusundaIsolates III: Kusunda

Nihali, in central India, is spoken by an agricultural people with close cultural connections to the Mun�d�ā-speaking Korku and various writers have considered it is simply aberrant Mun�d�ā

However, it is now generally recognised as an isolate although it is also the focus of much wild therorising

Agricultural vocabulary in Nihali, somewhat strangely, almost all seems to derive from the nearby Indo-Aryan Marathi and not Mun�d�ā as might be expected

The absence of local terms points to a hunter-gatherer group sedentarised under the influence of Indo-Aryan populations

Isolates IV: Isolates IV: NihaliNihali

There are no Austronesians in India today. Nonetheless, given their relative closeness, it would be surprising if they did not reach India quite early. Apart from relatively late contacts represented by the Hinduised states of SE Asia, Waruno Mahdi has presented an array of evidence for the embedding in Indian culture of Austronesian concepts

Mahdi traces references to coconut-eating, buffalo-sacrificing fishermen, with snake-bird-sacred tree cults in early Indian literature and adduces arguments for the Austronesian origins of some key terms in South India. In many Sanskrit sources these are referred to as Naga, although today this refers mainly to the tribes of NE India

The Austronesians in IndiaThe Austronesians in India

The transfer of various crops and fruit trees might thus have been directly across the sea from island SE Asia

If so, then there may once have been Austronesian communities on the east coast which have now been assimilated

The Austronesians in IndiaThe Austronesians in India II

From the point of view of linguistic scholarship, South Asia remains extremely poorly known, in part because of the biases of research

Confusions between etymological dictionaries and historical reconstruction have created false arguments. The reconstruction of agricultural terminology is beset by poor identifications.

It seems that the Neolithic archaeology of South Asia is still too poorly known in many areas to make useful correlations

And genetics…

ConclusionsConclusions

WanniyaWanniya--laetolaeto (Vedda)(Vedda)

Language patterns in South Asia and the potential for reconstructing prehistory

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